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data/lib/studium/exam_topics/imaging_and_microscopy

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+# =========================================================================== #
+# === MIKROSKOPE
+#
+# Mikroskop tag. Mikroskope tag. Mikroskopie fällt hierunter.
+# Mikroskopie tag. Auch Optik. AFM ist zur Zeit auch hier zu finden.
+# Also includes Spectroscopy.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Unter dem Kryo-Elektronenmikroskop sehen wir eine relativ kleine Struktur mit einer <one>Stargate</one> Struktur. Um welches Objekt könnte es sich hierbei handeln? Um ein <one>Mimivirus</one>.
+- Nenne ein allgemeines Beispiel für die <one>Emissionsspektroskopie</one>. A: Zum Beispiel die <one>Fluoreszenzspektroskopie</one>.
+- Genuine living cells were first seen by which human being? By the Dutch <one>Anton von Leeuwenhoek</one>.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel für <one>eine automatische Blende im menschlichen Körper</one>. A: Die <one>Pupille</one>.
+- In a <one>scanning probe microscope</one>: <two>how is the microscope called</two>? <one>Scanning tunneling microscope</one>.
+- Nenne einen <one>Strahlteiler</one> in einem typischen Fluoreszenz-Mikroskop. A: <one>Dichromatischer Strahlteiler</one>.
+- If we want <one>cells</one> <two>to attach to a glass surface</two>, what coating may we use? <one>Poly-Lysine</one>.
+- What colour does the <one>mCherry dye</one> show? mCherry is <orangered>a red dye</orangered>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCherry []
+- Was meinen wir mit <one>direktem Imaging</one>? Dies ist wenn wir eine visuelle Beobachtung mit den eigenen Augen machen, also ein Objekt direkt betrachten können.
+- In proteins, the <one>dominant fluorophore</one> is ... ? The <one>indole group</one> of <two>tryptophan</two>.
+- Name <one>an optical aberration</one> that begins with the letter <two>a</two>. A: <one>Astigmatism</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astigmatism
+- <one>When</one> may we wish to employ <two>critical point drying</two> in scanning electron microscopy? <one>Critical point drying</one> is useful when one has to dry <two>delicate samples</two> for SEM applications. It preserves the surface structure of a specimen which could otherwise be damaged due to surface tension when changing from the liquid to gaseous state.
+- The <one>anode</one> has <two>what kind of charge</two>? The <one>anode</one> has a <two>positive charge</two>. []
+- In <one>fluorescence spectroscopy</one>/microscopy: do we more often employ "long pass filters" or "short pass filters"? We more often see <one>long pass filters</one> being used.
+- Beim <one>Lichtmikroskop</one>: wo finden wir die Lichtquelle? Die kommt von unten. []
+- To fill the gap between <one>light microscopy</one> and <one>electron microscopy</one>, ... strategies have been developed. A: <one>correlative light and electron microscopy</one> (<two>CLEM</two>) strategies.
+- Do <one>oil immersion lenses</one> have high or low numerical apertures? Oil-immersion lenses have <one>high numerical apertures</one>. []
+- Assume that <one>we wish to observe microbial motility, by studying bundles of flagella</one>. Which microscopy technique would we want to use? <one>Dark-field microscopy</one>.
+- In der <one>Fluoreszenz-Mikroskopie</one>, bei der Fluoreszenz: wie unterscheiden sich <two>Doppelbindungen</two> von "konjugierten Doppelbindungen" qualitativ gesehen? Bei den <one>konjugierten Doppelbindungen</one> ist nur eine geringere Anregungsenergie notwendig.
+- Wofür steht <one>CCD</one> in der Mikroskopie? <one>Charge-coupled device</one>.
+- In microscopy, as part of the technical instrumentation: what does the abbreviation <one>CCD</one> stand for? <one>Charge-coupled device</one>.
+- In microscopy: the <one>microtome</one> usually is cooled with ...? With <one>liquid nitrogen</one>, down to -190°C. []
+- Gegeben sei <one>flash light</one> und <one>glow light</one>, in der Biolumineszenz. Was erlauben uns diese beiden Lichttypen? Wir können hierdurch einen <one>dual luciferase assay</one> durchführen.
+- Bei der <one>Biolumineszenz</one>, ist die Messzeit limitiert? Ja, und zwar durch die <one>Enzymkinetik</one>.
+- What do we mean with a <one>50</one>/<one>50 beam splitter</one>? This is a beam splitter that <one>reflects 50% of the incoming light</one> and <one>transmits 50%</one>.
+- How does the correction for chromatic and spherical aberration change the Numerical aperture? It leads to <one>an increase in the numerical aperture</one>.
+- Name <one>the three main contrast mechanisms</one> in <two>TEM</two>. A: (1) <one>mass-thickness contrast</one> (2) diffraction contrast (3) <one>phase contrast</one>
+- Is the dye called <one>Fluorescein</one> considered to be a toxic dye? <one>Fluorescein</one> is considered to be <two>a non-toxic dye</two>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescein []
+- Die <one>Rastersondenmikroskopie</one> gliedert sich in welche zwei Verfahren? (1) "Rastertunnelmikroskopie" (2) <one>Rasterkraftmikroskopie</one>
+- <one>Fluorescein</one> has how many -COOH groups? One. []
+- <one>Wodurch</one> wird die Auflösung eines Mikroskops primär bestimmt? Von der <one>eingesetzten Wellenlänge</one>.
+- <one>Apochromat</one> versus <one>achromat lenses</one>: which one has better correction of chromatic and spherical aberration? The <one>apochromat (= apochromatic lens)</one>.
+- What means <one>Binning</one> in Live Imaging? Binning refers to <one>reducing the coverage per pixel</one>.
+- Bei einem <one>Konfokalmikroskop</one>: was meinen wir mit dem Begriff <two>Konfokal</two> aus der Optik? Dies sind zwei optische Systeme mit <one>einem gemeinsamen Brennpunkt</one>.
+- Why may we shy away from using <one>x-ray microscopy</one>? Because we have <one>no lenses</one>.
+- <one>Capsule</one> versus <one>slime layer</one> in <two>bacteria</two>: which of these two are more readily visible by light microscopy? The <one>capsule</one>. []
+- Was macht ein <one>dichroitischer Spiegel</one> (<two>dichroic mirror</two>)? Er reflektiert Licht unterhalb einer abgegebenen Wellenlänge; und ist durchlässig über diesem Wert.
+- <one>Who</one> was the "godfather" of modern fluorescent reporter-proteins? <one>Roger Tsien</one>.
+- The image of a point source of light isn't actually a point, in a microscope. Due to diffraction, it's actually ... ? An <one>Airy disk</one>.
+- Name a peculiar and small animal that <one>Robert Hooke</one> drew. A: A <one>flea</one>.
+- <one>Confocal microscopy</one> offers several advantages over conventional optical microscopy. Name two such advantages. A: (1) <one>controllable depth of field</one> (2) the <one>ability to collect serial optical sections from thick specimens</one>
+- In an <one>AFM</one>: aside from the <two>van der Waals</two> force, name another force (an attractive force) that is important. A: The <one>Coulomb forces</one>.
+- Give another name for <one>fluorescent molecules</one>. A: <one>Fluorophores</one>.
+- Gibt es <one>ATP unabhängige Luciferasen</one>? Ja; sind von Relevanz in der <one>Biolumineszenz</one>. []
+- Is <one>NADH</one> fluorescent? Yes it is. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamidadenindinukleotid []
+- Name a <one>common fixative for light microscopy</one>. A: <one>Formaldehyde</one>.
+- Nenne einen extrem wichtigen Unterschied zwischen der <one>Biolumineszenz</one> und der <one>Fluoreszenz</one>. A: (1) <one>Biolumineszenz</one>: ein Substrat ist notwendig (2) <one>Fluoreszenz</one>:    es ist KEIN Substrat notwendig
+- Die <one>Linsenmacher-Gleichung</one> hilft uns bei der Berechnung ... für welche Linsen? Für <one>sphärische Linsen</one>. []
+- One of the most commonly used membrane probes is <one>DDH</one>. What does this abbreviation stand for? <one>Diphenylhexatriene</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphenylhexatriene
+- Was meinen wir mit der <one>Auflösung</one> in der Mikroskopie? Dies ist der <one>minimale Abstand</one> zweier gerade noch unterscheidbarer Punkte.
+- Can <one>FM-dyes</one> pass through <two>biological membranes</two>? No. []
+- The DAPI stain binds, within a cell, to ... ? <one>DNA</one>.
+- Name a popular <one>fluorescent dye</one> that is used quite frequently in microbiology imaging. A: <one>DAPI</one>.
+- Is <one>chlorophyll</one> <two>naturally fluorescent</two>? Yes.
+- In dark-field microscopy, light does not pass through ... ? the <one>specimen</one>.
+- Two forms of light microscopy improve image contrast of unstained, and thus live, cells. Which forms are these? (1) phase-contrast microscopy (2) dark-field microscopy
+- In microscopy: why are some dyes used in microbiology called <one>basic dyes</one>? Because they are <one>positively charged</one>.
+- Lenses on microscopes that require use of oil called ... ? <one>oil-immersion lenses</one>.
+- Van Leeuwenhoek's microscope was a light microscope, and his design used a simple lens that could magnify an image at the least ... n times, roughly? At the least <one>266 times</one>.
+- <one>Durchmesser eines Haares</one>, in nm? 100.000 nm. (10 hoch 5 nm) []
+- Das <one>menschliche Auge</one> nimmt einen Wellenlängenbereich wahr von x nm bis y nm? <one>380 nm - 780 nm</one>.
+- Is the <one>emission profile</one> of a typical fluorophore usually <one>symmetrical</one> or <one>non-symmetrical</one>? It is usually <one>non-symmetrical</one>.
+- Confocal Microscopes are light microscopes with a special aperture, <one>the pinhole</one>. What is the job of the pinhole? The pinhole will <one>exclude fuzzy light</one>.
+- Name the four key steps in making a <one>freeze-fracture replica</one>. A: (1) <one>rapid freezing</one> (2) fracturing (3) replication (4) replica cleaning
+- Are short and long pass filters used in <one>Raman spectroscopy</one>? Yes they are. []
+- In microscopy: what does the abbreviation <one>STM</one> stand for? <one>Scanning tunneling microscope</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope []
+- <one>Apochromatic lenses</one> are typically designed to bring how many different wavelengths into focus in the same plane? Typically <one>three</one>: red, green, and blue. []
+- <one>Fluorescein</one> is a common dye that is often employed in <two>fluorescence microscopy</two>. What light does it accept and what light does it emit? (1) It accepts <royalblue>blue (excitation) light</royalblue>. (2) It then  <lightgreen>emits green light</lightgreen>. (Thus: blue->green; this even rhymes, aka blue-green-fluorescein!) 
+- The STM only works on what kind of surfaces? On <one>conductive sample surfaces</one>.
+- In a STM: why the word <one>tunneling</one>? Because a type of current is applied that <one>conveys electrons across very small gaps</one>.
+- All microscopes are ... what kind of holes? <one>Peepholes</one>.
+- The <one>limiting factor</one> in Van Leeuwenhoek's microscope was ...? The <one>single convex lens</one>.
+- Does every lens have <one>optical aberrations</one>? Yes. []
+- Was ist <one>Röntgenmikroskopie</one>? Röntgenmikroskopie ist ein "Mikroskopieverfahren", das statt sichtbarem Licht Röntgenstrahlung nutzt.
+- In a <one>fluorescence microscope</one>: what does the abbreviation <two>PMT</two> stand for? <one>Photomultiplier</one>.
+- Give another name for the term <one>primary fluorescence</one>. A: <one>Autofluorescence</one>.
+- Was heisst <one>skopein</one>? Untersuchen, Ansehen. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
+- Was meinen wir mit dem <one>Röntgenfarbmikroskop</one>? Dies ist Röntgenstrahlung, die aus mehreren Wellenlängen besteht.
+- A <one>confocal microscope</one> may have <two>AOTFs</two>. These are ... ? <one>Acousto-Optic Tunable Filters</one>.
+- <one>Confocal microscopy</one> can be seen as a <two>bridge</two> between which two other classical methodologies? (1) TEM ("transmission electron microscopy") (2) conventional <one>widefield microscopy</one>
+- <one>Glaslinsen</one> leiden an <two>Farbfehlern</two>. Erkläre diese Aussage. A: <one>Glaslinsen</one> fokussieren <one>kurzwelliges Licht</one> stärker als <one>langwelliges Licht</one>.
+- Who invented the <one>phase contrast microscopy</one>? <one>Frits Zernike</one>.
+- In microscopy: what does the abbreviation <one>BSE</one> stand for? <one>Backscattered electron detection</one>.
+- When in particular may a <one>lambda-scan</one> be used by a <two>leica instrument</two>? We may use this when we wish to determine the properties of <one>auto-fluorescence in a given sample</one> at hand, which can then (lateron) be substracted from the scan.
+- If <one>two electromagnetic waves with identical amplitudes</one> spatially superimpose but <two>oscillate in exactly opposite directions</two>, what can be observed? These two waves will <one>completely cancel each other</one>; this is also known as <royalblue>destructive interference</royalblue>.
+- In an <one>epifluorescence microscope</one>, which <two>filter</two> is typically right before the dichroic mirror? The <one>excitation filter</steeblue>.
+- The <one>confocal microscopes</one> contain <two>N-Disks</two>, which are ... ? <one>Nipkow-disks</one>. This is <one>a mechanical, rotating, geometrically operating image scanning device</one>.
+- Name a <one>microscopy technique</one> that <two>makes use of a laser</two>. A: The <one>confocal microscope</one>.
+- Allgemein formuliert: wie erreichen wir eine <one>Farbtrennung</one> in modernen <two>Fluozeszenzmikroskopen</two>? Mit Hilfe von <one>Filtern</one>.
+- Nenne einen riesigen Vorteil des <one>Phasenkontrastmikroskops</one> gegenüber den <one>Lichtmikroskopen</one>. A: Man muss die Zellen nicht färben - und kann sie daher <one>direkt mikroskopieren</one>.
+- In den 1970er Jahren wurde <one>Immunolabeling</one> eingeführt; man verwendete hierbei meistens "Ferritin". Heute verwendet man eher ... stattdessen was? <one>Kolloidales Gold</one>.
+- For the <one>triangle of frustration</one> in microscope, there is one very important theorem. Which one is it? The <one>Nyquist-Sampling Theorem</one>.
+- Bei der <one>Kryo-EM</one>: wie lange wird die Probe in Lösung gehalten? Einige <one>ms</one>.
+- <one>Light propagation</one> in the form of rays can explain refraction, reflection, and even aberrations, but fails to explain <two>diffraction</two> and ...? A: <one>interference</one>.
+- In general, researchers <one>dye DNA</one> in order to visualize ...? <one>Chromosomes</one>.
+- Anderer Begriff für <one>fluoreszierender Farbstoff</one>? <one>Fluorochrom</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorophore
+- What do we mean with <one>refraction of light</one> in microscopy? When the light direction changes by entry into a transparent medium with a <one>different optical density</one>.
+- There is <one>a limitation of the optical resolution by the wave length of the radiation</one>. What name can we give this? This is <one>the Rayleigh criterium</one>.
+- <one>Visible light</one> goes from n nm to n nm? <one>400 nm - 750 nm</one>.
+- Nenne zwei bedeutende <one>Kenngrössen in der Mikroskopie</one>. A: (1) "Auflösungsvermögen" (2) <one>Vergrösserung</one>
+- In <one>fluorescence microscopy</one>: name <two>two characteristic features</two> that illumination should fullfil. A: (1) it should be bright (2) It should be - In fluorescence microscopy: name two characteristic features that illumination should fullfil. A: (1) it should be bright (2) It should be homogenous
+- What are <one>long pass filters</one>? Long pass filters are filters that "transmit electromagnetic radiation with long wavelengths", while <one>blocking shorter wavelengths</one>.
+- An <one>acousto-optic crystal</one> is defined as having optical properties that are altered in the presence of ... ? <one>an acoustic wave</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acousto-optic_modulator
+- The <one>Stokes-Shift</one> is associated with what kind of microscopy? With <one>Epifluorescence-microscopy</one>.
+- In der <one>Fluoreszenzmikroskopie</one>, bei den <two>quantum dots</two> - kommt es hierbei zu einem Bleicheffekt? Nein, nicht wirklich.
+- Nenne zwei Linsen des Lichtmikroskops. A: (1) <one>Okularlinse</one> (2) <one>Objektivlinse</one>
+- <one>DIC</one> as abbreviation in microscopy stands for ... ? <one>Differential interference contrast</one>.
+- For the <one>fluorophores used in microscopy</one>: one complete cycle from excitation to the return to ground takes in the region of ... how many nanoseconds? From about <one>0.5 to 20 nanoseconds</one>.
+- Wie reversibel ist <one>FRAP</one>, der Effekt des Laserimpulses? Gar nicht reversibel (= aka <one>irreversibel</one>).
+- The <one>numerical aperture</one> of a microscope objective is a measure of its ability to ... ? <one>gather light</one>.
+- How much <one>better</one> is the <two>electron microscope</two> compared to the <two>light microscope</two>? About <one>200x better</one>.
+- Why should light exposure to the target object be minimized when <one>Live cell imaging</one> is used? Because <one>light exposure can cause phototoxicity</one>.
+- Man hat <one>GFP mutiert</one>, in <two>BFP</two>, <two>YFP</two>, <two>EGFP</two> und so weiter. Nenne zwei wichtige Zielsetzungen, was man hierbei verbessern wollte. A: (1) <one>verbesserte Stabilität</one> (2) <one>verbesserte Lichtausbeute</one>
+- What does <one>DAPI</one> stand for? <one>4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DAPI
+- Was meinen wir mit dem <one>Öffnungsfehler</one> in der Mikroskopie? Dies ist wenn die "Randstrahlen" stärker fokussiert werden als die "achsennahen Strahlen".
+- A <one>light microscope</one> typically has which 3 different lenses? (1) <one>ocular    lens</one> (2) <one>objective lens</one> (3) <one>condensor lens</one>
+- Does the <one>ocular</one> have a higher magnification than the <one>objective</one>? Normally no; the <one>ocular</one> has a magnification of <mediumseagreen>10x</mediumseagreen> whereas the objective has a magnification range of up to <mediumseagreen>100x</mediumseagreen>.
+- Die durch <one>die Linsenmitte</one> und <one>die Brennpunkte der Linse</one> verlaufende Achse heißt ... ? <one>Optische Achse</one>.
+- Name the <one>three typical filters</one> in a <two>fluorescence microscope</two>. A: (1) The <one>Excitation Filter</one> (2) The "Emission Filter" (3) The <one>Dichroic Filter</one>
+- What is characteristic for <one>indirect fluorescence</one>? That we use a <one>secondary antibody</one> that is labelled - usually with a "fluorescent molecule".
+- <one>SYTOX Green</one> can be used to <two>colourize which cellular organelle</two>? The <one>nucleus</one>.
+- Warum ist der "Nah-Infrarot-Bereich" besonders wichtig für "biomedizinische Anwendungen" wie zum Beispiel der Begutachtung von Material durch ein Mikroskop? Da es hier <one>keine körpereigene Fluoreszenz</one> gibt, in diesem Bereich.
+- Wozu wird <one>Uranylacetat</one> eingesetzt? Als <one>Kontrastmittel bei der Elektronenmikroskopie</one>.
+- Name two different <one>imaging aberrations</one>. A: (1) <one>spherical aberration</one> (2) <one>chromatic aberration</one>
+- Give one example for an <one>interference microscope</one>. A: The <one>phase-contrast microscope</one>.
+- In a <one>light microscope</one>: how does the quality of an image change <two>as empty magnification increases</two>? The <one>quality of the image deteriorates</one>.
+- Name a <one>fluorescent imaging technique</one>. A: <one>Confocal microscopy</one>.
+- Give an example where <one>Dark field imaging</one> is used, in electron microscopy. A: For example, to study the wall-less bacterium <one>Spiroplasma melliferum</one>.
+- In a <one>TEM</one>: which of its part determines the resolution? The <one>Objective Lens</one>.
+- Wie können wir die Fluoreszenzfarbstoffe <one>Quantum Dots</one> mit einem deutschen Begriff bezeichnen? <one>Nanokristalle</one>.
+- Die Einheit für die Lichtintensität ist ... ? Das <one>Lumen</one> [lm].
+- On what kind of samples may we wish to employ <one>Polarization Microscopy</one>? When the samples have <one>crystalline components</one>.
+- In einem <one>CLSM</one>: was ist mit dem Begriff <two>Schrotrauschen</two> gemeint? Dies ist <one>wenn die Photonenemission statistisch verteilt vorliegt</one>.
+- The <one>microscopic filter cube</one>, often found in confocal laser scanning microscopes, contains which three elements? (1) <one>exciter filter</one> (2) <one>barrier filter</one> (3) <one>dichroic mirror</one>
+- Was meinen wir mit einem <one>Farbfilter</one> im Imaging? Dies ist ein Filter der <one>nur bestimmte Farben durchlässt</one>.
+- <one>Infrared spectroscopy</one> probes ...? <one>Covalent bonds</one>.
+- Bei der <one>Lichtmikroskopie</one>: was ist das Objekt? Das ist <one>der Gegenstand, der beobachtet wird</one>.
+- Wenn wir <one>DAPI Kernfärbung</one> verwenden möchten: welche Lichtquelle sollten wir verwenden? Eine <one>Quecksilberdampflampe</one> (<royalblue>HBO</royalblue>).
+- In <one>Epi-fluorescence</one>: the <two>detector</two> measures the emitted fluorescence light from ... ? <one>the sample</one>.
+- How many <one>reactive aldehyde groups</one> does glutaraldehyde have? <one>2</one>. Glutaraldehyde is useful in TEM.
+- In <one>fluorescence microscopy</one>: what is <two>EGFP</two>? This is <one>enhanced green fluorescent protein</one>.
+- Nenne drei verschiedene Einsatzgebiete des <one>DAPI-Stain</one>. A: (1) "Kernfärbung" (2) "Zellzyklus-Analyse" (3) <one>Bakterien</one>
+- In der <one>Fluoreszenzmikroskopie</one>: was meinen wir mit einem <two>short-pass</two> filter? Dieser Filter lässt Licht nur <one>unter</one> einer abgegebenen Wellenlänge durch; zum Beispiel ist SP 575 durchlässig <crimson>BIS</crimson> 575 nm.
+- Name <one>an advantage of optical microscopy</one>. A: Light is <one>relatively nondestructive</one>.
+- In a <one>microscopic filter cube</one>: what is typically found between the barrier filter and the exciter filter? A <one>dichroic mirror</one>.
+- In <one>confocal microscopy</one>: how is <two>out of focus light</two> removed? Via the <one>pinhole</one> (=<royalblue>pin diaphragm</royalblue>).
+- <one>Moderne Fluoreszenzmikroskope</one> mögen welche zwei Filter besitzen? (1) <one>Anregungsfilter</one> (2) <one>Sperrfilter</one>
+- <one>Filters</one> employed in Microscopy are usually described in terms of ... rather than frequency. A: <one>Wavelength</one>.
+- What is an <one>inverted microscope</one>? <one>When the objective is below the petri dish</one>.
+- Bei welcher <one>Mikroskopie-Methode</one>, die nichts mit der Elektronenmikroskopie zu tun hat, wird das Bild <two>gerastert und abgelesen</two>? Bei der <one>Konfokalen Laser-Scanning-Mikroskopie</one> (<royalblue>CLSM</royalblue>).
+- In <one>which aberration mode</one> would we see many different focal points? In <one>spherical aberration</one>.
+- What is a <one>dichroic filter</one>? This is a very accurate colour filter used to selectively pass light of a small range of colors while reflecting other colours.
+- Do <one>oil immersion lenses</one> have high numerical apertures? Yes.
+- What is a <one>goniometer</one>? A goniometer is an instrument that either measures an angle or allows an object to be rotated to a "precise angular position".
+- What does the abbreviation <one>BRET</one> mean, in Microscopy? <one>Bioluminescence Energy Resonance Transfer</one>.
+- <one>Fluorescent dyes can interact with each other</one>. Give another word for this, in general. A: <one>Quenching</one>.
+- <one>Fluoreszierende Chromophore</one> haben chemisch betrachtet fast immer welche Gemeinsamkeit? Aromaten; sowie <one>Doppelbindungen</one>.
+- Wozu wird der Fluoreszenzfarbstoff <one>DAPI</one> häufig eingesetzt? Zur <one>Kernfärbung</one>.
+- Was ist das <one>Herz</one> eines (Licht)Mikroskopes? Das <one>Objektiv</one>.
+- Die <one>Köhlersche Beleuchtung</one> bewirkt eine ... Beleuchtung der Probe. A: Homogene Beleuchtung der Probe.
+- Give another term for the <one>Point Spread Function</one>. A: <one>Point illumination</one>.
+- Give an example for a <one>fluorescence imaging technique</one> that allows imaging of living tissue up to about one millimeter in depth. A: <one>Two-photon excitation microscopy</one>.
+- A. W. für <one>fluorophore</one>? <one>Fluorochrom</one>.
+- <one>Leeuwenhoek</one> first observed bacteria. How did he call them? <one>Animalcules</one>.
+- In microscopy, we have <one>spatial resolution</one>, temporal resolution and sensitivity. The "cMOS" attempts to improve which of these three points? "cMOS" attempts to improve the <one>temporal resolution</one>.
+- The final quality of the microscope is determined by ... ? The <one>resolution of the image</one>.
+- <one>GFP</one> emits bright green light when it is stimulated with ...? (1) "blue light" (2) <one>ultraviolet light</one>
+- Die <one>Mikroskopie im Vakuum</one> benötigt präparative Maßnahmen für das Objekt. Nenne drei davon. A: (1) "Fixieren" (2) "Einbetten" (3) <one>Einfrieren</one>
+- Name the two <one>common, optical aberrations</one>. A: (1) <one>spherical aberration</one> (2) <one>chromatic aberration</one>
+- Nenne eine <one>Mikroskopiertechnik</one>, die die Zellkernsubstanz für uns zugänglich gemacht hat. A: <royalblue>FRAP</royalblue> (<one>fluorescence recovery after photobleaching</one>).
+- The <cadetblue>TIRF-M</cadetblue> refers to what kind of microscopy? <royalblue>TIRF-M</royalblue> refers to a <one>Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy</one>.
+- Light direction changes by the entry in another transparent medium with a different ... ? optical density.
+- <one>1923</one> wies der französische Physiker de Broglie nach, dass sich die Wellenlänge eines Teilchens indirekt proportional zu ... verhält. A: Zu dessen <one>Impuls</one> (<royalblue>p</royalblue>).
+- Nenne zwei <one>natürliche Fluoreszenzfarbstoffe</one>. A: (1) <one>Anthocyane</one> (2) <one>Chlorophylle</one>
+- Auflösungsvermögen des <one>AFM</one> (von-bis)? <one>0,1 - 10 nm</one>.
+- The interaction of light with very small structures below the wave length of visible light results in the formation of a characteristic diffraction pattern. How is this pattern called, in general? <one>Airy disk</one>.
+- Bei einer <one>Photodiode</one> in einer CCD Kamera: was passiert wenn Photonen auf diese Diode auftreffen? Dies <one>bewirkt einen Stromfluß</one>.
+- In <one>fluorescence microscopy</one>, for fluorescence: which two states do we have? (1) the <one>excited state</one> (2) the <one>ground  state</one>
+- Leica is using <one>Lambda Scans</one> in their fluorescence microscopes. What is meant with that term? This is a scan that allows the user to <one>scan a fluorescent sample across a desired range of wavelengths</one>.
+- Nenne einen Nachteil der <one>NIPKOW-DISC</one>. A: Das <one>pinhole</one> ist nicht verstellbar.
+- <one>FLIM</one>, in imaging, stands for ... ? <one>Fluorescence lifetime imaging</one>. 
+- Name two substances/targets that show <one>primary fluorescence</one>. A: (1) <one>chitin</one> (2) <one>lignin</one>
+- <one>Longpass filters</one> can have a <lightseagreen>very sharp slope</lightseagreen>. How do we call them in these cases? <one>Edge filters</one>.
+- The dye called <one>Fluorescein</one>> is commonly used in microscopy, in particular which derivative of it? <royalblue>FITC</royalblue> aka <one>fluorescein isothiocyanate</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescein_isothiocyanate
+- Wie geht die <one>DeBroglie Wellenfunktion</one>? "Lambda (Wellenlänge) = h / p", wobei h die Planck's constant ist und p das Momentum.
+- In <one>Microscopy</one>: how would we define "resolution"? <one>Resolution</one> (<royalblue>d</royalblue>) is the minimum distance between two points, at which they could be distinguished as separate.
+- Was meinen wir mit der <one>Brainbow Technologie</one>? Wenn wir Gruppen von Zellen mit unterschiedlichen Farben markieren. Die Gene für diese Fluoreszenz-Proteine, wie CFP, YFP, RFP, werden unabhängig voneinander in das Zellgenom eingebaut.
+- The wavelengths of <one>accelerated electrons</one> is how many nm? <one>0.004 nm</one>.
+- In <one>Atomic Force Microscopy</one>: how is the very tip itself called? <one>Cantilever</one>.
+- Nenne zwei Lösungsmittel für das Einfrieren in der <one>Kryo-EM</one>. A: (1) flüssiges Ethan (2) <one>Propan</one>
+- Der <one>mechanische Teil</one> eines Lichtmikroskops besteht aus welchen 2 Komponenten? (1) "Grobtrieb" (2) <one>Feintrieb</one>
+- What technique is abbreviated as <one>FRIL</one>? <one>Freeze replica immunolabelling</one>.
+- Can we say that the term <one>short pass filter</one> may be a misnomer? Well, sort of. A short pass filter may have a cut-on wavelength of 600 nm, so it will not let through light with a wavelength <one>higher</one> than 600 nm; but at the same time, it may still have a lower limit, such as ~390nm. So it operates within the range of 390nm-to-600nm, implying that it is still only operational within a certain area/range - but not below, and neither above, said area/range.
+- Name the two most common fixatives for electron microscopy. A: (1) Glutaraldehyd (2) <one>Osmium tetroxide</one>
+- Möglichst einfach erklärt: was ist das Prinzip hinter der <one>Fluoreszenz</one>? Bei der Fluoreszenz kommt es zur Emission von Licht, über die Anregung eines Elektrons das beim Übergang von einem höheren (angeregten) Zustand in ein niedrigeres Orbital abgegeben wird.
+- Give another, simpler name for <one>a wavelength selector</one>. A: A <one>slit</one>.
+- <one>LED</one> steht für ... ? <one>Light Emitting Diode</one>.
+- <one>The principle of confocal imaging</one> was patented in the year ... by Marvin Minsky. A: In <one>1957</one>.
+- In an <one>AFM</one>, which force is the most important one? The "interatomic force" called <one>van der Waals force</one>.
+- The <one>stokes shift</one>, important in fluorescence microscopy, lies between ... ? (1) "Excitation" (2) <one>Emission</one>
+- Name the <one>two groups of luminescence</one>. A: (1) fluorescence (2) <one>phosphorescence</one>
+- <one>Confocal laser scanning microscopy</one> (CLSM) is an optical imaging technique for increasing optical resolution and contrast of a micrograph. It makes use of a spatial pinhole to block ... what kind of light? <one>Out-of-focus light</one>.
+- Was meinen wir mit einem <one>Bandpass-Filter</one>? Dieser Filter lässt Licht nur innerhalb eines abgegebenen Wellenlängenbereichs durch, wie zum Beispiel "BP 470/40" -> dieser ist durchlässig für Licht der Wellenlänge 450nm-490nm.
+- What means the latin word <one>stigme</one>, translated into english? <one>Mark</one> or <one>Spot</one>.
+- What do <one>shortpass filters</one> reject? They <one>reject longer wavelengths</one>.
+- Define the term <one>microscope</one>. A: A microscope is an instrument that produces an enlarged image of an object.
+- The <one>BODIPY dye</one> has what as its major colour? <one>Green</one>.
+- <one>Conventional optical microscopy</one> is limited in resolution by ... ? The wavelength of visible light.
+- In a <one>light microscope</one>: what is typically below the specimen? The <one>condenser</one>.
+- The <one>Feulgen stain</one> is specific for which biomolecule? <one>DNA</one>.
+- Gegeben sei <one>flash light</one> und <one>glow light</one>, in der Biolumineszenz. Nenne einen "qualitativen Unterschied" dieser beiden Lichttypen. A: Glow light ist viel länger stabil; hat dazu jedoch auch eine geringere Intensität.
+- Auflösung eines Lichtmikroskopes? 0,0005mm. Dies sind 0.5 Mikrometer.
+- Define a "microscope". A: A microscope is an instrument that "produces an enlarged image of an object".
+- Each fluorophore, as it may be used in fluorescence microscopy, has a distinct maximum excitation and emission spectra. Is this useful for anything? Yes - this property can be used to distinguish different targets in the same specimen of interest. 
+- Englisch für "die Probe" (in der Mikroskopie)? "Specimen".
+- What is the advantage of using a "confocal microscope"? A: By having a "confocal pinhole", the microscope is really efficient at rejecting "out of focus fluorescent light".
+- The "Stokes' shift" lies between which two peaks? (1) "Excitation" (2) "Emission"
+- Give an example of an "internal property" of a fluorophore. A: The "natural lifetime".
+- Was ist ein "Long-pass" Filter? Dieser lässt Licht nur über einer abgegebenen Wellenlänge durch.
+- Gegeben sei "Fluorescein". Dessen Ex: und Em: Wert liegt bei ... ? Ex: 495nm. Em: 520nm. (Vereinfachte Schreibweise: BP 480/30)
+- Bei der "Fluoreszenzmikroskopie", bei der Bildaufnahme, wieso ist die Kamera eine S/W Kamera? Jede Fluoreszenz wir einzeln aufgenommen. Es erfolgt danach ein "elektronischer overlay der Einzelbilder".
+- Andere Bezeichnung für "geometrische Optik". A: "Strahlenoptik".
+- Die Mindestgröße ("minimal resolution") der Objekte, die man im Lichtmikroskop noch sehen kann, beträgt (von, bis) in nm? 300nm - 400nm.
+- "Fluorophores" can be broadly divided into which two main classes? (1) "intrinsic" (2) "extrinsic"
+- Was ist das eigentliche Ziel von "FRAP"? Die "Messung der Beweglichkeit von Biomolekülen".
+- What is meant with "multispectral imaging"? This is when different fluorophores are used in the same probe; assigned to different excitation and emission channels.
+- In Microscopy, what is "contrast"? Contrast is the difference in luminance (intensity) of a feature that makes it distinguishable against other features.
+- Name the three lenses that are part of a TEM. A: (1) condenser lenses (2) objective lens (3) projector lenses
+- Nenne einen Vorteil der Röntgenstrahlung gegenüber den Lichtmikroskopen oder Elektronenmikroskopen. A: Röntgenstrahlung hat den Vorteil der "kürzeren Wellenlänge", was potenziell eine "höhere Auflösung" ermöglicht.
+- Name one reason why electrons are used in electron microscopy. A: The wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times shorter than that of visible light photons. Thus, electron microscopes have a "higher resolving power" than light microscopes do.
+- Name 4 different basic qualities that we human beings may wish to find in any given microscope. A: (1) contrast (2) speed (3) resolution (4) sensitivity
+- Was ist die "leere Vergrößerung" eines Mikroskops? Ein Bereich in dem "keine weiteren Details mehr erkennbar" sind.
+- In an electron microscope, which force deflects the electron from the vertical trajectory? The "Lorentz force".

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/immunanalytik

@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Immunanalytik
+#
+# Und Immunanalytik, including the ELISPOT method.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- The <one>ELISpot Assay</one> can be used for ... ? <one>Cytokine Secretion</one>.
+- Was meinen wir allgemein mit <one>immunanalytischen Verfahren</one>? Dies sind analytische Verfahren, bei denen <one>Antikörper als Reagentien</one> eingesetzt werden.
+- In an <one>immuno-PCR</one> we have to use two different antibodies: the <two>capture antibody</two> and the "detection antibody". Which of these two is attached to the solid (ground) support? The <one>capture antibody</one>.
+- Give a specific example for a hapten that is routinely measured for clinical purposes. A: <one>Estradiol E2</one>.
+- Was meinen wir mit der <one>Immunpräzipitation</one>? Dies ist "die Ausfällung von Antigen-Antikörper-Komplexen". Der Unterschied zur Agglutination ist das "beide Partner in löslicher Form existieren".
+- What does <one>EliSpot</one> stand for? <one>Enzyme-linked immune absorbent spot</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELISpot
+- In <one>1985</one> it was demonstrated that a link can be established between phenotype and genotype in filamentous bacteriophage, e. g. through <two>phage display</two>. <three>Which person demonstrated this</three>? <one>George P. Smith</one>.
+- <one>Immunoassays</one> can be divided into which two general formats? (1) <one>homogenous    formats</one> (2) <one>heterogeneous formats</one>
+- For <one>lateral flow immunoassays</one> we may employ <two>conjugate pads</two>, which typically use ... which material? They may use a <one>glass fiber</one> material.
+- Angenommen wir haben einen <one>kompetitiven Immunoassay</one>. Ein Symbol hierbei ist <two>AG*</two>. Was bedeutet dies? <one>Markiertes Antigen</one>.
+- Name a variant of the ELISpot assay. A: The <one>FluoroSpot Assay</one>.
+- The limit of detection in an ELISPOT assay is typically n cells in 100000 cells? 1 in 100,000 cells.
+- For the ELISPOT method: which membrane is typically used? <one>Polyvinylidene fluoride</one> (PVDF) membrane plates.
+- The ELISPOT method was developed in which year? In 1983.
+- Give a short definition as to what a <one>lateral flow immunoassay</one> is. A: A lateral flow immunoassay is a simple-to-use "diagnostic device" used to confirm the presence or absence of a target analyte.
+- The most commonly known type of lateral flow rapid test is ... ? The <one>pregnancy test</one>. URL: https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/pregnancy-test/ []
+- Zweidimensionale Immundiffusion nach ... ? <one>Ouchterlony</one>.
+- In der <one>Immunanalytik</one> werden mitunter die beiden Membranproteine "Protein A" (von Staphylococcus aureus) und "Protein G" (von Streptococcus) eingesetzt. Welches der beiden Proteine ist grösser? <one>Protein A</one> - mit einem Molekulargewicht von <two>42 kDa</two>. []
+- Modern <one>multiplex immunoassays</one> are typically rapid, taking not more than n minutes? Not more than about <one>10 minutes time</one>.
+- <one>VirScan</one> detektiert/analysiert was im Blut? Die <one>Antikörper</one>. []
+- Die <one>zweidimensionale Immundiffusion nach Ouchterlony</one> wurde in welchem Jahr entwickelt? <one>1948</one>. URL: URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouchterlony_double_immunodiffusion []
+- The <one>Immuno-PCR</one> <two>combines which two techniques</two>? (1) <one>PCR</one> (2) <one>ELISA</one> []
+- Welches Verhältnis beschreibt der <one>Scatchard-Plot</one>? Das Verhältnis von <one>gebundenem Antikörper</one> zu <one>freiem Antikörper</one>.
+- <one>Welcher Test</one> war <two>der Ausgangstest aller Immunpräzipitationsmethoden</two>? Der <one>Ringtest</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immundiffusionstest#Einfachdiffusion
+- Is the <one>immuno-PCR</one> more efficient than a simple <two>ELISA</two>? Yes, about 10 ** 9 fold as efficient in its "detection sensitivity", compared to the "ELISA".
+- Nenne <one>zwei Vorteile</one> der <two>lateral flow devices</two>. A: (1) "hohe Selektivität" (2) "geringe Analysenzeit"
+- In der Immunanalytik, bei einer <one>lateral flow device</one>, können wir als Membran "Nitrocellulose" oder "Celluloseacetat" einsetzen. Welche der beiden Membrantypen zeigt eine "höhere Proteinbindung"? <one>Nitrocellulose</one>.
+- Nenne zwei Vorteile des <one>Radioimmunoassays</one> beziehungsweise allgemein zwei Vorteile der "radioaktiven Markierung". A: (1) "niedrige Nachweisgrenzen" (2) <one>hohe Spezifität</one>
+- In a <one>lateral flow assay</one>, what is the role of the <two>conjugate pad</two>? This pad contains antibodies specific to the target analyte, conjugated to coloured particles such as "colloidal gold nanoparticles" or "latex microspheres".
+- A <one>pregnancy test</one> has three zones. Name these zones in the correct order. A: (1) <one>Reaction Zone</one> (2) <one>Test Zone</one> (3) <one>Control Zone</one>
+- Name the seven main steps of an <one>immuno-PCR</one>. A: (1) <one>Immobilization</one> of antibodies specific for the protein target to the surface of a vessel (2) Washing to remove unbound antibody (3) Addition of sample (4) Washing to remove unbound sample (5) Addition of a second specific antibody, coupled to a DNA molecule (6) Washing to remove unbound antibody (7) DNA amplification and detection
+- Für viele Immunoassays, insbesondere bei den <one>lateral flow devices</one>, wird <two>kolloidales Gold</two> eingesetzt. Hergestellt wird diese Form von Gold durch Reduktion von ... ? <one>Tetrachloridogoldsäure</one> (<two>HAuCl4</two>).
+- The <one>ADLib system</one> can detect haptens in a serum. What does ADLib stand for? <one>Autonomously Diversifying Library</one> system.
+- Was meinen wir mit einem <one>qualitativen Immunassay</one>? Dies ist "ein Ja/Nein-Nachweis eines Analyten".
+- Was misst der <one>Guthrie-Test</one>? <one>Phenylketonurie</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guthrie-Test []
+- A <one>multiplex bioanalytic assay</one>, such as a multiplex immunoassay, typically combines which two technical devices? (1) <one>lateral flow</one> (2) <one>microarrays</one>
+- Why is the <one>competitive immunoassay</one> called <two>competitive</two>? Because labelled antigen and free antigen compete for binding to the "immobilised antibody".
+- Why the name <one>sandwich assay</one>? Because the ­antibodies form a sandwich around the analyte - at the least in an "immunometric assay".
+- Was meinen wir in der Immunanalytik mit dem <one>M-Gradienten</one>? Dies ist ein erhöhtes Vorkommen von Bence-Jones Proteinen, wie zum Beispiel der Fall sein mag beim multiplen Myelom. URL: https://www.onkopedia.com/de/onkopedia/guidelines/multiples-myelom/@@view/html/index.html
+- Was meinen wir mit einer <one>indirekten immunanalytischen Methode</one>? Dies ist eine Methode bei der der zweite Antikörper markiert ist.
+- Name the first three steps in a <one>sandwich immunoassay</one>. A: (1) "surface immobilisation of analyte-specific antibody" (2) "blocking step" (3) <one>washing step</one>
+- Nenne <one>zwei diagnostische Verfahren</one>, bei denen Antikörper eingesetzt werden. A: (1) "ELISA" (2) <one>Schwangerschaftstest</one>
+- Nenne die <one>vier Methoden</one>, bei denen äquivalente (stöchiometrische) Mengen miteinander reagieren in der Immunanalytik. A: (1) "Immunagglutination" (2) "Immunpräzipitation" (3) "Immundiffusion" (4) <one>Immunelektrophorese</one>
+- Ist <one>Kolloidales Gold</one>, das auch im Immunoassays Verwendung findet, <two>biokompatibel</two>? Ja. []
+- The <one>second antibody</one> that recognizes the primary antibody, often binds to ... which part of that primary antibody? It will typically bind to the <one>constant region of the primary antibody</one> (which may often be an IgG molecule).
+- In der Immunanalytik, was meinen wir mit einem <one>Bindungstest</one>? Dies ist dann der Fall wenn entweder das Antigen oder der Antikörper im Assay "immobilisiert vorliegt".
+- The labeled component of an immunoassay is ­sometimes called ... ? The <one>tracer</one>.
+- Name a major advantage that a <one>homogeneous immunoassay</one> has compared to a "heterogeneous immunoassay". A: The "homogeneous immunoassay" does not need a separateion-step. The tracer will only generate the signal when it binds to the analyte.
+- Bei einem "kompetitiven Immunoassay" ist die Messgröße ... ? Das <one>Antigen</one>.
+- The simplest type of immunoassay to understand is the <one>immunometric design</one>. The signal level in this type of assay is proportional to ... ? The analyte concentration in the sample.
+- Was ist mit dem Begriff <one>Immunanalytische Verfahren</one> gemeint? Immunanalytische Verfahren sind analytische Verfahren, bei denen <one>Antikörper</one> als Reagentien eingesetzt werden.
+- The material that the "capture antibody" is irreversibly bound to is, in general, known as ... ? The <one>solid phase</one>.
+- When was the <one>immuno-PCR</one> developed? In the year <one>1992</one>.
+- Nenne drei allgemeine Substanzgruppen, die wir dank <one>Immunoassays</one> analysieren können. A: (1) <one>Antikörper</one> (2) <one>Antigene</one> (3) <one>Haptene</one>
+- When we wish to develop an "immuno-PCR assay", should we rather adapt from an existing PCR or rather from an existing ELISA? Adapt from an "existing ELISA".
+- "Competitive immunoassays" are commonly used to detect molecules such ... give two examples. A: Small molecules, such as: (1) "drugs" (2) "toxins"
+- Zum Nachweis von Haptenen setzen wir eher kompetitive oder eher nicht-kompetitive Bioassays ein? Eher "kompetitive".
+- Der Analyt liegt bei Immunassays in einer ...  Phase vor. A: In einer "flüssigen" Phase, meist gelöst in einem Puffer.
+- Kommt es bei der "Immunpräzipitation" zu einem "Prozoneneffekt"? Ja - im Prinzip schon.
+- In a "direct immunoassay", we will have to use a specific antibody which will produce the signal. How is this antibody usually called? "Detection antibody".
+- Which two antibodies can we find in an "Immuno-PCR"? (1) "Capture antibody" (2) "Detection antibody"
+- Bei der "Immunpräzipitation" muss das Antigen mindestens n Epitope aufweisen? Mindestens drei.
+- For a "sandwich immunoassay" to work, the antigen must have which property? It must be large enough to contain two antigenic sites ("epitopes") where each antibody has sufficient unimpeded access.
+- Was meinen wir mit einer "direkten immunanalytischen Methode"? Dies ist eine Methode bei dem entweder das Antigen beziehungsweise der Antikörper markiert wird.
+- Immunoassays that measure analyte concentrations against a standard or calibration curve are ... ? "Quantitative".
+- In order to estimate the concentration of an analyte from the signal generated, a ... is required. A: A "standard curve".
+- The proportion of tracer that binds to the limited antibody sites is indirectly proportional to the concentration of analyte in the sample. This is known as a ... immunoassay. A: This is a "competitive immunoassay".
+- "Immunometric assays" in general work very well, but which type of molecules do not work that well in such an assay? In general small molcules, since they will not have sufficient surface area to accommodate two molecules of antibody binding to them.
+- Bei einem "kompetitiven Immunoassay", wieso benötigen wir hier eine "Trennmethode"? Die Trennmethode ist notwendig um "gebundenes Antigen" von "freiem Antigen" zu trennen.
+- The immuno-PCR has at the least two major problems. One is the "technical difficulty of linking nucleic acids directly to antibodies". The other is ... ? Substantial backgrounds that can be generated by "nonspecific binding of the nucleic acid-antibody conjugates to solid phases".
+- The immuno-PCR has not replaced the ELISA as the assay format of choice for diagnostic purposes. Why not? The main reason for this is "the difficulty associated with conjugating antibodies to oligonucleotides". This process can both be costly and time-consuming; and requires expert knowledge.
+- Bei der "<ud>Immuno-PCR</ud>" verwenden wir welche zwei Antikörper? (1) "Capture Antibody" (2) "Detection Antibody"
+- The Immuno-PCR typically employs specific capture antibodies that can be found where? Coated on a 96-well PCR plate.
+- Are "strip assays" used to detect mycotoxins? Yes, mycotoxin-detection in the blood.
+- In a "<ud>lateral flow assay</ud>", the last pad is typically called ... ? The "wicking pad".
+- In a "<ud>lateral flow assay</ud>", we may first see the "sample pad", then the "conjugate pad", followed by ... ? The "reaction membrane".
+- In a "<ud>lateral flow assay</ud>", what is the role for the "sample pad"? This is an adsorbent pad onto which the test sample is applied.
+- "Lateral flow immunoassays" are essentially immunoassays adapted to operate along a ... ? a "single axis".
+- The basic technology that underlies lateral flow immunoassays was first described in the 1960s, but the first real commercial application was "Unipath's Clearview home pregnancy test", launched in ... which year? "1988".
+- The key component of an immuno-PCR is ... ? A "DNA-antibody conjugate" that serves as a bridge to link the solid-phase immunoreaction with nucleic acid amplification.
+- Name two pads that we can typically find in a "lateral flow device". A: (1) the "sample" pad, followed by (2) the "conjugate" pad 
+- Can the "sandwich immunoassay" measure a molecule of below 805 Da? Yes. "Tacrolimus" has a molecular weight of 804 Da and it can be measured by a sandwich immunoassay, in which two antibodies were able to bind to tacrolimus simultaneously, without overlap of the binding sites.
+- Haptens in immune analytics have typically been measured only by "competitive immunoassays". Why is that so? Because their limited molecular sizes impede the simultaneous binding of two antibodies to a single hapten molecule. 
+- Immunanalytischen Methoden können in direkte und indirekte Methoden eingeteilt werden. Was ist der Unterschied? (1) Bei den direkten Methoden ist das Antigen bzw. der Antikörper markiert. (2) Bei den indirekten Methoden hingegen kommt ein weiterer Antikörper zum Einsatz, der markiert ist.
+- Nenne eine allgemeine Einschränkung eines "Immunoassays". A: Es gibt eine Einschränkung durch die "Notwendigkeit, die Tertiärstruktur der Antikörper zu erhalten".
+- Für Antikörper ist auch indirekt die Frage nach der Immunogenität (des Antigens) wichtig. Welche Faktoren machen ein Molekül zu einem Immunogen? (1) Molekulargewicht (2) Komplexität (3) Ähnlichkeit mit körpereigenen Proteinen
+- Es gibt Schwangerschaftstests, die Antikörper zwecks Detektion verwenden. Es kann jedoch auch zu falsch-negativen Ergebnissen kommen. Nenne drei Beispiel hierfür. A: (1) eine zu starke Verdünnung des HCG aufgrund einer "zu großen Harnmenge" (2) die Schwangerschaft ist noch zu jung (3) der Eisprung erfolgt später als angenommen
+- Name a big mechanistic difference between an ELISA and an immuno-PCR. A: The immuno-PCR detects the antigen-antibody complex through a "DNA reporter", whereas the ELISA will use an "enzyme" for the detection step.