studium 0.13.1

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/biological_therapeutics

@@ -0,0 +1,153 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Biological Therapeutics
+#
+# Everything about biological therapeutics, including a bit of production
+# strategies.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Kunert: <one>Imiglucerase</one> is used to treat which disease? The <one>Gaucher disease</one>.
+- Wann mögen <one>Liposomen</one> eine <two>Konformationsänderung</two> durchführen? Zum Beispiel durch <one>Protonierung im Endosom</one>.
+- <one>Insulin</one> is usually injected into the fatty tissue just under the skin. This area is also called ... ? <one>Subcutaneous tissue</one>.
+- Does the <one>cytokine release syndrome</one> lead to the <two>activation of mast cells</two>? Yes. []
+- <u>Kunert</u>: What was <one>the earliest described lysosomal storage disease</one>? The <one>Tay-Sachs disease</one> was the first of these disorders to be described.
+- Are antibodies fusion proteins? Yes - they are naturally produced by V(D)J recombination.
+- Radauer: Name an antibody that cn cause the cytokine release syndrome. A: <one>Rituximab</one>.
+- Kunert: how many Isoforms of Epo can we find in humans? <one>Eight</one> (<one>8</one>).
+- <one>Kunert</one>: Name three <two>lysosomal storage diseases</two>. A: (1) <one>Gaucher disease</one> (2) Fabry Disease (3) <one>Pompe's disease</one>
+- Kunert: <one>albumin</one> can be harvested during the Cohn process in which fraction? <one>Fraction V</one>. []
+- Kunert: nenne <one>ein schnellwirksames Insulinanalogon</one>. A: <three>NovoRapid</three> - auch bekannt als <one>Insulin aspart</one>. []
+- Kunert: In order to promote <one>insulin analogs</one>, name a typical argument that can be used against normal insulin. A: Regular human insulin has a <one>variable peak</one> when injected under the skin. []
+- Which company created the <one>CAR-T therapy</one>? <one>Allogene</one>. []
+- Kunert: for the <one>Gaucher's disease</one>, which general therapy strategy is typically used? The <one>Enzyme replacement therapy</one>. []
+- What is the final product of the <one>Cohn process</one>? <one>Purified albumin</one>. []
+- <one>Kunert</one>: <one>Albumin</one> contains n disulfide bonds? It contains <one>17 disulfide-bonds</one>. []
+- Kunert: <one>Which component of the blood plasma</one> is primarily responsible for <two>osmotic pressure</two>? <one>Albumin</one>. []
+- Kunert: <one>Blood plasma</one> is the liquid component of whole blood, and makes up approximately n% of the total blood volume. A: <one>55%</one>. []
+- Kunert: which three components will we find right after blood centrifugation? (1) <one>plasma</one> (2) <one>buffy coat</one> (3) <one>erythrocytes</one>
+- Kunert: <one>60%</one> of all <two>plasmaprotein</two> is ... ? <one>Albumin</one>. []
+- Kunert: was genau ist beim <one>lispro</one> vertauscht? Die Aminosäuren an Position <one>B28</one> und an Position <one>B29</one>. []
+- Name a <one>cathepsin B-cleavable peptide linker</one>. A: <one>PABC</one>. []
+- <one>GalNAc-Konjugate</one>, wie <two>Fitusiran</two>, werden vor allem <three>in welchem Zelltyp</three> angereichert? In den <one>Hepatozyten</one>. URL: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0192623318792537 []
+- <one>Hydrazone</one>, as may be used in ADC, can be cleaved by a pH ... ? An <one>acidic pH</one>. []
+- Radauer: Monoclonal antibodies can kill <one>unwanted cells</one> such as ... ? <one>Tumor cells</one>. []
+- Winkler: Nenne einen medizinischen Vorteil der <one>Oligonukleotid-Wirkstoffe</one> verglichen mit traditionellen Arzneistoffen. A: Oligonukleotide-Wirkstoffe ermöglichen Wirkungen auf Targets, die mit kleinen Molekülen als <one>undruggable</one> gelten.
+- Wie wirken die <one>SSOs</one> (<three>Splice Switching Oligonucleotides</three>) allgemein? Sie <one>verhindern die Anlagerung des Spliceosoms an die mRNA</one> (und inhibieren damit den splicing-Vorgang). []
+- Kunert: is <one>haemoglobin</one> a blood protein? No, as it is carried within red blood cells, rather than in the blood serum itself. []
+- Kunert: give another name for the insulin <one>lispro</one>. A: <one>Humalog</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin_lispro []
+- <one>Rituximab</one> wird gegen welche Krankheit eingesetzt? Gegen das <one>non-Hodgkin Lymphom</one>.
+- Radauer: <one>Rituximab</one> is produced in ... ? <one>CHO cell suspension culture</one>. []
+- Radauer: Are <one>blood components</one> to be considered <three>Biologicals</three>? Yes. []
+- <one>The human liver</one> produces about n g of albumin per day? About <one>12g</one>.
+- The main action of recombinant human erythropoietin is to ... ? To stimulate the proliferation and the differentiation of erythroid progenitor cells in bone marrow and their subsequent evolution into mature erythrocytes.
+- <one>Erythropoietin</one> is a glycoprotein hormone involved in the regulation of ... ? <one>Erythropoiesis</one>.
+- Kunert: what is meant with the term <one>protein conjugate</one>? This is, for example, a protein (such as a hormone) attached to a fluorophore group.
+- Radauer: A <one>Biosimilar</one> is similar to another biological medicine that has already been authorized for use. How is that other medicine called? This is <one>the reference medicine</one>. []
+- Kunert: bei Insulin aspart wurde welche Modifikation durchgeführt? An der Position B28 wurde <one>Prolin</one> durch <one>Asparaginsäure</one> ersetzt. 
+- Kunert: das Insulin <one>lispro</one> wurde von <three>Lilly</three> in welchem Jahre auf den Markt gebracht? <one>1996</one>. 
+- Kunert: Give an example for a <one>rapid acting insulin analog</one>. A: Insulin <one>Lispro</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin_lispro []
+- Kunert: name a hyperglycosylated recombinant human EPO analogue with two extra carbohydrate chains. A: <one>Darbepoetin alfa</one>.
+- Kunert: <one>EPO</one> can typically be identified how ... ? Via a <one>capillary zone electrophoresis</one>.
+- What is the <one>European Pharmacopoeia</one>? The <one>European Pharmacopoeia</one> is a single reference work for the <two>quality control of medicines</two>.
+- Kunert: in the Cohn process we can isolate gamma globulins, from which Fraction(s)? <one>II</one> and <one>III</one>.
+- Radauer: Bevacizumab is sold under which trade name? <one>Avastin</one>. 
+- Radauer: <one>Avastin</one> acts against ... ? <two>VEGF</two>; it is thus an <one>anti-VEGF monoclonal antibody</one>.
+- <one>Blood fractionation</one> is the process of fractionating whole blood. How is this typically done? By <one>centrifuging the blood</one>. 
+- Name an alternative to the <one>Cohn Process</one>. A: <one>Chromatographic albumin processing</one>.
+- Kunert: in the Cohn process, the pH drops to a value of ... ? About <one>4.8</one>.
+- Kunert: How to inactivate viruses during <one>plasma protein production</one>? <one>Lower the pH value</one>. []
+- Are the standards published by the <one>European Pharmacopoeia</one> legally binding? Yes. []
+- Radauer: Can we say that <one>vaccines</one> are Biologicals? Yes. []
+- Radauer: Can <three>PEGylation</three> happen through <one>non-covalent attachment</one>? <one>Yes</one>. []
+- Is <one>PEGylation</one> FDA approved? Yes. []
+- Kunert: <one>which IFN</one> is used for the treatment of Hepatitis C? <one>IFN-alpha</one>.
+- Kunert: Nenne ein <one>inhalativ zu applizierendes Normal-Insulin</one>. A: <one>Exubera</one> (von Pfizer). URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhalable_insulin []
+- Kurz formuliert: wie wirken <one>SSOs</one>, also <three>Splice Switching Oligonucleotides</three>? Sie <one>verhindern die Anlagerung des Spliceosomes an die mRNA</one>.
+- Kunert: The <one>Fabry disease</one> requires two different enzymes: <three>Agalsidase alpha</three>, and <three>agalsidase beta</three>. Which of these two is produced in <three>CHO cells</three> these days? <one>Agalsidase beta</one>. []
+- <one>Oblimersen</one> ist ein <two>18-mer Phosphorthioat</two> das von ... entwickelt wurde. A: Von <one>Genta</one>. (Genta ist mittlerweile bereits pleite.) URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genta_%28company%29 []
+- Kunert: Adhesion of platelets to wound sites is aided by ... which factor? The <one>Willebrand factor</one>. []
+- Gilt die <one>Lipinski Rule of 5</one> auch für <three>Oligonukleotide</three>? Nein; Oligonukleotide haben keine Arzneistoffcharakteristik. []
+- Kunert: where could we find <one>Glucocerebrosides</one>? They are part of the <one>membrane of erythrocytes</one>.
+- Kunert: <one>Dornase alfa</one> is used to treat which disease? <one>Cystic fibrosis</one> (or rather the pulmonary disease that accompanies cystic fibrosis). []
+- Radauer: In the year <one>2013</one> the first <two>biosimilar monoclonal antibody</two> was approved. What was its name? <one>Infliximab</one> (also known as <two>Inflectra</two>). URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infliximab []
+- Radauer: How does <one>PEGylation</one> affect the circulatory time of a protein, when conjugated to it? PEGylation will <one>increase its hydrodynamic size</one>, aka the "size in solution", which <two>prolongs its circulatory time by reducing renal clearance</two>.
+- Kunert: <one>60%</one> of all plasmaprotein can be attributed to ... ? <one>Albumin</one>. []
+- Is the <one>international nonproprietary name</one> (<two>INN</two>) proprietary? <one>No</one> - it is a generic and nonproprietary name given to a pharmaceutical drug. []
+- <one>Kunitz domains</one> are the active domains of proteins that can inhibit the function of "protein degrading enzymes". They are thus "protease inhibitors" and are used in therapy. Give an example for a disease that can be treated with "Kunitz domain peptides". A: <one>Alzheimer</one>, through <two>APP</two> (<three>Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein</three>).
+- Kunert: The <one>lowest pI of all plasma proteins</one> can be found in ... ? <one>Albumin</one>. []
+- Kunert: <one>insulin ...</one> are replacing <two>human insulin</two>. A: <one>insulin analogs</one>. []
+- Winkler: Was hat den Einsatz von <one>SNALPs</one> eigentlich effektiv verdrängt? <one>GalNAc</one>, auch als <two>N-Acetylgalaktosamin</two> bekannt. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Acetylgalactosamine
+- Kunert: The <one>Cohn process</one> is also known as ... ? <one>Ethanol fractionation</one>. []
+- Kunert: <one>Imiglucerase</one> (<two>Cerezyme</two>) is used to treat which disease starting with the letter <peru>G</peru>? <one>Gaucher disease</one>. []
+- Kunert: <one>Blood plasma</one> normally has what colour? Blood plasma shows a <one>yellow colour</one>. []
+- The first monoclonal <one>biosimilar</one> approved by the <two>EMA</two> (<three>European Medicines Agency</three>) was ... ? <one>Infliximab</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infliximab []
+- Kunert: <one>Long-acting insulin products</one>, such as <two>glargine</two> from Lantus, last up to n hours? <one>24 hours</one>. []
+- Kunert: which enzyme is used under the trade name <one>Cerezyme</one>? <one>Glucocerebrosidase</one>. 
+- Kunert: which human protein has <one>tetra-sialic antennas</one>? Human <one>erythropoietin</one>. 
+- Kunert: How stable is <one>Factor VIII</one> in circulation? <one>Not very stable</one>. []
+- Radauer: <one>Abciximab</one> is a platelet aggregation inhibitor for prevention of ... after ... ? It prevents <one>thrombosis</one> after <two>coronary artery surgery</two>.
+- Give an example of where <one>cells as products</one> may be used specifically. A: In <one>skin transplantation</one>. []
+- Nenne eine gefährliche Nebenwirkung der <one>CAR-T Zell Therapie</one>. A: Der <one>Cytokinsturm</one>. []
+- Radauer: What is a <one>Biosimilar</one>? A Biosimilar is a biological medicine that is similar to another biological medicine (the <one>reference medicine</one>) that has already been authorized for use.
+- Radauer: Do we include <one>living cells</one> among the <two>Biological Therapeutics</two>? Yes. []
+- Kunert: <one>Blood plasma</one> is the liquid component of whole blood. It makes up approximately n% of the total blood volume? Approximately <one>55%</one>. []
+- Kunert: From <three>blood plasma</three>, we can purify about <one>n g Immunoglobulines</one> from 1 litre plasma? About <one>4 g</one>. []
+- <one>Kunert</one>: How to cure <one>lysosomal storage diseases</one>? <one>No cures for lysosomal storage diseases are known</one>. []
+- <one>Radauer</one>: The <one>cytokine release syndrome</one> can also lead to the secretion of inflammatory cytokines. Name <three>three inflammatory cytokines</three>. A: (1) <one>IFN-Beta</one> (2) <one>IFN-Gamma</one> (3) <one>Interleukin-1</one>
+- <one>Cetuximab</one> is an <three>anti-EGFR monoclonal antibody</three>. Give another name for it. A: <one>Erbitux</one>.
+- Was ist mit der Abkürzung <one>NDA</one> in der Pharmazie gemeint? <one>New Drug Application</one>. []
+- Erhöht sich durch Formulierung in Liposomen oder Konjugation mit <one>N-Acetyl-glucosamin</one> (<three>GalNAc</three>) die Konzentration von Oligonukleotiden in der Leber? Ja. []
+- Kunert: One approach to <one>generate recombinant human insulin</one> was to produce a fusion protein and then leverage enzymes to break it apart. What other non-enzymatic approach was also used? Separate prokaryotic strains were used, each producing either the A or B chain of insulin. Both chains were additionally attached to a fusion protein, though. The two chains were then separately purified and subsequently combined in order to form the stable S-sulfonate derivatives.
+- "Radauer": In <one>biological therapeutics</one>: the abbreviation <two>ADCs</two> stands for ... ? <one>Antibody-drug conjugates</one>. []
+- Kunert: name the top three (typical) blood proteins in the human body. A: (1) <one>albumin</one> (2) <one>globulin</one> (3) <one>fibrinogen</one>
+- Kunert: Name an important major obstacle encountered in the <one>production of proinsulin</one> by recombinant E. coli cells. A: The rapdid intracellular degradation of the recombination protein, as reported by Shen in 1984.
+- Kunert: <one>Replagal</one>, as is it used for the <two>treatment of the Fabry disease</two>, is produced by ... which company? <one>Shire</one>.
+- Winkler: Nenne drei Beispiele für <one>Biologics</one>, als Gruppe. A: (1) <one>Antikörper</one> (2) <one>rekombinante Proteine</one> (3) <one>Impfstoffe</one>
+- Radauer: Why can <one>Infliximab</one> not be given orally? Because <one>the digestive system would destroy the drug</one>.
+- Radauer: <one>PEG</one> (<three>polyethylene glycol</three>) is often used. <two>Is it immunogenic</two>? No, PEG is <one>non-immunogenic</one>. []
+- Kunert: The <one>insulin-type that is initially synthesized</one> is called ... ? <one>Proinsulin</one>. []
+- Radauer: How is <one>Infliximab</one> administered? It is administered via <one>intravenous infusion</one>, typically at a six-to-eight-week interval.
+- Nenne eine <one>Einsatzmöglichkeit</one> von <two>Antisense-Oligonucleotiden mit Phosphorthionatbindungen</two>. A: Verhindern zum Beispiel die Synthese von Aldolase bei Plasmodium falciparum (Malaria-Erreger). URL: https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1004170
+- <one>Kunert</one>: Name some general ways <one>how to inactivate viruses</one>. A: (1) <one>pasteurization</one> (2) <one>dry heat</one> (3) <one>vapour heat</one> (4) <one>solvent</one>/<one>detergent</one> (5) <one>low pH</one>
+- Radauer: The first FDA-approved therapeutic monoclonal antibody, in 1986, was <one>Muromonab</one>, which was a murine anti-CD3 (T cell antigen) monoclonal antibody for the prevention of ... ? <one>Transplant rejection</one>.
+- Kunert: For the <one>initial production of proinsulin by recombinant E. coli cells</one>, in order to overcome the problem of rapid intracellular degradation of the recombination protein, as reported by Shen in 1984, how was this initially solved? By producing <one>recombinant human Insullin as a fusion protein</one>, so as to <two>deliberately yield inclusion bodies</two>.
+- What was, in <one>1986</one>, <two>the first FDA-approved therapeutic monoclonal antibody</two> (mAb)? <one>Muromonab</one>.
+- <one>Kunert</one>: The <one>first practical large-scale method of blood plasma fractionation</one> was developed by ... ? <one>Edwin J. Cohn</one>, during World War II.
+- Bei der <one>Plasmafraktionierung</one>: wieso funktioniert sie? Zunutze macht man sich bei diesem Verfahren die unterschiedlichen Löslichkeiten der verschiedenen Plasmaproteine bei <one>wechselnden pH-Werten</one>, Temperaturen und Ionenstärken sowie das variierende Adsorptionsverhalten an feste Trägersubstanzen.
+- Radauer: Name a <one>side effect of therapeutic antibodies</one>. A: The <one>cytokine release syndrome</one>.
+- Radauer: Why may we wish to use <one>PEGylation</one>? The covalent attachment of PEG to a drug or therapeutic protein can <one>mask</one> the agent from the host's immune system, thus <one>reducing immunogenicity</one> and <one>reducing antigenicity</one>.
+- Which product from <one>Genentech</one> was approved in <violet>1997</violet> against the <two>Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma</two>? <one>Rituxan</one>.
+- <one>Dupilumab</one> is used to treat which disease in particular? <one>Severe atopic dermatitis</one>.
+- Radauer: Name four <one>advantages of PEGylated proteins</one>. A: (1) Increased size leading to a "reduced renal clearance" (2) Increased proteolytic stability (3) Increased solubility (4) <one>Decreased immunogenicity</one>
+- <one>Kunert</one>: <two>Blood plasma</two> is the liquid component of whole blood. It makes up approximately n% of the total blood volume? About <one>55%</one>.
+- <one>Kunert</one>: Was ist die <one>Plasmafraktionierung</one>? <one>Plasmafraktionierung</one> ist <two>ein Verfahren zur Gewinnung von Proteinen aus menschlichem Blutplasma</two>.
+- Winkler: <one>Patisiran</one> wurde als <two>SNALP</two> (<three>stable nucleic acid lipid particle</three>) formuliert und im Jahre 2018, August, zugelassen. Es wirkt allgemein gegenüber welchen Krankheiten? Es wirkt gegen <one>Neuropathien</one>.
+- Radauer: In <one>antibody-drug conjugates</one>, give an example for a <two>stable linker</two>. A: <one>BFC</one>: <two>Bifunctional chelating agents</two>.
+- Kunert: <one>Long-acting insulin analogues</one> are supposed to warrant a better metabolic control with <two>reduced ... risk</two>. A: With a <one>reduced hypoglycaemic risk</one>.
+- What is the goal in <one>RIT</one> (<two>Radioimmunotherapy</two>)? <one>Radioimmunotherapy</one> (<two>RIT</two>) uses an antibody labeled with a radionuclide to <three>deliver cytotoxic radiation to a target cell</three>.
+- Radauer: <one>the first approved chimeric antibody</one> in <two>1994</two> was <three>A</three> ... ? <one>Abciximab</one>.
+- Kunert: <one>Albumin</one> has <two>n disulfide-bonds</two>? <one>17</one>.
+- In <one>biological therapeutics</one>: what means <two>DAR</two>? <one>Drug-to-antibody ratio</one>.
+- The trade mark <one>Remicade</one> stands for ... which monoclonal antibody? <one>Infliximab</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infliximab
+- Radauer: We can use monoclonal antibodies to inhibit specific, physiologic processes, such as ... ? <one>Angiogenesis</one>.
+- Kunert: name <one>an inhaled insulin product</one>. A: <one>Afrezza</one>.
+- Kunert: In the early days when <one>recombinant human insulin</one> was produced, which two enzymes were used in order to separate the A and B chain? (1) <one>trypsin</one> (2) <one>carboxypeptidase B</one>
+- Kunert: The "Cohn process" ultimately gives us ... ? <one>Purified albumin</one> (in the final precipitate().
+- Radauer: What was the name of <one>the first monoclonal antibody</one> that was approved, in <two>1997</two>, for the treatment of tumors? <one>Rituximab</one>.
+- Radauer: For <one>IgG-Fc fusion proteins</one>, why is <two>glycosylation</two> employed? So as to enhance the stability and the solubility of the protein/complex at hand.
+- Kunert: In order to <one>treat lysosomal storage disorders</one>, which modified enzyme is often employed? <one>Beta-glucocerebrosidase</one>.
+- Radauer: Name two useful <one>cell surface markers</one> that can be used to detect something in bioanalytics. A: (1) <one>tumor antigens</one> (2) <one>CD antigens on leukocytes</one>
+- Radauer: What are <one>Biologicals</one>? Biologicals are biopharmaceutical drugs manufactured in, extracted from, or semisynthesized from biological sources.
+- Name one characteristic of <one>third generation pegylation agents</one>. A: The <one>polymer is branched</one>.
+- Radauer: What is <one>the first step of PEGylation</one> normally? This is the suitable <one>functionalization of the PEG polymer at one or both termini</one>.
+- Kunert: <one>Fabrazyme</one> is licensed to <two>G</two> ... ? <one>Genzyme</one>.
+- Kunert: The <one>Hunter disease</one> can be treated with a <two>Chondroitinsulfatase</two>. Chondroitinsulfatase do what? They <one>cleave of Sulfate</one> from Dermatansulfate and Heparansulfate, which are associated with fibres and cartilage.
+- Kunert: Name two <one>LSD-diseases</one> (<two>lysosomal storage disease</two>). A: (1) <one>Gaucher's disease</one> (2) <one>Schindler's disease</one>
+- Einsatzgebiet von <one>Pegaptanib</one>? Behandlung der <one>altersbedingten Maculadegeneration</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegaptanib
+- In <one>which year</one> was <two>the first chimeric antibody</two> approved? In <one>1994</one>.
+- Radauer: How is a <one>Biosimilar</one> determined? The similarity to be shown must focus on <one>quality</one>, <one>safety</one> and <one>efficacy</one>.
+- Radauer: What was the name of <one>the first fully human monoclonal antibody</one> that was approved, in <two>2002</two>? <one>Adalimumab</one> (aka <two>HUMIRA</two>).
+- Was meinen wir mit dem Begriff <one>Pharmakokinetik</one>? Dies bezeichnet wie lange ein Wirkstoff in einem Organismus verweilen mag.
+- Radauer: Name the two general ways how <one>PEGylation</one> is done, aka the two processes. A: (1) a "solution phase batch process" (2) an <one>on-column fed-batch process</one>
+- Radauer: The <one>linker</one> to an antibody-drug conjugate faces which two orthogonal constraints? The <one>linker must be sufficiently stable during systemic circulation</one>; but allow for the rapid and efficient release of the cytotoxic drug in an active form inside the tumor cells.
+- <one>Biosimilars</one> are considered to be one of the fastest-growing sectors in the pharmaceutical industry. Name a curious reason as to why this may be the case these days (e. g. in the year 2019). A: The expiry of patents on multiple brands of biologics may accelerate the growth aspect here.
+- Kunert: <one>Myozyme</one> is used against which disease? The <one>Pompe's disease</one>.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/biologie

@@ -0,0 +1,137 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Biologie tag.
+#
+# Bio Tag. Biology tag.
+# Allgemeine Biologische Phänomene und theoretische Biologie.
+# Theoretische Tag.
+# Auch STEOP für Pharmazeuten.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- <one>The primary purpose of life</one> is ... ? <one>reproduction</one>.
+- Who are nature's genetic engineers? <one>Phages</one>.
+- Was ist die <one>Cephalisation</one>? Die <one>Bildung eines Kopfes</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalisation []
+- Can we find centrioles in Plants? No. []
+- <one>Carl von Linne</one> entwickelte was für ein System? Das <one>binäre System</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematik_(Biologie)#Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9 []
+- Wie nennen wir das <one>System der inneren Membranen</one> in Zellen? <one>Endomembransystem</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endomembransystem []
+- Die physikalische Grundeinheit der Organismen ist ... ? Die <one>Zelle</one>. []
+- All cells on planet earth carry out which three fundamental processes? (1) the processes of <one>transcription</one> (2) the processes of <one>translation</one> (3) the processes of <one>DNA replication</one>
+- <one>Fusarien</one> sind ...? A: <one>Schimmelpilze</one>. []
+- Das <one>rot fluoreszierende Protein</one> wurde aus welchem Organismus gewonnen? Aus der <one>pazifischen Seeanemone</one>. URL: https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/Q9U6Y8 []
+- <one>Life at the frontier</one> may also be called ... ? <one>Biodiscovery</one>. 
+- A. W. für <one>unbegrenztes Wachstum</one>? <one>Indeterminiertes Wachstum</one>.
+- In the field of experimental physiology, what is <tomato>parabiosis</tomato>? <tomato>Parabiosis</tomato> is a class of techniques in which two living organisms are joined together surgically, such as two differently aged mice.
+- What is a "phagotroph"? A Phagotroph is an organism that acquires its major nutrients via "phagocytosis", that is, the engulfing by cells of chunks of food and/or other organisms, as seen especially among "protozoa".
+- What is "Botrytis cinerea"? This is a "necrotrophic fungus". It affects many plant species. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botrytis_cinerea 
+- Ergosterol can be found in ...? Fungi.
+- Was hat das "Miller Urey Experiment" gebracht? Es diente der Bestätigung der Hypothese, dass unter den Bedingungen einer postulierten Uratmosphäre eine Entstehung organischer Moleküle möglich ist.
+- Womit beschäftigt sich die "Epistemologie"? Dieses Gebiet der Philosophie stellt sich die Frage, wie Wissen gewonnen wird.
+- Nenne 2 Hypothesen-typen in den Naturwissenschaften. A: (1) a priori Hypothese (2) a posteriori Hypothese
+- In einem Baumdiagramm, wie erkennen wir eine "monophyletische Gruppe"? Dies sind die Linien, die von einer clade stammen - und alle Nachkommen aus dieser Clade.
+- Was ist ein "Symplasma"? Dies ist ein mehrkerniger Zellverband ohne wahrnehmbare Zellgrenzen.
+- Was ist "Melittophilie"? Dies ist die Anpassung von Pflanzen an die Bestäubung durch Bienen.
+- Sind "Actinomyceten" Pilze? Nein, es sind Bakterien.
+- Wer prägte den Begriff "Biologie"? Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck.
+- 1 Ausspruch von "Theodosius Dobzhansky"? A: Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.
+- Das grösste bekannte Lebewesen der Erde ist ...? Ein Hallimasch.
+- Was bedeutet "phagotroph"? Die Phagotrophie bezeichnet die heterotrophe Ernährungsweise bei der Aufnahme von Partikeln.
+- Was ist "osmotroph"? Wenn gelöste Nahrung aufgenommen wird.
+- A. W. für "keine echte Sexualität"? Parasexualität.
+- Nenne eine Gemeinsamkeit zwischen der theoretischen Biologie und der theoretischen Physik. A: Beide versuchen reale Systeme zu simulieren.
+- Ist eine Theorie oder eine Hypothese stärker fundiert? Eine Theorie ist stärker fundiert als eine Hypothese.
+- Welche "Indizien" gibt es für die Katastrophismus-Theorie in der Biologie? Die Massenextinktionen von Organismen im Laufe der Erdgeschichte.
+- Welche 3 Kategorien wissenschaftlicher Modelle existieren? (1) theoretische Modelle (2) materielle Modelle (Objekthafte Modelle) (3) heuristische Modelle
+- Was ist die Sprache der Theoretischen Biologie? Mathematik.
+- A. W. für "Eukaryotenzelle"? Eucyte.
+- Warum sind Wespen in der Natur nützlich? Da sie Blattläuse fressen (und andere Insekten auch).
+- Was ist die "Dendrologie"? Dies ist die Lehre von den Bäumen und Gehölzen. 
+- Bei der "binären Nomenklatur", welche 2 Komponenten sehen wir hier? Der erste Name bezeichnet die Gattung (Genus). Der zweite Name gibt die Art (Species) an.
+- Was ist "Honigtau"? Dies ist ein zuckerhaltiges Ausscheidungsprodukt von der, zum Beispiel, Blattlaus.
+- In der Biologie, unterscheide "Alpha Diversity" von "Beta Diversity", in Form von Fragen. A: (1) Alpha Diversity: How many kinds of animals can I find where I hunt? (2) Beta Diversity: How different is one place from another?
+- Wer hat den Begriff "Prägung" eingeführt? Oskar Heinroth. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oskar_Heinroth
+- Retinal absolviert welches Licht? Violettes Licht.
+- Was ist die "Entomologie"? Die Insektenkunde.
+- Bei den Bienen, wer ist diploid? Die Königin und die Arbeiterin.
+- A. W. für "Biologie der inneren Uhr"? Chronobiologie.
+- What is "Phycology"? The study of algae.
+- Nenne 2 natürliche Wege wie normale Zellen in die extrazelluläre Matrix eindringen können. A: (1) Implantation eines Embryos in die Uteruswand (2) weisse Blutkörperchen die an der Stelle der Infektion eindringen können
+- Name at least three "Molecules of Life" (Classes). A: (1) Nucleic Acids (2) Proteins (3) Lipids
+- Nenne 4 theories of modern Biology. A: (1) The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection (2) The Gene Theory (3) The Cell Theory (4) The Theory of Homeostasis.
+- The biological classification has 8 steps. Name them. A: (1) Domain (2) Kingdom (3) Phylum (4) Class (5) Order (6) Family (7) Genus (8) Species
+- Welche 2 Strategien hat ein Körper, toxische Substanzen zu beseitigen? Die "Elimination" (das inkludiert auch die Exkretion über den Urin), oder die "Biotransformation".
+- A. W. für "Polymers of Glucose"? Glucans.
+- Wer prägte den Begriff "Homeosis"? William Bateson.
+- Name 4 Kingdoms in Eukarya. A: (1) Animalia (2) Fungi (3) Plants (4) Protists
+- Was genau bezeichnet der Begriff "Anagenese"? Die Entstehung einer Art. 
+- Wieviele Reiche definierte Linne damals ? 3.
+- What are the "metaphyta"? These are the multicellular plants.
+- Wie geht die systematische Bezeichnung für ein Lebewesen? Reich Stamm Klasse Ordnung Familie Gattung Art
+- Was genau ist der "heterophasische Generationswechsel"? Dies ist der Wechsel zwischen geschlechtlichen und ungeschlechtlichen Generationen, der zudem mit einem Kernphasenwechsel verbunden ist.
+- Wieviele Arten habe die Biologen bis heute beschrieben? 1.8 Millionen Arten.
+- Gib 1 Beispiel für einen Organismus der eine "endonukleäre Mitose" durchmacht? Pilze.
+- Was ist "Dictyostelium"? Ein Schleimpilz.
+- Was versteht man unter "allopatrischer Artbildung"? Durch geographische Barrieren kommt es zur Artauftrennung.
+- Was ist die zentrale These in der Biologie? Die Evolution.
+- Was ist das wichtigste Prinzip der Wissenschaftlichkeit? Die Falsifizierbarkeit.
+- Definiere "primäres Geschlechterverhältnis". A: Das Zahlenverhältnis von Männern und Frauen in einer Population.
+- Welche 2 Kategorien können wir bei "mutagener Strahlung" unterscheiden? (1) Ionisierende Röntgenstrahlung (2) Nichtionisierende Strahlung (wie UV-Licht)
+- Warum eigentlich brauchen wir die "biologische Stickstofffixierung"? Diese brauchen wir damit wir elementaren Stickstoff (N2) zum biologisch nutzbaren Ammonium-Ion (NH4+) umwandeln können.
+- A. W. für "Polysaccharides"? Glykans.
+- Definiere "polyphyletisch". A: Mehrere Vorfahren.
+- Wie teuer (in Euro pro Kubikmeter) ist die ex-situ Bioremediation? 150 Euro pro Kubikmeter.
+- Nenne eine Schwachstelle des "Neodarwinismus". A: "Zufallsmutation und "natürliche Auslese" alleine können den Komplexitätszuwachs nicht genau erklären.
+- Bei Toxinen gibt es mindestens vier verschiedene "Mode of Exposures". Nenne diese. A: (1) Ingestion (via drinking) (2) Inhalation (via lungs) (3) Skin contact (i.e. topical) (4) Directly into the bloodstream (e.g. intravenous)
+- Unterscheide zwischen "Hazard" und "Risk" in der Toxikologie. A: Hazard ist ein biologisches, chemisches, physikalisches oder strahlenmässiges Agent, mit dem Potential Schaden hervorzurufen. Risk hingegen ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit das ein Hazard Schaden hervorruft in einer Population, innerhalb einer gewissen Zeitspanne.
+- Was bedeuten die 3 Buchstaben bei non-organ directed toxicity, "CMR"? Cancerogenic, Mutagenic, Teratogenic (Reproduction).
+- A. W. für "Artbildung"? Speziation.
+- Give one specific example of "coevolution". A: Parasite + Host evolution.
+- When may we be able to find "directional selection"? In a changing environment. Here, average individuals may not be the most fit. The population mean may shift towards a new (predominent) phenotype.
+- Do individuals evolve? No, only populations evolve.
+- Was ist die "Grundeinheit der biologischen Systematik"? Die Art (Species).
+- Wie geht die "biologische Systematik" in ihrer Klassifizierung? (R,S,K,O,F,G,A) Reich > Stamm > Klasse > Ordnung > Familie > Gattung > Art.
+- Unterscheide "intraspecific" und "interspecific" biodiversity. A: Diversity between different species and within one species.
+- Was ist die "Mikroevolution"? Die Veränderung der Allelfrequenz in einer Population. 
+- Is Meiosis a cyclic process like Mitosis? No. The outcome of meiosis is four haploid cells. The outcome of Mitosis are two diploid cells.
+- Was besagt die RNA-World Hypothesis im Grunde? Sagt das es Leben gab, das auf RNA basiert war, und der heutigen Welt aus DNA/RNA/Proteinen "vorgeschaltet" war.
+- Name 7 biological attributes of life in short form. A: (1) Reproduction (2) Cellular organization (3) Metabolism (4) Growth (5) Adaptation (6) Response to stimuli (7) Homeostasis.
+- What is "Microevolution"? This is "genetic change within a species".
+- Was sind "rezente Organismen"? Organismen die heute noch leben.
+- Name three effects of a "chromosome mutation". A: It can affect (1) gene order and organisation (2) total amount of genetic material (3) entire DNA molecule or segments of varying size
+- What is "Toxicology"? Toxicology is the study of the adverse effects of chemical or physical agents on living organisms.
+- Name the most important difference between Meiosis and Mitosis. A: Chromosomes in Meiosis undergo recombination.
+- Was ist die "Umkehr der Photosynthese"? Die Atmung. Glucose + 6 O2.
+- Welche besondere "Region" hat Benzopyrene? Eine "Bay" Region.
+- What are the "raw material for evolution"? Mutations.
+- What is the most important source of new genes? Gene duplication.
+- What is a "neutral allel"? Allel with no effect on fitness.
+- Name the three major groups of Antibiotics. A: (1) Those inhibiting cell wall synthesis (2) Those inhibiting protein synthesis (3) Those inhibiting nucleic acid synthesis
+- How does Penicillin work, what is the main constraint it has when it is applied, and against which bacteria can we use it? Penicillins are antibiotics that eliminate infection of certain gram-positive bacteria. They are Beta-Lactam Antibiotics. Bacteria are constantly rebuilding their cell walls, via peptidoglycan synthesis. This is how they maintain their structure. What penicillins do is to irreversibly bind to the bacterial enzyme that cross-links the sugars that make up the bacterial cell wall 
+- Was "erzeugte" die sogenannte "protodarwinsche Evolution"? Progenoten.
+- Was sind sogenannte "second generation biofuels"? Das sind Biofuels die von "sustainable feedstock" produziert werden.
+- Gibt es mehrzellige Tiere die ohne Sauerstoff auskommen können? Ja. Manche Brustpanzertierchen.
+- Nenne die 4 wichtigsten biologischen Klassen. A: (1) Nukleotide (2) Lipide (3) Kohlenhydrate (4) Proteine
+- Beim "Himalayan rabbit", wie kann ich die Pigmentierung auf der Nase ausschalten? A: Durch hohe Temperatur. Es handelt sich um einen "temperature effect".
+- In Science, what is the "sampling error"? The difference between results obtained from testing a subset of a group, and results from testing the whole group.
+- Würde ich den Golgi Apparatus entfernen, könnte ich welche Struktur nicht mehr herstellen? Das Lysosome.
+- Welche Virusklassen haben DNA? Klasse I, II und VII.
+- Why is it important where a protein is made? If it is made alone in the cytoplasm, then it is to be used within the cell. If it is attached to RER, it makes proteins for export out of the cell.
+- Name one X-linked disease of human. A: Hemophilia A.
+- In manchen haploiden Spezies finden wir den "zygotic life cycle", aus dem sich ein Gamet entwickelt. Zwei Gameten kombinieren zu einer Zygote, die eine Meiose durchläuft und 4 haploide Zellen erstellt, die dann den Organismen erstellen. Welche typischen Vertreter verwenden diesen Lebenszyklus? Viele Pilze und viele Protozoa.
+- In Biology, when is the imprint of a gene reset? In the germ line.
+- Name three layers of the skin. A: Epidermis, Dermis und Hypodermis.
+- Erkläre den Unterschied zwischen monotrichous, lophotrichous, amphitrichous, peritrichous Bacterial-Flagella. A: Monotrich haben nur eine Geissel. Amphitrich haben zwei Geisseln, die an entgegengesetzten Polen zu finden sind. Lophotrich haben viele Geisseln, aber nur an einem Pol. Peritrich haben viele Geisseln überall an der Oberfläche verteilt.
+- Which 3 fundamental determinants of toxicity? (1) Dose (2) Chemical Structure (3) Mode of exposure
+- Welche Substanzen akkumulieren vor allem im Körper? Hydrophobe Substanzen.
+- In Toxicology, which four Modes of Exposure can be identified? (1) Acute (2) Subacute (3) Subchronic (4) Chronic
+- Which three key characteristics do malignant tumors display? Infiltration, destruction, metastasis.
+- What means "D-R Evaluation"? Dose Response Evaluation.
+- Name the four steps required in order to produce cellulosic ethanol. A: (1) pretreatment of lignocellulose feedstock (2) Cellulose hydrolysis (3) Separation of sugar solution from residues (4) Ethanol fermentation
+- What should we do with Lignocellulose feedstock in biotechnology? Pretreatment of lignocellulose feedstock.
+- Wir haben dank Destillation 95% reines EtOH gewonnen. Wie erlangen wir >99%? Mittels "Dehydration".
+- Was ist die "Grey Biotechnology"? Waste treatment.
+- Warum verwenden wir heutzutage eigentlich industrielles "waste water treatment"? Wegen Biogas Production.
+- What is "Bioremediation"? The use of microorganism metabolism to remove pollutants.
+- What is "Biostimulation"? The modification of the environment to stimulate existing bacteria, by addition of nutrients.
+- What is "Bioaugmentation"? The introduction of a group of natural microbial strains or a genetically engineered variant to treat contaminated soil or water.
+- Was ist für Hämophilie A wichtiger, für das weibliche Kind. Der Vater oder die Mutter? Der Vater, denn wenn er ein defektes Gen für Hämophilie A trägt, so immer auch seine Tochter.
+- In Biology, what means "stabilizing selection"? Selection which continually crops the extremes and tends to hold constant the intermediate or average phenotype.
+- Was heisst "Syngamie"? Vereinigung der Keimzellen.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/biomarkers

@@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Biomarkers
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Was meinen wir mit dem Begriff <one>Multiomics</one>? Dies ist <one>die Kombination von mehreren -omics Disziplinen</one>.
+- Das <one>Bence-Jones Protein</one> mag ein Biomarker sein für ... ? <one>Multiples Myelom</one>.
+- <one>Metabolites can be indicative of human health</one>. Why may this be important for the future, in regards to biomarkers? We are only testing <one>less than 1%</one> of the known metabolites in <one>routine clinical testing</one>.
+- <one>CA-125</one> ist ein Biomarker für ... ? Das <one>Ovarialkarzinom</one>.
+- Nenne einen Grund, wieso <one>Neurolipidomics</one> wichtig ist für die Biomarker-Suche. A: Zum Beispiel als <one>Biomarker im Bereich des Gehirns</one>.
+- Wieso können wir auch <one>bildgebende Verfahren</one> zu den Biomarkern rechnen? Es sind letzten Endes anatomische Biomarker, die auch hilfreich sein können bei der Diagnose von Krankheiten.
+- Wie nennen wir die Kombination mehrerer "omics" noch? <one>Multiomics</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiomics []
+- Bei <one>100% Spezifität</one> sehen wir wieviele <one>False Positives</one>? 0. []
+- Nenne ein wichtiges Ziel von <one>HEP</one> (<one>human epigenome project</one>). A: Alle DNA-Methylierungsstellen im gesamten humanen Genom zu kartieren.
+- Kann <one>ein vergrösserter Lymphknoten</one> als <one>Biomarker</one> verwendet werden? Ja. []
+- Kann die Teilungsrate von Zellen als Biomarker verwendet werden? Ja. []
+- Ist gemäss der <one>NIH</one> Bluthochdruck ein Biomarker? Ja. []
+- <one>Bluthochdruck</one> kann als ein Biomarker wirken, für welche Krankheit beziehungsweise für welches Ereignis? Für einen <one>Herzinfarkt</one>. []
+- Nenne einen <one>Biomarker für entzündliche Reaktionen im Körper</one>. A: <one>Fieber</one>.
+- Krebszellen sind an und für sich <one>gute Biomarker</one>, aber nenne ein Beispiel für Biomarker die mit Krebs zu tun haben mögen und noch besser geeignet sein mögen (als Biomarker). A: <one>Krebsstammzellen</one>.
+- What do we mean with the term <slateblue>predictive biomarkers</slateblue>? These are biomarkers that may be used to predict the efficacy or toxicity of a drug.
+- Nenne <one>drei verschiedene Zeitpunkte</one> für den <one>Einsatz von Biomarkern</one>. A: (1) vor Ausbruch der Krankheit (2) zum Zeitpunkt der Diagnose (3) <one>nachdem die Diagnose erfolgt ist</one>
+- <one>Cholesterin</one> ist ein Biomarker für ... ? <one>Herz-Kreislauf Erkrankungen</one>.
+- <violet>PSA</violet> ist ein etablierter Biomarker für das Prostata-Karzinom. Seit welchem Jahr? Seit <one>1986</one>.
+- Wieso ist Glycomics wichtig für <one>Biomarker-Analysen</one>? Da veränderte Zuckerstrukturen <one>pathologische Zustände</one> anzeigen können.
+- Aus Sicht der Biomarker bei Brustkrebs - gib ein Beispiel wo diese konkret wichtig sind. A: Bei der Einteilung der Patienten in HER 2 positiv oder HER 2 negativ. Dies kann dann zu verschiedenen Therapien führen, zum Beispiel <one>score 3+</one> kann zur Herceptin-Therapie führen.
+- Trophoblasten des Fetus können im mütterlichen Blut nachgewiesen werden. Sie fungieren daher auch als Biomarker. Dies konnte von Georg Schmorl gezeigt werden, und zwar in welchem Jahr? Im Jahre <one>1893</one>.
+- Should we call <one>biomarkers</one> "biomarkers" or may there be a slightly longer, better name? Yes, we have a better name - <violet>molecular biomarkers</violet>.
+- Metabolites may be <darkgreen>biomarkers</darkgreen> of ... ? <one>metabolism</one>.
+- In regards to epigenetics and cancer, which pattern on the level of the genome may we use as a biomarker indicating cancer? The methylation pattern found in, for example, <one>partial promoter hypermethylation</one> signatures.
+- Name a functional biomarker of <olive>hematopoietic stem cells</olive> that begins with the letter <one>E</one>. A: <violet>Endoglin</violet>.
+- Identification of volatile organic metabolites may serve as <one>biomarkers for early detection</one>. What do we mean here, for example? That we can collect urine samples, and use that for early detection, through these metabolites.
+- <one>Historisch betrachtet</one>, einer der ersten "Biomarker Tests" war ... ? Der Nachweis des Bence-Jones Proteins, als Hinweis auf Erkrankungen wie zum Beispiel dem multiplen Myelom.
+- Was ist mit dem Begriff <violet>-omics</violet> gemeint? <orange>Omics</orange> bedeutet <one>die Analyse ähnlicher Moleküle</one>.
+- How do we, taken from the point of view of biomarkers, also call <one>the sum of all epigenetic modifications</one> (epigenetic biomarkers)? This is the <one>methylome</one>.
+- Nenne ein (technisches) Problem bei <one>bildgebenden Biomarkern</one> allgemein. A: Die <one>Auflösung</one> ist relativ gering.
+- Is <one>validation</one> of a biomarker <one>context-specific</one>? Yes.
+- Was wäre schlecht bei der Vorhersage durch einen Surrogat-Biomarker? Wenn dieser Biomarker <one>den positiven Effekt einer Therapie vorhersagt</one>, die Patienten sich jedoch schlechter fühlen.
+- Seit wann ist <one>Troponin I</one> als Biomarker für Herzinfarkte etabliert? Seit dem Jahre <one>1987</one>.
+- Can <lightgreen>human mRNA in the saliva</lightgreen> be used as a biomarker? Yes - it could be indicative of <one>oral cancer</one> such as a <violet>squamous cell carcinoma</violet>.
+- Discovering Biomarkers for <one>predicting toxicity</one> is quite difficult. Give a reason as to why. A: Often these are <one>dose-related</one>.
+- Biomarker mögen auch bei <one>predictive medicine</one> wichtig sein. Präzisiere diese Aussage. A: Zum Beispiel um <royalblue>Brustkrebs zu diagnostizieren</royalblue> oder, besser, <royalblue>zu verhindern</royalblue>.
+- Nenne einen Biomarker auf Ebene der Gene. A: Eine <one>Mutation des BRCA-1 Gens</one> ("breast cancer 1 early onset gene"), auf Chromosom 17. Eine Mutation kann hier die Wahrscheinlichkeit für Tumorbildung erhöhen.
+- Warum eigentlich interessieren uns Biomarker? Da wir diese in der <one>Diagnostik</one> und <one>Therapie</one> von kranken Personen verwenden können.
+- What is meant with a <one>staging biomarker</one>? This is a biomarker that can be used to <one>determine the stage of progression of the given disease</one>.
+- Can <one>silent mutations</one> be used as biomarkers? Yes.
+- Biomarkers may also be <one>pharmacologic responses</one> to ... ? To <one>therapeutic intervention</one>.
+- An <one>ideal biomarker</one> for any specific disease, would have which important trait? This biomarker would specifically and sensitively <one>reflect the disease state</one>. It could then also be used for diagnosis and for disease monitoring.
+- In der Bioanalytik, bei Biomarkern, wieso ist eine Standardisierung des Probenmaterials notwendig? Da <one>die Qualität des Probenmaterials</one> wichtig ist; die Probenahme und die Verarbeitung der Probe <one>können Testergebnisse beeinflussen</one>.
+- Metabolites are like canaries in the coal mine as indicators of ... ? <one>human health</one>.
+- Can we conclude something, from the point of view of genomics, how toxic a toxicogenetic substance might be? Possibly so: the more toxic, the more likely it may be that many genes are activated and/or damaged by this compound.
+- <one>CD54</one> kann als Biomarker für ... dienen. A: Für <one>Entzündungen</one>.
+- Warum waren <one>omics-Technologien</one> wichtig für die Biomarker-Wissenschaft? Da diese Technologien die Entdeckung neuer Biomarker ermöglichten.
+- Nenne <one>drei immunologische Methoden</one> die auch in der Bioanalytik zur Detektion von Biomarkern hilfreich sind. A: (1) <one>ELISA</one> (Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) (2) <one>Western Blot</one> (3) <one>Luminex</one>
+- Nenne ein Problem eines ELISA in der Bioanalytik für neue Biomarker. A: Ein Problem eines ELISA in der Bioanalytik ist das es für neue Biomarker oft keinen (etablierten, standardisierten und günstigen) ELISA gibt.
+- What is meant with the "negative biomarker"? This is a biomarker that is <one>deficient or absent in a disease</one>.
+- In the year 1967, Rosalki developed an improved test for <one>myocardial infarction</one>, based on a biomarker. Which biomarker was this? The <one>serum creatine phosphokinase</one>.
+- Nenne einen allgemeinen <violet>intrazellulären Biomarker</violet>. A: <one>miRNA</one>.
+- <one>CRP</one> is a biomarker for ... ? <one>inflammation</one>.
+- <violet>Autoantibodies</violet> are biomarkers of ... ? <one>Autoimmune Diseases</one>.
+- The term "biomarker" started to appear in the literature in ... about which year/decade? In the <one>1960s</one>, just about.
+- Give a good example for a <one>surrogate biomarker</one>. A: <violet>Cholesterin</violet>.
+- What do we mean with the term <one>Predictive Biomarkers</one>? These are biomarkers that may be used to predict the efficacy or toxicity of a drug.
+- Nenne eine relativ einfach Möglichkeit wie man <one>potenzielle Biomarker</one> identifiziert hat. A: Man vergleicht einfach gesundes und krankes Gewebe/Blut.
+- Was meinen wir mit "anatomischen Biomarkern"? <one>Anatomische Biomarker</one> sind eigentlich <orange>bildgebende Verfahren</orange>.
+- Gibt es <one>Biomarker eines ungeborenen Kinds</one>? Ja, zum Beispiel <one>fetale Zellen im mütterlichen Blut</one>.
+- <one>Nicht invasive Biomarker</one> könnten wir, zum Beispiel, aus welcher Körperflüssigkeit einfach isolieren? Aus <one>Harn</one>.
+- Name a <one>gaseous form</one> that may contain biomarkers. A: <one>Exhaled breath</one>.
+- Give an example for a <one>protein cancer biomarker</one>. A: The <one>Bence Jones protein</one> in urine.
+- <one>Troponin I</one> can be a biomarker for ... ? <one>Myocardial infarction</one>.
+- Nenne eine Technik aus der analytischen Chemie, mit derer Hilfe wir <one>niedrig abundante Proteine</one> anreichern können. A: Mittels "depletion".
+- Es gibt auch den Begriff <one>LADME</one>. ADME ist eventuell bekannt, aber wofür steht der Buchstabe <violet>L</violet>? L für <orange>Liberation</orange>, also <mediumpurple>Freisetzung im Körper</mediumpurple>.
+- Es existieren drei Kategorien von Biomarkern, Typ 0, I und II. Welcher Typ ist <one>indirekt</one>? Typ II ist indirekt. Dies sind Biomarker, die Voraussagen über die Effizienz einer Therapie liefern können.
+- Wenn wir einen Biomarker in der Bioanalytik verwenden, der menschliche Patienten untersucht, welche <violet>zwei verschiedene Zustände</violet> interessieren uns hier am meisten? (1) <one>krank</one> (2) <one>gesund</one>
+- Can <violet>genes</violet> act as <one>Biomarkers</one>? Yes.
+- <orange>Endostatin</orange> is a naturally occurring, 20-kDa C-terminal fragment derived from collagen. It may be a useful biomarker for ... ? For <one>angiogenesis</one>, or rather, as an <one>anti-angiogenic agent</one>.
+- Give an example for a <one>complex biomarker</one>. A: Cells, such as <violet>T cells</violet>.
+- Welche "Validitäts-Form" ist besonders wichtig für einen erfolgreichen Biomarker? Die <one>klinische Validität</one>.
+- "Slany" (but move lateron): <violet>Imatinib</violet> hemmt spezifisch ... welches Enzym? Die Bindungsstelle der <one>Bcr-Abl Tyrosinkinase</one>.
+- Ist <one>Bluthochdruck</one> ein Biomarker? Ja - er kann auf Herz/Gefäß-Erkrankungen hindeuten.
+- Kann <one>ein vergrösserter Lymphknoten</one> als Biomarker verwendet werden? Ja.
+- Der Surrogat Endpunkt eines Biomarkers sollte mit welch anderem Endpunkt übereinstimmen? Mit dem <one>tatsächlichen klinischen Endpunkt</one>.
+- Warum ist die <royalblue>NIH</royalblue> der Auffassung, das <one>Bluthochdruck</one> ein Biomarker wäre? Bluthochdruck kann auf <one>Herz-Erkrankungen</one> hindeuten.
+- Wir möchten Biomarker im Blut detektieren, aber <one>Albumin</one> überlagert vieles in der Analyse. Was können wir tun? Wir könnten <one>depletion columns</one> verwenden, um Albumin und weitere Substanzen zu eliminieren.
+- Bei <one>Metaomics</one> berücksichtigen wir oft was ... ? Die "Microbiota".
+- What do "dynamic biomarkers" describe? They describe <one>disease progression</one>.
+- Müssen neue Biomarker <one>validiert</one> werden? Ja.
+- Name a (possible) biomarker for <one>diabetes</one>. A: <one>Glucose</one>.
+- Warum ist eine Fruchtwasseruntersuchung nicht besonders gut für die Untersuchung von Biomarkern? Da es in etwa <one>1:200</one> der Fälle zu einer Fehlgeburt kommen kann.
+- Nenne einen Biomarker den man nicht (objektiv) messen kann. A: <peru>Angst</peru> (also ein <one>Zustand von Furcht</one>).
+- Wieviel Prozent der Plasma-Proteine sind als potentielle Biomarker verwendbar? Nur etwa 1%; die restlichen 99% im Plasma werden durch 22 Proteine abgedeckt, insbesondere <one>Albumin</one>, aber auch <one>Immunglobuline</one>, <one>Transferrin</one> und <one>Fibrinogen</one>.
+- Vergleiche die Zahl an Publikationen über Biomarker versus die Zahl an klinisch validierten Biomarkern. Was daran ist merkwürdig? Die Zahl an Publikationen steigt stark und steig an; die Zahl an klinisch validierten Biomarkern hingegen steigt kaum.
+- Nenne einen Biomarker für die <one>CML</one> ("Chronisch Myeloische Leukämie"). A: Das "Philadelphia Chromosoms".
+- Give one reason why <one>ncRNAs</one> may be excellent biomarkers. A: Because they tend to be <violet>very stable molecules</violet>. This is an important prerequisite for an excellent biomarker.
+- The NIH defines Biomarkers how? Biomarkers are characteristics that are objectively measured and evaluated as normal biological processes.
+- What do we mean with a <one>screening biomarker</one>? A screening biomarker is one <one>used to identify those suffering from a disease</one>.
+- Wozu könnten <u><one>Stratifizierungsmarker</one></u> eingesetzt werden? Sie könnten uns dabei helfen die <one>optimale Therapie für jeden Patienten</one> individuell einzusetzen.
+- "Krebszellen" sezernieren Moleküle welche als Biomarker verwendet werden könnten. Nenne ein Beispiel für ein solches Molekül. A: <one>PSA</one> (<lightgreen>Prostate-specific antigen</lightgreen>). URL: https://www.cancer.gov/types/prostate/psa-fact-sheet
+- How does the <one>NCI</one> define biomarkers? A biomarker is a biological molecule found in blood or other fluids.
+- Biomarker-Einsatz für die Zukunft? Erkläre was damit gemeint sein könnte. A: Diese Biomarker helfen uns dabei abzuschätzen, ob jemand ein erhöhtes Risiko hat eine bestimmte Krankheit zu bekommen; insbesondere bei Erbkrankheiten.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel für einen <one>Stratifizierungsmarker</one>. A: HER2-Rezeptoren.
+- In der Bioanalytik (bei Biomarkern) ist es wichtig das eine Probe, zum Beispiel von einem Patienten, standardisiert ist. Nenne drei Faktoren die hier standardisiert werden sollten, in bezug auf eine solche Probe. A: (1) wie die Probe entnommen wird (2) wie sie (zwischen) gelagert wird (3) ob/wie sie weiterprozessiert wird
+- Gib ein Beispiel für einen "Surrogat-Biomarker". A: Der <one>Cholesterinspiegel im Blut</one>. Er dient hier auch als ein Risikofaktor für Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen.
+- Name a possible biomarker that could be used for <one>detecting inflammatory disease</one>. A: The <one>complement system</one> could act as a <violet>biomarker of inflammation</violet>.
+- Give two specific biomarkers of inflammation. A: (1) <one>ESR</one>: Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (2) <one>CRP</one>: C-reactive protein
+- Wie nennen wir, auf Deutsch, die niedrigste Konzentration eines Biomarkers, die noch zuverlässig bestimmt werden kann (in einem Bioanalytischen Testsystem)? <one>Bestimmungsgrenze</one>.
+- Ein Biomarker der menschliche Patienten in <one>krank</one> und <one>gesund</one> einteilt, hat im Zentrum eines Diagrammes welche Trennlinie? Den <violet>cut-off value</violet>.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/biomaterials

@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Biomaterials
+#
+# This includes knowledge about silk, wood, collagen and so forth.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- The <one>capture silk</one> from spiders contains a so-called <two>c ...</two>? <one>Cribellum</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cribellum []
+- Name <one>four different examples</one> in where <two>Keratin</two> can be found. A: (1) <one>hair</one> (2) <one>horn</one> (3) <one>hoof</one> (4) <one>feathers</one>
+- Name <one>two types of silk</one>. A: (1) silkworm silk (2) <one>spider silk</one>
+- In regards to the <one>mechanical properties of keratin</one>: feather keratin is how many times stiffer than hair keratin? <one>Feather keratin</one> is <two>twice as stiff</two> as <three>hair keratin</three>. []
+- In Biomaterial sciences: what do we mean with <one>multifunctional</one>? This is, for example, such as human tissue like <one>the bones</one>. They offer <two>mechanical support</two> but also serves as a "calcium storage".
+- We have <one>three different elastic proteins</one>. <two>In which organism</two> can we find Abductin, Resilin and Elastin, respectively? (1) <one>Abductin</one>: in <two>sea shells</two> (2) <one>Resilin</one>:  in <two>insects</two> (3) <one>Elastin</one>:  in <two>vertebrates</two>
+- Is <one>resilin</one> <two>a protein</two> or <two>a polysaccharide</two>? <one>Resilin</one> is <two>a protein</two>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resilin []
+- <one>Viscoelasticity</one> has <two>which two components</two>? (1) <one>elastic deformation</one> (2) <one>viscous flow</one>
+- <one>Chitin</one> can be found in ... ? <one>Insect cuticle</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitin []
+- <one>Abductin</one> is an <two>elastic protein</two>. <three>Where can it be found</three>? In <one>sea shells</one>: the scallop uses abductin in the hinge of the shell.
+- The <one>simplest example</one> of <two>a stable, self-assembled structure</two> is ... ? A <one>helix</one>. []
+- <one>Feather keratin</one> is <two>richer in which aminoacids</two> compared to <three>α-keratin</three>? <one>Feather keratin</one> is more rich in <two>Glycine</two>, <two>Serine</two> and <two>Proline</two>. []
+- <one>Silk</one> is <two>a fibrous structural protein</two>. Its structural component is based on ... ? <one>Beta sheets</one>. []
+- Will a <one>viscoelastic material</one> return to its original shape? <one>Yes</one>, it will, <two>after any deforming force has been removed</two>.
+- Which 'beam' is useful when it comes to resisting bending pressure? The <one>I-beam structure</one>. []
+- Give an example for <one>a natural elastomer</one> <two>in insects</two>. A: <one>Resilin</one>. []
+- What does <one>Biomimetic</one> mean? <one>Imitating Nature</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomimetics []
+- The <one>forces involved in self assembly</one> are mostly ... ? Mostly <one>weak forces</one>. []
+- <one>Which silk type</one> has the <two>cribellum</two>? <one>Capture silk</one>, from the spider. []
+- The principle behind <one>rubber elasticity</one>: it is based on ... ? <one>Entropy</one>.
+- <one>Polysaccharide gels</one> may act as ... absorber. A: <one>shock absorber</one>. []
+- Give an example for an <one>elastomeric protein</one>. A: <one>Resilin</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resilin
+- <one>Collagen</one> is typically made from Glycine, Proline and Hydroxyproline. Which of these three is dominating in collagen, though? <one>Glycine</one>, at about 35%. []
+- <one>How many different types of collagen</one> are known? At the least <one>six different types of collagen</one>. []
+- <one>Elastin</one> is <two>a protein rubber</two>. <three>It is usually associated with which other protein</three>? With <one>collagen</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastin []
+- <one>Bone</one> is <two>... where needed</two> - and <three>... where not needed</three>. A: <one>Laid down</one> / <one>resorbed</one>.
+- Give an example for a <one>protein rubber</one>. A: <one>Elastin</one>. []
+- Name <one>two typical side chains</one> of a <two>chitin molecule</two>. A: (1) <one>acetylglucosamine</one> (2) <one>actetylamine group</one>
+- Name a form of keratin that is <two>made from beta-sheets</two>. A: <one>Feather keratin</one>. URL: https://www.nature.com/articles/191171b0 []
+- A biomaterial, or rather any material, that deforms only as long as the force is applied, is said to undergo <one>semipermanent deformation</one>. Give another name for such a material. A: A <one>viscoelastic material</one>.
+- In biomaterial science the <one>Wolff's law</one>, <two>established in 1892</two>, is quite famous. What did Wolff state? <one>„Form follows function“</one>.
+- In metals, <one>plasticity</one> is called ... ? <one>ductility</one>. []
+- Are <one>biological materials</one> <two>viscoelastic</two>? <one>Yes</one>, <two>in general they are</two>, to a greater or lesser extent. []
+- What is <one>reaction wood</one>? <one>Reaction wood</one> is wood that forms in place of normal wood as a "response to gravity".
+- In <one>collagen</one>: <two>how many left-handed alpha-helices form one right handed superhelix</two>? <one>Three</one> (<two>3</two>). []
+- Name an organism that creates <one>silkworm silk</one>. A: <one>Bombyx mori</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombyx_mori []
+- <one>Cellulose</one> consists of ... ? <one>cellobiose</one>. []
+- <one>Silk worm silk</one> is held together (between sheets) via ... ? <one>weak van der Waals bonding</one>. These also cause pliability of the material, that is a <two>softness of fiber</two>.
+- With most stiff materials the extension or compression is limited by other factors to less than <one>n% of the bond length</one>? Less than <one>10%</one> of the bond length. []
+- In Biomaterial sciences: <one>why may the capture threads of spiders be useful to study and model for</one>? Because buildings that learn from them, can possibly absorb some impact.
+- Where, for instance, can we find <one>compression wood</one>? In <one>conifers</one> (Mnemonic: <two>c ... conifers ... compression wood</two>). []
+- <one>Hair keratin</one> has certain mechanical properties, including the fact that it is <two>hydration dependent</two>. Give another name for the latter phenomenon. A: This refers to <one>softening by water</one>. []
+- Name a biomaterial that is <one>stronger than steel</one>. A: <one>Spider silk</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider_silk []
+- Give <one>a technical example</one> of <two>a supercoil</two>. A: A <one>rope</one>. []
+- In humans: what is <one>the most prevalent component</one> of <two>the extracellular matrix</two>? <one>Collagen</one>. []
+- <one>Protein supercoils</one> can be found in ... ? <one>α-keratin</one>.
+- The only other biological matter known to approximate the toughness of <one>keratinized tissue</one> is ... ? <one>Chitin</one>. []
+- Many <one>polysaccharides</one> occur as <two>fillers</two>. These are then typically called ... ? A <one>polysaccharide gel</one>.
+- <one>Resilin</one> is <two>an elastomeric protein</two>. It can typically be found ... ? in <one>insect wings</one>. []
+- In <one>silkworm silk</one>: which <two>two aminoacids</two> dominate here? (1) <one>Glycine</one> (2) <one>Alanine</one> []
+- The <one>Eiffel Tower</one> was inspired by ...? By the architecture of the <one>human thighbone</one>. []
+- <one>Where</one> can <two>tension wood</two> be found, for instance? In <one>deciduous trees</one>.
+- On the <one>molecular level</one>: what is the difference between <two>hair keratin</two> and <two>feather keratin</two>? (1) <one>Hair    keratin</one> consists of <two>alpha-helices</two>. (2) <one>Feather keratin</one> consists of <two>beta-sheets</two>.
+- One example for a <one>protein rubber</one> is ... ? <one>Elastin</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastin []
+- <one>Spider silk</one> consists of <two>proteins with high amount of ... </two>? <one>Glycine</one> and <one>Alanine</one>; which is thus similar to silkworm silk. []
+- <one>Fibers</one> can be spinned by a spider or as part of an industrial process. <two>Name one huge difference here between these two</two>. A: (1) The spider will do the spinning and drawing part simultaneously. (2) The industrial process will first spin, then do <two>a post-spin drawing step</two>.
+- The <one>silkworm silk</one> is <two>created by which organism</two>? By <one>Bombyx mori</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombyx_mori []
+- <one>Spiral growth</one> is <two>found where</two> in particular? <one>In trees</one> in alpine or, more generally, <two>wind exposed sites</two>.
+- <one>Keratin</one> is a very tough material. Name another <two>biological material</two> that is approximately as tough as <two>keratinized tissue</two>. A: <one>Chitin</one>. []
+- <one>Spider silk</one> is produced (<two>within a spider</two>) <three>in so called ... </three>? <one>Spinnerets</one>. []
+- Is <one>bone</one> stronger in <two>longitudinal direction</two> or in <two>transversal direction</two>? <one>Bone</one> is stronger in <two>longitudinal direction</two>. []
+- What do we mean with a <one>NPL crystal</one>? This is a <one>non-periodic lattice crystal</one>.
+- One important characteristic of the slogan <one>"Nature as designer"</one>, for bioinspiration, is that the same tissue may have different functions. <two>Explain this statement with one example</two>. A: We can look at <one>bone</one>, which is used both as support (the skeleton of a human being) as well as an intracellular signal, as a second messenger, together with calcium storage in the cell as well as in bone. Thus, this is truly multifunctional.
+- <one>Biological materials</one> were used also made for <two>prostheses</two> and <two>implants</two>. For instance, George Washington had false teeth made from ... ? <one>ivory</one>. []
+- Name <one>three different types</one> of <two>spider silk</two>. A: (1) <one>dragline silk</one> (2) major ampullate silk (3) <one>capture silk</one>
+- <one>Soft wood tracheids</one> can become how long? About <one>6 mm in length</one>. []
+- What is <one>hysteresis</one>? <one>Hysteresis</one> is <two>the dependence of the state of a system on its history</two>.
+- Compare <one>the mechanical properties</one> of <two>feather keratin</two> with <two>hair keratin</two>. A: Feather keratin is twice as stiff as hair keratin.
+- <one>Leonardo da Vinci</one> is considered to have been the pioneer of <two>biomimetics</two>. Give a specific example here. A: His <one>flying ship</one>, the <two>ornithopter</two>. []
+- <one>Radiolarians</one> are <two>unicellular algae</two>. Why may they serve as an example for bioinspired materials? Because of their <one>silica skeleton</one>.
+- <one>α-keratin</one>'s secondary structure is fairly similar to the secondary structure of ... ? The traditional <one>α-helix</one> that can be found in many different proteins.
+- Which type of keratin is also called <one>hair keratin</one>? A: <one>α-keratin</one>. 
+- Name <one>two</one> <two>mechanical properties</two> of <three>hair keratin</three>. A: (1) Hydration dependent, aka water will soften it (2) Highly <one>viscoelastic</one>
+- <one>When</one> do <two>trees</two> not grow? During <one>winter</one>. []
+- Why is <one>growth</one> considered to be a problem to <two>biological organisms</two>? They need to be functional at any development and growth stage. See the problems insects and crabs face with their strong exoskeleton. Specifically the shedding of the exoskeleton makes the insects vulnerable during that time.
+- From the point of view of <one>biomaterials</one>: what does <two>light weight</two> mean, in this context? Light weight here means to <one>use as little material as possible</one>.
+- The <one>Cauchy strain</one> is defined as ... ? The <one>increase in length per unit starting length</one>.
+- What is a <one>biomaterial</one>? A <one>biomaterial</one> is an engineered material performing its purpose in a <two>biological environment</two>.
+- The <one>keratins</one> belong to which super-family of proteins? They belong to <one>intermediate-filament proteins</one> (IF).
+- Compare the <one>crosslinking</one> in the keratins of mammalian hair with the keratins in mammalian fingernails. A: The keratins in the fingernails have more <one>interchain disulfide bridges</one>, thus forming a harder material.
+- Name <one>three functions of tanning</one> in the insect cuticle. A: (1) mechanical protection (2) water retention/conservation (3) <one>protective barrier</one> against bacteria, viruses or toxins, including pesticides
+- <one>Which aminoacids</one> are prominent in <two>silk worm silk</two>? (1) <one>Alanine</one> (2) <one>Glycine</one> []
+- <one>Bone</one> has the highest strength in which type of force? In <one>compression</one>.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/biomembranes

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Biomembranes
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Welches Phospholipid kann eine <one>ionische Bindung</one> eingehen? <one>Phosphatidylcholin</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecithine []
+- Allgemein betrachtet, aus Sicht der Chemie, besteht eine <one>Lipiddoppelschicht</one> aus welchen zwei Komponenten? (1) <one>hydrophil</one> (2) <one>hydrophob</one> []