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+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Advanced Virology
+#
+# All about advanced virology and also everything about large viruses
+# as well. (Large tag, lar tag)
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Can <one>Ancient DNA</one> be recovered from DNA viruses? <one>Yes</one>.
+- <one>Genital herpes</one> is transmitted via type 1 herpesvirus or via type 2 herpesvirus? Via <one>type 2 herpesvirus</one>.
+- Name a shared characteristic of human herpesviruses. A: <one>Latency</one>.
+- Probably <one>the archetypical example</one> <two>of a human virus</two> <three>showing latency</three> <four>is ... </four>? The <one>Herpes simplex viruses</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus
+- In latency: does the production of most viral proteins and free viruses cease? Yes.
+- Why may a virus ever want to be close to <one>mitochondria</one>? Because mitochondria could <one>supply energy for the assembly of a virion</one>, <two>in the form of ATP</two>.
+- What is <one>an oncolytic virus</one>? An <one>oncolytic virus</one> is <two>a virus that that infects and lyses cancer cells</two>, but does not kill normal cells.
+- Das <one>Mimi-Virus Genom</one> besitzt in etwa wie viele Gene? <one>900</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimivirus
+- What is meant with <one>Viruses „R“ Us</one>? This means that <one>every cell in our body con­tains vi­ral DNA</one>.
+- Does <one>infection with viruses</one> help mice? Yes, curiously enough. Mice la­tently in­ fected with some mu­rine her­pes­vi­ruses are re­sis­tant to in­fec­tion with the bac­te­rial path­o­gens Listeria monocytogenes and Yersinia pestis.
+- The <one>measles virus genome</one> <two>contains n open reading frames</two>? <one>6</one>.
+- If we include the protein filaments that project from the surface of a mimivirus, what is <one>the diameter</one> <two>of such a mimivirus</two>? <one>750 nm</one>.
+- Besitzt die <one>HIV-Protease</one> <two>ein Cystein</two>? <one>Nein</one>.
+- Viruses com­prise n% of all­ nu­cleic ac­id-containing par­ti­cles in the oceans? <one>94%</one>.
+- Do <one>all</one> <two>pathogenic viruses</two> <three>fulfill the Koch's postulates</three>? <one>No</one>. []
+- Viruses such as <one>HIV-1</one> show <two>a high error rate</two> <three>yet are still viable</three>. Why is that the case? Simply because <one>they produce large numbers of progeny</one>.
+- Does the <one>influenza virus</one> contain lipids? <one>Yes</one>.
+- <one>Purified influenza virus particles</one> contain high levels of ... which lipid? <one>cholesterol</one>: <two>44% of the total virus lipid is cholesterol</two>. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC262566/
+- Name <one>a qualitative difference</one> between a virus and a transposable element. A: A virus can move from cell to cell; a transposable element normally can not move from cell to cell.
+- Epstein-Barr Virus causes ... ? the <one>kissing disease</one>. URL: https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/understanding-mononucleosis-causes
+- Does the <one>foot-and-mouth disease virus</one> infect wild animals? <one>Yes</one>.
+- In virology: does <one>penetration</one> <two>of the virion</two> <three>require energy</three>? <one>Yes</one>. This is <two>contributed by the host cell</two> rather than the virus.
+- Viruses are re­spon­si­ble for ap­prox­i­ma­tely n% of the hu­man can­cer bur­den? Approximately <one>15%</one> of the human cancer burden.
+- The cell receptor that the human <one>poliovirus</one> uses is ... ? <one>CD155</one>.
+- The <one>diameter</one> of Paramyxoviridae-virions is typically <two>n nm</two>? About <one>150 nm</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramyxoviridae#Structure
+- The <one>measles virus</one> <two>makes use of which cell receptor</two>? <one>CD150</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLAMF1
+- Name <one>a virus</one> that could be spread through raw milk in the alpine region. A: The <one>TBEV</one>: <two>Tick-borne Encephalitis Virus</two>. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2866415/
+- Does the <one>Human papillomavirus</one> <two>integrate into the genome</two>? <one>Yes</one>.
+- The <one>Marburg virus</one> <two>has originally been isolated from ... </two>? From <one>cave-dwelling fruit bats</one>.
+- The <one>Herpes simples virus genome</one> has an area called <two>LAT</two>. LAT is short for ... ? <one>Latency-associated transcript</one>.
+- The H-N designation for the <one>avian in­fluenza virus</one> is ... ? <one>H5N1</one>.
+- <one>Construction by humans</one> <two>may yield new opportunities for natural viral vectors</two>. Give an example for this. A: The flooding of valleys by dams may help mosquitoes into expanding into flooded areas.
+- The first to have shown that <one>capsid proteins of viruses exhibit self-assembly</one> were H. Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley Williams <two>in the year ... </two>? <one>1955</one>.
+- <one>Whales</one> are com­monly in­fected with a mem­ber of which virus family that cause rashes and diarrhea, and that can also infect humans? Of the family <one>Caliciviridae</one>.
+- Name three different ways how viruses can be described. A: (1) Viruses can be described based on their appearance. (2) Viruses can be described based the hosts they infect. (3) Viruses can be described based based on the nature of their nucleic acid genome.
+- <one>Which virus</one> is <two>famous for producing occlusion bodies</two>? Most <one>baculoviruses</one>; they produce these bodies in insects. []
+- The <one>Nipah virus</one> was identified in 1998 in <two>Kampung Sungai Nipah</two>, in a village in ... <three>which country</three>? <one>Malaysia</one>.
+- The <one>Dengue virus</one> <two>is transmitted by ... </two>? <one>Aedes aegypti</one>, a <two>mosquito</two>.
+- Viruses contribute to ecological ... ? <one>ecological homeostasis</one>.
+- Our bloodstreams - aka those of humans - harbor up to ... how many virus particles per milliliter? Up to 100,000 virus particles per milliliter.
+- <one>PicoRNA-Viren</one> <two>verwenden eine viral kodierte Protease</two>, die <three>welchen eukaryoten Initiationsfaktor spalten</three>? Faktor <one>eIF-4G</one>.
+- Give <one>an example for a virus</one> that enters the human body in a 'localized' manner. A: The <one>papillomavirus</one>.
+- <one>Paramyxoviridae</one>, but also some other viruses, show the phenomen called <two>transcriptional polarity</two>. <three>What is meant with this term</three>? That the genes which are closest to the 3' end of the genome are transcribed in greater abundance than those genes that can be found to be closer towards the 5' end.
+- <one>How long</one> may <two>ticks</two> be infected with tick-borne encephalitis virus? Even <one>lifelong</one>! []
+- The <one>human brain</one> <two>contains a population of indigenous macrophages called ... </two>? <one>Microglia</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroglia []
+- The enzyme <one>reverse transcriptase</one> <two>was first isolated from which virus</two>? <one>Rous sarcoma virus</one> (<two>RSV</two>). URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rous_sarcoma_virus
+- <one>Cypovirus</one> <two>is an abbreviation for ... </two>? <one>Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus</one>.
+- Is Influenza A larger than Influenza B, in regards to the diameter of the virion? No. Influenza A has a size of 90nm whereas Influenza B has a size of 102nm, so Influenza B is slightly larger than Influenza A.
+- Nenne <one>drei Vertreter</one> der <two>Togaviruses</two>. A: (1) <one>Rubella virus</one> (2) <one>Semliki Forest virus</one> (3) <one>Sindbis Virus</one>
+- A few well-known viruses that infect humans, such as the papillomaviruses that cause warts, make use of <one>caveolae-mediated endocytosis</one>. <two>How can this be experimentally verified</two>? One can <one>use a drug that inhibits the formation of caveolae</one>.
+- The <one>dengue virus</one> <two>is transmitted by ... </two>? The <one>mosquito</one> <two>Aedes aegypti</two>.
+- The <one>precellular hypothesis</one> <two>on the origin of viruses</two> is also known as ... ? The <one>virus-first hypothesis</one>.
+- Most viruses that <one>infect fungi</one> <two>have what genome type</two>? <one>dsRNA</one>.
+- Does <one>HIV</one> undergo <two>alternative RNA splicing</two>? <one>Yes</one>. URL: https://febs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.07522.x []
+- Name two ways how viruses can <one>increase tumor growth</one>, directly or indirectly. A: (1) <one>increased proliferation rate of cells</one> (SV40 LT, HPVE7) (2) <one>decreased death rate of cells</one>      (SV40LT, HPVE6)
+- Nenne <one>drei Möglichkeiten</one> wie ein virales Genom angeordnet sein kann. A: (1) <one>linear</one> (2) <one>zirkulär</one> (3) <one>segmentiert</one>
+- What may be the primary purpose of spikes found on many virions? These <one>spikes</one> help the virus attach to host cells.
+- The <one>Ebolavirus-genome</one> <two>contains n genes</two>? <one>Seven genes</one>.
+- <one>HIV-1</one>, the <two>reverse transcriptase</two>, <two>makes how many errors</two>? On overage <one>one error per every 10.000 bases synthesized</one> (<one>1:10.000</one>).
+- The <one>Hepatitis B virus</one> <two>may lead to which cancer</two>? <one>Hepatocellular carcinoma</one>.
+- What is <one>tumor virology</one>? Tumor virology is the study of viruses that can cause cancer.
+- Das drittgrösste bekannte Virus, das <one>Mimivirus</one>, <two>besitzt wieviele Basenpaare in seinem Genom</two>? <one>1.181.404</one>.
+- Nenne <one>zwei Folgeerkrankungen</one> einer chronischen Hepatitis-B-Infektion. A: (1) <one>Leberzirrhose</one> (2) <one>Lerbezellkarzinom</one>
+- <one>Where</one> does an <two>Adenovirus</two> replicate? Adenoviruses will replicate in the <one>nucleus</one>. []
+- <one>Bacteriophages</one> <two>may be lysogenic</two>. The equivalent of this, in regards to eukaryotic viruses such as herpes, is which term? <one>Latent</one>. Latent viruses have a dormant period within the host cell.
+- Gibt es <one>Viren</one> deren dsDNA nicht durchgängig doppelsträngig ist? <one>Ja</one>, wie zum Beispiel das <two>Hepatitis B Virus</two>.
+- Viruses can be dangerous to eukaryotic host cells, but so can the immune system. Give an example for how the immune system may cause harm to the body, due to a viral infection. A: Hepatitis B virus infected hepatocytes will be destroyed by cytotoxic T-cells. This, in turn, causes liver damage by host defence, not by cytolytic activity of the virus.
+- Are there <one>viruses without adenine in their genome</one>? <one>Yes</one>, as was shown in the year 1977, the virus (actually phage) called S-2L has no adenines. It normally infects cyanobacteria.
+- <one>Rabies</one> is <two>a Latin word for ... </two>? <one>Madness</one>.
+- Wird der <one>Hepatitis-B Virus</one> <two>über Blut übertragen</two>? <one>Ja</one>. []
+- Given <one>viral DNA</one> and <one>cellular DNA</one>. <two>Who of these two shows a higher mutation rate in general</two>? <one>Viral DNA</one> <two>displays a higher mutation rate</two>.
+- Können <one>Hepadnaviren</one> (<two>Hepadnaviridae</two>) <three>in das Kerngenom integrieren</three>? <one>Nein</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepadnaviridae []
+- RNA viruses have mutation rates of ... ? <one>10⁻⁴</one>.
+- <one>How many people died</one> so far, due to HIV/AIDS up to 2020 or so, give or take? About 30 million people have died up until 2020 or so.
+- The <one>Ebola virus</one> <two>can cause what in humans</two>? <one>Haemorrhagic fever</one>.
+- <one>Pocapavir</one> is <two>a ... inhibitor</two>. A: A <one>capsid inhibitor</one>.
+- Können <one>schwangere Personen</one> den <two>Hepatitis-B-Virus</two> <three>an den Säugling weitergeben</three>? <one>Ja</one>. []
+- How is <one>RNA</one> called that <two>contains both +RNA and -RNA</two>? <one>Ambisense RNA</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_virus []
+- A hepatitis B virus infected person produces how many  hepatitis B virus particles per day? 10**11.
+- The <one>rabies virus</one> <two>belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae</two>. It is a member of which genus? <one>Lyssavirus</one>.
+- Poliovirus produces approximately n virus particles per infected cell? 10 ** 5 - aka 10.000.
+- <one>SIRV2</one> <two>is a virus that can attach Archaea</two>. What does this abbreviation stand for? <one>Sulfolobus islandicus rod-shaped virus 2</one>.
+- <one>How many genes</one> <two>can be found in the</two> <three>Mimivirus genome</three>? <one>911 genes</one> (easy to remember!).
+- Give <one>an example for a virus</one> that is quite famous for being activated from latency, in humans. A: The <one>herpes simplex virus</one> (<two>HSV</two>).
+- Give an example for <one>a virus that can replicate in two different species</one>. A: The <one>alphavirus</one>. They can replicate in both <two>mammalian cells</two> and in <two>insect cells</two>.
+- Name <one>three different ways</one> <two>of penetration</two> used by human viruses. A: (1) <one>Fusion</one> (2) Caveolin-mediated endocytosisHuman papillomavirus (3) Clathrin-mediated endocytosis
+- In regards to the <one>Merkel cell polyomavirus</one>: <two>which persons are at a higher risk for the cancer caused by this virus</two>? Persons with immunosuppression such as AIDS patients or transplant patients.
+- <one>Egon Schiele</one> <two>died to ... </two>? The <one>Spanish flu pandemic</one> of <two>1918</two>.
+- Vor der <one>spanischen Grippe</one> ging die ... Grippe <two>ab 1889</two> (H3N8) einmal um die Welt. A: Die <one>russische Grippe</one>.
+- <one>Norovirus</one> belongs to the C...? <one>Caliciviridae</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norovirus
+- <one>Tremacamra</one> is a soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1. It can reduce the severity of ... ? rhinovirus infection, at the least in experiments.
+- Können wir <one>Viren</one> als <two>Pyrogene</two> bezeichnen? <one>Ja</one> - <two>gereinigte Influenzaviren</two> können als <three>exogene Pyrogene</three> bezeichnet werden.
+- <one>Rabies</one> causes about <two>n worldwide deaths per year</two>? <one>56.000 deaths per year</one>.
+- <one>When</one> was <two>self-assembly of the tabacco mosaic virus (TMV)</two> <three>shown in a test tube</three>? In <one>1955</one>, by Fraenkel-Conrat and R.C. Williams.
+- A <one>hepatitis B virus patient</one> <two>produces</two> <three>n virus particles per day</three>? About <one>10¹¹</one>.
+- The <one>mean incubation time</one> for <two>SARS-CoV-2</two> is n days? About <one>4-5 days</one>.
+- Name <one>a virus</one> that will attach to <two>heparan sulfate</two>. A: The <one>herpes simplex viruses</one> (<two>HSV</two>).
+- Die <one>reverse Transkription</one> <two>von Lentiviren</two> findet, zellulär betrachtet, wo statt? Im <one>Cytoplasma</one>.
+- <one>SARS</one> was synthesized de-novo (from scratch) <two>in which year</two>? In <one>2008</one>.
+- The <one>tick-borne encephalitis virus</one> <two>belongs to which virus family</two>? <one>Flavivirus</one>.
+- <one>HeLa cells</one> were originally infected with which virus? With the human papilloma virus 18 (HPV-18).
+- The available data may not be conclusive, but if at all, which virus may be associated with Alzheimer's disease? The <one>herpes simplex virus</one>.
+- <one>Enveloped viruses</one> exit the cell by ... ? <one>budding</one>.
+- A virus that is dormant inside the eukaryotic cell is called ... ? a <one>provirus</one>.
+- Name <one>two general defence strategies</one> we humans have against viruses. A: (1) antiviral drugs (aka chemicals) (2) vaccines against viruses
+- Viruses may also have proteins that stick out of the envelope or off the surface of the capsid. How are these proteins called, in general? Spikes.
+- The <one>primary reservoir of the Rabies virus</one> (RABV) is ... ? The <one>domestic dog</one>.
+- The <one>envelope of a virus</one> is similar to the ... ? <one>plasma membrane of a cell</one>.
+- Die <one>Spanische Grippe</one> war eine Influenza-Pandemie. Welcher Influenza-Subtyp war hierfür verantwortlich? <one>Subtyp A</one>/</one>H1N1</one>.
+- Bei einem <one>Mausembryo</one>: wann wird der Retrovirus-Vektor eingesetzt? Im <one>8 Zell-Stadium</one>.
+- What is an <one>oncovirus</one>? An oncovirus is <one>a virus that can cause cancer</one>.
+- <one>Which virions</one> were the first ever to have been observed under the electron microscope? The capsid of the <one>tobacco mosaic virus</one> (<two>TMV</two>).
+- Approximately <one>how many HPV</one> (Human Papillomavirus) types are known, in 2023? More than 100 different HPV types are known.
+- <one>PAPOVA-virus</one> has a long history. For instance, rather early on Rigoni-Stern postulated that a sexually transmitted agent might be the cause of cervix carcinoma. In what year did he propose this? Already in <one>1842</one>.
+- The <one>Rabies virus</one> genome typically encodes for n different proteins? <one>Five</one>.
+- A virulent rabies virus strain is often isolated from ... which tissue? <one>Brain tissue</one>.
+- Benötigen ss(-)RNA-Viren eine RNA-abhängige RNA-Polymerase? Ja.
+- Nenne einen Virus mit <one>RNA-abhängiger RNA-Polymerase</one> der mit dem Buchstaben <two>R</two> beginnt. A: Die <one>Reoviren</one>.
+- Benötigen <one>Adenoviren</one> <two>Okazaki-Fragmente</two>? <one>Nein</one>.
+- When a <one>rhinovirus</one> enters an <two>acidic endosome</two>, does it expand or shrink in size? It will expand in size by about <one>4%</one>.
+- In general: which viruses are able to <one>fuse</one> with a target membrane? Only <one>enveloped viruses</one>.
+- <one>LAT-positive Herpes simplex viruses</one> have the ability to protect an infected cell from ... ? Apopoptosis - at the least the one mediated by caspase-8.
+- The <one>SIV virus</one> (simian immunodeficiency virus) contains the <two>nef gene</two>. This gene can downregulate the expression of which surface receptor? The <one>nef gene product</one> can downregulate the expression of MHC class I molecules on the surface of infected CD4 lymphocytes. 
+- Name <one>a protein from the influenza virus</one> that <two>is able to suppress RNAi</two>. A: The <one>NS1 protein</one>.
+- The <one>SARS virus</one> binds to the ACE2 receptor. ACE2 stands for ... ? <one>Angiotensis-converting enzyme 2 receptor</one>. 
+- The <one>SARS virus</one> uses which receptor? <one>ACE2 receptor</one> (angiotensis-converting enzyme 2 receptor).
+- The SARS pandemic between 2002 and 2003 had a mortality rate of about ... ? <one>~10%</one>.
+- The first virus that was <one>self-assembled in the laboratory</one> was ... ? <one>TMV</one> aka <one>Tabacco mosaic virus</one>. 
+- In viral structurology: we know the <one>Icosahedron</one>, as well as the <two>truncated icosahedron</two> looking like a football, but name another structure that is similar to a viral icosahedron. A: The <one>geodesic dome</one>.
+- In virology: what is meant with the term <one>penetration</one>? <one>Penetration</one> refers to <two>the crossing of the plasma membrane by the virus</two>. This term is typically used for eukaryotic viruses.
+- Give a fancy name for a phage, such as the <one>T4 phage</one>. A: A <one>viral syringe</one>.
+- If a virus makes use of <one>leaky scanning</one>, what can be concluded from the mRNA that is used? This mRNA will most likely include a weak Kozak sequence. That way the ribosome may skip the first AUG and begin translation at the next start codon encountered.
+- Name a virus that can inhibit the addition of a poly(A) tail to the host's mRNA transcripts. A: <one>Influenza</one>.
+- <one>Which HIV-1 protein</one> inhibits the splicing of host mRNA? HIV-1 protein <one>Vpr</one>.
+- Does <one>HIV</one> utilize <two>ribosomal frameshifting</two>? Yes.
+- The most famous virus that snatches 5'-caps from the host cell is ... ? <one>Influenza</one>.
+- Give an example for a virus that reduces the synthesis of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). A: <one>HSV-1</one> (Herpes simplex virus type 1).
+- The <one>first human virus</one> ever isolated was ... ? The <one>yellow fever virus</one>, in the year <two>1902</two>.
+- The <one>ICTV</one> has categorized how many different orders of viruses (at the least in 2016)? <one>Seven</one>.
+- <one>Reassortment</one> happens only in viruses that have which characteristic feature? In viruses with <one>a segmented genome</one>.
+- Name a virus that is notorious for being transmitted across the placenta? The <one>rubella virus</one>.
+- Are all <one>helical animal viruses</one> <two>enveloped</two>? Yes.
+- The <one>Hepatitis C virus</one> is a member of ... which virus family? Of the <one>flavivirus family</one>.
+- Can the <one>Hepatitis C virus</one> be transmitted via sex? Not really, no.
+- The natural host of the Rabies virus in Europe is/are ... ? The <one>foxes</one> - although most transmission of rabies happens by <one>domestic dogs</one> in Europe. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabies#Transmission
+- Do Coronavirus, such as SARS, contain glycoproteins? Yes - the surface glycoprotein.
+- Are the <one>Latin binomial names</one> used for <two>naming viruses</two>? No.
+- In structural virology: the <one>triangulation number</one> refers to ... ? the <one>number of structural units per side</one>.
+- Give another name for a <one>virion</one>. A: <one>Infectious particle</one>.
+- <one>HIV</one> may be treated via <two>reverse transcriptase inhibitors</two>. What is the general idea behind this treatment? This aims to prevent the conversion of genomic RNA into proviral DNA.
+- Name a virus that has a <one>double-icosahedron capsid</one>. A: The <one>Geminiviruses</one>. 
+- Does the type of viral nucleic acid correlate with the structure of the capsid? No it does not.
+- <one>Acyclovir</one> misses ... ? It misses a 3' hydroxy group, which is normally needed for chain extension during DNA replication.
+- <one>Recombination in viruses</one> is not only important for their evolution, but also may have a curious '<two>healing</two>' property. What is meant with this? Viable viruses may be generated from two defective genomes.
+- <one>Feline parvovirus</one> <two>can cause which disease in cats</two>? <one>Panleukopenia</one>.
+- Name a virus that makes use of the proteoglycan <one>Heparan Sulphate</one> for its attachment. A: The <one>herpes simple virus type 1</one>.
+- Does the <one>Usutu virus</one> cause disease in humans? No it does not.
+- Das <one>Zika-Virus</one> gehört zu welcher Familie? <one>Flaviviridae</one> - ist also ein <two>Flavivirus</two>. 
+- Viruses can form very large icosahedral capsids by ... (one word)? <one>repetition</one>.
+- For viruses the following statement is true: <one>small genomes</one> make ... ? <one>small particles</one>.
+- Can the <one>particles</one> of the tobacco mosaic virus be dissociated into their protein and RNA components? <one>Yes</one> - this was already known before 1957.
+- A <one>pseudoknot</one> is formed <two>when</two> exactly? When a sequence in a RNA-loop pairs with a complementary sequence outside the loop.
+- The <one>starting point</one> for any programme to generate a recombinant virus is to ... ? To <one>clone its genome</one>.
+- <one>Which virus</one> may lead to patients that show a <two>decrease in their level of consciousness</two>? The <one>herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1)</one>.
+- Viren mögen für <one>miRNAs</one> kodieren. Insbesondere welche Virusgruppe ist bekannt hierfür? Die <one>Herpesvirusfamilie</one>.
+- The enzyme <one>neuraminidase</one>, found in the Influenza genome, was originally called ... ? <one>RDE</one>: <two>Receptor-Destroying Enzyme</two>.
+- Give an example for <one>an ancient symbiotic virus</one>. A: The <one>Bracovirus</one>, in the family Polydnaviridae. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracovirus
+- <one>Endogenous retroviral genomes</one> decay by ... ? <one>mutation</one>.
+- The first virus was purified in <one>1933</one> by Schlessinger using ... ? <one>differential centrifugation</one>.
+- Name a virus that has a viral protein VPg linked. A: The <one>picornavirus</one>.
+- Das <one>Hepatitis-C-Virus</one> benötigt eine leberspezifische miR (miRNA) für die eigene Replikation. Welche? <one>miR-122</one>.
+- If we see a LTR that originated from an <one>endogenous retrovirus</one>, what may we often assume to be valid for this LTR, aside from it potentially containing mutations? That these LTRs originally contained active promoter or enhancer sequences, at one point in time.
+- Viral particles encoded by <one>endogenous retroviral genomes</one>, such as HERV-K in the human genome, may sometimes be expressed in a human cell. Name in particular one cell type that may show this phenomenon. A: These viral particles may be expressed in <one>teratocarcinoma cells</one>.
+- <one>Why</one> should a virologist be a good cell biologist as well? Because viral particles and subviral particles depend on the cytoskeleton to move within an infected cell.
+- Wird das <one>Masern-Virus</one> <two>über den Harn übertragen</two>? Nein. Das Masern-Virus wird <one>respiratorisch</one> übertragen. Das Masern-Virus im Harn kann eventuell für die <two>Diagnose</two> verwendet werden; es gibt jedoch keinen Beleg dafür das es über den Harn übertragen wird.
+- Specifically <one>why</one> are <two>virally encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerases</two> <three>more likely to make errors</three>? They lack a <one>proofreading</one> capability.
+- The <one>togaviruses</one> have how many ORFs? <one>Two</one>.
+- Why do the <one>picornaviruses</one> need viral proteases? They produce only one single polyprotein, so a viral protease is needed to generate the mature proteins.
+- What is the <one>hallmark</one> of (+) ssRNA viruses with a DNA intermediate? Their (+) strand is converted into dsDNA, by a reverse transcriptase.
+- <one>Welche Personengruppe</one> ist in den Industrieländern durch den <two>Hepatitis-B-Virus</two> stark gefährdet? Personal, das mit <one>virushaltigem Blut</one> beziehungsweise Patienten in Kontakt gerät.
+- Some viruses are rather famous for <one>creating occlusion bodies</one>. Aside from the baculoviruses that are well known for creating occlusion bodies, name another virus family that is characterized for yielding occlusion bodies, beginning with the letter '<two>c</two>'. A: The <one>cypoviruses</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypovirus
+- Nenne eine <one>Virusgruppe</one> die kleine Ribozyme besitzt. A: Die <one>Satellitenviren</one>.
+- Name <two>a protein</two> of the <one>Hepatitis B virus</one> that contributes to the development of <three>hepatocellular carcinoma</three>. A: <one>HBx</one>, the <two>hepatitis Bx</two> antigen.
+- <one>Flavivirus</one> carry a <two>RNA-dependent RNA polymerase</two> which has a <three>methyltransferase domain</three>. This domain will catalyze the methylation of ... ? <one>5'-RNA cap</one>.
+- Ultimately if a virus is <one>to survive</one>, it has to find ... ? New hosts it can infect.
+- A <one>Baculovirus polyhedron</one> consists of ... ? <one>Clusters of nucleocapsids</one> embedded <two>in a polyhedrin matrix</two>.
+- <one>Mimivirus</one> infects <two>which amoeba</two>? <one>Acanthamoeba polyphaga</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthamoeba
+- Nenne <one>drei verschiedene Gründe</one> wieso Viren ideale Objekte zum Studium von Evolutionsprozessen sind. A: (1) <one>kurze Generationszeit</one> (2) <one>große Zahl von Nachkommen</one> (3) <one>einfache Struktur</one>
+- In der medizinischen Virologie, bei den <one>Influenza-A Viren</one>: wieso sind die <two>Schweine</two> so wichtig? Da den Schweinen hier eine besondere zoonotische Bedeutung zukommt. Im Schwein können <one>neue Virusvarianten entstehen</one>, die dann auf den Menschen übertragen werden können.
+- <one>Which species</one> does <two>Mimivirus</two> typically infect? <one>Acanthamoeba polyphaga</one>. URL: https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Acanthamoeba_polyphaga
+- What is a <one>pithos</one>? A <two>pithos</two> is a <one>large storage container</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pithos
+- <one>Influenza</one> has at the least two M-proteins, called M1 and M2. Name these two proteins via proper english names. A: (1) <two>M1</two>: <one>Matrix protein</one> (2) <two>M2</two>: <one>Ion channel</one>
+- Sensing of viral RNA by DAI leads to ... ? The activation of inflammatory, also called <two>Necroptosis</two>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necroptosis
+- <one>Long neuronal networks</one> are ... ... for viruses. A: <one>Train tracks</one>.
+- The <one>mimivirus genome</one> does <two>code for n transfer RNAs</two>? <one>6</one>.
+- <one>Poliovirus</one> can inhibit transcription. Name one protein that is relevant here. A: The <one>3C</one> protein.
+- <one>Viroporins</one> can form pores in a membrane. Give a specific example for a <one>viroporin</one> in the Influenza virus. A: The <one>M2 protein</one>.
+- <one>The smallest virus</one> is the <two>tobacco necrosis satellite virus</two>, with a ssRNA genome of ... how many bases? <one>1239 bases</one>.
+- A virus may typically pass through a <one>Chamberland filter</one>, but which other, old filter may not allow their passage? The <one>Kitasato filter</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitasato_Shibasabur%C5%8D
+- What does <one>PP2A</one> stand for? <one>Protein phosphatase 2A</one>.
+- The <one>T antigens of e. g. SV40</one> function as ... for multiprotein complexes. A: <one>molecular chaperones</one>.
+- Der <one>Mimivirus</one> hat eine <two>star-shaped structure</two>. Welchem Zweck dient diese Struktur? Diese <one>star-shaped structure</one> dient dem <two>attachment</two>.
+- Are the <one>Filoviridae</one> <two>positive-sense RNA</two> or <two>negative-sense RNA</two>? <two>Filoviridae</two> are <one>negative-sense RNA</one>.
+- The <one>Adeno-associated virus 2</one> is a ... ? <one>Parvovirus</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parvoviridae
+- The genus <one>Furovirus</one> - the name <one>Furovirus</one> comes from ... ? <one>Fungus-transmitted rod-shaped</one> <two>virus</two>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furovirus
+- Which form of the <one>Baculovirus</one> is infectious? The <one>budding form</one>.
+- Give another, fancier name for the term <one>virion</one>. A: <one>Infectious virus particle</one>.
+- The approximate genome size of the <two>Mimivirus</two> is <one>n kbp DNA</one>? <one>1200 kbp DNA</one>.
+- <one>SARS-CoV-2</one> has at the least two proteases: the <two>3CL-protease</two>, as well as a protease that is similar to ... ? <one>Papain</one> - thus it is a Papain-like protease.
+- <one>HIV-1</one> may <two>incorporate cellular proteins</two> into its virion. Name one such cellular protein that could be incorporated into its virion. A: <one>Cyclophilin A</one>.
+- Why do some larger DNA viruses make use of <one>Virokines</one>? Because <two>virokines</two> help them <one>evade the host's immune system</one>.
+- In general: <one>which animal viruses</one> are always enveloped? <two>Animal viruses</two> with <one>helical symmetry</one>.
+- Warum benötigen manche Viren eine <one>IRES</one>? Die IRES wird benötigt um die Translation viraler Proteine zu ermöglichen, sobald die reguläre Translation in der Wirtszelle inhibiert ist.
+- The <one>cell surface molecules</one> used by viruses as receptors are typically of what type? They are <one>glycoproteins</one>.
+- Nenne ein <one>virales Ribozym</one> aus der Tierwelt, wo dieses gefunden werden kann. A: <one>HDV</one>: das <two>Hepatitis-Delta Virus</two>.
+- Many <one>invertebrates</one> may act as <two>virus vectors</two>, in regards to plants. Name two such representatives that are common, starting with the letter <three>a</three> and <three>n</three>, respectively. A: (1) <one>aphids</one> (2) <one>nematodes</one>
+- <two>Wie hoch</two> ist die <one>Mutationsrate beim Hepatitis-B-Virus</one>? <one>Hoch</one>; ähnlich wie bei den Retroviren.
+- How is the <one>hypothesis</one> called that the cell nucleus of eukaryotes has evolved from a large DNA virus (as a form of endosymbiosis)? <one>Viral eukaryogenesis</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_eukaryogenesis
+- Die <two>Inkubationszeit</two> bei <one>ASFV</one> beträgt n Tage? Etwa <one>4-5 Tage</one>.
+- <one>VP35</one> of the <two>Ebolavirus</two> may interact with ...... by RIGi. A: <one>RNA sensing</one>.
+- Nenne <one>eine Krankheit</one>, die durch das <two>Epstein-Barr Virus</two> ausgelöst werden kann. A: <one>Mononucleosis</one>. URL: https://www.cdc.gov/epstein-barr/about-mono.html
+- Name a virus that may be released from lesions on the lips. A: The <one>herpes simplex virus</one>.
+- The <one>Ebolavirus protein VP40</one> blocks which signaling? The <one>Jak-Stat signaling</one>.
+- The primary determinant of capsid size is ... ? <one>The number of subunits</one>.
+- After infecting a cell, many <one>large complex DNA viruses</one> set up so-called ..., where the replication and assembly of virions takes place. A: <one>Virus factories</one>.
+- The <one>Ebola VP40</one> protein has <two>which immune antagonistic function</two>? <two>VP40</two> <one>can block the Jak-Stat signaling</one>.
+- Name three <one>public health methods</one> for infection prevention. A: (1) <one>Vaccination</one> (2) <one>Safer injection practice</one> (3) <one>Antimicrobial treatments</one>
+- How could we experimentally determine the main receptor used by a particular virus? We could make use of <one>monoclonal antibodies</one>. If one of these antibodies blocks virus binding and subsequently infectivity, then this is a strong evidence that the corresponding antigen may be the main receptor.
+- <one>Enveloped virions</one> typically carry <two>which protein underneath their envelope</two> in general? A <one>matrix-protein</one>.
+- The <one>arbovirus</one> name comes from ... ? <one>Arthropod-borne virus</one>.
+- Are <one>helical animal viruses</one> enveloped? Yes, always.
+- <one>Giant viruses</one> should be grouped into which order? <one>Megavirales</one>. URL: https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Megavirales
+- When can <one>retroviruses</one> access the cell nucleus? Only after the nuclear enevlope has broken down - which happens in the <two>M phase</two>.
+- The <one>mimivirus</one> is a true giant virus. In what year was it actually discovered? In <one>1992</one>.
+- Name the three major forms of <one>viral capsid stuctures</one>. A: (1) <one>Helical</one> (2) <one>Icosahedral</one> (3) <one>Complex</one>
+- Nenne zwei Viren die ein Leberkarzinom verursachen können. A: (1) <one>Hepatitis-B-Viren</one> (2) <one>Hepatitis-C-Viren</one>
+- The <one>presence of virus in the urine</one> is also called ... ? <one>Viruria</one>. URL: https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/viruria
+- Nenne einen Vorteil für die Virologie, die durch eine Multiplex-PCR erreicht wird. A: Wir könnten <one>mehrere Viren zugleich nachweisen beziehungsweise detektieren</one>.
+- What is meant with the term <one>abortive infection</one>? This is the case when a virus enters the cell, but it can not create progeny.
+- What happens if the <one>Sputnik-Virophage</one> meets a <two>Mimivirus</two>? The Sputnik-Virophage will cripple the replication of mimivirus.
+- The <one>Baltimore scheme for viruses</one> has three classes assigned to <two>RNA Viruses</two>. Which ones are these? (1) <one>III</one> (2) <one>IV</one> (3) <one>V</one>
+- The <one>Ebolavirus</one> may make use of <two>immune antagonism</two>, in particular via its Gp-protein and the soluble sGP-protein variant. Why may the latter be assumed to work against the immune system? Because the soluble sGP variant <one>may act as a decoy for neutralizing antibodies</one>.
+- The <one>Mimivirus</one> belongs to the <two>NCLDV group</two>. What does this mean? <one>Nucleocytoplasmic large DNA virus group</one>.
+- In virology: name two different techniques with which <one>protein-protein interactions</one> may be studied. A: (1) <one>yeast two-hybrid system</one> (for a transcription factor activating a reporter gene) (2) <one>pull-down assays</one>
+- Curiously enough, the <one>Mimivirus</one> has fibers extending out from its capsid. <two>How long are these fibers</two>? Approximately <one>750 nm</one> (Xiao et al. 2005).
+- Can we find <one>viroids</one> in eukaryotes? <one>No</one>; <two>only in plants</two>.
+- Which virus makes mammals quite aggressive? Rabies.
+- The most common vectors of plant viruses are ... ? <one>Aphids</one>.
+- RNA-based viruses have this problem that the eukaryotic host cells do not code for their own RNA-dependent RNA Polymerases. Name two strategies how such viruses may overcome this problem. A: (1) the virus may encode for their own RNA-dependent RNA Polymerase (2) reverse transcription to dsDNA may occur
+- Name a virus that can be transported from the mother to the fetus via the <one>placenta</one>. A: The <one>rubella virus</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubella_virus
+- The <one>Mimivirus</one> was discovered when? In the year <one>1992</one>.
+- <one>Baculoviruses</one> can create a matrix, consisting of ... which protein? <one>Polyhedrin</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedrin
+- Compared to the genome size of E. coli: the Mimivirus genome is how long? The <two>Mimivirus genome</two> is about <one>a fourth of the genome size of E. coli</one>.
+- Name a virus that is known to be shed via <one>skin lesions</one>. A: The <one>Varicella-zoster virus</one>.
+- What does <one>Mimivirus</one> stand for? <one>Mimicking microbe</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimivirus
+- What is a <one>pantropic virus</one>? This is a virus that does not show any special affinity for a particular tissue; thus, such a virus can affect different tissues in the host.
+- Name <one>two vaccines</one> against <two>HPV</two>. A: (1) <one>Gardasil</one> (2) <one>Cervarix</one>
+- Nenne ein Symptom einer "Hepatitis-B-Infektion". A: Eine <one>Leberentzündung</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_B
+- <one>Transposable elements</one> in any given genome, are typically <two>most similar to which virus group</two>? The <one>retroviruses</one>.
+- The first Virology textbook, written by <one>Thomas M. Rivers</one>, was publlished in which year? <one>1928</one>.
+- <one>Polyamines</one> may be incorporated into virions. Give one example for a polyamine that may be incorporated like that. A: <one>Spermidine</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermidine
+- In virology, the <one>Escape Hypothesis</one> is one hypothesis attempting to explain how viruses arose. This hypothesis is heavily based on the discovery of ... ? <one>Transposable elements</one>.
+- From virology: <one>'Unlike love, ... is forever.'</one>. A: <one>Herpes</one>.
+- What is projected from the <one>mimivirus</one>? <one>Protein filaments</one>.
+- Does <one>HIV</one> <two>undergo alternative RNA splicing</two>? <one>Yes</one>. []
+- Name a virus that has an internal lipid membrane within its virion. A: The <one>iridovirus</one>.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/ageing

@@ -0,0 +1,154 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Ageing
+#
+# Aging tag. Age tag.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Nehmen Mutationen in der mitochondrialen DNA eines Menschens mit zunehmenden Alters zu? Ja.
+- Name a drug that was approved in 1995 by the US Food and Drug Administration against the <two>Alzheimer's disease</two>. A: <one>Tacrine</one>, an <two>acetylcholinesterase inhibitor</two>.
+- The most famous enzyme that may function in human cells, acting as an antioxidant, may be ... ? The <one>enzyme</one> called <two>superoxide-dismutase (SOD)</two>.
+- <one>Which agents</one> - that is, a group of agents - may help combat some effects of ageing? <one>Antioxidants</one>.
+- Can <one>mutations</one> <two>in nematodes</two> <three>increase their life span</three>? <one>Yes</one>, of course.
+- Give an example for an (almost) purely random factor that influences the length of life span in humans. A: A <one>car accident</one> is such a purely random factor that influences the length of life span in humans.
+- Do <one>identical twins</one> (among humans) have natural life spans that are more similar to each other than those of non-identical twins? <one>Yes</one>.
+- Give another name for <one>dietary restriction</one>. A: <one>Undernutrition without malnutrition</one>.
+- <one>Caloric restriction</one> <two>can extend the life span in many species by some percentage</two>. Give a curious explanation as to why this might be. A: In general, organisms may favour reproduction over survival when survival is not threatened. This also includes factors such as the environment, weather etc...
+- If we restrict the food intake of (normal) laboratory mice and rats, we can lengthen their lives by as much as ... ? a year.
+- Do <one>humans</one> <two>have the longest life spans of any mammal</two>? Yes, in general this is the case so.
+- Is there a connection between cancer and ageing? <one>Yes</one> - many cancer become very much more common in old age.
+- Did <one>natural selection</one> <two>design us to age</two>? <one>No</one>.
+- Which organ in humans was originally thought to be the pacemaker of ageing? The <one>thymus</one>.
+- Is <one>apoptosis</one> <two>an agent of death</two>? Not quite so - <one>apoptosis</one> is more of <two>an agent of survival</two>.
+- <one>Tom Kirkwood</one> <two>made which ageing theory famous</two>? The <one>disposable soma</one> theory.
+- Do <one>germ cells</one> <two>age</two>? <one>Yes</one> - which is why genetic abnormalities are commoner in the offspring of older parents.
+- Is <one>ageing</one> inevitable because we just have to wear out? <one>No</one>.
+- The oldest elephant ever to have been recorded was the female elephant called <one>Changalloor Kakshayani</one>. How old was he when he died? 89 years old. He lived from 1930 to 2019. URL: Chengalloor_Dakshayani
+- Are <one>bats</one> <two>long-lived for their size</two>? <one>Yes</one>.
+- Data on life expectancy around the world are collected on a regular basis by the United Nations in its ... series. A: <one>Demographic Yearbook series</one>.
+- Name an animal that may appear to have the power of immortality. A: The <one>freshwater hydra</one>.
+- If <one>ageing</one> happens in an animal, it often shows up not only through an increasing death rate, but also through ... ? a <one>decline in fertility</one>.
+- Does the <one>temperature</one> affect the life span of insects? In general yes - life span is shorter for insects at higher temperatures.
+- <one>Cicadas</one> live as long as ... ? More than a <one>decade</one>.
+- Do we know rather more about ageing in short-lived species than we do about ageing in long-lived species? <one>Yes</one>.
+- Is the <one>Gompertz law</one> <two>valid in insects</two>? No - insects constitute an exception to the Gompertz law.
+- The <one>Gompertz law</one> was first discovered in humans. Is it also found in other mammals? <one>Yes</one>.
+- The only mammal known to outlive human beings - and thus quite possibly the longest-lived mammal on planet earth - is ... ? The <one>bowhead whale</one>.
+- Was besagt das <one>Gompertz law</one>? Die <one>Mortalitätsrate</one> (<two>von Menschen</two>) verdoppelt sich alle 8 Jahre.
+- The <one>Gompertz law</one> states that the death rate in humans doubles every 8 years. In <two>dogs</two> it doubles every ... ? Every <one>3 years</one>.
+- The <one>Law of Mortality</one> was declared by Benjamin Gompertz in 1825. His primary interest here was ... ? To know the age at which people are likely to die.
+- Is a typical <one>survival curve</one> for a population of mice kept in a protected environment linear? No - it shows more of a sigmoid (S-like) form.
+- Are there <one>biomarkers of aging</one>? <one>Not really</one> - <two>none of them act as a true measure of the underlying aging process</two>.
+- Why are there no good biomarkers for ageing? Because ageing is so variable, from individual to individual.
+- Does <one>blood pressure in humans</one> <two>rise with age</two>? <one>Yes</one>, in general this is the case.
+- What is meant with the expression <one>chronological age</one>? This is age that is measured by <one>passage of time</one> - for instance, the number of candles on a birthday cake.
+- Which molecular <one>clock</one> is the best marker for chronological age? The <one>Horvard aging clock</one>.
+- Name a scientific discipline that often attempts to determine <one>chronological aging</one>. A: <one>Forensics</one>, such as CSI.
+- Name two different <one>cellular aging models</one>. A: (1) "chronological aging" (2) <one>replicative   aging</one>
+- What is <one>ageism</one>? Ageism is the devaluing of an individual solely because of his or her age.
+- The german naturalist <one>August Weismann</one> concluded that <two>„Death takes place because ...“? „Death takes place because a worn-out tissue cannot forever renew itself.“
+- <one>Sex education</one> has advanced in leaps and bounds whereas ... lags well behind. A: Death education lags well behind.
+- The most frequent killer in the developed world today is ... ? <one>cardiovascular disease</one>.
+- Science can not (yet) slow down or reverse ageing. A secondary option, as an improvement in this regard, may be to ask which particular question instead? A: <one>'Can science help me age better?'</one>.
+- Leben <one>Vögel</one> länger als gleichgroße Bodenbewohner? <one>Ja</one>.
+- <one>Rapamycin</one> mag das Leben von Säugetieren verlängern; hat jedoch welchen Nachteil? Rapamycin hemmt das Immunsystem. Man könnte dann leichter an einer Infektion sterben.
+- Nenne eine Substanz, die das Leben von Säugetieren verlängern mag - zumindest im Prinzip. A: <one>Rapamycin</one>.
+- <one>Welcher Zucker</one> mag hilfreich sein wenn Zellen eingefroren werden sollen? <one>Trehalose</one>. Dieser Zucker kann DNA mit einer schützenden Hülle umgeben.
+- Say that someone claims that <one>vitamin supplements</one> are useful in reaching old age. What could be used as a counter-argument to that claim? Throughout history people have managed to survive to very old ages without taking vitamin supplements.
+- Give a trivial example where humans conduct the equivalent of longevity experiments. A: <one>Zoo keepers</one>, when they protect their animals from infectious diseases and environmental extremes.
+- The annual meeting of the Soceity of Anti-Aging Medicine, where many advocates of extreme prolongevity gather, takes place in ... ? In <one>the gambling capital of the world</one>: <two>Las Vegas</two>.
+- When was the enzyme <one>Telomerase</one> actually discovered? In the year 1984, by Carol W. Greider and Elizabeth Blackburn, in the ciliate Tetrahymena. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomerase#History
+- Das (klassische) <one>Alterungspigment</one> ist ... ? <one>Lipofuscin</one>.
+- <one>Which rodent</one> lives the longest? The <one>naked mole rat</one>. It can live for more than twenty-five years. The current record is <two>28.3 years</two>.
+- Aggregates in the skin of old people may contain ... ? <one>Lipofuscin</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipofuscin
+- How does <one>autophagy</one> change with increasing age (if it changes at all)? Autophagy declines with age.
+- Die Fliegenmutante <one>INDY</one>: INDY steht für ... ? <one>I'm Not Dead Yet</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indy_(gene)
+- The ribosomal NSUN-1 modulates healthspan and oogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans. What kind of protein is NSUN-1? It is a <one>RNA m5C methyltransferase</one>. URL: https://elifesciences.org/articles/56205
+- In aging we can measure <one>MOC</one> in rats. <one>MOC</one> stands for ... ? <one>Minimal Oxygen Consumption</one>. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2488303/
+- Name <one>an animal</one> in which we <two>can not observe deterioration</two>. A: In <one>hydra</one>.
+- In aging research we often <one>measure the health span curve via a diagram</one>. What is on the x-axis? The <orange>time</orange> (aka days or years).
+- The <one>endocrine theory</one> claims that we have a clock where exactly? In the <one>brain</one>.
+- The <one>rate of living theory</one>, proposed by Pearle (1928) claimed that we would use up ... what exactly, as aging progresses? <one>Vitality</one>.
+- How is <one>maximum lifespan</one> defined? This is <one>the age reached by the longest-lived member of a species</one>.
+- Anderes, englisches Wort für <one>Tod</one>? A: <one>Shutting down</one>.
+- Defects in early life, such as <violet>deleterious modifications</violet>, can proliferate by mechanism of ... (two words)? <one>Clonal expansion</one>.
+- Name a fairly simple way how we can identify <one>novel longevity determinants</one> in <two>Drosophila melanogaster</two>. A: We could use <one>random mutagenesis screens</one>.
+- <one>Geriatrics</one> deals with ... ? <one>Medical care and treatment of the elderly</one>.
+- Why is <one>injection of telomerase</one> not necessarily a great idea? Because <one>this may also contribute to the formation of cancer</one>.
+- In general: how does the <one>replicative potential</one> change with age? The replicative potential will <one>decline with age</one>.
+- Wie lange kann eine <one>Fruchtfliege</one> leben, maximal? <one>40 Tage</one>.
+- In aging, we know about the <one>metabolic rate theory</one>. Give an example as to why this theory is very questionable. A: Rat and bat have similar metabolic rates - yet a bat lives around 5x longer than does a rat.
+- In aging: <one>what does</one>, in general, <two>increase</two> ...? The <one>probability of dying</one>.
+- Leben <one>polygyne Ameisenarten</one> länger als <two>monogyne Ameisenarten</two>? Nein; sie leben kürzer.
+- When the <one>pacific salmon</one> goes to perform his first and only spawning season, the level of which hormone is increased massively? <one>Cortisol</one>. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21708753/
+- The <one>Baltimore Longitudinal Study</one> was important for research in aging. In which year did it happen? In <one>1958</one>.
+- Name a very important difference between <one>senescence</one> and <one>quiescence</one>. A: <one>Senescence</one> is a permanent state whereas <two>Quiescence</two> is reversible.
+- Give one useful definition for <one>aging</one>. A: <one>Aging</one> is <two>an increased risk of dying as time goes by</two>, often accompanied by some sort of physical deterioration.
+- Define the term <one>normal aging</one>. A: <one>Aging in the absence of disease</one>.
+- Die meisten Probleme in der Gentherapie gehen worauf zurück? Auf den viralen Vektor.
+- Any therapy that aims to <one>increase lifespan</one> of people should also aim to improve ... ? It should also <one>aim to improve the healthspan of people</one>.
+- In regards to aging: what do we mean with the "zoo-effect"? That animals in a zoo tend to have <one>an increased life expectancy</one>.
+- What is a potential issue when we use <one>telomerase</one> to <two>'reverse'</two> ageing? Increased telomerase expression can also <one>induce tumor growth</one>.
+- The typical <one>maximum lifespan</one> of an <two>amazonian parrot</two> is at about ... ? <one>80 years</one>.
+- Does <one>Bilirubin</one> act as an antioxidant? Yes - as a <one>secondary antioxidant</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilirubin
+- Name two different <one>aging theories</one>. A: (1) "wear-and-tear theory" (2) <one>Programmed aging theory<one>
+- Why may <one>cellular senescence</one> be a good thing? <one>Senescence</one> may <two>prevent early life cancers</two>, by irreversibly arresting growth of potential cancer cells.
+- Name a slogan for <one>successful aging</one> from the point of view of society. A: <one>More life into the years</one>.
+- Name two <one>physical changes</one> that we may often <two>associate with aging in human beings</two>. A: (1) <one>wrinkles</one> (2) <one>gray hair</one>
+- Does <one>stress resistance</one> correlate with longevity? Yes.
+- What is a <one>supercentenarian</one>? This is anyone who has reached at the least the 110th birthday - so, in other words, these are people who are (or were) at the least 110 years old. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercentenarian
+- <one>C. elegans</one> lives how long, on average? <one>20 days</one>.
+- In aging - give another term for <one>>stochastic</one>. A: <one>Random</one>.
+- <one>TBARS</one> can be used to detect <two>lipid peroxidation</two>, as it is formed as a byproduct. This may be useful in aging. What does the abbreviation TBARS stand for? <one>Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances</one>.
+- Was sind die von Hayflick postulierten <one>Replikometer</one>? Die <one>Telomere</one>.
+- Name a way how we could stain telomeres. A: We could use <one>Telo-FISH</one>. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108899/
+- Give an example for a <one>survival curve</one>. A: The <one>Kaplan-Meier survival curve</one>.
+- A <one>telomerase deficient mouse</one> exhibits what symptoms? Symptoms of <one>premature aging</one>.
+- The <one>Calorie reduction</one> theory by McKay, proposed in 1935, suggests that the maximum life span can be increased if we reduce calories, by how much? The life span will typically be increased for <one>one third</one>.
+- The <one>Bloom syndrome</one> is characterized by ... (two words)? Genomic instability.
+- Elephants have how many copies of the p53-gene? 20. URL: https://www.nature.com/news/how-elephants-avoid-cancer-1.18534
+- How might the term <one>aging</one> be defined from the point of view of <two>reliability theory</two>? <one>Aging</one> is when the risk of failure of the various components increases.
+- The <one>free radical theory of aging</one> states that organisms age because ... ? Because <one>cells accumulate free radical damage over time</one>.
+- Wie nennen wir Substanzen, die gegen Radikale wirken? Die sogenannten <one>Antioxidantien</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidans
+- What is meant with the term <one>Social Aging</one>? This refers to age-related changes in the (social) interactions people have with one another.
+- <one>Thomas Kirkwood</one> first proposed <two>the disposable soma theory of aging</two> in a Nature review article, in which year? In <one>1977</one>.
+- Nenne <one>zwei Gewebe</one> die sich nicht teilen aber eine <one>aktive Telomerase</one> besitzen. A: <one>Hirnzellen</one> und <one>Muskelzellen</one>.
+- Why do <one>Telomeres</one> shorten with age in somatic cells? Because these cells do not make telomerase.
+- Fachbegriff für die <one>Altersforschung</one>? <one>Biogerontologie</one>.
+- The disposable soma theory of aging acts on the premise that there is a tradeoff in ... between <one>somatic maintenance</one> and <one>reproductive investment</one>. A: <one>resource allocation</one>.
+- Within a regular human cell, what may be <one>the most important natural anti-oxidant</one>? <one>Glutathione</one>.
+- Somewhat related to aging: <one>what happens if telomeres get progressively shorter</one>? <onne>Chromosomes may fuse</one> (aka <two>fusion events</two> may happen).
+- Name <one>a cellular mechanism</one> that may act as a general <one>tumor suppressor mechanism</one>. A: <one>Replicative senescence</one>.
+- Define the word <one>natural death</one>. A: <one>Death in the absence of disease</one>.
+- Name an <one>aging effect</one> of yeast cells. A: <one>Bud scars</one>.
+- Give another name for <one>failure Rate</one> in aging. A: <one>Instantaneous risk of failure</one>.
+- Name <one>a sirtuin activator</one> that may be useful when it comes to treating some age-specific effects. A: <one>Resveratrol</one>.
+- <one>RCM1</one> is said to be able to extend the life-span. What kind of protein is the functional product of the RCM1 gene? It is a <one>methyltransferase</one>. URL: https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/P53972
+- <one>mTERT-knockout mice</one> show ... ? No telomerase activity. Also, they will become sterile after 6 generations. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3133422/
+- <one>Life expectancy</one> in the 20th century has increased steadily by <two>n years per decade</two>? By <one>two years per decade</one>.
+- Can we state that <one>aging is a carcinogen</one>? Yes. The higher the age, the more cancer we may see.
+- Why may it not be sufficient to merely increase the lifespan of a human being? Because nobody wants to be old AND fragile, so we also have to <one>improve the healthspan</one>.
+- Define the term <one>replicative cell senescense</one>. A: Cells which stop dividing after a finite number of cell divisions in culture.
+- Does <one>Tetrahymena</one> have <two>active telomerase</two>? <one>Yes</one>. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26472759
+- What is the oddest thing about human reproduction? The <one>Menopause</one>.
+- Will flies, such as <lightgreen>Drosophila</lightgreen>, live longer due to <one>antioxidants</one>? Yes.
+- Was heisst <one>Indy</one>? <one>I am not dead yet</one>.
+- The life expectancy of humans with <one>Xeroderma pigmentosum</one> is lower than that of normal people, at about n years lower? About <one>30 years less than normal</one>.
+- What do we mean with the term <one>probability of death</one>? This is <one>the chance of dying in any given year</one>.
+- In aging: give another expression for <one>aging of the telomeres</one>. A: <one>Telomere attrition</one>.
+- Research claims that <one>spermidine</one> activates autophagy via <one>epigenetic pathways</one>. What is meant with an epigenetic pathway in this context normally? This refers to <one>histone acetylation</one>.
+- Der <one>Jungbrunnen</one> wurde im Jahre <two>1546</two> von ... gezeichnet. A: <one>Lucas Cranach</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fountain_of_Youth_%28Cranach%29
+- Allgemein: wie mag sich Kollagen im Alter verändern? Die <one>Quervernetzung von Kollagen</one> nimmt zu, mit dem Effekt das die Fibrillen spröder und weniger elastisch werden.
+- Who or what is/was Clotho and why may this be relevant to aging? Clotho is a mythological (greek) figure. She is the one of the Three Fates who spin the thread of Life - thus, Clotho controlled the length of human life.
+- Enhanced activity of p53 affects the aging process how? It <one>accelerates the aging process</one>.
+- The <one>Werner syndrome</one> is implicated in aging. Name a yeast analogue of the main gene. A: <one>Sgs1</one>. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1207633/
+- Give another term for <one>senescent cells</tomat>. A: Old/older cells.
+- Is <one>calorie restriction</one> (CR) the same as <one>dietary restriction</one> (DR)? No - but both terms are not very clearly defined.
+- Name a <one>universal marker of postmitotic cell aging</one>. A: <violet>Lipofuscin</violet>.
+- What will be the effect of <one>overexpression of chaperones</one> in worms, in regards to their lifespan? This will in general extend the lifespan of a worm.
+- Overexpression of dPrp19 has what effect on Drosophila? This is a DNA repair factor and an overexpression will lead to longer lived female Drosophila, but not longer lived male ones. URL: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41514-017-0005-z
+- What do we mean with the term "psychological aging"? This refers to all age-related changes that affect how elderly think and behave.
+- Wie definiert "reliability theory" aging? Described as a phenomen of "increasing risk of failure with the passage of time".
+- What is ignorant aging? We dont care about the reasons of aging, we just want to reverse or stop the functional decline associated with it.
+- Was sind die Altersflecken des Menschen? Zucker und Eiweiße die kaum abgebaut werden.
+- Wie kann man failures einteilen? Degradation failures und fatal failures.
+- Stem cells can be divided into which two basic types? (1) embryonic (2) adult

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/agrar_ecology

@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Agrarökologie tag, agraröko tag
+#
+# Agrar tag. Agrarwissenschaften tag. Agrarökologie tag.
+# Auch "ökologische Landwirtschaft" sowie "Landschaftsökologie" und
+# "Zoologie" in den Agrarwissenschaften.
+# Landwirtschaft tag.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Liegen Ruderalflächen brach? Ja, meistens ist dies der Fall.
+- Nenne ein Problem einer zu frühen Mahd. A: Bodenbrütende Vogelarten könnten hier negativ betroffen sein, und Lebensraum verlieren.
+- Kann eine Hecke auch auf einem Lesesteinhaufen wachsen? <one>Ja</one>.
+- Welche ist die schädlichste Form der Mahd? Die Mahd mit dem <one>Mulcher</one>.
+- Bei einer <one>gut genährten Kuh</one>: wieviel % des Futters wird in Methan konvertiert? <one>8% - 10%</one>.
+- <one>Wie</one> betrachtet die Agrarökologie den Ampfer? Der Ampfer ist ein Platzräuber mit einem geringen Futterwert.
+- Was ist <one>Fleckvieh</one>? Das <one>Fleckvieh</one> ist eine <two>Rasse des Hausrindes</two>.
+- Vergleiche die Kosten für das Fleisch von Biohühnern mit konventionellen Hühnern. A: Biohühner sind etwa doppelt so teuer - also <one>2x so teuer</one>.
+- Gemessen am Anteil der Weltproduktion, welche 3 Nahrungsmittel sind am wichtigsten? (1) Weizen (2) Reis (3) Mais
+- Was sind <one>Molluskizide</one>? Dies sind Substanzen, die Schnecken und Weichtiere abtöten.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel für eine "massive Stoffentnahme" aus einem Agrarsystem? <one>Rodung</one>.
+- Nenne eine <one>moderne Feldfrucht</one>. A: <one>Silomais</one>.
+- Give an example how <one>patch isolation</one> may increase in ecological areas. A: The loss of one small patch, which functioned as a stepping stone for movement between other patches, can lead to an increase in patch isolation.
+- Wieviel Prozent der Böden sind weltweit für den Ackerbau nutzbar? Nur <one>11%</one>.
+- Österreich besitzt n ha Ackerfläche? Nur <one>1,3 Mio. ha Ackerfläche</one>.
+- Wieviel Quadratmeter hat ein Hektar? 100 ** 2 also 10.000 Quadratmeter.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel für einen <one>Antagonisten</one> in der Agrarökologie. A: <one>Nematodenfangende Pilze</one>.
+- Aus Sicht der Agrarwissenschaft: welche Funktion hat der <one>Dünger</one>? Der Dünger hilft die Produktionsleistung von Bodensystemen zu steigern.
+- A. W. für "Antagonisten" in der Agrarökologie. A: <one>Nützlinge</one>.
+- Fachwort für "Bodenlebewesen"? Das "Edaphon".
+- Prognosen bis 2050 gehen davon aus, das wir etwa n% mehr an Kalorien als im Jahr 2006 benötigen werden, um etwa 9 Milliarden Menschen zu ernähren? Etwa "60%" mehr an Kalorien.
+- Nenne einen Käfer, der ein Schädling im Getreide ist. A: Das <one>Getreidehähnchen</one>.
+- Was ist die "extensive Landwirtschaft"? Als extensive Landwirtschaft bezeichnet man die Nutzung von Böden mit geringem Eingriff des wirtschaftenden Menschen in den Naturhaushalt.
+- In der Landschaftsökologie, was meinen wir mit einem "Korridor"? Ein Korridor ist ein lineares Landschaftselement, das Landschafts- bzw. Habitatteile gleicher oder ähnlicher Qualität miteinander verbindet.
+- Nenne 3 typische, allgemeine Strukturelemente in einer Landschaft. A: (1) Matrix (2) Patches (3) Korridore
+- Welche "Gesellschaft" gab es vor der "Industrigesellschaft"? Die "Agrargesellschaft".
+- Warum werden "Rohphosphate" nicht direkt als Düngemittel eingesetzt? Weil sie nur schwer löslich sind.
+- Was ist "Secale cereale"? Winterroggen.
+- Wieviele Kühe gibt es in Österreich? 2 Millionen.
+- Nennen Sie eine mögliche Folge der Bodenerosion. A: Unbedeckter, nackter Boden.
+- Nenne 3 Kennzeichnen der romanischen Bergbauernwirtschaft. A: (1) Ackerbau (Terrassen in collinen und montanen Stufen) und Viehwirtschaft (2) 3-stufiges Nutzungssystem (Winter-, Sommer- und Almsiedlung) (3) an die Getreidebauobergrenze gebunden
+- Wieviel Prozent der land- und forstwirtschaftlichen Fläche in Österreich befinden sich im Berggebiet? 50%.
+- Wir mögen eine Hecke in der Landwirtschaft verwenden. Eine Hecke mag aber auch negative Auswirkungen haben. Nenne eine davon. A: Durch die Beschattung wirkt sie ertragsmindernd auf die Feldfrucht.
+- Unterschied zwischen "Autochorie" und "Zoochorie" und "Anemochorie"? Autochorie ist die Selbstverbreitung, Zoochorie ist die Verbreitung durch Tiere, Anemochorie ist die Verbreitung durch den Wind.
+- In der Landwirtschaft, wie kann man Schwebfliegen fördern? Durch blühende Hundskamille.
+- Was ist das "Kuppelprodukt der Milchproduktion"? Das Rindfleisch.
+- Was sind "Monogastrier"? Lebewesen mit nur einem Magen.
+- Was ist "Abferkeln"? Abferkeln ist der Geburtsvorgang bei Schweinen.
+- Die Jamswurzel hat das giftige Alkaloid "Dioscorin". Was kann man dagegen machen? Man kann Kochen entgiften.
+- Gib ein Beispiel für "rezente Jäger" (Menschen). A: Die "grönländischen Inuit".
+- Wer ist der zweitgrößte Saatguthersteller (hinter Monsanto)? DuPont, seit der Übernahme von "Pioneer Hi-Bred" im Jahre 1999.
+- Nach einer Brache können Pflanzen diese Brache besiedeln. Wie nennen wir diese Pflanzen allgemein? Pionierpflanzen.
+- Innerhalb der EU, welches Land hat den höchsten Anteil an der ökologischen Landwirtschaftsfläche? Spanien, 2013, mit einer Fläche von 1.610.129 ha. 
+- Was heisst "DOK"-Versuch in der Landwirtschaft? Dynamisch, Organisch-biologisch, Konventionell.
+- Wie ist "nachhaltige Landwirtschaft" definiert? Dies ist eine natur- und sozialverträgliche Landwirtschaft, die eine dauerhafte Erhaltung oder Herstellung der Lebensgrundlagen auch für zukünftige Generationen sicherstellt.
+- Name a desirable feature in agriculture for "genetic improvements", other than yield. A: Disease resistance.
+- Nenne eine praktische Anwendung der Gibberelline. A: Besprühte Weintrauben werden deutlich grösser.
+- Vergleiche die Erträge zwischen ökologischem Landbau und konventionellem Landbau. A: Die Erträge unter ökologischer Bewirtschaftung sind um etwa 20% niedriger als bei konventioneller Bewirtschaftung.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel für "betriebseigenen Dünger". A: Den Hofdünger.
+- Warum werden "Brachen" in der Landwirtschaft eingesetzt? Die Idee ist das sich der Boden erholen kann. 
+- Je tiefer das Grundwasser, umso ...? Umso sauberer ist es.
+- Was ist das "Kuppelprodukt der Milchproduktion"? Rindfleisch.
+- Was ist eine "Zweinutzungsrasse"? Das ist eine Rasse, bei Kühen, bei der die Milch- und die Fleischleistung gleichermaßen eine Rolle spielen.
+- Was bezeichnen wir als "Veredelung" in der Landwirtschaft? Als Veredelung wird in der Landwirtschaft die Umwandlung von pflanzlichen Produkten in höherwertige Tierprodukte bezeichnet.
+- In den Agrarwissenschaften, was meinen wir mit "LUC"? Land Use Change.
+- Was verstehen wir unter "Bodenfruchtbarkeit"? Dies ist die Ertragsfähigkeit des Bodens in Zusammenwirken mit dem jeweiligen Standortklima, den angebauten Kulturpflanzen und allen Kulturmaßnahmen gemäss den Bio-Richtlinien.
+- Nenne 4 "organische Dünger". A: (1) Stallmist (2) Gülle (3) Kompost (3) Klärschlamm
+- Was meinen wir mit dem "Hemerobiegrad" in der Agrarökologie? Den Grad des Eingriffes durch den Menschen.