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+# === Advanced topics in immunology
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+- The constant region of heavy chains of antibodies contains a ... ? a <one>transmembrane region</one>.
+- In effect, <one>antigen presentations</one> <two>advertises the fact</two> that <three>a host cell ... </three>? That a <one>host cell contains a foreign substance</one>.
+- An antigen receptor on a B cell or a T cell can bind to an epitope. What happens once this happens? This is the activation step. It will initiate events that will activate the lymphocyte bearing the receptor, and once activated, the B cell or T cell will undergo multiple cell divisions.
+- Early in B cell development, which enzyme complex links one light-chain V gene segment to one J gene segment, thus forming a single exon? The <one>recombinase</one>.
+- The host protein that displays the antigen fragment on the cell surface is called how? a <one>major histocompatibility complex (MHC)</one> molecule.
+- <one>CpG DNA</one> is recognized by which TLR? <one>TLR9</one>.
+- Are <one>hemocytes</one> able to do phagocytosis? Yes.
+- Do <one>hemocytes</one> release antimicrobial peptides? Yes, some do.
+- <one>Which cells</one> help modulate the immune system activity? The <one>regulatory T cells</one> - also nicknamed Tregs.
+- How does <one>hay fever</one> occur? Hay fever, occurs when plasma cells secrete IgE antibodies specific for antigens on the surface of pollen grain.
+- Do <one>helper T cells</one> <two>have antigen receptors</two>? Yes, of course they do.
+- From the point of view of immunology: how can we define the term <one>antigen</one>? An antigen is any substance that elicits a B or T cell response.
+- In phagocytosis: what surrounds the pathogens? <one>Pseudopodia</one>.
+- <one>Memory cells</one> of helper T cell, B cell, and cytotoxic T cell enable the ... ? <one> secondary response</one>.
+- <one>T cells</one> can release perforin molecules and granzymes. How do these two substances relate to one another? First, perforin molecules will form pores in the infected cell membrane. Then the granzymes can enter the infected cell via these perforin pores, and begin to break down the proteins inside of that target cell.
+- Give two examples for cells in the human body that do NOT have exactly the same DNA (genome). A: (1) Mature B cells (2) Mature T cells
+- A local inflammatory response begins when activated ... discharge c... ? A: activated macrophages discharge cytokines.
+- Does physical exercise to the point of exhaustion affect the immune system? Yes: this will lead to more frequent infections as well as more severe symptoms.
+- In regards to health: adaptive immunity provides the basis for ... ? <one>immunization</one>
+- How do insects figure out they are infected by a virus? Animals do not produce double-stranded RNA, so the presence of dsRNA is a trigger for a specific defense against an invading virus.
+- The lymphatic system consists of ... ? <one>lymphatic vessels</one>.
+- Can <one>complement proteins</one> <two>promote the release of histamine</two>? <one>Yes</one>.
+- In general: <one>macrophages</one> <two>secrete ...</two>? <one>cytokines</one>.
+- How are the major immune cells in insects called? <one>Hemocytes</one>.
+- <one>Cytotoxic T cells</one> show a response to ... ? to <one>infected host cells</one>.
+- In order to assemble a functional Ig gene, is rearrangement of DNA necessary? <one>Yes</one>.
+- Give a slightly better name for the <one>T cell receptor</one>. A: The <one>T cell antigen receptor</one>.
+- Do <one>antigen-presenting cells</one> (APC cells) contain both class I and class II MHC molecules? Yes.
+- A disorder in which an immune system response to antigens is defective or absent is called ... ? an <one>immunodeficiency</one>.
+- After a cytotoxic T cell has been released from binding to its target cell that is to be killed, can it attack another infected cell? Yes.
+- Name a constraint of the T cell receptor. A: The T cell receptor (also called the T cell antigen receptor) can bind only to fragments of antigens that are displayed (that is, presented), on the surface of host cells.
+- The systemic inflammatory response can lead to a life-threatening condition, called septic shock. This shock is characterized by ... ? <one>low blood pressure</one>.
+- Certain cancers also suppress the immune system, especially ... ? Especially <one>Hodgkin’s disease</one>.
+- Once released, after having bound to a target cell, can cytotoxic T cells attack again? Yes.
+- The two main types of phagocytic cells in the mammalian body are ... ? (1) neutrophils (2) macrophages
+- Are <one>MHC molecules</one> <two>essential for antigen recognition by T cells</two>? <one>Yes</one>.
+- <one>Interferons</one> are proteins that will interfere with ... ? Interferons will interfere with viral infections. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon
+- Can <one>granzymes</one> <two>initiate apoptosis</two>? <one>Yes</one>.
+- In adaptive immunity, receptors provide ... recognition. A: Receptors provide <one>pathogen-specific provide</one> recognition.
+- For a T cell, the antigen receptor consists of ... ? two different polypeptide chains, an A chain and a A chain.
+- A systemic inflammatory response sometimes involves ... which reaction by the body? <one>fever</one>.
+- class II molecules provide a molecular signature by which ... is recognized. A: an <one>antigen-presenting cell</one> is recognized.
+- What is the cause behind <one>severe combined immunodeficiency</one> (<two>SCID</two>)? Functional lymphocytes are rare or absent.
+- The accessory protein for cytototic T cell is ... ? <one>CD8</one>.
+- In animals: does adaptive immunity normally have self-tolerance? Yes - adaptive immunity normally has self-tolerance, which is the lack of reactivity against an animal’s own molecules and cells.
+- Why does the human body use fever? An elevated body temperature may enhance phagocytosis, although this still may not completely explain why fever is employed
+- Can both humoral and cell-mediated immunity include primary as well as secondary immune response? Yes.
+- Early in B cell development, an enzyme complex called ... links one light-chain V gene segment to one J gene segment. A: <one>recombinase</one>.
+- The <one>B cell antigen receptor</one> is exclusively membrane bound. It is essentially which antibody? <one>IgD</one>.
+- Even with modern medical care, for every 1000 infected individuals, how many people die, on average, to measles? About 1 out of 1000 infected individuals die due to measles, even with modern medicine.
+- How do <one>cytotoxic T cells</one> kill? They release molecules that make pores in an infected cell’s membrane.
+- <one>Immunological memory</one> was first note almost 2400 years ago, by which Greek historian? <one>Thucydides</one>.
+- To become active, cytotoxic T cells require signals ... from which cell? From <one>helper T cells</one>.
+- Are there any <one>macrophages</one> <two>in the spleen</two>? <one>Yes</one>.
+- For <one>T cells</one>: the effector forms are which two cells? (1) the helper T cells (2) the cytotoxic T cells
+- A single B or T cell has about n  antigen receptors on its surface? About <one>100_000</one> (aka one-hundred thousand aka 100000).
+- Give an example of a chemical barrier <one>enzyme</one> that breaks down bacterial cell walls, thus acting as a chemical barrier against any pathogens ingested with food. A: <one>Lysozyme</one>.
+- The specific binding of immune receptors to foreign molecules is a type of ... ? <one>molecular recognition</one>.
+- The first lines of defense offered by the immune system help prevent pathogens from ... ? from <one>gaining entrance to the body</one>.
+- For a pathogen - such as a bacterium, a fungus, a virus, or other disease-causing agent - the internal environment of an animal offers a source of ... ? a source of <one>nutrients</one>
+- Does the overall regulation of the immune system change during pregnancy? <one>Yes</one>.
+- Can we see that pregnancy in humans changes the immune response? Yes. For instance, the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease of the joints, become less severe during pregnancy.
+- <one>Adaptive immunity</one> is systemic. What is meant with this expression? This means that even if an immune response is initiated at one site, it can provide protection at distant sites.
+- <one>Immunologic unresponsiveness</one> is also called ... ? <one>tolerance</one>.
+- <one>Herd immunity</one> is typically achieved at n%, give or take? At about 80%. This also means that if we achieve a vaccination rate of over 80% then we should have achieved herd immunity - at the least for most infectious diseases.
+- Is <one>adaptive immunity</one> found outside of vertebrates? <one>No</one>.
+- Does the <one>spleen</one> <two>have a role in regards to immunology</two>? <one>Yes</one>: <two>the spleen also filters the blood for antigens</two>.
+- <one>Cytotoxische T-Zellen</one> <two>verwenden zuerst</two> <three>Perforin</three>; danach ... um in der Zielzelle die Caspasen zu aktivieren. A: <one>Granzyme</one>.
+- <one>TREG Zellen</one> zeichnen sich durch <two>die Expression welchen Transkriptionsfaktors</two> aus? <one>FOXP3</one>.
+- Die <one>Effektorzellen der ADCC</one> sind ... ? <one>NK-Zellen</one>.
+- <one>Welches proinflammatorische Cytokin</one> aktiviert Akute-Phase-Proteine insbesonders? <one>IL-6</one>.
+- Jenner’s landmark treatise on vaccination was published in which year? <one>1798</one>.
+- Can <one>CD86</one> be found on <two>B-cells</two>? <one>Yes</one>. It is <two>a costimulatory molecule expressed by APCs</two>. []
+- Die <one>primäre Rolle der zytotoxischen T-Zellen</one> ist ... ? Die Abwehr von Viren respektive Virenbefall von Zellen.
+- <one>How</one> does the immune system know that there is an infection? This is possible thanks to <one>antigen receptors</one>.
+- <one>Welche Zellen</one> im menschlichen Körper produzieren α-Defensine? Die <one>Paneth-Körnerzellen</one>.
+- Nenne ein antimikrobielles Peptid, das gegenüber Pilzinfektionen wirksam ist und mit dem Buchstaben <one>D</one> beginnt. A: <one>Drosomycin</one>.
+- <one>Antimikrobielle Peptide</one> wirken nicht nur gegen Bakterien, sondern auch gegen ... ? <one>Pilze</one>.
+- Insekten haben eine Barriere auf Chitinbasis im Darm. Wie wird diese genannt? Dies ist die <one>peritrophische Matrix</one>. Diese schützt vor Infektionen durch Mikroorganismen, die mit der Nahrung aufgenommen werden.
+- <one>Cyclosporine A</one> can inhibit c... by forming complexes with cyclophilins. A: <one>calcineurin</one>.
+- TH17-Zellen entwickeln sich unter dem Einfluss verschiedener Zytokine aus ... ? <one>naiven T-Zellen</one>.
+- TH1-Zellen entwickeln sich aus ... ? <one>naiven T-Helfer-Zellen</one>.
+- TH1-Zellen interagieren vor allem mit ... ? <one>antigenpräsentierenden Makrophagen</one>.
+- <one>Neutrophile Granulocyten</one> machen bis zu n% der zirkulierenden weißen Blutkörperchen im Menschen aus? Bis zu <one>75%</one>.
+- Warum haben die Blutgefäßwände Adhäsionsmoleküle? Dies unterstützt die <one>Rekrutierung der Immunzellen</one>.
+- <one>Welches Zytokin</one> ist wesentlich für die T-Zellproliferation und damit für die klonale Expansion der T-Zellen verantwortlich? <one>Interleukin-2</one>.
+- <one>B7</one> is a type of integral membrane protein found on ... ? activated <one>antigen-presenting cells</one> (APC).
+- Was ist <one>Lymphopoese</one>? Dies ist Entstehung und Reifung von Lymphozyten.
+- Nenne <one>vier antigenpräsentierende Zelltypen</one>. A: (1) Monozyten (2) Makrophagen (3) B-Zellen (4) <one>dendritische Zellen</one>
+- Der Membranangriffskomplex besteht aus bis zu n C9-Proteinen die den Kanal bilden. A: Aus bis zu 16 <two>C9-Proteinen</two>.
+- Beim <one>C-reaktiven Protein</one>: warum das C? Da es mit dem C-Polysaccharid von Pneumokokken reagiert.
+- Das wohl bekannteste Akute-Phase-Proteine ist ... ? <one>CRP</one>: <two>C-reaktives Protein</two>.
+- Lysozym wirkt vor allem gegen welche Bakterien? Gegen <one>grampositive Bakterien</one>.
+- Defensine besitzen in etwa wieviele Aminosäuren? In etwa <one>29–34 Aminosäuren</one>.
+- Die bekanntesten Vertreter der antimikrobiellen Peptide im menschlichen Körper sind ... ? die <one>Defensine</one>.
+- <one>IFN-γ</one> is the major activator of ... ? <one>macrophages</one>. 
+- Nenne ein Zytokin das anti-inflammatorisch wirkt. A: <one>IL-10</one>.
+- Bezogen auf den menschlichen Körper: wo können Beta-Defensine gefunden werden? Auf der Haut.
+- Gehören die <one>dendritischen Zellen</one> zur erworbenen Immunantwort? Nein. Dendritische Zellen gehören zu der angeborenen Immunantwort.
+- Zeigen Cytokine eine parakrine Signalübertragung? <one>Ja</one>.
+- Im Zuge der Komplementaktivierung: welches Enzym  spaltet C3 in C3a und C3b? Die <one>C3-Konvertase</one>.
+- The <one>final effect of the natural immune response</one> is ... ? To get rid of the antigens, that is, to get rid of mirobes and viruses.
+- <one>Production of neutrophils</one> <two>is stimulated by which factor</two>? Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor: <two>G-CSF</two>.
+- MHC-Klasse-I versus MHC-Klasse-II: welche dieser beiden Klassen kommt auf mehr Zellen vor? MHC-Klasse-I - sie kommen auf allen kernhaltigen Zellen vor.
+- Sind <one>MHC-Moleküle</one> <two>Glykoproteine</two>? <one>Ja</one>.
+- Die stärksten und wichtigsten Antigene sind ... ? <one>Eiweiße</one>.
+- Werden <one>Lektine</one> zu den PRRs ("Mustererkennungsrezeptoren") gezählt? <one>Ja</one>.
+- Besitzen Phagocyten PRRs auf ihrer Oberfläche? Ja. Ohne diese könnten sie Pathogene nicht erkennen und phagozytieren.
+- <one>Where</one> <two>in a lymph node</two> can we find the B cells? In the <one>follicle</one>; also known as <two>the B cell zone</two>.
+- Gehört CD4 zur Immunglobulin-Superfamilie? <one>Ja</one>.
+- Fördert <one>TNF-alpha</one> die Freisetzung von Akute-Phase-Proteinen? Ja.
+- Die Aufgabe der primären Immunorgane ist ... ? die Lymphopoese.
+- <one>Cytotoxische T-Zellen</one> verwenden auch Perforin. Wie wirkt Perforin? Perforin macht die Zellmembran der Zielzelle durchlässiger.
+- Die Tc-Zelle besitzt cytotoxische Proteine. Nenne drei davon. A: (1) Perforin (2) Granzyme (3) Granulysin
+- Zu den <one>MALTs</one> (mucosa associated lymphoid tissue) gehören welche zwei Bereiche im menschlichen Körper? (1) Tonsillen (2) Peyer-Plaques
+- Can macrophages be found in MALT? Yes.
+- Zu den <one>Lymphozyten</one> zählen ... ? (1) B-Lymphozyten (B-Zellen) (2) T-Lymphozyten (T-Zellen) (3) Natürliche Killerzellen (NK-Zellen) 
+- Goblet cells produce ... ? Mucus, aka the mucus layer of the gut.
+- Ein <one>Fab-Fragment</one> <two>besteht aus ... </two>? aus einer kompletten leichten Kette und einem Fragment der schweren Kette
+- Entstehen neutrophile Granulozyten aus myeloischen Vorläuferzellen? Ja.
+- Insbesondere wichtig für den Erhalt des Mucus beim Menschen ist ... ? eine <one>ballaststoffreiche Ernährung</one>.
+- Ist die Aufgabe der primären Lymphorganen die Lymphopoese? Ja.
+- Does an antiserum contain antibodies? Yes. These antibodies all bind the same antigen, but have a different structure.
+- Sind <one>Makrophagen</one> gewebsständige Zellen? <one>Ja</one>.
+- <one>Pattern-Recognition-Rezeptoren</one> sind Rezeptoren, die Pathogene anhand ihrer spezifischen PAMPs erkennen. Aber welchen Sinn hat dies? Dies leitet anschließend die Immunantwort ein.
+- <one>What happens</one> <two>in a germinal center</two> of a lymph node? This is where <one>B cells proliferate</one>.
+- Welche drei Zelltypen entstehen aus der lymphatischen Vorläuferzelle? (1) B-Zelle (2) T-Zelle (3) NK-Zelle
+- Zirkulieren Monocyten im Blut? Ja, wenngleich in geringer Zahl (im Normalzustand).
+- Possibly the most famous example of autoimmunity in humans is ... ? Type 1 diabetes (T1D).
+- The <one>major function of macrophages is ... </one>? Related to host defense: to ingest and kill microbes.
+- The superantigen responsible for scarlet fever is ... ? <one>Erythrogenic toxic</one>, produced by Streptococcus pyogenes.
+- Name a symptom of the toxic shock syndrome caused by a Staphylococcus aureus superantigen. A: The <one>strawberry tongue</one>.
+- Some superantigens can bind up to n% of all T cells in the body. A: Up to 25% of all T cells in the body.
+- Are <one>superantigens</one> <two>proteins</two>? <one>Yes</one>.
+- Can superantigen poisoning be triggered by food poisoning? Yes - in particular the one caused by the enterotoxins of S. aureus.
+- Name the two gram-positive bacteria that are major producers of exotoxin superantigens. A: (1) Staphylococcus aureus (2) Streptococcus  pyogenes
+- Superantigens binding to the MHC class II as well as to the Vβ region of many T-cell receptors causes a massive production of cytokines by which cells? By <one>CD4 T cells</one>.
+- Can superantigens bind to the MHC class II? <one>Yes</one>.
+- Do <one>superantigens</one> have to be processed in order to be recognized by T cells? No.
+- Do <one>superantigens</one> rather bind to T-cells or to B-cells? They bind to <one>T-cells</one>.
+- In general: <one>lymphocytes</one> <two>recognize foreign material</two> <three>how</three>? By making use of specific cell-surface antigen receptors.
+- <one>Phosphorylated STING</one> <two>recruits IRF3</two>. <three>What does the abbreviation IRF3 stand for</three>? <one>Interferon regulatory factor 3</one>.
+- Name <one>two examples</one> for <two>incorrect reactions of the immune system leading to autoimmune diseases</two>. A: (1) <one>type I diabetes</one> (2) <one>multiple sclerosis</one>
+- What is <one>immunogenic cell death</one>? <one>Immunogenic cell death</one> is any type of cell death that induces an immune response.
+- How do we call <one>the macrophages in Drosophila</one>? <one>Hemocytes</one>.
+- What is <one>pyroptosis</one>? <one>Pyroptosis</one> is <two>an inflammatory mode of regulated cell death</two>.
+- Is <one>CAR T-cell</one> <two>dependent on the MHC</two>? <one>No</one> it is not.
+- <one>Which process</one> <two>generates the cells of the immune system</two>? <one>Hematopoiesis</one>.
+- What is <one>the primary function</one> <two>of regulatory T cells</two>? To <one>inhibit immune responses</one>.
+- <one>Welche Zellen</one> erkennen virusinfizierte Zellen und zerstören diese? <one>Killer-T-Zellen</one>.
+- <one>T cells</one> <two>can bind to HEV</two> (High endothelial venules). <three>Which homing receptor do they themselves use</three>? <one>T cells</one> use the <two>L-selectin receptor</two>.
+- The <one>two most important types</one> of <two>dendritic cells</two> are probably ... ? (1) <one>conventional DC</one> (2) <one>plasmcytoid  DC</one>
+- Name <one>an interesting phenomenon</one> <two>displayed by activated macrophages</two>. A: Macrophages <two>can fuse</two> in order to <three>form multinucleate giant cells</three>.
+- Name <one>a master regulator</one> <two>of T cell development</two>. A: <one>BCL11b</one>.
+- The <one>largest fraction of blood leukocytes</one> <two>is yielded by ... </two>? The <one>neutrophils</one>.
+- Was ist das Ziel der nach Transplantation lebenslang erfolgenden Unterdrückung des Immunsystems? Die <one>Verhinderung von Abstoßungsreaktionen</one>.
+- What is meant when we say that <one>immunity is systemic</one>? This means that <one>protective mechanisms can act anywhere in the body</one>.
+- <one>Naive lymphocytes</one> <two>reside mainly in ... </two>? <one>Secondary lymphoid organs</one>, such as lymph node or the spleen.
+- <one>Welche T-Helferzellen-Subklasse</one> aktiviert Epithelzellen und lockt neutrophile Granulozyten an? <one>TH17</one>.
+- Der <one>MHC-Klasse-II-Komplex</one> <two>besteht aus wievielen membranverankerten Proteinuntereinheiten</two>? Aus zwei: der α- und der β-Untereinheit.
+- What holds a <one>lymph node</one> together, anatomatically speaking? The <one>capsule</one>.
+- The <one>guard</one> of the immune system is, in general ... ? The so-called <one>memory cells</one>.
+- <one>B-lymphocytes</one> <two>derive from ... cells</two>. A: From <one>lymphoid progenitor cells</one>.
+- <one>STING</one> is <two>an abbreviation for ... </two>? <one>Stimulator of interferon genes</one>.
+- <one>Dectin-1</one> <two>binds beta-glucan</two>. <three>Why is this of relevance in immunology</three>? Because <one>beta-glucan</one> is the major component of the yeast form of <three>Candida albicans</three>.
+- The <one>cellular component of the adaptive immune system</one> are ... ? <one>Lymphocytes</one>.
+- The <one>T cell response</one> <two>is restricted to ... </two>? <one>proteins</one>.
+- <one>Jawless fish</one> <two>have evolved a unique adaptive immune system</two>. The antigen receptors on these cells are variable ... receptors. A: <one>Variable Leucine-rich receptors</one>. These can recognize many antigens.
+- A <one>cell</one> that will become a B-cell eventually not only has to be committed to the B lineage, but what also has to happen concomittantly? The program to differentiate the cell into another lineage has to be <one>repressed</one>.
+- The <one>immune synapse</one> closely <two>pairs together which two cells</two>? (1) a <one>T cell</one> (2) an <one>APC</one>
+- <one>Macrophages</one> <two>in the pulmonary airways</two> are called ... ? <one>Alveolar macrophages</one>.
+- Does a <one>B cell</one> <two>respond to protein antigens on its own</two>? <one>No</one> - <two>it requires the activating signal from CD4⁺ T helper cells</two>.
+- Are <one>haptens</one> immunogenic by themselves? <one>No</one>.
+- <one>Bei welchem Phänomen</one> werden die Leukozyten so stark aktiviert, dass sich die Immunreaktion nicht wieder von selbst beruhigt? Bei einem <one>Cytokin-Sturm</one>.
+- Give an example for next-generation CAR-T cell. A: The <one>Universal CAR</one>.
+- Does a <one>CAR T-cell</one> make use of CD28? Yes, inside of the cell.
+- <one>CD28</one> is expressed on which cells? On <one>T cells</one>.
+- <one>Welche Zellen</one> sind mit dem Begriff <two>autoreaktive T-Zellen</two> gemeint? <one>Treg</one>.
+- Findet <one>V(D)J-Rekombination</one> <two>in T-Zellen</two> statt? <one>Ja</one> - und zwar bei den <two>T-Zell-Rezeptoren</two>.
+- <one>TLR4</one> <two>is composed of n chains</two>? <one>Two</one>.
+- <one>Toll-like receptors</one> are membrane receptors that may start a signal transduction cascade ending up with the activation of which transcription factor? <one>NFκB</one> (<two>nuclear factor κB</two>).
+- Activated <one>helper T lymphocytes</one> <two>carry which important CD molecule on their surface</two>? <one>CD4⁺</one>.
+- What does the <one>clonal selection hypothesis</one> stipulate? That lymphcytes that are specific for a large number of antigens already exist before exposue to the antigen. When an antigen is encountered, it selects the specific cells and thus activates them.
+- What are <one>opsonins</one>? Opsonins are substances that coat particles for phagocytosis.
+- Does <one>lymphocyte maturation</one> also occur in the cortext of the thymus? Yes - in the cortex as well as in the medulla.
+- Can <one>helper T cells</one> <two>enhance the microbicidal abilities of phagocytes</two>? <one>Yes</one>.
+- <one>Why</one> do <two>macrophages</two> <three>ingest and engulf apoptotic cells</three>? This is necessary to <one>avoid inducing an inflammatory response</one>.
+- The <one>direct predecessor of the monocyte</one> is the ... ? <one>Monoblast</one>.
+- The <one>precursors of tissue macrophages</one> are ... ? <one>Monocytes</one>.
+- Nenne ein anderes Wort für die <one>somatische Rekombination</one>. A: <one>V(D)J-Rekombination</one>.
+- Name <one>two phagocyte types</one> that express receptors for the tails of IgG, and use that to digest IgG-coated microbes. A: (1) <one>neutrophils</one> (2) <one>macropahges</one>
+- Why are <one>helper T cells</one> called helper? Because these CD4+ T Cells help activate B cells respond to protein antigens.
+- Contraction in immunology happens primarily by which mechanism? Apoptosis.
+- The <one>three main sites</one> of interaction between individuals and their environment are ... ? (1) the <one>skin</one> (2) the <one>gastrointestinal tract</one> (3) the <one>respiratory tract</one>
+- Which immune cell is renowned for secreting cytokines? The <one>T helper cell</one>.
+- An adult human that is healthy, will generate how many granulocytes per day? About <one>70 billion granulocytes per day</one>.
+- VDJ recombination in B cells depends on which proteins? On RAG proteins: Recombinating activating gene proteins.
+- Are <one>superantigens</one> <two>exotoxins</two>? <one>Yes</one>. []
+- Befinden sich <one>PRR</one> <two>in der Zellmembran</two>? <one>Ja</one>. []
+- Andere Bezeichnung für <one>bessere Phagozytose von Krankheitserregern</one>? <one>Opsonierung</one>. []
+- Can <one>macrophages</one> <two>undergo cell division at an inflammatory site</two>? <one>Yes</one>. []
+- Are there <one>more neutrophils</one> <two>in the blood</two> <three>than lymphocytes</three>? <one>Yes</one> - <two>almost twice as many</two>. []
+- Name <one>a process</one> <two>that improves the quality of the humoral immune respone</two>. A: <one>Affinity maturation</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_maturation []
+- Can <one>macrophages</one> <two>serve as an APC</two>? <one>Yes</one>. []
+- Can the <one>BCR</one> <two>bind glycoproteins</two>? <one>Yes</one>. []
+- Do we have to <one>produce CAR T-cells individually for each patient</one>? <one>Yes</one>. []
+- <one>Which two types of inflammation</one> can be distinguished, in general? (1) acute   inflammation (2) chronic inflammation []
+- The <one>most classical example of a PAMP</one> is ... ? <one>LPS</one>: <two>Lipopolysaccharide</two>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide []
+- <one>Which cells</one> typically <two>destroy virus-infected cells</two>? <one>NK cells</one> will do that. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_killer_cell []
+- Do <one>monocytes</one> and <one>macrophages</one> <two>represent the same cell lineage</two>? <one>Yes</one>. []
+- Does <one>a secreted form of the T-cell receptor</one> exist? <one>No</one> - <two>all TCRs are membrane-bound</two>. []
+- Do <one>phagocyte-like cells</one> <two>exist in plants</two>? <one>Yes</one>. []
+- Do <one>macrophages</one> <two>ingest dead cells</two>? <one>Yes</one>, <two>as part of the cleaning up process after infection</two>. []
+- Once entering tissues, <one>monocytes</one> <two>mature and become ... </two>? <one>Macrophages</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage []
+- The <one>most specialized antigen-presenting cell</one> <two>is ... </two>? The <one>dendritic cell</one>. <two>This cell will capture microbial antigens that enter from the external environment</two>. []
+- Does <one>class switching</one> <two>require the action of helper T cells</two>? <one>Yes</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_class_switching []
+- <one>In a given lymph node</one>: which cell should ideally first see an incoming antigen? The <one>dendritic cell</one>. []
+- The <one>monocytes</one> <two>consist of how many distinct subsets</two>? <one>Two</one>. []
+- Do <one>NK cells</one> <two>belong to the adaptive immune system</two>? <one>No</one>. They belong to the innate immune system, largely because they lack antigen-specific cell surface receptors. []
+- The <one>immune system</one> <two>must be tolerant ... </two>? <one>against self</one>. []
+- Give another name for <one>the elimination of antigen</one>. A: The <one>effector phase</one>.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/advanced_microbiology

@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Advanced microbiology
+#
+# Schäffer tag. Schäff tag. Sch tag. ADVANCED MICROBIOLOGY tag.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Nenne die <one>vier Temperaturklassen in Mikroorganismen</one>. A: (1) <one>psychrophil</one> (2) <one>mesophil</one> (3) <one>thermophil</one> (4) <one>hyperthermophil</one>
+- Proteins in a cell wall of bacteria introduce ... to the membrane. A: They introduce asymmetry to the membrane.
+- <one>Capsules</one> (<two>in bacteria</two>) <three>are formed by the excretion of ... </three>? <one>Polysaccharides</one>. []
+- <one>Bacteria</one> <two>grow everywhere</two>, if ... ? If water is available.
+- <one>Vibrio cholerae</one> makes use of its pili that effectively function as .... fishing for free DNA. A: <one>Harpoons</one>.
+- A single bacterial cell contains about ... how many ribosomes? About <one>10_000 ribosomes</one>.
+- Andere Bezeichnung für das Enzym <one>Lysozym</one>? <one>Muramidase</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysozym
+- Bei den <one>hyperthermophilen Proteinen</one> <two>der Archaea</two>: nenne eine Besonderheit. A: Sie haben ein <one>hydrophobes Core</one>; <two>dies verringert die Entfaltungstendenz</two>.
+- <one>Peptidoglycan</one> besteht aus <two>welchen zwei Zuckerderivaten</two>? <one>N-Acetylglucosamin</one> und <one>N-Acetylmuraminsäure</one>. []
+- Die <one>Teichonsäuren</one> <two>sind typisch für welche Bakteriengruppe</two>? <one>Gram⁺ Bakterien</one>. []
+- <one>Wo</one> kann <two>Pseudopeptidoglycan</two> <three>gefunden werden</three>? Bei <one>Archaea</one>. []
+- <one>Which protein</one> normally keeps <two>sigmafactor Sigma-F</two> inactive, in <three>Bacillus subtilis</three>? <one>SpoIIAB</one>, a so-called <two>anti-sigma factor</two>. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC46079/
+- The largest bacterium is ... ? <one>Thiomargarita magnifica</one>.
+- <one>Bactoprenol</one> besitzt <two>wieviele C-Atome</two>? <one>55</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactoprenol []
+- What is <one>the lipid carrier used in the Biosynthesis of Peptidoglycan</one>? <one>Bactoprenol</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactoprenol
+- Der <one>Kalilauge</one>-Test (<two>3%-ige KOH Lösung</two>) wird zum <three>Nachweis welcher Bakteriengruppe verwendet</three>? <one>Gram-negative Bakterien</one> <two>da diese eine dünne Zellwand besitzen</two>. Der Nachweis erfolgt mittels einer Nadel.
+- <one>Wo</one> findet man <two>DAP</two> (<three>Diaminopimelinsäure</three>)? <one>DAP</one> ist ein Baustein der Peptidoglycane.
+- <one>Peptidoglycane</one> bestehen woraus? Aus Strängen glycosidisch miteinander verknüpfter Zuckerderivatmoleküle <one>N-Acetylglucosamin</one> und <one>N-Acetylmuraminsäure</one>.
+- Nenne ein Protein in <one>Sulfolobus</one> das <two>die Integrität der dsDNA</two> erhält. A: Das DNA-Bindungsprotein <one>Sacd7</one>.
+- Nenne <one>drei Methoden in der mikrobiellen Taxonomie</one>, die Verwendung finden. A: (1) <one>Ribotyping</one> (2) <one>Lipidanalyse</one> (3) <one>DNA:DNA Hybridisierung</noe>
+- <one>Lysozym</one> ist <two>gegen welches Peptidoglycan unwirksam</two>? Lysozym ist unwirksam gegenüber <one>Pseudo-Peptidoglycan</one>.
+- Was bevorzugen <one>Osmophile</one>? <one>Osmophile Mikroorganismen</one> bevorzugen einen <two>hohen Zuckergehalt</two>.
+- Nenne alle Enzyme, die beim Entfernen des <one>docking strand</one> im Peptidoglycan beteiligt sind. A: Lytische Transglykosylase, sowie Endopeptidasen und <one>Amidasen</one>.
+- <one>Capsules</one> (in bacteria) carry which antigen? The <one>Vi-antigen</one>.
+- In der molekularen Taxonomie kommt <two>FAME</two> zur Anwendung. Wofür steht <one>FAME</one>? <one>Fatty acid methyl ester</one>.
+- Sind <one>Psychrotolerante</one> <two>hitzelabil</two>? <one>Nein</one>.
+- <one>Wieso</one> verwenden Bakterien <two>Gasvesikel</two>? <one>Gasvesikel</one> dienen dem Auftrieb von im Wasser lebenden Bakterien.
+- Trivialname für <one>Gallionella</one>? <one>Eisenbakterium</one>.
+- Name a <one>key biomarker</one> <two>for Bacteria</two>, but not for Archaea. A: <one>Peptidoglycan</one>.
+- Beim <one>Ribotyping</one>: <two>welches molekulare Werkzeug ist hier sehr wichtig</two>? Die <one>PCR</one>.
+- <one>Which component</one> of the <two>bacterial peptidoglycan</two> is common to both Bacteria and Archaea? <one>N-Acetylglucosamin</one>.
+- <one>Why</one> may a bacterium <two>require a hydrolase for growth</two>? A conditional mutant lacking certain hydrolases, are no longer able to to incorporate new murein into their cell wall, most likely because the cross-link step is essential for enlargement of the murein sacculus.
+- <one>Welche Struktur</one> hat das Pseudopeptidoglycan der Archaea? N-Acetylglucosamin und N-Acetyltalosaminuronsäure, die Beta-1,3-verknüpft sind.
+- <one>Welche Bakteriengruppe</one> benötigt vor allem <two>Natrium</two>? Jene die im Meer leben, da der Salzgehalt im Meerwasser hoch ist.
+- Name a problem with <one>mixed-culture growth</one>. A: Some strain tend to dominate over others.
+- In bacteria: the <one>regulation of these bioluminescence genes</one> is <two>often inherently linked with ... </two>? <one>Quorum sensing</one>.
+- Warum ist das <one>Peptidoglycan</one> so wichtig für ein Bakterium? Es gibt dem Bakterium seine Form und schützt es dergestalt vor <one>osmotischer Lyse</one>.
+- Nenne <one>eine Bakteriengattung</one>, die den KDPG-Weg für den Glucoseabbau verwendet. A: <one>Pseudomonadas</one>.
+- <one>Wo</one> werden <two>Autolysine</two> eingesetzt? Bei der <one>Biosynthese von Peptidoglykan</one>.
+- Andere Bezeichnung für die <one>Cytoplasmamembran</one> der Bakterien? <one>Phospholipiddoppelschicht</one>.
+- Wer ist der <one>Lipidcarrier</one> für Peptidoglykanbausteine? <one>Bactoprenol</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactoprenol []
+- Name a famous example of a bacterium that is capable of <one>bioluminescence</one>. A: The marine bacterium <one>Vibrio fischeri</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliivibrio_fischeri []
+- Name a specific example for a biological entity that would fall under <one>biosafety level 4</one>. A: The <one>Ebola virus</one>.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/advanced_topics_in_plant_sciences

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+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Advanced topics in plant sciences
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- The Lamiaceae are also commonly known as ... ? the <one>mints</one>.
+- Welche Personen waren wohl die ersten, die Versuche zum Phototropismus durchführten? Charles Darwin und sein Sohn Francis, im späten 19. Jahrhundert. 
+- Wachsen die beiden Seiten der Koleoptile unterschiedlich schnell? Ja - das ist zum Beispiel der Fall wenn ein Keimling zum Sonnenlicht wächst.
+- Nenne einen Grund wieso Pflanzen Phototropismus benötigen. A: Der Phototropismus ist dafür verantwortlich, dass Keimpflanzen hin zum Sonnenlicht wachsen.
+- Die <one>Wachstumsantwort</one>, die dazu führt, dass die Pflanzenorgane sich zu bestimmten Reizen hin oder von ihnen weg krümmen, wird ... genannt. A: <one>Tropismus</one>.
+- In Pflanzen: wo kann Stärke gefunden werden? In den <one>Amyloplasten</one>.
+- Pflanzenzellen bevorzugen eine hypotone, hypertone oder isotone Umgebung? Eine <one>hypotone Umgebung</one>.
+- Wenn ein Spross ans Sonnenlicht gelangt, durchläuft die Pflanze tiefgreifende Veränderungen, die insgesamt als ... bezeichnet werden. A: Ergrünung (<one>De-Etiolierung</one>).
+- <one>Mammutbäume</one> werden auch ... genannt. A: <one>Sequoias</one>.
+- Does <one>Carum Carvi</one> belong to the Apiaceae? <one>Yes</one>.
+- Trivialname der Apiaceae? <one>Doldenblütler</one>.
+- Animal cells make use of gap junctions. How are the similar structures to gap junctions in plants called? <one>Plasmodesmata</one>.
+- Das <one>Längenwachstum</one> wird während des gesamten Lebens einer Landpflanze durch ... aufrechterhalten. A: die <one>Apikalmeristeme</one>.
+- Sind die <one>Pteridophyten</one> eine monophyletische Gruppe? Nein - sie sind eine paraphyletische Gruppe.
+- Nenne ein allgemeines Beispiel für <one>gefäßlose Pflanzen</one>. A: Die Moose, wie die <two>Laubmoose</two>.
+- Was meinen wir mit <one>Protoplastenkulturen</one>? Dies sind <one>Pflanzenzellen ohne Zellwand</one>.
+- The <one>flowering plants</one> are also called ... ? <one>Angiosperms</one>.
+- <one>Tracheophyten</one> sind die ... ? <one>Gefäßpflanzen</one>.
+- Nenne <one>zwei Gründe</one> wieso Pflanzen <two>Kalium</two> benötigen. A: (1) für die <one>Regulierung des Wasserhaushalts</one> (2) für den <one>Aufbau von Zellwänden</one>
+- <one>Volvox</one> belongs to which algae? To the <one>green alga</one>.
+- Die Cuticula der Landpflanzen wirkt wasserabweisend und verhindert dadurch einen übermäßigen Wasserverlust aus den tiefer gelegenen Geweben. Gleichzeitig bietet die Cuticula jedoch noch einen weiteren Vorteil, wenngleich dieser nicht so wichtig ist wie der Schutz gegen Wasserverlust. A: Die Cuticula bietet einen gewissen Schutz vor Angriffen durch Mikroorganismen.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel für einen Sekundärstoff der Pflanzen der mit dem Buchstaben '<one>A</one>' beginnt. A: <one>Alkaloide</one>.
+- <one>Was fehlte</one> den ersten Landpflanzen? (1) Sie hatten <one>keine echten Wurzeln</one>. (2) Auch <one>Blätter</one> fehlten ihnen.
+- Wie lösen Landpflanzen das Problem des ständigen Wasserverlustes? Sie verwenden eine wasserabweisende <one>Cuticula</one>.
+- Die männlichen Gametangien, die Antheridien, bilden bei manchen Pflanzen begeißelte Spermatozoiden. Nenne eine Pflanzengruppe als Beispiel hierzu. A: Die <one>Bryophyten</one> aka <two>Moose</two>.
+- Der <one>Sporophyt</one> trägt vielzellige Organe, die ... , in denen Sporen produziert werden. A: <one>Sporangien</one>.
+- Was ist die <one>Transpiration</one>? <one>Transpiration</one> ist die Abgabe von Wasserdampf aus Blättern und anderen oberirdischen Pflanzenteilen.
+- Eine andere Bezeichnung für die <one>Landpflanzen</one> ist <two>E...........</two>. A: <one>Embryophyten</one>.
+- In <one>bryophytes</one> such as mosses, liverworts, and hornworts: is the gametophyte or the sporophyte the most visible stage of the life cycle? The <one>gametophyte</one>. 
+- Die engsten lebenden Verwandten der Landpflanzen sind ... ? Die Vertreter der Grünalgen.
+- Eigentlich sollten wie Pflanzen eher als ... bezeichnen. A: <one>Landpflanzen</one>.
+- Leben die meisten rezenten Pflanzentaxa in terrestrischen Lebensräumen? <one>Ja</one>.
+- Im Jahre 2015 waren in etwa wieviele Pflanzenarten bekannt? Etwa <one>290.000 Pflanzenarten</one>.
+- Besitzen <one>Embryophyten</one> sowohl einen Gametophyten als auch einen Sporophyten? <one>Ja</one>.
+- Kommt <one>Cellulose</noe> verzweigt vor? <one>Nein</one>, nie.
+- Nenne eine Pflanze, die relativ viel Ameisensäure besitzt. A: Die <one>Brennessel</one>.
+- As part of the <one>phloem</one>: why are the <two>sieve tube elements</two> <three>not capable of synthesizing proteins</three>? Because <one>they have lost their nucleus</one>.
+- Say that a fungus attacks a plant. Which gas could be used to decrease the severity of this fungal infection? <one>Ethylene</one>.
+- Welche 'Zelle' dient als Modell zum Verständnis des osmotischen Potentials? Die <one>Pfeffersche Zelle</one>.
+- Das <one>Wasserpotential</one> kann benutzt werden um zu bestimmen wie Wasser fließt. Wie geht dies? Allgemein gilt: Wasser fließt immer von Orten mit höherem zu Orten mit niedrigerem Wasserpotential.
+- Das <one>Wasserpotential</one> ist ein Maß für ... ? Für die <one>Verfügbarkeit von Wasser</one>.
+- Nenne drei verschiedene Gase die in einer Pflanze transportiert werden. A: (1) <one>CO₂</one> (2) <one>O₂</one> (3) <one>H₂O</one>
+- Eine <one>Mykorrhiza</one> ist eine symbiontische Assoziation zwischen Pilzen und ... ? <one>Pflanzenwurzeln</one>.
+- Bei der grünen Revolution: höhere ... durch Zwergwuchs. A: <one>höhere Kornerträge</one>.
+- Bei der berühmten <one>grünen Revolution</one>: welches Phytohormon war hier besonders wichtig? <one>Gibberellin</one>.
+- Bei der Selektion von Getreide: ist es eher besser wenn die Rachis zerbrechlich ist oder wenn die Rachis starr ist, aus Sicht der Menschen? Es ist, aufgrund der Ernte, eher besser wen die Rachis starr ist.
+- Die <one>Guttationsflüssigkeit</one> ist nicht das gleiche wie <two>Tau</two> - aber was ist <two>Tau</two>? <two>Tau</two> ist <one>kondensierter Wasserdampf aus der Luft</one>.
+- Was ist <one>photoatrop</one>? Dies bedeutet <one>nicht auf Licht reagierend</one>.
+- Thanks to <one>root nodules</one>, plants obtain ... ? <one>Nitrogen</one>.
+- <two>n% der US Maisproduktion</two> geht in <one>Bioethanol</one>? Etwa <one>40%</one>.
+- Der <one>Protoplast</one> wird nach außen begrenzt durch ... ? <one>Plasmalemma</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellmembran
+- Was ist mit dem Begriff <one>hypogäisch</one> gemeint? Dies ist dann der Fall wenn der Same unter der Erde verbleibt.
+- Die <one>Samenverbreitung durch Tiere</one> wird wie genannt? <one>Zoochorie</one>.
+- In a given plant cell: does <one>ice forming</one> outside the cell membrane <two>withdraw water from the protoplast</two>? Yes.
+- Angenommen eine Pflanze kann sowohl große als auch kleine Samen produzieren. Welchen Vorteil mag sich durch kleine Samen ergeben (abgesehen von der Energie, die investiert muss für deren Produktion)? Kleine Samen sind <one>leicht zu verbreiten</one>.
+- In Pflanzen: verläuft die <one>Massenströmung</one> schneller als Diffusion? Ja.
+- Nenne den prominentesten Vertreter des <one>C4-Typs</one> bei der Photosynthese. A: Der <one>Mais</one>.
+- <two>Plants</two> use which substance for <one>transpiration</one>? <one>H₂O</one>.
+- What are <one>helophytes</one>? These are <one>plants</one> that hibernate under water or in water-saturaded sediments. They die during winter.
+- <two>Wieviele sukkulente Blätter</two> finden wir bei den <one>lebenden Steinen</one>? <one>Zwei</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithops
+- Is <one>cork</one> softer than <two>wood</two>? In general <one>yes</one>.
+- Das <one>Pilzmyzel</one> rund um Mykorrhiza hat (meistens) welche Farbe? <one>Weiß</one>.
+- Give an example for <one>plant-animal mutualism</one>. A: <one>Plant-ant mutualism</one>, where the <two>ants protect the plants</two>.
+- Nenne <one>eine photosynthetisch aktive, mehrzellige Alge</one>. A: Der <one>Seetang</one>.
+- Some <one>orchids</one> resemble female ... in shape? <one>Wasps.</one>
+- Bei den Pflanzen: <one>Sauerstoff</one> 'entsteht' im Zuge der ... ? der <one>Lichtreaktion</one>.
+- <one>Mechanical protection</one> of a plant's epidermis often occurs primarily through ... ? A <one>thick cell wall</one>.
+- Bei Pflanzen findet sich das <one>Hydrenchym</one> meist unter dem ... ? <one>Assimilationsparenchym</one>.
+- <one>Ug99</one> ist ein virulenter Rostpilz der Weizen befällt. Er stammte aus welchem Land? Aus <one>Uganda</one>.
+- <one>Guard cells</one> can be found near/at the stomata. Do they contain <two>chloroplasts</two>? No.
+- Welche Pflanzen vor allem verwenden ein <one>Hydrenchym</one>? Pflanzen die <one>in Trockengebieten</one> beheimatet sind.
+- Andere Bezeichnung für den <one>Milchsaft tropischer Bäume</one>? <one>Latex</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milchsaft
+- How do we call <one>plant seeds</one> that do not need any help when it comes to seed dispersal? <one>Autochorous seeds</one>.
+- Die <one>Kokosnuss</one> ist keine Nuss sondern ... ? Eine <one>Steinfrucht</one>.
+- Die <one>Stärkespeicherung</one> in Pflanzen erfolgt üblicherweise oberirdisch oder unterirdisch? Eher <one>unterirdisch</one>.
+- Andere Bezeichnung für eine <one>Kulturpflanzensorte</one>? <one>Cultivar</one>.
+- Was wird unter dem Begriff <one>Massenströmung</one> verstanden? Dies bezeichnet <one>die durch Druck angetriebene Bewegung einer Flüssigkeit</one>.
+- Das <one>O₂</one> bei der Photosynthese entsteht aus ... ? <one>H₂O</one>.
+- <one>Mais</one> hat, in Bezug auf die Ernährung, einen Mangel an ... ? <one>Niacin</one>; sowie den Aminosäuren Tryptophan und Lysin.
+- Can the <one>bark</one> of the trees be used to identify said tree? Yes.
+- <one>Aerenchyma</one> (in plants) are especially important under which condition? When the plant resides under water yet still requires oxygen (O₂) supply.
+- Do <one>shrubs</one> have an <two>advantage</two> over <one>trees</one> in snow? Well, it depends - <one>dwarf shrubs may be covered by snow</one>, which protects them against some of the cold, whereas a young tree seedling faces a challenge here.
+- Nenne eine Pflanze, deren Blätter bis zu 20 Meter lang werden können. A: Die <one>Mehlpalme</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffia_palm
+- Wie können wir den Begriff <one>Transpiration</one> übersetzen? Mit <one>Wasserverlust aus den Blättern</one>.
+- Lebende Steine aus der Gattung <one>Lithops</one> haben Vorteile und Nachteile. Nenne einen interessanten Nachteil. A: Lebende Steine wachsen nur sehr langsam, da sie <one>weitgehend unterirdisch leben</one>.
+- Die Färbung im <one>Chromoplast</one> entsteht durch ... ? <one>Carotinoiden</one>.
+- Was wird mit dem Begriff <one>Protophyten</one> gemeint? Dies bezieht sich auf <one>einzellige Algen und Pilze</one>. 
+- Name a very important difference between cultivated bananas and their wild relatives. A: <one>Cultivated bananas are seedless</one> - which <two>makes them more edible</two>.
+- In plants: give another name for <one>embryonic tissue</one>. A: A <one>meristem</one>.
+- Are <one>tracheids</one> single cells? Yes - <one>elongated single cells</one>.
+- Plants often have <one>trichomes</one>. Name three different types of trichomes here. A: (1) <one>Aerial surface hairs</one> (2) <one>Glandular trichomes</one> (3) <one>Non-glandular trichomes</one>
+- Die <one>Kokosnuss</one> ist ein Same, der zumindest einen Nachteil hat. Welchen? Die Palme kann nur sehr wenige Kokosnüssen produzieren.
+- <one>Begonia</one> produces very small seeds, but plenty of them. This has some disadvantages, but also at the least one large advantage if a plant is to produce very small seeds. Name such an advantage. A: Small seeds are easily dispersed by wind.
+- <one>Seeds of plants</one> contain which two very important components? (1) the <one>embryo</one> (2) <one>storage facilities</one> (such as nutrients)
+- What is <one>anemochory</one>? This is <one>seed dispersal by wind</one>- the hairs on seeds can function as flight hairs. 
+- Give another (english) name for the <one>trichomes</one>. A: <one>Trichomes</one> are also called <two>stinging hairs</two>.
+- <one>cork</one> is water-and gas-tight. It also contains <two>antimicrobial substances</two>, in particular ... ? <one>Tannins</one>.
+- Do the <one>epidermal cells in plants</one> have <two>intercellular space</two>? No - except for the <one>stomata</one>.
+- <one>Cormophytes</one> contain which three elements? (1) <one>shoots</one> (2) <one>roots</one> (3) <one>leaves</one>
+- In the <one>xylem</one> of plants: water is transported by <two>positive pressure</two> or by <two>negative pressure</two>? It is transported by <one>negative pressure</one>, from the <two>water loss by the leaves</two>.
+- Name <one>a plant family</one> that absolutely depends on the presence of a fungus. A: The <one>orchids</one>. They form a tight symbiosis with a certain fungus.
+- The <one>fungal partners</one> in <two>endomycorrhiza</two> are from a small group of fungi called the ... ? <one>Glomeromycota</one>.
+- In plants: <one>Ectomycorrhizae</one> suppress the production of ... ? <one>Root hairs</one>.
+- Give an example for <one>Eusymbiosis</one> in plants. A: <one>Pollination</one>.
+- Have <one>humans</one> entered a <two>symbiosis</two> with <one>plants</one>? Yes - modern human society and cultivated plants could not exist without one another.
+- Give another name for the <one>spermatophytes</one>. A: <one>Seed plants</one>.
+- What is the primary role of <one>apical meristems</one> in plants? Apical meristems serve for <one>growth in length</one>.
+- <one>Isodiametric plant cells</one> have what general shape? They are <one>approximately round</one>.
+- Name a <one>succulent plant</one> that begins with the letter <two>A</two>. A: <one>Aloe</one>.
+- <one>Idioblasts</one> in plants often include ... ? <one>Crystals</one>, such as <two>calcium oxalate</two>.
+- Why may some plants make use of <one>intracellular calcium oxalate</one>? Because this <one>may protect from herbivores</one>; may also damage the kidneys in the long run. (Another lesser reason is that the formation of oxalate crystals relieves the plant of this toxic substance).
+- Give two examples for <one>Thallophytes</one>. A: (1) <one>mosses</one> (2) <one>algae</one>
+- The <one>phloem</one> and the <one>xylem</one> are arranged in vascular ... ? <one>bundles</one>.