cainiaoblog 23.2.171

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+ </script><script type="text/javascript" src="//cdn.staticaly.com/gh/npljy/npljy.github.io/main/js/fixedPage.min.js"></script><meta name="generator" content="Hexo 6.3.0"></head><body><div class="body_container"><div id="header"><div class="site-name"><a id="logo" href="/.">前端壹菜鸟</a><p class="description">关注前端知识，收集精彩博文，做技术的搬运工</p></div><div id="nav-menu"><a class="current" href="/." target="_self"><i class="fa fa-home"> 首页</i></a><a href="/archives/" target="_self"><i class="fa fa-archive"> 归档</i></a><a href="/guestbook/" target="_self"><i class="fa fa-comments"> 留言</i></a><a href="/about/" target="_self"><i class="fa fa-user"> 关于</i></a><a href="https://laonongmin.online/" target="_target"><i class="fa fa-group"> 看看</i></a><a href="https://love.xuehuayu.cn/" target="_target"><i class="fa fa-heart"> LOVE</i></a></div></div><div class="pure-g" id="layout"><div class="pure-u-1 pure-u-md-3-4"><div class="content_container"><div class="post"><h1 class="post-title c-post">函数式编程入门教程</h1><div class="post-meta"><span class="date">2020-01-08</span><span> | </span><span class="tag"><a href="/tags/%E8%BD%AC%E8%BD%BD/">转载 </a></span><span> | </span><span class="category"><a href="/categories/%E5%89%8D%E7%AB%AF/">前端 </a></span><span id="busuanzi_container_page_pv"> | <span id="busuanzi_value_page_pv"><i class="fa fa-spinner"></i></span><span> 阅读</span></span><span class="post-time"><span class="post-meta-item-text"> | </span><span class="post-meta-item-icon"><i class="fa fa-keyboard-o"></i><span class="post-count"> 4k</span><span class="post-meta-item-text"> 字</span></span></span><span class="post-time"> | <span class="post-meta-item-icon"><i class="fa fa-hourglass-half"></i><span class="post-count"> 15</span><span class="post-meta-item-text"> 分钟</span></span></span></div><a class="disqus-comment-count" href="/article/14936.html#vcomment"><span class="waline-comment-count" data-path="/article/14936.html"></span><span> 条评论</span></a><div class="post-content"><blockquote>
20
+ <p>作者： 阮一峰<br><code>原文链接：http://www.ruanyifeng.com/blog/2017/02/fp-tutorial.html</code></p>
21
+ </blockquote>
22
+ <hr>
23
+ <p>你可能听说过函数式编程（Functional programming），甚至已经使用了一段时间。</p>
24
+ <p>但是，你能说清楚，它到底是什么吗？</p>
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+ <span id="more"></span>
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+
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+ <p><img src="http://www.ruanyifeng.com/blogimg/asset/2017/bg2017022201.jpg" alt="img"></p>
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+ <p>网上搜索一下，你会轻松找到好多答案。</p>
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+ <blockquote>
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+ <ul>
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+ <li>与面向对象编程（Object-oriented programming）和过程式编程（Procedural programming）并列的编程范式。</li>
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+ <li>最主要的特征是，函数是<a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://llh911001.gitbooks.io/mostly-adequate-guide-chinese/content/ch2.html">第一等公民</a>。</li>
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+ <li>强调将计算过程分解成可复用的函数，典型例子就是<code>map</code>方法和<code>reduce</code>方法组合而成 <a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/MapReduce">MapReduce 算法</a>。</li>
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+ <li>只有<a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%AF%E5%87%BD%E6%95%B0">纯的</a>、没有<a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%87%BD%E6%95%B0%E5%89%AF%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8">副作用</a>的函数，才是合格的函数。</li>
35
+ </ul>
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+ </blockquote>
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+ <p>上面这些说法都对，但还不够，都没有回答下面这个更深层的问题。</p>
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+ <p><img src="http://www.ruanyifeng.com/blogimg/asset/2017/bg2017022202.jpg" alt="xuehuayu.cn"></p>
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+ <blockquote>
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+ <p><strong>为什么要这样做？</strong></p>
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+ </blockquote>
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+ <p>这就是，本文要解答的问题。我会通过最简单的语言，帮你理解函数式编程，并且学会它那些基本写法。</p>
43
+ <p>需要声明的是，我不是专家，而是一个初学者，最近两年才真正开始学习函数式编程。一直苦于看不懂各种资料，立志要写一篇清晰易懂的教程。下面的内容肯定不够严密，甚至可能包含错误，但是我发现，像下面这样解释，初学者最容易懂。</p>
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+ <p>另外，本文比较长，阅读时请保持耐心。</p>
45
+ <h2 id="一、范畴论"><a href="#一、范畴论" class="headerlink" title="一、范畴论"></a>一、范畴论</h2><p>函数式编程的起源，是一门叫做范畴论（Category Theory）的数学分支。</p>
46
+ <p><img src="http://www.ruanyifeng.com/blogimg/asset/2017/bg2017022205.jpg" alt="img"></p>
47
+ <p>理解函数式编程的关键，就是理解范畴论。它是一门很复杂的数学，认为世界上所有的概念体系，都可以抽象成一个个的”范畴”（category）。</p>
48
+ <h3 id="1-1-范畴的概念"><a href="#1-1-范畴的概念" class="headerlink" title="1.1 范畴的概念"></a>1.1 范畴的概念</h3><p>什么是范畴呢？</p>
49
+ <p><a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_(mathematics)">维基百科</a>的一句话定义如下。</p>
50
+ <blockquote>
51
+ <p>“范畴就是使用箭头连接的物体。”（In mathematics, a category is an algebraic structure that comprises “objects” that are linked by “arrows”. ）</p>
52
+ </blockquote>
53
+ <p>也就是说，彼此之间存在某种关系的概念、事物、对象等等，都构成”范畴”。随便什么东西，只要能找出它们之间的关系，就能定义一个”范畴”。</p>
54
+ <p><img src="http://www.ruanyifeng.com/blogimg/asset/2017/bg2017022210.jpg" alt="xuehuayu.cn"></p>
55
+ <p>上图中，各个点与它们之间的箭头，就构成一个范畴。</p>
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+ <p>箭头表示范畴成员之间的关系，正式的名称叫做”态射”（morphism）。范畴论认为，同一个范畴的所有成员，就是不同状态的”变形”（transformation）。通过”态射”，一个成员可以变形成另一个成员。</p>
57
+ <h3 id="1-2-数学模型"><a href="#1-2-数学模型" class="headerlink" title="1.2 数学模型"></a>1.2 数学模型</h3><p>既然”范畴”是满足某种变形关系的所有对象，就可以总结出它的数学模型。</p>
58
+ <blockquote>
59
+ <ul>
60
+ <li>所有成员是一个集合</li>
61
+ <li>变形关系是函数</li>
62
+ </ul>
63
+ </blockquote>
64
+ <p>也就是说，范畴论是集合论更上层的抽象，简单的理解就是”集合 + 函数”。</p>
65
+ <p>理论上通过函数，就可以从范畴的一个成员，算出其他所有成员。</p>
66
+ <h3 id="1-3-范畴与容器"><a href="#1-3-范畴与容器" class="headerlink" title="1.3 范畴与容器"></a>1.3 范畴与容器</h3><p>我们可以把”范畴”想象成是一个容器，里面包含两样东西。</p>
67
+ <blockquote>
68
+ <ul>
69
+ <li>值（value）</li>
70
+ <li>值的变形关系，也就是函数。</li>
71
+ </ul>
72
+ </blockquote>
73
+ <p>下面我们使用代码，定义一个简单的范畴。</p>
74
+ <blockquote>
75
+ <pre><code>class Category &#123;
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+ constructor(val) &#123;
77
+ this.val = val;
78
+ &#125;
79
+
80
+ addOne(x) &#123;
81
+ return x + 1;
82
+ &#125;
83
+ &#125;
84
+ </code></pre>
85
+ </blockquote>
86
+ <p>上面代码中，<code>Category</code>是一个类，也是一个容器，里面包含一个值（<code>this.val</code>）和一种变形关系（<code>addOne</code>）。你可能已经看出来了，这里的范畴，就是所有彼此之间相差<code>1</code>的数字。</p>
87
+ <p>注意，本文后面的部分，凡是提到”容器”的地方，全部都是指”范畴”。</p>
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+ <h3 id="1-4-范畴论与函数式编程的关系"><a href="#1-4-范畴论与函数式编程的关系" class="headerlink" title="1.4 范畴论与函数式编程的关系"></a>1.4 范畴论与函数式编程的关系</h3><p>范畴论使用函数，表达范畴之间的关系。</p>
89
+ <p>伴随着范畴论的发展，就发展出一整套函数的运算方法。这套方法起初只用于数学运算，后来有人将它在计算机上实现了，就变成了今天的”函数式编程”。</p>
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+ <p><strong>本质上，函数式编程只是范畴论的运算方法，跟数理逻辑、微积分、行列式是同一类东西，都是数学方法，只是碰巧它能用来写程序。</strong></p>
91
+ <p>所以，你明白了吗，为什么函数式编程要求函数必须是纯的，不能有副作用？因为它是一种数学运算，原始目的就是求值，不做其他事情，否则就无法满足函数运算法则了。</p>
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+ <p>总之，在函数式编程中，函数就是一个管道（pipe）。这头进去一个值，那头就会出来一个新的值，没有其他作用。</p>
93
+ <h2 id="二、函数的合成与柯里化"><a href="#二、函数的合成与柯里化" class="headerlink" title="二、函数的合成与柯里化"></a>二、函数的合成与柯里化</h2><p>函数式编程有两个最基本的运算：合成和柯里化。</p>
94
+ <h3 id="2-1-函数的合成"><a href="#2-1-函数的合成" class="headerlink" title="2.1 函数的合成"></a>2.1 函数的合成</h3><p>如果一个值要经过多个函数，才能变成另外一个值，就可以把所有中间步骤合并成一个函数，这叫做”函数的合成”（compose）。</p>
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+ <p><img src="http://www.ruanyifeng.com/blogimg/asset/2017/bg2017022204.png" alt="xuehuayu.cn"></p>
96
+ <p>上图中，<code>X</code>和<code>Y</code>之间的变形关系是函数<code>f</code>，<code>Y</code>和<code>Z</code>之间的变形关系是函数<code>g</code>，那么<code>X</code>和<code>Z</code>之间的关系，就是<code>g</code>和<code>f</code>的合成函数<code>g·f</code>。</p>
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+ <p>下面就是代码实现了，我使用的是 JavaScript 语言。注意，本文所有示例代码都是简化过的，完整的 Demo 请看《参考链接》部分。</p>
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+ <p>合成两个函数的简单代码如下。</p>
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+ <blockquote>
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+ <pre><code>const compose = function (f, g) &#123;
101
+ return function (x) &#123;
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+ return f(g(x));
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+ &#125;;
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+ &#125;
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+ </code></pre>
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+ </blockquote>
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+ <p>函数的合成还必须满足结合律。</p>
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+ <p><img src="http://www.ruanyifeng.com/blogimg/asset/2017/bg2017022209.png" alt="img"></p>
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+ <blockquote>
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+ <pre><code>compose(f, compose(g, h))
111
+ // 等同于
112
+ compose(compose(f, g), h)
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+ // 等同于
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+ compose(f, g, h)
115
+ </code></pre>
116
+ </blockquote>
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+ <p>合成也是函数必须是纯的一个原因。因为一个不纯的函数，怎么跟其他函数合成？怎么保证各种合成以后，它会达到预期的行为？</p>
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+ <p>前面说过，函数就像数据的管道（pipe）。那么，函数合成就是将这些管道连了起来，让数据一口气从多个管道中穿过。</p>
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+ <h3 id="2-2-柯里化"><a href="#2-2-柯里化" class="headerlink" title="2.2 柯里化"></a>2.2 柯里化</h3><p><code>f(x)</code>和<code>g(x)</code>合成为<code>f(g(x))</code>，有一个隐藏的前提，就是<code>f</code>和<code>g</code>都只能接受一个参数。如果可以接受多个参数，比如<code>f(x, y)</code>和<code>g(a, b, c)</code>，函数合成就非常麻烦。 </p>
120
+ <p>这时就需要函数柯里化了。所谓”柯里化”，就是把一个多参数的函数，转化为单参数函数。</p>
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+ <blockquote>
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+ <pre><code>// 柯里化之前
123
+ function add(x, y) &#123;
124
+ return x + y;
125
+ &#125;
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+
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+ add(1, 2) // 3
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+
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+ // 柯里化之后
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+ function addX(y) &#123;
131
+ return function (x) &#123;
132
+ return x + y;
133
+ &#125;;
134
+ &#125;
135
+
136
+ addX(2)(1) // 3
137
+ </code></pre>
138
+ </blockquote>
139
+ <p>有了柯里化以后，我们就能做到，所有函数只接受一个参数。后文的内容除非另有说明，都默认函数只有一个参数，就是所要处理的那个值。</p>
140
+ <h2 id="三、函子"><a href="#三、函子" class="headerlink" title="三、函子"></a>三、函子</h2><p>函数不仅可以用于同一个范畴之中值的转换，还可以用于将一个范畴转成另一个范畴。这就涉及到了函子（Functor）。</p>
141
+ <h3 id="3-1-函子的概念"><a href="#3-1-函子的概念" class="headerlink" title="3.1 函子的概念"></a>3.1 函子的概念</h3><p>函子是函数式编程里面最重要的数据类型，也是基本的运算单位和功能单位。</p>
142
+ <p>它首先是一种范畴，也就是说，是一个容器，包含了值和变形关系。<strong>比较特殊的是，它的变形关系可以依次作用于每一个值，将当前容器变形成另一个容器。</strong></p>
143
+ <p><img src="http://www.ruanyifeng.com/blogimg/asset/2017/bg2017022203.png" alt="xuehuayu.cn"></p>
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+ <p>上图中，左侧的圆圈就是一个函子，表示人名的范畴。外部传入函数<code>f</code>，会转成右边表示早餐的范畴。</p>
145
+ <p>下面是一张更一般的图。</p>
146
+ <p><img src="http://www.ruanyifeng.com/blogimg/asset/2017/bg2017022211.jpg" alt="xuehuayu.cn"></p>
147
+ <p>上图中，函数<code>f</code>完成值的转换（<code>a</code>到<code>b</code>），将它传入函子，就可以实现范畴的转换（<code>Fa</code>到<code>Fb</code>）。</p>
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+ <h3 id="3-2-函子的代码实现"><a href="#3-2-函子的代码实现" class="headerlink" title="3.2 函子的代码实现"></a>3.2 函子的代码实现</h3><p>任何具有<code>map</code>方法的数据结构，都可以当作函子的实现。</p>
149
+ <blockquote>
150
+ <pre><code>class Functor &#123;
151
+ constructor(val) &#123;
152
+ this.val = val;
153
+ &#125;
154
+
155
+ map(f) &#123;
156
+ return new Functor(f(this.val));
157
+ &#125;
158
+ &#125;
159
+ </code></pre>
160
+ </blockquote>
161
+ <p>上面代码中，<code>Functor</code>是一个函子，它的<code>map</code>方法接受函数<code>f</code>作为参数，然后返回一个新的函子，里面包含的值是被<code>f</code>处理过的（<code>f(this.val)</code>）。</p>
162
+ <p><strong>一般约定，函子的标志就是容器具有<code>map</code>方法。该方法将容器里面的每一个值，映射到另一个容器。</strong></p>
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+ <p>下面是一些用法的示例。</p>
164
+ <blockquote>
165
+ <pre><code>(new Functor(2)).map(function (two) &#123;
166
+ return two + 2;
167
+ &#125;);
168
+ // Functor(4)
169
+
170
+ (new Functor(&#39;flamethrowers&#39;)).map(function(s) &#123;
171
+ return s.toUpperCase();
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+ &#125;);
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+ // Functor(&#39;FLAMETHROWERS&#39;)
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+
175
+ (new Functor(&#39;bombs&#39;)).map(_.concat(&#39; away&#39;)).map(_.prop(&#39;length&#39;));
176
+ // Functor(10)
177
+ </code></pre>
178
+ </blockquote>
179
+ <p>上面的例子说明，函数式编程里面的运算，都是通过函子完成，即运算不直接针对值，而是针对这个值的容器—-函子。函子本身具有对外接口（<code>map</code>方法），各种函数就是运算符，通过接口接入容器，引发容器里面的值的变形。</p>
180
+ <p>因此，<strong>学习函数式编程，实际上就是学习函子的各种运算。</strong>由于可以把运算方法封装在函子里面，所以又衍生出各种不同类型的函子，有多少种运算，就有多少种函子。函数式编程就变成了运用不同的函子，解决实际问题。</p>
181
+ <h2 id="四、of-方法"><a href="#四、of-方法" class="headerlink" title="四、of 方法"></a>四、of 方法</h2><p>你可能注意到了，上面生成新的函子的时候，用了<code>new</code>命令。这实在太不像函数式编程了，因为<code>new</code>命令是面向对象编程的标志。</p>
182
+ <p><strong>函数式编程一般约定，函子有一个<code>of</code>方法，用来生成新的容器。</strong></p>
183
+ <p>下面就用<code>of</code>方法替换掉<code>new</code>。</p>
184
+ <blockquote>
185
+ <pre><code>Functor.of = function(val) &#123;
186
+ return new Functor(val);
187
+ &#125;;
188
+ </code></pre>
189
+ </blockquote>
190
+ <p>然后，前面的例子就可以改成下面这样。</p>
191
+ <blockquote>
192
+ <pre><code>Functor.of(2).map(function (two) &#123;
193
+ return two + 2;
194
+ &#125;);
195
+ // Functor(4)
196
+ </code></pre>
197
+ </blockquote>
198
+ <p>这就更像函数式编程了。</p>
199
+ <h2 id="五、Maybe-函子"><a href="#五、Maybe-函子" class="headerlink" title="五、Maybe 函子"></a>五、Maybe 函子</h2><p>函子接受各种函数，处理容器内部的值。这里就有一个问题，容器内部的值可能是一个空值（比如<code>null</code>），而外部函数未必有处理空值的机制，如果传入空值，很可能就会出错。</p>
200
+ <blockquote>
201
+ <pre><code>Functor.of(null).map(function (s) &#123;
202
+ return s.toUpperCase();
203
+ &#125;);
204
+ // TypeError
205
+ </code></pre>
206
+ </blockquote>
207
+ <p>上面代码中，函子里面的值是<code>null</code>，结果小写变成大写的时候就出错了。</p>
208
+ <p>Maybe 函子就是为了解决这一类问题而设计的。简单说，它的<code>map</code>方法里面设置了空值检查。</p>
209
+ <blockquote>
210
+ <pre><code>class Maybe extends Functor &#123;
211
+ map(f) &#123;
212
+ return this.val ? Maybe.of(f(this.val)) : Maybe.of(null);
213
+ &#125;
214
+ &#125;
215
+ </code></pre>
216
+ </blockquote>
217
+ <p>有了 Maybe 函子，处理空值就不会出错了。</p>
218
+ <blockquote>
219
+ <pre><code>Maybe.of(null).map(function (s) &#123;
220
+ return s.toUpperCase();
221
+ &#125;);
222
+ // Maybe(null)
223
+ </code></pre>
224
+ </blockquote>
225
+ <h2 id="六、Either-函子"><a href="#六、Either-函子" class="headerlink" title="六、Either 函子"></a>六、Either 函子</h2><p>条件运算<code>if...else</code>是最常见的运算之一，函数式编程里面，使用 Either 函子表达。</p>
226
+ <p>Either 函子内部有两个值：左值（<code>Left</code>）和右值（<code>Right</code>）。右值是正常情况下使用的值，左值是右值不存在时使用的默认值。</p>
227
+ <blockquote>
228
+ <pre><code>class Either extends Functor &#123;
229
+ constructor(left, right) &#123;
230
+ this.left = left;
231
+ this.right = right;
232
+ &#125;
233
+
234
+ map(f) &#123;
235
+ return this.right ?
236
+ Either.of(this.left, f(this.right)) :
237
+ Either.of(f(this.left), this.right);
238
+ &#125;
239
+ &#125;
240
+
241
+ Either.of = function (left, right) &#123;
242
+ return new Either(left, right);
243
+ &#125;;
244
+ </code></pre>
245
+ </blockquote>
246
+ <p>下面是用法。</p>
247
+ <blockquote>
248
+ <pre><code>var addOne = function (x) &#123;
249
+ return x + 1;
250
+ &#125;;
251
+
252
+ Either.of(5, 6).map(addOne);
253
+ // Either(5, 7);
254
+
255
+ Either.of(1, null).map(addOne);
256
+ // Either(2, null);
257
+ </code></pre>
258
+ </blockquote>
259
+ <p>上面代码中，如果右值有值，就使用右值，否则使用左值。通过这种方式，Either 函子表达了条件运算。</p>
260
+ <p>Either 函子的常见用途是提供默认值。下面是一个例子。</p>
261
+ <blockquote>
262
+ <pre><code>Either
263
+ .of(&#123;address: &#39;xxx&#39;&#125;, currentUser.address)
264
+ .map(updateField);
265
+ </code></pre>
266
+ </blockquote>
267
+ <p>上面代码中，如果用户没有提供地址，Either 函子就会使用左值的默认地址。</p>
268
+ <p>Either 函子的另一个用途是代替<code>try...catch</code>，使用左值表示错误。</p>
269
+ <blockquote>
270
+ <pre><code>function parseJSON(json) &#123;
271
+ try &#123;
272
+ return Either.of(null, JSON.parse(json));
273
+ &#125; catch (e: Error) &#123;
274
+ return Either.of(e, null);
275
+ &#125;
276
+ &#125;
277
+ </code></pre>
278
+ </blockquote>
279
+ <p>上面代码中，左值为空，就表示没有出错，否则左值会包含一个错误对象<code>e</code>。一般来说，所有可能出错的运算，都可以返回一个 Either 函子。</p>
280
+ <h2 id="七、ap-函子"><a href="#七、ap-函子" class="headerlink" title="七、ap 函子"></a>七、ap 函子</h2><p>函子里面包含的值，完全可能是函数。我们可以想象这样一种情况，一个函子的值是数值，另一个函子的值是函数。</p>
281
+ <blockquote>
282
+ <pre><code>function addTwo(x) &#123;
283
+ return x + 2;
284
+ &#125;
285
+
286
+ const A = Functor.of(2);
287
+ const B = Functor.of(addTwo)
288
+ </code></pre>
289
+ </blockquote>
290
+ <p>上面代码中，函子<code>A</code>内部的值是<code>2</code>，函子<code>B</code>内部的值是函数<code>addTwo</code>。</p>
291
+ <p>有时，我们想让函子<code>B</code>内部的函数，可以使用函子<code>A</code>内部的值进行运算。这时就需要用到 ap 函子。</p>
292
+ <p>ap 是 applicative（应用）的缩写。凡是部署了<code>ap</code>方法的函子，就是 ap 函子。</p>
293
+ <blockquote>
294
+ <pre><code>class Ap extends Functor &#123;
295
+ ap(F) &#123;
296
+ return Ap.of(this.val(F.val));
297
+ &#125;
298
+ &#125;
299
+ </code></pre>
300
+ </blockquote>
301
+ <p>注意，<code>ap</code>方法的参数不是函数，而是另一个函子。</p>
302
+ <p>因此，前面例子可以写成下面的形式。</p>
303
+ <blockquote>
304
+ <pre><code>Ap.of(addTwo).ap(Functor.of(2))
305
+ // Ap(4)
306
+ </code></pre>
307
+ </blockquote>
308
+ <p>ap 函子的意义在于，对于那些多参数的函数，就可以从多个容器之中取值，实现函子的链式操作。</p>
309
+ <blockquote>
310
+ <pre><code>function add(x) &#123;
311
+ return function (y) &#123;
312
+ return x + y;
313
+ &#125;;
314
+ &#125;
315
+
316
+ Ap.of(add).ap(Maybe.of(2)).ap(Maybe.of(3));
317
+ // Ap(5)
318
+ </code></pre>
319
+ </blockquote>
320
+ <p>上面代码中，函数<code>add</code>是柯里化以后的形式，一共需要两个参数。通过 ap 函子，我们就可以实现从两个容器之中取值。它还有另外一种写法。</p>
321
+ <blockquote>
322
+ <pre><code>Ap.of(add(2)).ap(Maybe.of(3));
323
+ </code></pre>
324
+ </blockquote>
325
+ <h2 id="八、Monad-函子"><a href="#八、Monad-函子" class="headerlink" title="八、Monad 函子"></a>八、Monad 函子</h2><p>函子是一个容器，可以包含任何值。函子之中再包含一个函子，也是完全合法的。但是，这样就会出现多层嵌套的函子。</p>
326
+ <blockquote>
327
+ <pre><code>Maybe.of(
328
+ Maybe.of(
329
+ Maybe.of(&#123;name: &#39;Mulburry&#39;, number: 8402&#125;)
330
+ )
331
+ )
332
+ </code></pre>
333
+ </blockquote>
334
+ <p>上面这个函子，一共有三个<code>Maybe</code>嵌套。如果要取出内部的值，就要连续取三次<code>this.val</code>。这当然很不方便，因此就出现了 Monad 函子。</p>
335
+ <p><strong>Monad 函子的作用是，总是返回一个单层的函子。</strong>它有一个<code>flatMap</code>方法，与<code>map</code>方法作用相同，唯一的区别是如果生成了一个嵌套函子，它会取出后者内部的值，保证返回的永远是一个单层的容器，不会出现嵌套的情况。</p>
336
+ <blockquote>
337
+ <pre><code>class Monad extends Functor &#123;
338
+ join() &#123;
339
+ return this.val;
340
+ &#125;
341
+ flatMap(f) &#123;
342
+ return this.map(f).join();
343
+ &#125;
344
+ &#125;
345
+ </code></pre>
346
+ </blockquote>
347
+ <p>上面代码中，如果函数<code>f</code>返回的是一个函子，那么<code>this.map(f)</code>就会生成一个嵌套的函子。所以，<code>join</code>方法保证了<code>flatMap</code>方法总是返回一个单层的函子。这意味着嵌套的函子会被铺平（flatten）。</p>
348
+ <h2 id="九、IO-操作"><a href="#九、IO-操作" class="headerlink" title="九、IO 操作"></a>九、IO 操作</h2><p>Monad 函子的重要应用，就是实现 I&#x2F;O （输入输出）操作。</p>
349
+ <p>I&#x2F;O 是不纯的操作，普通的函数式编程没法做，这时就需要把 IO 操作写成<code>Monad</code>函子，通过它来完成。</p>
350
+ <blockquote>
351
+ <pre><code>var fs = require(&#39;fs&#39;);
352
+
353
+ var readFile = function(filename) &#123;
354
+ return new IO(function() &#123;
355
+ return fs.readFileSync(filename, &#39;utf-8&#39;);
356
+ &#125;);
357
+ &#125;;
358
+
359
+ var print = function(x) &#123;
360
+ return new IO(function() &#123;
361
+ console.log(x);
362
+ return x;
363
+ &#125;);
364
+ &#125;
365
+ </code></pre>
366
+ </blockquote>
367
+ <p>上面代码中，读取文件和打印本身都是不纯的操作，但是<code>readFile</code>和<code>print</code>却是纯函数，因为它们总是返回 IO 函子。</p>
368
+ <p>如果 IO 函子是一个<code>Monad</code>，具有<code>flatMap</code>方法，那么我们就可以像下面这样调用这两个函数。</p>
369
+ <blockquote>
370
+ <pre><code>readFile(&#39;./user.txt&#39;)
371
+ .flatMap(print)
372
+ </code></pre>
373
+ </blockquote>
374
+ <p>这就是神奇的地方，上面的代码完成了不纯的操作，但是因为<code>flatMap</code>返回的还是一个 IO 函子，所以这个表达式是纯的。我们通过一个纯的表达式，完成带有副作用的操作，这就是 Monad 的作用。</p>
375
+ <p>由于返回还是 IO 函子，所以可以实现链式操作。因此，在大多数库里面，<code>flatMap</code>方法被改名成<code>chain</code>。</p>
376
+ <blockquote>
377
+ <pre><code>var tail = function(x) &#123;
378
+ return new IO(function() &#123;
379
+ return x[x.length - 1];
380
+ &#125;);
381
+ &#125;
382
+
383
+ readFile(&#39;./user.txt&#39;)
384
+ .flatMap(tail)
385
+ .flatMap(print)
386
+
387
+ // 等同于
388
+ readFile(&#39;./user.txt&#39;)
389
+ .chain(tail)
390
+ .chain(print)
391
+ </code></pre>
392
+ </blockquote>
393
+ <p>上面代码读取了文件<code>user.txt</code>，然后选取最后一行输出。</p>
394
+ <h2 id="十、参考链接"><a href="#十、参考链接" class="headerlink" title="十、参考链接"></a>十、参考链接</h2><ul>
395
+ <li><a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://llh911001.gitbooks.io/mostly-adequate-guide-chinese/content/">JS 函数式编程指南</a></li>
396
+ <li><a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="http://mattfield.github.io/javascript/2013/07/28/taking-things-out-of-context-functors-in-javascript/">Taking Things Out of Context: Functors in JavaScript</a></li>
397
+ <li><a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://gist.github.com/buzzdecafe/5721205">Functor.js</a></li>
398
+ <li><a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://gist.github.com/rjchatfield/54393388f80f55fcc81a">Maybe, Either &amp; Try Functors in ES6</a></li>
399
+ <li><a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="http://rs.io/why-category-theory-matters/">Why Category Theory Matters</a></li>
400
+ </ul>
401
+ <p>（正文完）</p>
402
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