warp-lang 1.0.2__py3-none-win_amd64.whl → 1.2.0__py3-none-win_amd64.whl

warp/examples/optim/example_diffray.py

@@ -1,536 +1,564 @@
-# Copyright (c) 2022 NVIDIA CORPORATION.  All rights reserved.
-# NVIDIA CORPORATION and its licensors retain all intellectual property
-# and proprietary rights in and to this software, related documentation
-# and any modifications thereto.  Any use, reproduction, disclosure or
-# distribution of this software and related documentation without an express
-# license agreement from NVIDIA CORPORATION is strictly prohibited.
-
-#############################################################################
-# Example Differentiable Ray Caster
-#
-# Shows how to use the built-in wp.Mesh data structure and wp.mesh_query_ray()
-# function to implement a basic differentiable ray caster
-#
-##############################################################################
-
-import math
-import os
-
-import numpy as np
-from pxr import Usd, UsdGeom
-
-import warp as wp
-import warp.examples
-from warp.optim import SGD
-
-wp.init()
-
-
-class RenderMode:
-    """Rendering modes
-    grayscale: Lambertian shading from multiple directional lights
-    texture: 2D texture map
-    normal_map: mesh normal computed from interpolated vertex normals
-    """
-
-    grayscale = 0
-    texture = 1
-    normal_map = 2
-
-
-@wp.struct
-class RenderMesh:
-    """Mesh to be ray casted.
-    Assumes a triangle mesh as input.
-    Per-vertex normals are computed with compute_vertex_normals()
-    """
-
-    id: wp.uint64
-    vertices: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3)
-    indices: wp.array(dtype=int)
-    tex_coords: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec2)
-    tex_indices: wp.array(dtype=int)
-    vertex_normals: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3)
-    pos: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3)
-    rot: wp.array(dtype=wp.quat)
-
-
-@wp.struct
-class Camera:
-    """Basic camera for ray casting"""
-
-    horizontal: float
-    vertical: float
-    aspect: float
-    e: float
-    tan: float
-    pos: wp.vec3
-    rot: wp.quat
-
-
-@wp.struct
-class DirectionalLights:
-    """Stores arrays of directional light directions and intensities."""
-
-    dirs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3)
-    intensities: wp.array(dtype=float)
-    num_lights: int
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def vertex_normal_sum_kernel(
-    verts: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), indices: wp.array(dtype=int), normal_sums: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3)
-):
-    tid = wp.tid()
-
-    i = indices[tid * 3]
-    j = indices[tid * 3 + 1]
-    k = indices[tid * 3 + 2]
-
-    a = verts[i]
-    b = verts[j]
-    c = verts[k]
-
-    ab = b - a
-    ac = c - a
-
-    area_normal = wp.cross(ab, ac)
-    wp.atomic_add(normal_sums, i, area_normal)
-    wp.atomic_add(normal_sums, j, area_normal)
-    wp.atomic_add(normal_sums, k, area_normal)
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def normalize_kernel(
-    normal_sums: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
-    vertex_normals: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
-):
-    tid = wp.tid()
-    vertex_normals[tid] = wp.normalize(normal_sums[tid])
-
-
-@wp.func
-def texture_interpolation(tex_interp: wp.vec2, texture: wp.array2d(dtype=wp.vec3)):
-    tex_width = texture.shape[1]
-    tex_height = texture.shape[0]
-    tex = wp.vec2(tex_interp[0] * float(tex_width - 1), (1.0 - tex_interp[1]) * float(tex_height - 1))
-
-    x0 = int(tex[0])
-    x1 = x0 + 1
-    alpha_x = tex[0] - float(x0)
-    y0 = int(tex[1])
-    y1 = y0 + 1
-    alpha_y = tex[1] - float(y0)
-    c00 = texture[y0, x0]
-    c10 = texture[y0, x1]
-    c01 = texture[y1, x0]
-    c11 = texture[y1, x1]
-    lower = (1.0 - alpha_x) * c00 + alpha_x * c10
-    upper = (1.0 - alpha_x) * c01 + alpha_x * c11
-    color = (1.0 - alpha_y) * lower + alpha_y * upper
-
-    return color
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def draw_kernel(
-    mesh: RenderMesh,
-    camera: Camera,
-    texture: wp.array2d(dtype=wp.vec3),
-    rays_width: int,
-    rays_height: int,
-    rays: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
-    lights: DirectionalLights,
-    mode: int,
-):
-    tid = wp.tid()
-
-    x = tid % rays_width
-    y = rays_height - tid // rays_width
-
-    sx = 2.0 * float(x) / float(rays_width) - 1.0
-    sy = 2.0 * float(y) / float(rays_height) - 1.0
-
-    # compute view ray in world space
-    ro_world = camera.pos
-    rd_world = wp.normalize(wp.quat_rotate(camera.rot, wp.vec3(sx * camera.tan * camera.aspect, sy * camera.tan, -1.0)))
-
-    # compute view ray in mesh space
-    inv = wp.transform_inverse(wp.transform(mesh.pos[0], mesh.rot[0]))
-    ro = wp.transform_point(inv, ro_world)
-    rd = wp.transform_vector(inv, rd_world)
-
-    color = wp.vec3(0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
-
-    query = wp.mesh_query_ray(mesh.id, ro, rd, 1.0e6)
-    if query.result:
-        i = mesh.indices[query.face * 3]
-        j = mesh.indices[query.face * 3 + 1]
-        k = mesh.indices[query.face * 3 + 2]
-
-        a = mesh.vertices[i]
-        b = mesh.vertices[j]
-        c = mesh.vertices[k]
-
-        p = wp.mesh_eval_position(mesh.id, query.face, query.u, query.v)
-
-        # barycentric coordinates
-        tri_area = wp.length(wp.cross(b - a, c - a))
-        w = wp.length(wp.cross(b - a, p - a)) / tri_area
-        v = wp.length(wp.cross(p - a, c - a)) / tri_area
-        u = 1.0 - w - v
-
-        a_n = mesh.vertex_normals[i]
-        b_n = mesh.vertex_normals[j]
-        c_n = mesh.vertex_normals[k]
-
-        # vertex normal interpolation
-        normal = u * a_n + v * b_n + w * c_n
-
-        if mode == 0 or mode == 1:
-            if mode == 0:  # grayscale
-                color = wp.vec3(1.0)
-
-            elif mode == 1:  # texture interpolation
-                tex_a = mesh.tex_coords[mesh.tex_indices[query.face * 3]]
-                tex_b = mesh.tex_coords[mesh.tex_indices[query.face * 3 + 1]]
-                tex_c = mesh.tex_coords[mesh.tex_indices[query.face * 3 + 2]]
-
-                tex = u * tex_a + v * tex_b + w * tex_c
-
-                color = texture_interpolation(tex, texture)
-
-            # lambertian directional lighting
-            lambert = float(0.0)
-            for i in range(lights.num_lights):
-                dir = wp.transform_vector(inv, lights.dirs[i])
-                val = lights.intensities[i] * wp.dot(normal, dir)
-                if val < 0.0:
-                    val = 0.0
-                lambert = lambert + val
-
-            color = lambert * color
-
-        elif mode == 2:  # normal map
-            color = normal * 0.5 + wp.vec3(0.5, 0.5, 0.5)
-
-        if color[0] > 1.0:
-            color = wp.vec3(1.0, color[1], color[2])
-        if color[1] > 1.0:
-            color = wp.vec3(color[0], 1.0, color[2])
-        if color[2] > 1.0:
-            color = wp.vec3(color[0], color[1], 1.0)
-
-    rays[tid] = color
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def downsample_kernel(
-    rays: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), pixels: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), rays_width: int, num_samples: int
-):
-    tid = wp.tid()
-
-    pixels_width = rays_width / num_samples
-    px = tid % pixels_width
-    py = tid // pixels_width
-    start_idx = py * num_samples * rays_width + px * num_samples
-
-    color = wp.vec3(0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
-
-    for i in range(0, num_samples):
-        for j in range(0, num_samples):
-            ray = rays[start_idx + i * rays_width + j]
-            color = wp.vec3(color[0] + ray[0], color[1] + ray[1], color[2] + ray[2])
-
-    num_samples_sq = float(num_samples * num_samples)
-    color = wp.vec3(color[0] / num_samples_sq, color[1] / num_samples_sq, color[2] / num_samples_sq)
-    pixels[tid] = color
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def loss_kernel(pixels: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), target_pixels: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), loss: wp.array(dtype=float)):
-    tid = wp.tid()
-
-    pixel = pixels[tid]
-    target_pixel = target_pixels[tid]
-
-    diff = target_pixel - pixel
-
-    # pseudo Huber loss
-    delta = 1.0
-    x = delta * delta * (wp.sqrt(1.0 + (diff[0] / delta) * (diff[0] / delta)) - 1.0)
-    y = delta * delta * (wp.sqrt(1.0 + (diff[1] / delta) * (diff[1] / delta)) - 1.0)
-    z = delta * delta * (wp.sqrt(1.0 + (diff[2] / delta) * (diff[2] / delta)) - 1.0)
-    sum = x + y + z
-
-    wp.atomic_add(loss, 0, sum)
-
-
-@wp.kernel
-def normalize(x: wp.array(dtype=wp.quat)):
-    tid = wp.tid()
-
-    x[tid] = wp.normalize(x[tid])
-
-
-class Example:
-    """
-    Non-differentiable variables:
-    camera.horizontal: camera horizontal aperture size
-    camera.vertical: camera vertical aperture size
-    camera.aspect: camera aspect ratio
-    camera.e: focal length
-    camera.pos: camera displacement
-    camera.rot: camera rotation (quaternion)
-    pix_width: final image width in pixels
-    pix_height: final image height in pixels
-    num_samples: anti-aliasing. calculated as pow(2, num_samples)
-    directional_lights: characterized by intensity (scalar) and direction (vec3)
-    render_mesh.indices: mesh vertex indices
-    render_mesh.tex_indices: texture indices
-
-    Differentiable variables:
-    render_mesh.pos: parent transform displacement
-    render_mesh.quat: parent transform rotation (quaternion)
-    render_mesh.vertices: mesh vertex positions
-    render_mesh.vertex_normals: mesh vertex normals
-    render_mesh.tex_coords: 2D texture coordinates
-    """
-
-    def __init__(self, stage=None, rot_array=[0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0], verbose=False):
-        self.verbose = verbose
-        cam_pos = wp.vec3(0.0, 0.75, 7.0)
-        cam_rot = wp.quat(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0)
-        horizontal_aperture = 36.0
-        vertical_aperture = 20.25
-        aspect = horizontal_aperture / vertical_aperture
-        focal_length = 50.0
-        self.height = 1024
-        self.width = int(aspect * self.height)
-        self.num_pixels = self.width * self.height
-
-        asset_stage = Usd.Stage.Open(os.path.join(warp.examples.get_asset_directory(), "bunny.usd"))
-        mesh_geom = UsdGeom.Mesh(asset_stage.GetPrimAtPath("/bunny/bunny"))
-
-        points = np.array(mesh_geom.GetPointsAttr().Get())
-        indices = np.array(mesh_geom.GetFaceVertexIndicesAttr().Get())
-        num_points = points.shape[0]
-        num_faces = int(indices.shape[0] / 3)
-
-        # manufacture texture coordinates + indices for this asset
-        distance = np.linalg.norm(points, axis=1)
-        radius = np.max(distance)
-        distance = distance / radius
-        tex_coords = np.stack((distance, distance), axis=1)
-        tex_indices = indices
-
-        # manufacture texture for this asset
-        x = np.arange(256.0)
-        xx, yy = np.meshgrid(x, x)
-        zz = np.zeros_like(xx)
-        texture_host = np.stack((xx, yy, zz), axis=2) / 255.0
-
-        # set anti-aliasing
-        self.num_samples = 1
-
-        # set render mode
-        self.render_mode = RenderMode.texture
-
-        # set training iterations
-        self.train_rate = 3.0e-8
-        self.train_rate = 5.00e-8
-        self.momentum = 0.5
-        self.dampening = 0.1
-        self.weight_decay = 0.0
-        self.train_iters = 150
-        self.period = 10
-        self.iter = 0
-
-        # storage for training animation
-        self.images = np.zeros((self.height, self.width, 3, int(self.train_iters / self.period)))
-        self.image_counter = 0
-
-        # construct RenderMesh
-        self.render_mesh = RenderMesh()
-        self.mesh = wp.Mesh(
-            points=wp.array(points, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True), indices=wp.array(indices, dtype=int)
-        )
-        self.render_mesh.id = self.mesh.id
-        self.render_mesh.vertices = self.mesh.points
-        self.render_mesh.indices = self.mesh.indices
-        self.render_mesh.tex_coords = wp.array(tex_coords, dtype=wp.vec2, requires_grad=True)
-        self.render_mesh.tex_indices = wp.array(tex_indices, dtype=int)
-        self.normal_sums = wp.zeros(num_points, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
-        self.render_mesh.vertex_normals = wp.zeros(num_points, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
-        self.render_mesh.pos = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
-        self.render_mesh.rot = wp.array(np.array(rot_array), dtype=wp.quat, requires_grad=True)
-
-        # compute vertex normals
-        wp.launch(
-            kernel=vertex_normal_sum_kernel,
-            dim=num_faces,
-            inputs=[self.render_mesh.vertices, self.render_mesh.indices, self.normal_sums],
-        )
-        wp.launch(
-            kernel=normalize_kernel,
-            dim=num_points,
-            inputs=[self.normal_sums, self.render_mesh.vertex_normals],
-        )
-
-        # construct camera
-        self.camera = Camera()
-        self.camera.horizontal = horizontal_aperture
-        self.camera.vertical = vertical_aperture
-        self.camera.aspect = aspect
-        self.camera.e = focal_length
-        self.camera.tan = vertical_aperture / (2.0 * focal_length)
-        self.camera.pos = cam_pos
-        self.camera.rot = cam_rot
-
-        # construct texture
-        self.texture = wp.array2d(texture_host, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
-
-        # construct lights
-        self.lights = DirectionalLights()
-        self.lights.dirs = wp.array(np.array([[1.0, 0.0, 0.0], [0.0, 0.0, 1.0]]), dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
-        self.lights.intensities = wp.array(np.array([2.0, 0.2]), dtype=float, requires_grad=True)
-        self.lights.num_lights = 2
-
-        # construct rays
-        self.rays_width = self.width * pow(2, self.num_samples)
-        self.rays_height = self.height * pow(2, self.num_samples)
-        self.num_rays = self.rays_width * self.rays_height
-        self.rays = wp.zeros(self.num_rays, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
-
-        # construct pixels
-        self.pixels = wp.zeros(self.num_pixels, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
-        self.target_pixels = wp.zeros(self.num_pixels, dtype=wp.vec3)
-
-        # loss array
-        self.loss = wp.zeros(1, dtype=float, requires_grad=True)
-
-        # capture graph
-        self.use_graph = wp.get_device().is_cuda
-        if self.use_graph:
-            with wp.ScopedCapture() as capture:
-                self.tape = wp.Tape()
-                with self.tape:
-                    self.forward()
-                self.tape.backward(self.loss)
-            self.graph = capture.graph
-
-        self.optimizer = SGD(
-            [self.render_mesh.rot],
-            self.train_rate,
-            momentum=self.momentum,
-            dampening=self.dampening,
-            weight_decay=self.weight_decay,
-        )
-
-    def ray_cast(self):
-        # raycast
-        wp.launch(
-            kernel=draw_kernel,
-            dim=self.num_rays,
-            inputs=[
-                self.render_mesh,
-                self.camera,
-                self.texture,
-                self.rays_width,
-                self.rays_height,
-                self.rays,
-                self.lights,
-                self.render_mode,
-            ],
-        )
-
-        # downsample
-        wp.launch(
-            kernel=downsample_kernel,
-            dim=self.num_pixels,
-            inputs=[self.rays, self.pixels, self.rays_width, pow(2, self.num_samples)],
-        )
-
-    def forward(self):
-        self.ray_cast()
-
-        # compute pixel loss
-        wp.launch(loss_kernel, dim=self.num_pixels, inputs=[self.pixels, self.target_pixels, self.loss])
-
-    def step(self):
-        if self.use_graph:
-            wp.capture_launch(self.graph)
-        else:
-            self.tape = wp.Tape()
-            with self.tape:
-                self.forward()
-            self.tape.backward(self.loss)
-
-        rot_grad = self.tape.gradients[self.render_mesh.rot]
-        self.optimizer.step([rot_grad])
-        wp.launch(normalize, dim=1, inputs=[self.render_mesh.rot])
-
-        if self.verbose and self.iter % self.period == 0:
-            print(f"Iter: {self.iter} Loss: {self.loss}")
-
-        self.tape.zero()
-        self.loss.zero_()
-
-        self.iter = self.iter + 1
-
-    def render(self):
-        self.images[:, :, :, self.image_counter] = self.get_image()
-        self.image_counter += 1
-
-    def get_image(self):
-        return self.pixels.numpy().reshape((self.height, self.width, 3))
-
-    def get_animation(self):
-        fig, ax = plt.subplots()
-        plt.axis("off")
-        plt.subplots_adjust(top=1, bottom=0, right=1, left=0, hspace=0, wspace=0)
-        plt.margins(0, 0)
-
-        frames = []
-        for i in range(self.images.shape[3]):
-            frame = ax.imshow(self.images[:, :, :, i], animated=True)
-            frames.append([frame])
-
-        ani = animation.ArtistAnimation(fig, frames, interval=50, blit=True, repeat_delay=1000)
-        return ani
-
-
-if __name__ == "__main__":
-    import matplotlib.animation as animation
-    import matplotlib.image as img
-    import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
-
-    output_dir = os.path.dirname(__file__)
-
-    reference_example = Example()
-
-    # render target rotation
-    reference_example.ray_cast()
-    target_image = reference_example.get_image()
-    img.imsave(output_dir + "/example_diffray_target_image.png", target_image)
-
-    # offset mesh rotation
-    example = Example(
-        rot_array=[0.0, (math.sqrt(3) - 1) / (2.0 * math.sqrt(2.0)), 0.0, (math.sqrt(3) + 1) / (2.0 * math.sqrt(2.0))],
-        verbose=True,
-    )
-
-    wp.copy(example.target_pixels, reference_example.pixels)
-
-    # recover target rotation
-    for i in range(example.train_iters):
-        example.step()
-
-        if i % example.period == 0:
-            example.render()
-
-    final_image = example.get_image()
-    img.imsave(output_dir + "/example_diffray_final_image.png", final_image)
-
-    video = example.get_animation()
-    video.save(output_dir + "/example_diffray_animation.gif", dpi=300, writer=animation.PillowWriter(fps=5))
+# Copyright (c) 2022 NVIDIA CORPORATION.  All rights reserved.
+# NVIDIA CORPORATION and its licensors retain all intellectual property
+# and proprietary rights in and to this software, related documentation
+# and any modifications thereto.  Any use, reproduction, disclosure or
+# distribution of this software and related documentation without an express
+# license agreement from NVIDIA CORPORATION is strictly prohibited.
+
+#############################################################################
+# Example Differentiable Ray Caster
+#
+# Shows how to use the built-in wp.Mesh data structure and wp.mesh_query_ray()
+# function to implement a basic differentiable ray caster
+#
+##############################################################################
+
+import math
+import os
+
+import numpy as np
+from pxr import Usd, UsdGeom
+
+import warp as wp
+import warp.examples
+from warp.optim import SGD
+
+
+class RenderMode:
+    """Rendering modes
+    grayscale: Lambertian shading from multiple directional lights
+    texture: 2D texture map
+    normal_map: mesh normal computed from interpolated vertex normals
+    """
+
+    grayscale = 0
+    texture = 1
+    normal_map = 2
+
+
+@wp.struct
+class RenderMesh:
+    """Mesh to be ray casted.
+    Assumes a triangle mesh as input.
+    Per-vertex normals are computed with compute_vertex_normals()
+    """
+
+    id: wp.uint64
+    vertices: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3)
+    indices: wp.array(dtype=int)
+    tex_coords: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec2)
+    tex_indices: wp.array(dtype=int)
+    vertex_normals: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3)
+    pos: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3)
+    rot: wp.array(dtype=wp.quat)
+
+
+@wp.struct
+class Camera:
+    """Basic camera for ray casting"""
+
+    horizontal: float
+    vertical: float
+    aspect: float
+    e: float
+    tan: float
+    pos: wp.vec3
+    rot: wp.quat
+
+
+@wp.struct
+class DirectionalLights:
+    """Stores arrays of directional light directions and intensities."""
+
+    dirs: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3)
+    intensities: wp.array(dtype=float)
+    num_lights: int
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def vertex_normal_sum_kernel(
+    verts: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), indices: wp.array(dtype=int), normal_sums: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3)
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    i = indices[tid * 3]
+    j = indices[tid * 3 + 1]
+    k = indices[tid * 3 + 2]
+
+    a = verts[i]
+    b = verts[j]
+    c = verts[k]
+
+    ab = b - a
+    ac = c - a
+
+    area_normal = wp.cross(ab, ac)
+    wp.atomic_add(normal_sums, i, area_normal)
+    wp.atomic_add(normal_sums, j, area_normal)
+    wp.atomic_add(normal_sums, k, area_normal)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def normalize_kernel(
+    normal_sums: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    vertex_normals: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    vertex_normals[tid] = wp.normalize(normal_sums[tid])
+
+
+@wp.func
+def texture_interpolation(tex_interp: wp.vec2, texture: wp.array2d(dtype=wp.vec3)):
+    tex_width = texture.shape[1]
+    tex_height = texture.shape[0]
+    tex = wp.vec2(tex_interp[0] * float(tex_width - 1), (1.0 - tex_interp[1]) * float(tex_height - 1))
+
+    x0 = int(tex[0])
+    x1 = x0 + 1
+    alpha_x = tex[0] - float(x0)
+    y0 = int(tex[1])
+    y1 = y0 + 1
+    alpha_y = tex[1] - float(y0)
+    c00 = texture[y0, x0]
+    c10 = texture[y0, x1]
+    c01 = texture[y1, x0]
+    c11 = texture[y1, x1]
+    lower = (1.0 - alpha_x) * c00 + alpha_x * c10
+    upper = (1.0 - alpha_x) * c01 + alpha_x * c11
+    color = (1.0 - alpha_y) * lower + alpha_y * upper
+
+    return color
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def draw_kernel(
+    mesh: RenderMesh,
+    camera: Camera,
+    texture: wp.array2d(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    rays_width: int,
+    rays_height: int,
+    rays: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    lights: DirectionalLights,
+    mode: int,
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    x = tid % rays_width
+    y = rays_height - tid // rays_width
+
+    sx = 2.0 * float(x) / float(rays_width) - 1.0
+    sy = 2.0 * float(y) / float(rays_height) - 1.0
+
+    # compute view ray in world space
+    ro_world = camera.pos
+    rd_world = wp.normalize(wp.quat_rotate(camera.rot, wp.vec3(sx * camera.tan * camera.aspect, sy * camera.tan, -1.0)))
+
+    # compute view ray in mesh space
+    inv = wp.transform_inverse(wp.transform(mesh.pos[0], mesh.rot[0]))
+    ro = wp.transform_point(inv, ro_world)
+    rd = wp.transform_vector(inv, rd_world)
+
+    color = wp.vec3(0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+
+    query = wp.mesh_query_ray(mesh.id, ro, rd, 1.0e6)
+    if query.result:
+        i = mesh.indices[query.face * 3]
+        j = mesh.indices[query.face * 3 + 1]
+        k = mesh.indices[query.face * 3 + 2]
+
+        a = mesh.vertices[i]
+        b = mesh.vertices[j]
+        c = mesh.vertices[k]
+
+        p = wp.mesh_eval_position(mesh.id, query.face, query.u, query.v)
+
+        # barycentric coordinates
+        tri_area = wp.length(wp.cross(b - a, c - a))
+        w = wp.length(wp.cross(b - a, p - a)) / tri_area
+        v = wp.length(wp.cross(p - a, c - a)) / tri_area
+        u = 1.0 - w - v
+
+        a_n = mesh.vertex_normals[i]
+        b_n = mesh.vertex_normals[j]
+        c_n = mesh.vertex_normals[k]
+
+        # vertex normal interpolation
+        normal = u * a_n + v * b_n + w * c_n
+
+        if mode == 0 or mode == 1:
+            if mode == 0:  # grayscale
+                color = wp.vec3(1.0)
+
+            elif mode == 1:  # texture interpolation
+                tex_a = mesh.tex_coords[mesh.tex_indices[query.face * 3]]
+                tex_b = mesh.tex_coords[mesh.tex_indices[query.face * 3 + 1]]
+                tex_c = mesh.tex_coords[mesh.tex_indices[query.face * 3 + 2]]
+
+                tex = u * tex_a + v * tex_b + w * tex_c
+
+                color = texture_interpolation(tex, texture)
+
+            # lambertian directional lighting
+            lambert = float(0.0)
+            for i in range(lights.num_lights):
+                dir = wp.transform_vector(inv, lights.dirs[i])
+                val = lights.intensities[i] * wp.dot(normal, dir)
+                if val < 0.0:
+                    val = 0.0
+                lambert = lambert + val
+
+            color = lambert * color
+
+        elif mode == 2:  # normal map
+            color = normal * 0.5 + wp.vec3(0.5, 0.5, 0.5)
+
+        if color[0] > 1.0:
+            color = wp.vec3(1.0, color[1], color[2])
+        if color[1] > 1.0:
+            color = wp.vec3(color[0], 1.0, color[2])
+        if color[2] > 1.0:
+            color = wp.vec3(color[0], color[1], 1.0)
+
+    rays[tid] = color
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def downsample_kernel(
+    rays: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), pixels: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), rays_width: int, num_samples: int
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    pixels_width = rays_width / num_samples
+    px = tid % pixels_width
+    py = tid // pixels_width
+    start_idx = py * num_samples * rays_width + px * num_samples
+
+    color = wp.vec3(0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+
+    for i in range(0, num_samples):
+        for j in range(0, num_samples):
+            ray = rays[start_idx + i * rays_width + j]
+            color = wp.vec3(color[0] + ray[0], color[1] + ray[1], color[2] + ray[2])
+
+    num_samples_sq = float(num_samples * num_samples)
+    color = wp.vec3(color[0] / num_samples_sq, color[1] / num_samples_sq, color[2] / num_samples_sq)
+    pixels[tid] = color
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def loss_kernel(pixels: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), target_pixels: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3), loss: wp.array(dtype=float)):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    pixel = pixels[tid]
+    target_pixel = target_pixels[tid]
+
+    diff = target_pixel - pixel
+
+    # pseudo Huber loss
+    delta = 1.0
+    x = delta * delta * (wp.sqrt(1.0 + (diff[0] / delta) * (diff[0] / delta)) - 1.0)
+    y = delta * delta * (wp.sqrt(1.0 + (diff[1] / delta) * (diff[1] / delta)) - 1.0)
+    z = delta * delta * (wp.sqrt(1.0 + (diff[2] / delta) * (diff[2] / delta)) - 1.0)
+    sum = x + y + z
+
+    wp.atomic_add(loss, 0, sum)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def normalize(x: wp.array(dtype=wp.quat)):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    x[tid] = wp.normalize(x[tid])
+
+
+class Example:
+    """
+    Non-differentiable variables:
+    camera.horizontal: camera horizontal aperture size
+    camera.vertical: camera vertical aperture size
+    camera.aspect: camera aspect ratio
+    camera.e: focal length
+    camera.pos: camera displacement
+    camera.rot: camera rotation (quaternion)
+    pix_width: final image width in pixels
+    pix_height: final image height in pixels
+    num_samples: anti-aliasing. calculated as pow(2, num_samples)
+    directional_lights: characterized by intensity (scalar) and direction (vec3)
+    render_mesh.indices: mesh vertex indices
+    render_mesh.tex_indices: texture indices
+
+    Differentiable variables:
+    render_mesh.pos: parent transform displacement
+    render_mesh.quat: parent transform rotation (quaternion)
+    render_mesh.vertices: mesh vertex positions
+    render_mesh.vertex_normals: mesh vertex normals
+    render_mesh.tex_coords: 2D texture coordinates
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, height=1024, train_iters=150, rot_array=None):
+        cam_pos = wp.vec3(0.0, 0.75, 7.0)
+        cam_rot = wp.quat(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0)
+        horizontal_aperture = 36.0
+        vertical_aperture = 20.25
+        aspect = horizontal_aperture / vertical_aperture
+        focal_length = 50.0
+        self.height = height
+        self.width = int(aspect * self.height)
+        self.num_pixels = self.width * self.height
+
+        if rot_array is None:
+            rot_array = [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]
+
+        asset_stage = Usd.Stage.Open(os.path.join(warp.examples.get_asset_directory(), "bunny.usd"))
+        mesh_geom = UsdGeom.Mesh(asset_stage.GetPrimAtPath("/root/bunny"))
+
+        points = np.array(mesh_geom.GetPointsAttr().Get())
+        indices = np.array(mesh_geom.GetFaceVertexIndicesAttr().Get())
+        num_points = points.shape[0]
+        num_faces = int(indices.shape[0] / 3)
+
+        # manufacture texture coordinates + indices for this asset
+        distance = np.linalg.norm(points, axis=1)
+        radius = np.max(distance)
+        distance = distance / radius
+        tex_coords = np.stack((distance, distance), axis=1)
+        tex_indices = indices
+
+        # manufacture texture for this asset
+        x = np.arange(256.0)
+        xx, yy = np.meshgrid(x, x)
+        zz = np.zeros_like(xx)
+        texture_host = np.stack((xx, yy, zz), axis=2) / 255.0
+
+        # set anti-aliasing
+        self.num_samples = 1
+
+        # set render mode
+        self.render_mode = RenderMode.texture
+
+        # set training iterations
+        self.train_rate = 5.00e-8
+        self.momentum = 0.5
+        self.dampening = 0.1
+        self.weight_decay = 0.0
+        self.train_iters = train_iters
+        self.period = 10  # Training iterations between render() calls
+        self.iter = 0
+
+        # storage for training animation
+        self.images = np.zeros((self.height, self.width, 3, max(int(self.train_iters / self.period), 1)))
+        self.image_counter = 0
+
+        # construct RenderMesh
+        self.render_mesh = RenderMesh()
+        self.mesh = wp.Mesh(
+            points=wp.array(points, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True), indices=wp.array(indices, dtype=int)
+        )
+        self.render_mesh.id = self.mesh.id
+        self.render_mesh.vertices = self.mesh.points
+        self.render_mesh.indices = self.mesh.indices
+        self.render_mesh.tex_coords = wp.array(tex_coords, dtype=wp.vec2, requires_grad=True)
+        self.render_mesh.tex_indices = wp.array(tex_indices, dtype=int)
+        self.normal_sums = wp.zeros(num_points, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
+        self.render_mesh.vertex_normals = wp.zeros(num_points, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
+        self.render_mesh.pos = wp.zeros(1, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
+        self.render_mesh.rot = wp.array(np.array(rot_array), dtype=wp.quat, requires_grad=True)
+
+        # compute vertex normals
+        wp.launch(
+            kernel=vertex_normal_sum_kernel,
+            dim=num_faces,
+            inputs=[self.render_mesh.vertices, self.render_mesh.indices, self.normal_sums],
+        )
+        wp.launch(
+            kernel=normalize_kernel,
+            dim=num_points,
+            inputs=[self.normal_sums, self.render_mesh.vertex_normals],
+        )
+
+        # construct camera
+        self.camera = Camera()
+        self.camera.horizontal = horizontal_aperture
+        self.camera.vertical = vertical_aperture
+        self.camera.aspect = aspect
+        self.camera.e = focal_length
+        self.camera.tan = vertical_aperture / (2.0 * focal_length)
+        self.camera.pos = cam_pos
+        self.camera.rot = cam_rot
+
+        # construct texture
+        self.texture = wp.array2d(texture_host, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
+
+        # construct lights
+        self.lights = DirectionalLights()
+        self.lights.dirs = wp.array(np.array([[1.0, 0.0, 0.0], [0.0, 0.0, 1.0]]), dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
+        self.lights.intensities = wp.array(np.array([2.0, 0.2]), dtype=float, requires_grad=True)
+        self.lights.num_lights = 2
+
+        # construct rays
+        self.rays_width = self.width * pow(2, self.num_samples)
+        self.rays_height = self.height * pow(2, self.num_samples)
+        self.num_rays = self.rays_width * self.rays_height
+        self.rays = wp.zeros(self.num_rays, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
+
+        # construct pixels
+        self.pixels = wp.zeros(self.num_pixels, dtype=wp.vec3, requires_grad=True)
+        self.target_pixels = wp.zeros(self.num_pixels, dtype=wp.vec3)
+
+        # loss array
+        self.loss = wp.zeros(1, dtype=float, requires_grad=True)
+
+        # capture graph
+        self.use_cuda_graph = wp.get_device().is_cuda
+        if self.use_cuda_graph:
+            with wp.ScopedCapture() as capture:
+                self.tape = wp.Tape()
+                with self.tape:
+                    self.forward()
+                self.tape.backward(self.loss)
+            self.graph = capture.graph
+
+        self.optimizer = SGD(
+            [self.render_mesh.rot],
+            self.train_rate,
+            momentum=self.momentum,
+            dampening=self.dampening,
+            weight_decay=self.weight_decay,
+        )
+
+    def ray_cast(self):
+        # raycast
+        wp.launch(
+            kernel=draw_kernel,
+            dim=self.num_rays,
+            inputs=[
+                self.render_mesh,
+                self.camera,
+                self.texture,
+                self.rays_width,
+                self.rays_height,
+                self.rays,
+                self.lights,
+                self.render_mode,
+            ],
+        )
+
+        # downsample
+        wp.launch(
+            kernel=downsample_kernel,
+            dim=self.num_pixels,
+            inputs=[self.rays, self.pixels, self.rays_width, pow(2, self.num_samples)],
+        )
+
+    def forward(self):
+        self.ray_cast()
+
+        # compute pixel loss
+        wp.launch(loss_kernel, dim=self.num_pixels, inputs=[self.pixels, self.target_pixels, self.loss])
+
+    def step(self):
+        with wp.ScopedTimer("step"):
+            if self.use_cuda_graph:
+                wp.capture_launch(self.graph)
+            else:
+                self.tape = wp.Tape()
+                with self.tape:
+                    self.forward()
+                self.tape.backward(self.loss)
+
+            rot_grad = self.tape.gradients[self.render_mesh.rot]
+            self.optimizer.step([rot_grad])
+            wp.launch(normalize, dim=1, inputs=[self.render_mesh.rot])
+
+            if self.iter % self.period == 0:
+                print(f"Iter: {self.iter} Loss: {self.loss}")
+
+            self.tape.zero()
+            self.loss.zero_()
+
+            self.iter = self.iter + 1
+
+    def render(self):
+        with wp.ScopedTimer("render"):
+            self.images[:, :, :, self.image_counter] = self.get_image()
+            self.image_counter += 1
+
+    def get_image(self):
+        return self.pixels.numpy().reshape((self.height, self.width, 3))
+
+    def get_animation(self):
+        fig, ax = plt.subplots()
+        plt.axis("off")
+        plt.subplots_adjust(top=1, bottom=0, right=1, left=0, hspace=0, wspace=0)
+        plt.margins(0, 0)
+
+        frames = []
+        for i in range(self.images.shape[3]):
+            frame = ax.imshow(self.images[:, :, :, i], animated=True)
+            frames.append([frame])
+
+        ani = animation.ArtistAnimation(fig, frames, interval=50, blit=True, repeat_delay=1000)
+        return ani
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    import argparse
+
+    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(formatter_class=argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter)
+    parser.add_argument("--device", type=str, default=None, help="Override the default Warp device.")
+    parser.add_argument("--train_iters", type=int, default=150, help="Total number of training iterations.")
+    parser.add_argument("--height", type=int, default=1024, help="Height of rendered image in pixels.")
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--headless",
+        action="store_true",
+        help="Run in headless mode, suppressing the opening of any graphical windows.",
+    )
+
+    args = parser.parse_known_args()[0]
+
+    with wp.ScopedDevice(args.device):
+        reference_example = Example(height=args.height)
+
+        # render target rotation
+        reference_example.ray_cast()
+
+        # offset mesh rotation
+        example = Example(
+            train_iters=args.train_iters,
+            height=args.height,
+            rot_array=[
+                0.0,
+                (math.sqrt(3) - 1) / (2.0 * math.sqrt(2.0)),
+                0.0,
+                (math.sqrt(3) + 1) / (2.0 * math.sqrt(2.0)),
+            ],
+        )
+
+        wp.copy(example.target_pixels, reference_example.pixels)
+
+        # recover target rotation
+        for i in range(example.train_iters):
+            example.step()
+
+            if i % example.period == 0:
+                example.render()
+
+        if not args.headless:
+            import matplotlib.animation as animation
+            import matplotlib.image as img
+            import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+
+            target_image = reference_example.get_image()
+            target_image_filename = "example_diffray_target_image.png"
+            img.imsave(target_image_filename, target_image)
+            print(f"Saved the target image at `{target_image_filename}`")
+
+            final_image = example.get_image()
+            final_image_filename = "example_diffray_final_image.png"
+            img.imsave(final_image_filename, final_image)
+            print(f"Saved the final image at `{final_image_filename}`")
+
+            anim = example.get_animation()
+            anim_filename = "example_diffray_animation.gif"
+            anim.save(anim_filename, dpi=300, writer=animation.PillowWriter(fps=5))
+            print(f"Saved the animation at `{anim_filename}`")