passagemath-schemes 10.6.47__cp312-cp312-macosx_13_0_arm64.whl

sage/schemes/riemann_surfaces/riemann_surface.py

@@ -0,0 +1,4117 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-schemes
+# sage.doctest: needs scipy sage.graphs sage.groups
+r"""
+Riemann matrices and endomorphism rings of algebraic Riemann surfaces
+
+This module provides a class, :class:`RiemannSurface`, to model the
+Riemann surface determined by a plane algebraic curve over a subfield
+of the complex numbers.
+
+A homology basis is derived from the edges of a Voronoi cell decomposition based
+on the branch locus. The pull-back of these edges to the Riemann surface
+provides a graph on it that contains a homology basis.
+
+The class provides methods for computing the Riemann period matrix of the
+surface numerically, using a certified homotopy continuation method due to
+[Kr2016]_.
+
+The class also provides facilities for computing the endomorphism ring of the
+period lattice numerically, by determining integer (near) solutions to the
+relevant approximate linear equations.
+
+One can also calculate the Abel-Jacobi map on the Riemann surface, and there
+is basic functionality to interface with divisors of curves to facilitate this.
+
+AUTHORS:
+
+- Alexandre Zotine, Nils Bruin (2017-06-10): initial version
+- Nils Bruin, Jeroen Sijsling (2018-01-05): algebraization, isomorphisms
+- Linden Disney-Hogg, Nils Bruin (2021-06-23): efficient integration
+- Linden Disney-Hogg, Nils Bruin (2022-09-07): Abel-Jacobi map
+
+EXAMPLES:
+
+We compute the Riemann matrix of a genus 3 curve::
+
+    sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+    sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+    sage: f = x^4-x^3*y+2*x^3+2*x^2*y+2*x^2-2*x*y^2+4*x*y-y^3+3*y^2+2*y+1
+    sage: S = RiemannSurface(f, prec=100)
+    sage: M = S.riemann_matrix()
+
+We test the usual properties, i.e., that the period matrix is symmetric and that
+the imaginary part is positive definite::
+
+    sage: all(abs(a) < 1e-20 for a in (M-M.T).list())
+    True
+    sage: iM = Matrix(RDF,3,3,[a.imag_part() for a in M.list()])
+    sage: iM.is_positive_definite()
+    True
+
+We compute the endomorphism ring and check it has `\ZZ`-rank 6::
+
+    sage: A = S.endomorphism_basis(80,8)
+    sage: len(A) == 6
+    True
+
+In fact it is an order in a number field::
+
+    sage: T.<t> = QQ[]
+    sage: K.<a> = NumberField(t^6 - t^5 + 2*t^4 + 8*t^3 - t^2 - 5*t + 7)
+    sage: all(len(a.minpoly().roots(K)) == a.minpoly().degree() for a in A)
+    True
+
+We can look at an extended example of the Abel-Jacobi functionality. We will
+demonstrate a particular half-canonical divisor on Klein's Curve, known in
+the literature::
+
+    sage: f = x^3*y + y^3 + x
+    sage: S = RiemannSurface(f, integration_method='rigorous')
+    sage: BL = S.places_at_branch_locus(); BL
+    [Place (x, y, y^2),
+     Place (x^7 + 27/4, y + 4/9*x^5, y^2 + 4/3*x^3),
+     Place (x^7 + 27/4, y - 2/9*x^5, y^2 + 1/3*x^3)]
+
+We can read off out the output of ``places_at_branch_locus`` to choose our
+divisor, and we can calculate the canonical divisor using curve functionality::
+
+    sage: P0 = 1*BL[0]
+    sage: from sage.schemes.curves.constructor import Curve
+    sage: C = Curve(f)
+    sage: F = C.function_field()
+    sage: K = (F(x).differential()).divisor() - F(f.derivative(y)).divisor()
+    sage: Pinf, Pinf_prime = C.places_at_infinity()
+    sage: if K-3*Pinf-1*Pinf_prime: Pinf, Pinf_prime = (Pinf_prime, Pinf);
+    sage: D = P0 + 2*Pinf - Pinf_prime
+
+Note we could check using exact techniques that `2D = K`::
+
+    sage: Z = K - 2*D
+    sage: (Z.degree() == 0, len(Z.basis_differential_space()) == S.genus, len(Z.basis_function_space()) == 1)
+    (True, True, True)
+
+We can also check this using our Abel-Jacobi functions::
+
+    sage: avoid = C.places_at_infinity()
+    sage: Zeq, _ = S.strong_approximation(Z, avoid)
+    sage: Zlist = S.divisor_to_divisor_list(Zeq)
+    sage: AJ = S.abel_jacobi(Zlist)  # long time (1 second)
+    sage: S.reduce_over_period_lattice(AJ).norm() < 1e-10  # long time
+    True
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+The initial version of this code was developed alongside [BSZ2019]_.
+"""
+# ****************************************************************************
+#       Copyright (C) 2017 Alexandre Zotine, Nils Bruin
+#
+# This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
+# it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+# the Free Software Foundation, either version 2 of the License, or
+# (at your option) any later version.
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# ****************************************************************************
+
+from scipy.spatial import Voronoi
+from sage.arith.functions import lcm
+from sage.arith.misc import GCD, algebraic_dependency
+from sage.ext.fast_callable import fast_callable
+from sage.graphs.graph import Graph
+from sage.groups.matrix_gps.finitely_generated import MatrixGroup
+from sage.groups.perm_gps.permgroup_named import SymmetricGroup
+from sage.matrix.constructor import Matrix
+from sage.matrix.special import block_matrix
+from sage.misc.cachefunc import cached_method
+from sage.misc.flatten import flatten
+from sage.misc.functional import numerical_approx
+from sage.misc.lazy_import import lazy_import
+from sage.misc.misc_c import prod
+from sage.modules.free_module import VectorSpace
+from sage.modules.free_module_integer import IntegerLattice
+from sage.numerical.gauss_legendre import integrate_vector, integrate_vector_N
+from sage.rings.complex_mpfr import ComplexField, CDF
+from sage.rings.function_field.constructor import FunctionField
+from sage.rings.function_field.divisor import FunctionFieldDivisor
+from sage.rings.infinity import Infinity
+from sage.rings.integer_ring import ZZ
+from sage.rings.polynomial.polynomial_ring_constructor import PolynomialRing
+from sage.rings.rational_field import QQ
+from sage.rings.real_mpfr import RealField
+from sage.schemes.curves.constructor import Curve
+import sage.libs.mpmath.all as mpall
+
+lazy_import('sage.rings.qqbar', 'number_field_elements_from_algebraics')
+
+
+def voronoi_ghost(cpoints, n=6, CC=CDF):
+    r"""
+    Convert a set of complex points to a list of real tuples `(x,y)`, and
+    appends n points in a big circle around them.
+
+    The effect is that, with n >= 3, a Voronoi decomposition will have only
+    finite cells around the original points. Furthermore, because the extra
+    points are placed on a circle centered on the average of the given points,
+    with a radius 3/2 times the largest distance between the center and the
+    given points, these finite cells form a simply connected region.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``cpoints`` -- list of complex numbers
+
+    OUTPUT:
+
+    A list of real tuples `(x,y)` consisting of the original points and a set of
+    points which surround them.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import voronoi_ghost
+        sage: L = [1 + 1*I, 1 - 1*I, -1 + 1*I, -1 - 1*I]
+        sage: voronoi_ghost(L)  # abs tol 1e-6
+        [(1.0, 1.0),
+         (1.0, -1.0),
+         (-1.0, 1.0),
+         (-1.0, -1.0),
+         (2.121320343559643, 0.0),
+         (1.0606601717798216, 1.8371173070873836),
+         (-1.060660171779821, 1.8371173070873839),
+         (-2.121320343559643, 2.59786816870648e-16),
+         (-1.0606601717798223, -1.8371173070873832),
+         (1.06066017177982, -1.8371173070873845)]
+    """
+    cpoints = [CC(c) for c in cpoints]
+    average = sum(cpoints) / len(cpoints)
+    if len(cpoints) == 1:
+        radius = 1
+    else:
+        radius = 3 * max(abs(c - average) for c in cpoints) / 2
+    z = CC.zeta(n)
+    extra_points = [average + radius * z**i for i in range(n)]
+    return [tuple(c) for c in cpoints + extra_points]
+
+
+def bisect(L, t):
+    r"""
+    Find position in a sorted list using bisection.
+
+    Given a list `L = [(t_0,...),(t_1,...),...(t_n,...)]` with increasing `t_i`,
+    find the index i such that `t_i <= t < t_{i+1}` using bisection. The rest of
+    the tuple is available for whatever use required.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``L`` -- list of tuples such that the first term of each tuple is a real
+      number between 0 and 1. These real numbers must be increasing
+
+    - ``t`` -- real number between `t_0` and `t_n`
+
+    OUTPUT: integer i, giving the position in L where t would be in
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    Form a list of the desired form, and pick a real number between 0 and 1::
+
+        sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import bisect
+        sage: L = [(0.0, 'a'), (0.3, 'b'), (0.7, 'c'), (0.8, 'd'), (0.9, 'e'), (1.0, 'f')]
+        sage: t = 0.5
+        sage: bisect(L,t)
+        1
+
+    Another example which demonstrates that if t is equal to one of the t_i, it
+    returns that index::
+
+        sage: L = [(0.0, 'a'), (0.1, 'b'), (0.45, 'c'), (0.5, 'd'), (0.65, 'e'), (1.0, 'f')]
+        sage: t = 0.5
+        sage: bisect(L,t)
+        3
+    """
+    # Defining starting indices for the loop.
+    min = 0
+    max = len(L) - 1
+    # If the input t is not between 0 and 1, raise an error.
+    if t < L[min][0] or t > L[max][0]:
+        raise ValueError("value for t out of range")
+    # Main loop.
+    while min < max - 1:
+        # Bisect.
+        mid = (max + min) // 2
+        # If it's equal, return the index we bisected to.
+        if t == L[mid][0]:
+            return mid
+        # If it's smaller, then we're on the left side.
+        elif t < L[mid][0]:
+            max = mid
+        # Otherwise we're on the right side.
+        else:
+            min = mid
+    # Once the loop terminates, we return what the indices converged to.
+    return min
+
+
+def numerical_inverse(C):
+    """
+    Compute numerical inverse of a matrix via LU decomposition.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``C`` -- a real or complex invertible square matrix
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: C = matrix(CC, 3, 3, [-4.5606e-31 + 1.2326e-31*I,
+        ....:                       -0.21313 + 0.24166*I,
+        ....:                       -3.4513e-31 + 0.16111*I,
+        ....:                       -1.0175 + 9.8608e-32*I,
+        ....:                       0.30912 + 0.19962*I,
+        ....:                       -4.9304e-32 + 0.39923*I,
+        ....:                       0.96793 - 3.4513e-31*I,
+        ....:                       -0.091587 + 0.19276*I,
+        ....:                       3.9443e-31 + 0.38552*I])
+        sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import numerical_inverse
+        sage: 3e-16 < (C^-1*C-C^0).norm() < 1e-15
+        True
+        sage: (numerical_inverse(C)*C-C^0).norm() < 3e-16
+        True
+    """
+    R = C.parent()
+    prec = R.base_ring().prec()
+    mpall.mp.prec = prec
+    with mpall.workprec(prec):
+        Cmp = mpall.matrix([mpall.sage_to_mpmath(list(c), prec) for c in C])
+        PLU = mpall.lu(Cmp)
+    P, L, U = (R([mpall.mpmath_to_sage(c, prec) for c in M]) for M in PLU)
+    return U.inverse() * L.inverse() * P
+
+
+class ConvergenceError(ValueError):
+    r"""
+    Error object suitable for raising and catching when Newton iteration fails.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import ConvergenceError
+        sage: raise ConvergenceError("test")
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ConvergenceError: test
+        sage: isinstance(ConvergenceError(),ValueError)
+        True
+    """
+    pass
+
+
+def differential_basis_baker(f):
+    r"""
+    Compute a differential basis for a curve that is nonsingular outside (1:0:0),(0:1:0),(0:0:1).
+
+    Baker's theorem tells us that if a curve has its singularities at the coordinate vertices and meets
+    some further easily tested genericity criteria,
+    then we can read off a basis for the regular differentials from the interior of the
+    Newton polygon spanned by the monomials. While this theorem only applies to special plane curves
+    it is worth implementing because the analysis is relatively cheap and it applies to a lot of
+    commonly encountered curves (e.g., curves given by a hyperelliptic model). Other advantages include
+    that we can do the computation over any exact base ring (the alternative Singular based method for
+    computing the adjoint ideal requires the rationals), and that we can avoid being affected by subtle bugs
+    in the Singular code.
+
+    ``None`` is returned when ``f`` does not describe a curve of the relevant type. If ``f`` is of the relevant
+    type, but is of genus `0` then ``[]`` is returned (which are both False values, but they are not equal).
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``f`` -- a bivariate polynomial
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import differential_basis_baker
+        sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+        sage: f = x^3 + y^3 + x^5*y^5
+        sage: differential_basis_baker(f)
+        [y^2, x*y, x*y^2, x^2, x^2*y, x^2*y^2, x^2*y^3, x^3*y^2, x^3*y^3]
+        sage: f = y^2 - (x-3)^2*x
+        sage: differential_basis_baker(f) is None
+        True
+        sage: differential_basis_baker(x^2+y^2-1)
+        []
+
+    TESTS::
+
+        sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import differential_basis_baker
+        sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+        sage: f = y^12 - x*(x - 1)^7
+        sage: differential_basis_baker(f) is None
+        True
+    """
+    k = f.base_ring()
+    R = PolynomialRing(k, 3, "x,y,z")
+    x, y, z = R.gens()
+    F = f(x / z, y / z).numerator()
+    W = [F] + [F.derivative(v) for v in R.gens()]
+    # we check that the singularities lie at (1:0:0),(0:1:0),(0:0:1)
+    # by checking that the eliminations of x, y, z result in
+    # (principal) ideals generated by a monomial. This is a sufficient
+    # condition, but not completely necessary.
+    # It's cheap to check, though.
+    for c in R.gens():
+        B = GCD([W[i].resultant(W[j], c) for i in range(4) for j in range(i)])
+        if len(B.monomials()) > 1:
+            return None
+    from sage.geometry.polyhedron.constructor import Polyhedron
+
+    D = {(k[0], k[1]): v for k, v in f.monomial_coefficients().items()}
+    P = Polyhedron(D)
+    kT = k["t"]
+    # here we check the additional genericity conditions: that the polynomials
+    # along the edges of the Newton polygon are square-free.
+    for e in P.bounded_edges():
+        h = kT([D.get(tuple(c), 0) for c in Polyhedron(e).integral_points()])
+        if not h.is_squarefree():
+            return None
+    x, y = f.parent().gens()
+    return [
+        x**(a[0] - 1) * y**(a[1] - 1)
+        for a in P.integral_points()
+        if P.interior_contains(a)
+    ]
+
+
+def find_closest_element(item, lst):
+    r"""
+    Return the index of the closest element of a list.
+
+    Given ``List`` and ``item``, return the index of the element ``l`` of ``List``
+    which minimises ``(item-l).abs()``. If there are multiple such elements, the
+    first is returned.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``item`` -- value to minimize the distance to over the list
+
+    - ``lst`` -- list to look for closest element in
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import find_closest_element
+        sage: i = 5
+        sage: l = list(range(10))
+        sage: i == find_closest_element(i, l)
+        True
+
+    Note that this method does no checks on the input, but will fail for inputs
+    where the absolute value or subtraction do not make sense.
+    """
+    dists = [(item - l).abs() for l in lst]
+    return dists.index(min(dists))
+
+
+def reparameterize_differential_minpoly(minpoly, z0):
+    r"""
+    Rewrites a minimal polynomial to write is around `z_0`.
+
+    Given a minimal polynomial `m(z,g)`, where `g` corresponds to a differential
+    on the surface (that is, it is represented as a rational function, and
+    implicitly carries a factor `dz`), we rewrite the minpoly in terms of
+    variables `\bar{z}, \bar{g}` s.t now `\bar{z}=0 \Leftrightarrow z=z_0`.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``minpoly`` -- a polynomial in two variables, where the first variable
+      corresponds to the base coordinate on the Riemann surface
+    - ``z0`` -- complex number or infinity; the point about which to
+      reparameterize
+
+    OUTPUT: a polynomial in two variables giving the reparameterize minimal polynomial
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    On the curve given by `w^2 - z^3 + 1 = 0`, we have differential
+    `\frac{dz}{2w} = \frac{dz}{2\sqrt{z^3-1}}`
+    with minimal polynomial `g^2(z^3-1) - 1/4=0`. We can make the substitution
+    `\bar{z}=z^{-1}` to parameterise the differential about `z=\infty` as
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        \frac{-\bar{z}^{-2} d\bar{z}}{2\sqrt{\bar{z}^{-3}-1}} = \frac{-d\bar{z}}{2\sqrt{\bar{z}(1-\bar{z}^3)}}.
+
+    Hence the transformed differential should have minimal polynomial
+    `\bar{g}^2 \bar{z} (1 - \bar{z}^3) - 1/4 = 0`, and we can check this::
+
+        sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface, reparameterize_differential_minpoly
+        sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+        sage: S = RiemannSurface(w^2-z^3+1)
+        sage: minpoly = S._cohomology_basis_bounding_data[1][0][2]
+        sage: z0 = Infinity
+        sage: reparameterize_differential_minpoly(minpoly, z0)
+        -zbar^4*gbar^2 + zbar*gbar^2 - 1/4
+
+    We can further check that reparameterising about `0` is the identity
+    operation::
+
+        sage: reparameterize_differential_minpoly(minpoly, 0)(*minpoly.parent().gens()) == minpoly
+        True
+
+    .. NOTE::
+
+        As part of the routine, when reparameterising about infinity, a
+        rational function is reduced and then the numerator is taken. Over
+        an inexact ring this is numerically unstable, and so it is advisable
+        to only reparameterize about infinity over an exact ring.
+    """
+    P = minpoly.parent()
+    F = PolynomialRing(P.base_ring(), [str(v) + "bar" for v in P.gens()])
+
+    try:
+        Inf = bool(z0 == z0.parent()(Infinity))
+    except TypeError:
+        Inf = False
+
+    if Inf:
+        F = F.fraction_field()
+        mt = F(minpoly(F.gen(0)**(-1), -F.gen(0)**2 * F.gen(1)))
+        mt.reduce()
+        mt = mt.numerator()
+    else:
+        mt = minpoly(F.gen(0) + z0, F.gen(1))
+    return mt
+
+
+class RiemannSurface:
+    r"""
+    Construct a Riemann Surface. This is specified by the zeroes of a bivariate
+    polynomial with rational coefficients `f(z,w) = 0`.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``f`` -- a bivariate polynomial with rational coefficients. The surface is
+      interpreted as the covering space of the coordinate plane in the first
+      variable.
+
+    - ``prec`` -- the desired precision of computations on the surface in bits
+      (default: 53)
+
+    - ``certification`` -- boolean (default: ``True``); value indicating
+      whether homotopy continuation is certified or not. Uncertified
+      homotopy continuation can be faster.
+
+    - ``differentials`` -- (default: ``None``) if specified, provides a list
+      of polynomials `h` such that `h/(df/dw) dz` is a regular
+      differential on the Riemann surface. This is taken as a basis of
+      the regular differentials, so the genus is assumed to be equal
+      to the length of this list. The results from the homology basis
+      computation are checked against this value.  Providing this
+      parameter makes the computation independent from Singular.  For
+      a nonsingular plane curve of degree `d`, an appropriate set is
+      given by the monomials of degree up to `d-3`.
+
+    - ``integration_method`` -- (default: ``'rigorous'``). String specifying the
+      integration method to use when calculating the integrals of differentials.
+      The options are ``'heuristic'`` and ``'rigorous'``, the latter of
+      which is often the most efficient.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+        sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+        sage: f = w^2 - z^3 + 1
+        sage: RiemannSurface(f)
+        Riemann surface defined by polynomial f = -z^3 + w^2 + 1 = 0, with 53 bits of precision
+
+    Another Riemann surface with 100 bits of precision::
+
+        sage: S = RiemannSurface(f, prec=100); S
+        Riemann surface defined by polynomial f = -z^3 + w^2 + 1 = 0, with 100 bits of precision
+        sage: S.riemann_matrix()^6 #abs tol 0.00000001
+        [1.0000000000000000000000000000 - 1.1832913578315177081175928479e-30*I]
+
+    We can also work with Riemann surfaces that are defined over fields with a
+    complex embedding, but since the current interface for computing genus and
+    regular differentials in Singular presently does not support extensions of
+    `\QQ`, we need to specify a description of the differentials ourselves. We give
+    an example of a CM elliptic curve::
+
+        sage: Qt.<t> = QQ[]
+        sage: K.<a> = NumberField(t^2-t+3,embedding=CC(0.5+1.6*I))
+        sage: R.<x,y> = K[]
+        sage: f = y^2 + y - (x^3 + (1-a)*x^2 - (2+a)*x - 2)
+        sage: S = RiemannSurface(f, prec=100, differentials=[1])
+        sage: A = S.endomorphism_basis()
+        sage: len(A)
+        2
+        sage: all(len(T.minpoly().roots(K)) > 0 for T in A)
+        True
+
+    The ``'heuristic'`` integration method uses the method ``integrate_vector``
+    defined in ``sage.numerical.gauss_legendre`` to compute integrals of differentials.
+    As mentioned there, this works by iteratively doubling the number of nodes
+    used in the quadrature, and uses a heuristic based on the rate at which the
+    result is seemingly converging to estimate the error. The ``'rigorous'``
+    method uses results from [Neu2018]_, and bounds the algebraic integrands on
+    circular domains using Cauchy's form of the remainder in Taylor approximation
+    coupled to Fujiwara's bound on polynomial roots (see Bruin-DisneyHogg-Gao,
+    in preparation). Note this method of bounding on circular domains is also
+    implemented in :meth:`_compute_delta`. The net result of this bounding is
+    that one can know (an upper bound on) the number of nodes required to achieve
+    a certain error. This means that for any given integral, assuming that the
+    same number of nodes is required by both methods in order to achieve the
+    desired error (not necessarily true in practice), approximately half
+    the number of integrand evaluations are required. When the required number
+    of nodes is high, e.g. when the precision required is high, this can make
+    the ``'rigorous'`` method much faster. However, the ``'rigorous'`` method does
+    not benefit as much from the caching of the ``nodes`` method over multiple
+    integrals. The result of this is that, for calls of :meth:`matrix_of_integral_values`
+    if the computation is 'fast', the heuristic method may outperform the
+    rigorous method, but for slower computations the rigorous method can be much
+    faster::
+
+        sage: f = z*w^3 + z^3 + w
+        sage: p = 53
+        sage: Sh = RiemannSurface(f, prec=p, integration_method='heuristic')
+        sage: Sr = RiemannSurface(f, prec=p, integration_method='rigorous')
+        sage: from sage.numerical.gauss_legendre import nodes
+        sage: import time
+        sage: nodes.cache.clear()
+        sage: ct = time.time()
+        sage: Rh = Sh.riemann_matrix()
+        sage: ct1 = time.time()-ct
+        sage: nodes.cache.clear()
+        sage: ct = time.time()
+        sage: Rr = Sr.riemann_matrix()
+        sage: ct2 = time.time()-ct
+        sage: ct2/ct1  # random
+        1.2429363969691192
+
+    Note that for the above curve, the branch points are evenly distributed, and
+    hence the implicit assumptions in the heuristic method are more sensible,
+    meaning that a higher precision is required to see the heuristic method
+    being significantly slower than the rigorous method. For a worse conditioned
+    curve, this effect is more pronounced::
+
+        sage: q = 1 / 10
+        sage: f = y^2 - (x^2 - 2*x + 1 + q^2) * (x^2 + 2*x + 1 + q^2)
+        sage: p = 500
+        sage: Sh = RiemannSurface(f, prec=p, integration_method='heuristic')
+        sage: Sr = RiemannSurface(f, prec=p, integration_method='rigorous')
+        sage: nodes.cache.clear()
+        sage: Rh = Sh.riemann_matrix()  # long time (8 seconds)
+        sage: nodes.cache.clear()
+        sage: Rr = Sr.riemann_matrix()  # long time (1 seconds)
+
+    This disparity in timings can get increasingly worse, and testing has shown
+    that even for random quadrics the heuristic method can be as bad as 30 times
+    slower.
+
+    TESTS:
+
+    This elliptic curve has a relatively poorly conditioned set of branch
+    points, so it challenges the path choice a bit. The code just verifies that
+    the period is quadratic, because the curve has CM, but really the test is
+    that the computation completes at all.::
+
+        sage: prec = 50
+        sage: Qx.<t> = QQ[]
+        sage: CC = ComplexField(prec)
+        sage: g = t^2-t-1
+        sage: phiCC = g.roots(CC)[1][0]
+        sage: K.<phi> = NumberField(g, embedding=phiCC)
+        sage: R.<X,Y> = K[]
+        sage: f = Y^2+X*Y+phi*Y-(X^3-X^2-2*phi*X+phi)
+        sage: S = RiemannSurface(f,prec=prec, differentials=[1])
+        sage: tau = S.riemann_matrix()[0, 0]
+        sage: tau.algebraic_dependency(6).degree() == 2
+        True
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        f,
+        prec=53,
+        certification=True,
+        differentials=None,
+        integration_method="rigorous"
+    ):
+        r"""
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(w^2 - z^3 + 1)
+            sage: TestSuite(S).run() #not tested; Unclear what pickling strategy is best.
+        """
+        # Initializations.
+        self._prec = prec
+        self._certification = certification
+        if not (integration_method == "heuristic" or integration_method == "rigorous"):
+            raise ValueError("invalid integration method")
+        self._integration_method = integration_method
+        self._R = f.parent()
+        if len(self._R.gens()) != 2:
+            raise ValueError('only bivariate polynomials supported')
+        if f.degree() <= 1:
+            raise ValueError('equation must be of degree at least 2')
+        z, w = self._R.gen(0), self._R.gen(1)
+        self._CC = ComplexField(self._prec)
+        self._RR = RealField(self._prec)
+        self._CCz = PolynomialRing(self._CC, [self._R.gen(0)])
+        self._CCw = PolynomialRing(self._CC, [self._R.gen(1)])
+        self._RRz = PolynomialRing(self._RR, [self._R.gen(0)])
+        self._curve = None
+        self.f = f
+        if differentials is not None:
+            self._differentials = [self._R(a) for a in differentials]
+            self.genus = len(self._differentials)
+        else:
+            B = differential_basis_baker(f)
+            if B is not None:
+                self._differentials = B
+                self.genus = len(B)
+            else:
+                self._differentials = None
+                self.genus = self._R.ideal(self.f).genus()
+                if self.genus < 0:
+                    raise ValueError(
+                        "Singular reports negative genus. Specify differentials manually."
+                    )
+        self.degree = self.f.degree(w)
+        self._dfdw = self.f.derivative(w)
+        self._dfdz = self.f.derivative(z)
+        self._discriminant = self.f.resultant(self._dfdw, w)
+        # Coefficients of the polynomial for use in homotopy continuation.
+        self._a0 = self._CCz(self.f.coefficient({w: self.degree})(self._CCz.gen(), 0))
+        self._a0roots = self._a0.roots(multiplicities=False)
+        self._aks = [
+            self._CCz(self.f.coefficient({w: self.degree - k - 1})(self._CCz.gen(), 0))
+            for k in range(self.degree)
+        ]
+        # Compute the branch locus. Takes the square-free part of the discriminant
+        # because of numerical issues.
+        self.branch_locus = []
+        existing_factors = [x[0] for x in self._discriminant.factor()]
+        for fac in existing_factors:
+            self.branch_locus += self._CCz(fac(self._CCz.gen(), 0)).roots(
+                multiplicities=False
+            )
+        self._f_branch_locus = self.branch_locus
+        self._cohomology_basis_bounding_data = self._bounding_data(
+            self.cohomology_basis(), exact=True
+        )
+        RBzg, bounding_data_list = self._cohomology_basis_bounding_data
+        minpoly_list = [bd[2] for bd in bounding_data_list]
+        # We now want to calculate the additional branchpoints associated to
+        # the differentials.
+        discriminants = [RBzg(self._discriminant(*RBzg.gens()))]
+        for minpoly in minpoly_list:
+            F = RBzg(minpoly)
+            dF = F.derivative(RBzg.gen(1))
+            discriminants += [F.resultant(dF, RBzg.gen(1))]
+        combined_discriminant = lcm(discriminants)(*self._R.gens())
+        self._differentials_branch_locus = []
+        for x in combined_discriminant.factor():
+            if x[0] not in existing_factors:
+                self._differentials_branch_locus += self._CCz(
+                    x[0](self._CCz.gen(), 0)
+                ).roots(multiplicities=False)
+        # We add these branchpoints to the existing.
+        # self.branch_locus = self.branch_locus+self._differentials_branch_locus
+        # We now want to also check whether Infinity is a branch point of any
+        # of the differentials.
+        # This will be useful when calculating the Abel-Jacobi map.
+        minpoly_list = [
+            reparameterize_differential_minpoly(mp, Infinity) for mp in minpoly_list
+        ]
+        discriminants = []
+        for minpoly in minpoly_list:
+            F = RBzg(minpoly)
+            dF = F.derivative(RBzg.gen(1))
+            discriminants += [F.resultant(dF, RBzg.gen(1))]
+        discriminant_about_infinity = RBzg(lcm(discriminants))
+        if discriminant_about_infinity(0, 0) == 0:
+            self._differentials_branch_locus.append(self._CC(Infinity))
+
+        # Voronoi diagram and the important points associated with it
+        self.voronoi_diagram = Voronoi(voronoi_ghost(self.branch_locus, CC=self._CC))
+        self._vertices = [self._CC(x0, y0) for x0, y0 in self.voronoi_diagram.vertices]
+        self._wvalues = [self.w_values(z0) for z0 in self._vertices]
+        # We arbitrarily, but sensibly, set the basepoint to be the rightmost vertex
+        self._basepoint = (
+            self._vertices.index(sorted(self._vertices, key=lambda z: z.real())[-1]),
+            0,
+        )
+        self._Sn = SymmetricGroup(range(self.degree))
+        self._L = {}
+        self._integral_dict = {}
+        self._fastcall_f = fast_callable(f, domain=self._CC)
+        self._fastcall_dfdw = fast_callable(self._dfdw, domain=self._CC)
+        self._fastcall_dfdz = fast_callable(self._dfdz, domain=self._CC)
+        self._fastcall_cohomology_basis = [
+            fast_callable(h, domain=self._CC) for h in self.cohomology_basis()
+        ]
+
+    def __repr__(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a string representation of the Riemann surface class.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = w^2 - z^4 + 1
+            sage: RiemannSurface(f)
+            Riemann surface defined by polynomial f = -z^4 + w^2 + 1 = 0, with 53 bits of precision
+        """
+        s = (
+            "Riemann surface defined by polynomial f = %s = 0, with %s bits of precision"
+            % (self.f, self._prec)
+        )
+        return s
+
+    def w_values(self, z0):
+        r"""
+        Return the points lying on the surface above ``z0``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``z0`` -- complex number; a point in the complex z-plane
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A set of complex numbers corresponding to solutions of `f(z_0,w) = 0`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = w^2 - z^4 + 1
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+
+        Find the w-values above the origin, i.e. the solutions of `w^2 + 1 = 0`::
+
+            sage: S.w_values(0)  # abs tol 1e-14
+            [-1.00000000000000*I, 1.00000000000000*I]
+
+        Note that typically the method returns a list of length ``self.degree``,
+        but that at ramification points, this may no longer be true::
+
+            sage: S.w_values(1)  # abs tol 1e-14
+            [0.000000000000000]
+        """
+        return self.f(z0, self._CCw.gen(0)).roots(multiplicities=False)
+
+    @cached_method
+    def downstairs_edges(self):
+        r"""
+        Compute the edgeset of the Voronoi diagram.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A list of integer tuples corresponding to edges between vertices in the
+        Voronoi diagram.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Form a Riemann surface, one with a particularly simple branch locus::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = w^2 + z^3 - z^2
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+
+        Compute the edges::
+
+            sage: S.downstairs_edges()
+            [(0, 1), (0, 5), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5), (4, 5)]
+
+        This now gives an edgeset which one could use to form a graph.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The numbering of the vertices is given by the Voronoi package.
+        """
+        # Because of how we constructed the Voronoi diagram, the first n points
+        # correspond to the branch locus points.
+        # The regions of these points are all of the edges which do not go off
+        # to infinity, which are exactly the ones we want.
+        n = len(self.branch_locus)
+        desired_edges = [
+            self.voronoi_diagram.regions[self.voronoi_diagram.point_region[i]]
+            for i in range(n)
+        ]
+        # First construct the edges as a set because the regions will overlap
+        # and we do not want to have two of the same edge.
+        edges1 = set()
+        for c in desired_edges:
+            for j in range(len(c) - 1):
+                edges1.add(frozenset((c[j], c[j + 1])))
+            edges1.add(frozenset((c[0], c[-1])))
+        # Then make it into a list and sort it.
+        # The sorting is important - it will make computing the monodromy group
+        # MUCH easier.
+        # We orient all the edges so that we go from lower to higher
+        # numbered vertex for the continuation.
+        edges = [(i0, i1) if (i0 < i1) else (i1, i0) for (i0, i1) in edges1]
+        edges.sort()
+        return edges
+
+    def downstairs_graph(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the Voronoi decomposition as a planar graph.
+
+        The result of this routine can be useful to interpret the labelling of
+        the vertices. See also :meth:`upstairs_graph`.
+
+        OUTPUT: the Voronoi decomposition as a graph, with appropriate planar embedding
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = w^2 - z^4 + 1
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+            sage: S.downstairs_graph()
+            Graph on 11 vertices
+        """
+        G = Graph(self.downstairs_edges())
+        G.set_pos(dict(enumerate(list(v) for v in self._vertices)))
+        return G
+
+    @cached_method
+    def upstairs_graph(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the graph of the upstairs edges.
+
+        This method can be useful for generating paths in the surface between points labelled
+        by upstairs vertices, and verifying that a homology basis is likely computed correctly.
+        See also :meth:`downstairs_graph`.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        The homotopy-continued Voronoi decomposition as a graph, with appropriate 3D embedding.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = Curve(w^2-z^4+1).riemann_surface()
+            sage: G = S.upstairs_graph(); G
+            Graph on 22 vertices
+            sage: G.genus()                                     # needs planarity
+            1
+            sage: G.is_connected()
+            True
+        """
+        G = Graph(self.upstairs_edges(), immutable=True)
+        G.set_pos(
+            {
+                (i, j): [
+                    self._vertices[i].real(),
+                    self._vertices[i].imag(),
+                    self.w_values(self._vertices[i])[j].imag(),
+                ]
+                for i in range(len(self._vertices))
+                for j in range(self.degree)
+            },
+            dim=3,
+        )
+        return G
+
+    def _compute_delta(self, z1, epsilon, wvalues=None):
+        r"""
+        Compute a delta for homotopy continuation when moving along a path.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``z1`` -- complex number in the z-plane
+
+        - ``epsilon`` -- real number which is the minimum distance between
+          the w-values above ``z1``
+
+        - ``wvalues`` -- list (default: ``None``); if specified, saves
+          recomputation
+
+        OUTPUT: a real number, which is a step size for moving along a path
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Form a Riemann Surface::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = w^2 - z^4 + 1
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+
+        Pick a point which lies on the Voronoi diagram, and compute an
+        appropriate epsilon::
+
+            sage: z1 = S._vertices[0]
+            sage: currw = S.w_values(z1)
+            sage: n = len(currw)
+            sage: epsilon = min([abs(currw[i] - currw[n-j-1]) for i in range(n) for j in range(n-i-1)])/3
+            sage: S._compute_delta(z1, epsilon)  # abs tol 1e-8
+            0.152628501142363
+
+        If the Riemann surface does not have certified homotopy continuation,
+        then the delta will just be the minimum distance away from a branch
+        point::
+
+            sage: T = RiemannSurface(f, certification=False)
+            sage: z1 = T._vertices[0]
+            sage: currw = T.w_values(z1)
+            sage: n = len(currw)
+            sage: epsilon = min([abs(currw[i] - currw[n-j-1]) for i in range(n) for j in range(n-i-1)])/3
+            sage: T._compute_delta(z1, epsilon)  # abs tol 1e-8
+            0.381881307912987
+        """
+        if self._certification:
+            if wvalues is None:
+                wvalues = self.w_values(z1)
+            # For computation of rho. Need the branch locus + roots of a0.
+            badpoints = self._f_branch_locus + self._a0roots
+            rho = min(abs(z1 - z) for z in badpoints) / 2
+            Y = max(
+                abs(self._fastcall_dfdz(z1, wi) / self._fastcall_dfdw(z1, wi))
+                for wi in wvalues
+            )
+
+            # compute M
+            upperbounds = [
+                sum(ak[k] * (abs(z1) + rho)**k for k in range(ak.degree()))
+                for ak in self._aks
+            ]
+            upperbounds.reverse()
+            # If a0 is a constant polynomial, it is obviously bounded below.
+            if not self._a0roots:
+                lowerbound = self._CC(self._a0) / 2
+            else:
+                lowerbound = (
+                    self._a0[self._a0.degree()]
+                    * prod(abs((zk - z1) - rho) for zk in self._a0roots)
+                    / 2
+                )
+            M = 2 * max(
+                (upperbounds[k] / lowerbound).abs().nth_root(k + 1)
+                for k in range(self.degree - 1)
+            )
+            return (
+                rho
+                * (
+                    ((rho * Y - epsilon)**2 + 4 * epsilon * M).sqrt()
+                    - (rho * Y + epsilon)
+                )
+                / (2 * M - 2 * rho * Y)
+            )
+        else:
+            # Instead, we just compute the minimum distance between branch
+            # points and the point in question.
+            return min(abs(b - z1) for b in self._f_branch_locus) / 2
+
+    def homotopy_continuation(self, edge):
+        r"""
+        Perform homotopy continuation along an edge of the Voronoi diagram using
+        Newton iteration.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``edge`` -- tuple ``(z_start, z_end)`` indicating the straight line
+          over which to perform the homotopy continuation
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A list containing the initialised continuation data. Each entry in the
+        list contains: the `t` values that entry corresponds to, a list of
+        complex numbers corresponding to the points which are reached when
+        continued along the edge when traversing along the direction of the
+        edge, and a value ``epsilon`` giving the minimumdistance between the
+        fibre values divided by 3. The ordering of these points indicates how
+        they have been permuted due to the weaving of the curve.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        We check that continued values along an edge correspond (up to the
+        appropriate permutation) to what is stored. Note that the permutation
+        was originally computed from this data::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = z^3*w + w^3 + z
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+            sage: edge1 = sorted(S.edge_permutations())[0]
+            sage: sigma = S.edge_permutations()[edge1]
+            sage: edge = [S._vertices[i] for i in edge1]
+            sage: continued_values = S.homotopy_continuation(edge)[-1][1]
+            sage: stored_values = S.w_values(S._vertices[edge1[1]])
+            sage: all(abs(continued_values[i]-stored_values[sigma(i)]) < 1e-8 for i in range(3))
+            True
+        """
+        z_start, z_end = edge
+        z_start = self._CC(z_start)
+        z_end = self._CC(z_end)
+        ZERO = self._RR.zero()
+        ONE = self._RR.one()
+        datastorage = []
+        path_length = abs(z_end - z_start)
+
+        def path(t):
+            return z_start * (1 - t) + z_end * t
+
+        # Primary procedure.
+        T = ZERO
+        currw = self.w_values(path(T))
+        n = len(currw)
+        epsilon = (
+            min([abs(currw[i] - currw[j]) for i in range(1, n) for j in range(i)]) / 3
+        )
+        datastorage += [(T, currw, epsilon)]
+        while T < ONE:
+            delta = self._compute_delta(path(T), epsilon, wvalues=currw) / path_length
+            # Move along the path by delta.
+            T += delta
+            # If T exceeds 1, just set it to 1 and compute.
+            if T > ONE:
+                delta -= T - ONE
+                T = ONE
+            while True:
+                try:
+                    neww = self._determine_new_w(path(T), currw, epsilon)
+                except ConvergenceError:
+                    delta /= 2
+                    T -= delta
+                else:
+                    break
+            currw = neww
+            epsilon = (
+                min([abs(currw[i] - currw[j]) for i in range(1, n) for j in range(i)])
+                / 3
+            )
+            datastorage += [(T, currw, epsilon)]
+        return datastorage
+
+    def _determine_new_w(self, z0, oldw, epsilon):
+        r"""
+        A procedure to Newton iterate a list of w-values simultaneously.
+
+        Used primarily for moving along the surface for integration or
+        homotopy continuation.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``z0`` -- complex number
+
+        - ``oldw`` -- list of w-values which are presumed to be guesses of
+          the w-values above ``z0``
+
+        - ``epsilon`` -- the minimum distance between the points of ``oldw``
+          divided by 3
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A list of points the same length as ``oldw`` corresponding to the new
+        Newton iterated points.
+
+        However, if the Newton iteration exceeds the allotted attempts,
+        or exits the ``epsilon`` ball, raises a convergence error.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        First, a trivial example where we guess exactly what the roots are::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = w^2 - z^4 + 1
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+            sage: z0 = S._vertices[0]
+            sage: epsilon = 0.1
+            sage: oldw = S.w_values(z0)
+            sage: neww = S._determine_new_w(z0, oldw, epsilon); neww #abs tol 0.00000001
+                [-0.934613146929672 + 2.01088055918363*I,
+                 0.934613146929672 - 2.01088055918363*I]
+
+        Which should be exactly the same as the w-values we started with.::
+
+            sage: abs(neww[0] - oldw[0]) #abs tol 0.00000001
+            0.000000000000...
+            sage: abs(neww[1] - oldw[1]) #abs tol 0.00000001
+            0.000000000000...
+
+        Here is an example where we exit the ``epsilon`` bound. This approach is
+        based on the homotopy continuation procedure which traverses along a
+        path and attempts Newton iteration::
+
+            sage: g = z^3*w + w^3 + z
+            sage: T = RiemannSurface(g)
+            sage: z0 = T._vertices[2]*(0.9) + 0.3*I
+            sage: epsilon = 0.5
+            sage: oldw = T.w_values(T._vertices[2])
+            sage: T._determine_new_w(z0, oldw, epsilon)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ConvergenceError: Newton iteration escaped neighbourhood
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            Algorithmically, this method is nearly identical to :meth:`_newton_iteration`,
+            but this method takes a list of `w` values.
+        """
+        # Tools of Newton iteration.
+        F = self._fastcall_f
+        dF = self._fastcall_dfdw
+        neww = []
+        prec = self._CC.prec()
+        # Iterate over all roots.
+        for i in range(len(oldw)):
+            delta = F(z0, oldw[i]) / dF(z0, oldw[i])
+            Ndelta = delta.norm()
+            wi = oldw[i] - delta
+            # it is possible in theory that Newton iteration fails to
+            # converge without escaping. We catch this by capping the
+            # number of iterations by 100
+            for j in range(100):
+                # If we exceed the epsilon bound from homotopy continuation,
+                # terminate.
+                if abs(wi - oldw[i]) >= epsilon:
+                    raise ConvergenceError("Newton iteration escaped neighbourhood")
+                new_delta = F(z0, wi) / dF(z0, wi)
+                Nnew_delta = new_delta.norm()
+                # If we found the root exactly, or if delta only affects half the digits and
+                # stops getting smaller, we decide that we have converged.
+                if (new_delta == 0) or (
+                    Nnew_delta >= Ndelta
+                    and Ndelta.sign_mantissa_exponent()[2] + prec
+                    < wi.norm().sign_mantissa_exponent()[2]
+                ):
+                    neww.append(wi)
+                    break
+                delta = new_delta
+                Ndelta = Nnew_delta
+                wi -= delta
+            # If we run 100 iterations without a result, terminate.
+            else:
+                raise ConvergenceError(
+                    "Newton iteration fails to converge after %s iterations" % j
+                )
+        return neww
+
+    def _newton_iteration(self, z0, oldw, epsilon):
+        r"""
+        A non-vectorized Newton iteration procedure used for integration.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``z0`` -- complex number
+
+        - ``oldw`` -- a w-value which is presumed to be a guess of one of
+          the w-values above ``z0``
+
+        - ``epsilon`` -- the minimum distance between the w-values divided by 3
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A complex number, which should be a w-value above ``z0``.
+
+        However, if the Newton iteration exceeds the allotted attempts,
+        or exits the ``epsilon`` ball, raises a convergence error.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        First, a trivial example where we guess exactly what the root is::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = w^2 - z^4 + 1
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+            sage: z0 = S._vertices[0]
+            sage: epsilon = 0.1
+            sage: oldw = S.w_values(z0)[0]
+            sage: neww = S._newton_iteration(z0,oldw,epsilon); neww  # abs tol 0.00000001
+            -0.934613146929672 + 2.01088055918363*I
+
+        Which should be exactly the same as the w-value we started with::
+
+            sage: oldw - neww  # abs tol 0.00000001
+            0.000000000000000
+
+        Here is an example where we exit the epsilon bound. This approach is
+        based on the homotopy continuation procedure which traverses along a
+        path and attempts Newton iteration::
+
+            sage: g = z^3*w + w^3 + z
+            sage: T = RiemannSurface(g)
+            sage: z0 = T._vertices[2]*(0.9) + 0.3*I
+            sage: epsilon = 0.5
+            sage: oldw = T.w_values(T._vertices[2])[1]
+            sage: T._newton_iteration(z0, oldw, epsilon)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ConvergenceError: Newton iteration escaped neighbourhood
+        """
+        F = self._fastcall_f
+        dF = self._fastcall_dfdw
+        prec = self._CC.prec()
+        delta = F(z0, oldw) / dF(z0, oldw)
+        Ndelta = delta.norm()
+        neww = oldw - delta
+        eps_squared = epsilon**2
+        # it is possible in theory that Newton iteration fails to converge
+        # without escaping. We catch this by capping the number of iterations
+        # by 100
+        for j in range(100):
+            if (neww - oldw).norm() > eps_squared:
+                raise ConvergenceError("Newton iteration escaped neighbourhood")
+            new_delta = F(z0, neww) / dF(z0, neww)
+            Nnew_delta = new_delta.norm()
+            # If we found the root exactly, or if delta only affects half the digits and
+            # stops getting smaller, we decide that we have converged.
+            if (new_delta == 0) or (
+                Nnew_delta >= Ndelta
+                and Ndelta.sign_mantissa_exponent()[2] + prec
+                < neww.norm().sign_mantissa_exponent()[2]
+            ):
+                return neww
+            delta = new_delta
+            Ndelta = Nnew_delta
+            neww -= delta
+        raise ConvergenceError("Newton iteration fails to converge")
+
+    @cached_method
+    def upstairs_edges(self):
+        r"""
+        Compute the edgeset of the lift of the downstairs graph onto the Riemann
+        surface.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        An edgeset between vertices (i, j), where i corresponds to the i-th
+        point in the Voronoi diagram vertices, and j is the j-th w-value
+        associated with that point.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = w^2 + z^3 - z^2
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+            sage: edgeset = S.upstairs_edges()
+            sage: len(edgeset) == S.degree*len(S.downstairs_edges())
+            True
+            sage: {(v[0],w[0]) for v,w in edgeset} == set(S.downstairs_edges())
+            True
+        """
+        edgeset = []
+        n = len(self._wvalues[0])
+        # Lifts each edge individually.
+        for e in self.downstairs_edges():
+            i0, i1 = e
+            d_edge = (self._vertices[i0], self._vertices[i1])
+            # Epsilon for checking w-value later.
+            val = self._wvalues[i1]
+            epsilon = (
+                min(
+                    abs(val[i] - val[n - j - 1])
+                    for i in range(n)
+                    for j in range(n - i - 1)
+                )
+                / 3
+            )
+            # Homotopy continuation along e.
+            self._L[e] = self.homotopy_continuation(d_edge)
+            homotopycont = self._L[e][-1][1]
+            for i in range(len(homotopycont)):
+                # Checks over the w-values of the next point to check which it is.
+                for j in range(len(self._wvalues[i1])):
+                    if abs(homotopycont[i] - self._wvalues[i1][j]) < epsilon:
+                        # Once it finds the appropriate w-value, adds the edge.
+                        edgeset = edgeset + [[(i0, i), (i1, j)]]
+                        continue
+        return edgeset
+
+    def _edge_permutation(self, edge):
+        r"""
+        Compute the permutation of the w-values above a point in the z-plane
+        when moving along an edge in the Voronoi diagram.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``edge`` -- an edge on the Voronoi diagram
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A permutation corresponding to how the roots interchange when moving
+        along the edge.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = z^3*w + w^3 + z
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+
+        Compute the edge permutation of (1, 2) on the Voronoi diagram::
+
+            sage: S._edge_permutation((1, 2))
+            (0,2,1)
+
+        This indicates that while traversing along the direction of `(2, 9)`,
+        the 2nd and 3rd layers of the Riemann surface are interchanging.
+        """
+        if edge in self.downstairs_edges():
+            # find all upstairs edges that are lifts of the given
+            # downstairs edge and store the corresponding indices at
+            # start and end that label the branches upstairs.
+            L = [
+                (j0, j1)
+                for ((i0, j0), (i1, j1)) in self.upstairs_edges()
+                if edge == (i0, i1)
+            ]
+            # we should be finding exactly "degree" of these
+            assert len(L) == self.degree
+            # and as a corollary of how we construct them, the indices
+            # at the start should be in order
+            assert all(a == b[0] for a, b in enumerate(L))
+            return self._Sn([j1 for j0, j1 in L])
+        raise ValueError("edge not in Voronoi diagram")
+
+    @cached_method
+    def edge_permutations(self) -> dict:
+        r"""
+        Compute the permutations of branches associated to each edge.
+
+        Over the vertices of the Voronoi decomposition around the branch locus,
+        we label the fibres. By following along an edge, the lifts of the edge
+        induce a permutation of that labelling.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A dictionary with as keys the edges of the Voronoi decomposition and as
+        values the corresponding permutations.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = w^2 + z^2+1
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+            sage: S.edge_permutations()
+            {(0, 2): (),
+             (0, 4): (),
+             (1, 2): (),
+             (1, 3): (0,1),
+             (1, 6): (),
+             (2, 0): (),
+             (2, 1): (),
+             (2, 5): (0,1),
+             (3, 1): (0,1),
+             (3, 4): (),
+             (4, 0): (),
+             (4, 3): (),
+             (5, 2): (0,1),
+             (5, 7): (),
+             (6, 1): (),
+             (6, 7): (),
+             (7, 5): (),
+             (7, 6): ()}
+        """
+        D = {e: self._edge_permutation(e) for e in self.downstairs_edges()}
+        for (a, b), p in list(D.items()):
+            D[(b, a)] = p**(-1)
+        return D
+
+    @cached_method
+    def monodromy_group(self):
+        r"""
+        Compute local monodromy generators of the Riemann surface.
+
+        For each branch point, the local monodromy is encoded by a permutation.
+        The permutations returned correspond to positively oriented loops around
+        each branch point, with a fixed base point. This means the generators
+        are properly conjugated to ensure that together they generate the global
+        monodromy. The list has an entry for every finite point stored in
+        ``self.branch_locus``, plus an entry for the ramification above infinity.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A list of permutations, encoding the local monodromy at each branch
+        point.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z, w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = z^3*w + w^3 + z
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+            sage: G = S.monodromy_group(); G
+            [(0,1,2), (0,1), (0,2), (1,2), (1,2), (1,2), (0,1), (0,2), (0,2)]
+
+        The permutations give the local monodromy generators for the branch
+        points::
+
+            sage: list(zip(S.branch_locus + [unsigned_infinity], G)) #abs tol 0.0000001
+            [(0.000000000000000, (0,1,2)),
+             (-1.31362670141929, (0,1)),
+             (-0.819032851784253 - 1.02703471138023*I, (0,2)),
+             (-0.819032851784253 + 1.02703471138023*I, (1,2)),
+             (0.292309440469772 - 1.28069133740100*I, (1,2)),
+             (0.292309440469772 + 1.28069133740100*I, (1,2)),
+             (1.18353676202412 - 0.569961265016465*I, (0,1)),
+             (1.18353676202412 + 0.569961265016465*I, (0,2)),
+             (Infinity, (0,2))]
+
+        We can check the ramification by looking at the cycle lengths and verify
+        it agrees with the Riemann-Hurwitz formula::
+
+            sage: 2*S.genus-2 == -2*S.degree + sum(e-1 for g in G for e in g.cycle_type())
+            True
+        """
+        n = len(self.branch_locus)
+        G = Graph(self.downstairs_edges())
+        # we get all the regions
+        loops = [
+            self.voronoi_diagram.regions[i][:]
+            for i in self.voronoi_diagram.point_region
+        ]
+        # and construct their Voronoi centers as complex numbers
+        centers = self.branch_locus + [
+            self._CC(x, y) for x, y in self.voronoi_diagram.points[n:]
+        ]
+        for center, loop in zip(centers, loops):
+            if -1 in loop:
+                # for loops involving infinity we take the finite part of the path
+                i = loop.index(-1)
+                loop[:] = loop[i + 1 :] + loop[:i]
+            else:
+                # and for finite ones we close the paths
+                loop.append(loop[0])
+            # we make sure the loops are positively oriented wrt. their center
+            v0 = self._vertices[loop[0]]
+            v1 = self._vertices[loop[1]]
+            M = Matrix([list(v0 - center), list(v1 - center)])
+            if M.det() < 0:
+                loop.reverse()
+
+        # we stitch together the paths that are part of loops through
+        # infinity. There should be a unique way of doing so.
+        inf_loops = loops[n:]
+        inf_path = inf_loops.pop()
+        while inf_loops:
+            inf_path += (inf_loops.pop())[1:]
+        assert inf_path[0] == inf_path[-1]
+
+        loops = loops[:n]
+        loops.append(inf_path)
+
+        P0 = loops[0][0]
+        monodromy_gens = []
+        edge_perms = self.edge_permutations()
+        SG = self._Sn
+        for c in loops:
+            to_loop = G.shortest_path(P0, c[0])
+            to_loop_perm = SG.prod(
+                edge_perms[(to_loop[i], to_loop[i + 1])]
+                for i in range(len(to_loop) - 1)
+            )
+            c_perm = SG.prod(edge_perms[(c[i], c[i + 1])] for i in range(len(c) - 1))
+            monodromy_gens.append(to_loop_perm * c_perm * ~to_loop_perm)
+        return monodromy_gens
+
+    @cached_method
+    def homology_basis(self):
+        r"""
+        Compute the homology basis of the Riemann surface.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A list of paths `L = [P_1, \dots, P_n]`. Each path `P_i` is of the form
+        `(k, [p_1 ... p_m, p_1])`, where `k` is the number of times to traverse
+        the path (if negative, to traverse it backwards), and the `p_i` are
+        vertices of the upstairs graph.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        In this example, there are two paths that form the homology basis::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: g = w^2 - z^4 + 1
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(g)
+            sage: S.homology_basis()  # random
+            [[(1, [(3, 1), (5, 0), (9, 0), (10, 0), (2, 0), (4, 0),
+                (7, 1), (10, 1), (3, 1)])],
+             [(1, [(8, 0), (6, 0), (7, 0), (10, 0), (2, 0), (4, 0),
+                (7, 1), (10, 1), (9, 1), (8, 0)])]]
+
+        In order to check that the answer returned above is reasonable, we
+        test some basic properties. We express the faces of the downstairs graph
+        as ZZ-linear combinations of the edges and check that the projection
+        of the homology basis upstairs projects down to independent linear
+        combinations of an even number of faces::
+
+            sage: # needs planarity
+            sage: dg = S.downstairs_graph()
+            sage: edges = dg.edges(sort=True)
+            sage: E = ZZ^len(edges)
+            sage: edge_to_E = { e[:2]: E.gen(i) for i,e in enumerate(edges)}
+            sage: edge_to_E.update({ (e[1],e[0]): -E.gen(i) for i,e in enumerate(edges)})
+            sage: face_span = E.submodule([sum(edge_to_E[e] for e in f) for f in dg.faces()])
+            sage: def path_to_E(path):
+            ....:     k,P = path
+            ....:     return k*sum(edge_to_E[(P[i][0],P[i+1][0])] for i in range(len(P)-1))
+            sage: hom_basis = [sum(path_to_E(p) for p in loop) for loop in S.homology_basis()]
+            sage: face_span.submodule(hom_basis).rank()
+            2
+            sage: [sum(face_span.coordinate_vector(b))%2 for b in hom_basis]
+            [0, 0]
+        """
+        if self.genus == 0:
+            return []
+
+        cycles = self.upstairs_graph().cycle_basis()
+        # Computing the Gram matrix.
+        cn = len(cycles)
+        # Forming a list of lists of zeroes.
+        # Later this will be converted into a matrix.
+        intersectionprod = [[0] * cn for _ in cycles]
+
+        # as it turns out, in extreme examples argument computation
+        # can be quite dominant so we cache this (since we may end up
+        # using these values multiple times)
+        direction_cache = {}
+
+        def direction(center, neighbour):
+            k = (center, neighbour)
+            if k not in direction_cache:
+                theta = (self._vertices[neighbour] - self._vertices[center]).argument()
+                direction_cache[k] = theta
+                return theta
+            else:
+                return direction_cache[k]
+
+        # This loop will start at the entry (0,1), and proceed along the row up
+        # til (0,cn-1).
+        # Then it will go to entry (1,2), and proceed along the row, etc.
+        for i in range(1, cn):
+            for j in range(i):
+                # Initializing the intersection product value.
+                intsum = 0
+                # Intersection of the edges
+                intsec = set(cycles[i]).intersection(set(cycles[j]))
+                for v in intsec:
+                    # Get indices of the vertex in the cycles.
+                    i0 = cycles[i].index(v)
+                    i1 = cycles[j].index(v)
+                    # Get the complex value of the vertex v.
+                    center = cycles[i][i0][0]
+
+                    # We are in the following situation:
+                    # We have two paths a_in->v->a_out and
+                    # b_in->v->b_out intersecting. We say they
+                    # are "positively oriented" if the a-path
+                    # and the b-path are oriented as the x and y axes, i.e.,
+                    # if, when we walk around v in counter-clockwise direction,
+                    # we encounter a_in,b_in,a_out,b_out.
+
+                    # we can also have that b_in and/or b_out overlaps with
+                    # a_in and/or a_out. If we just score the orientation of
+                    # b_in and b_out individually, we can deal with this
+                    # by just ignoring the overlapping vertex. The "half"
+                    # score will be appropriately complemented at one of the
+                    # next vertices.
+
+                    a_in = cycles[i][i0 - 1][0]
+                    a_out = cycles[i][(i0 + 1) % len(cycles[i])][0]
+                    b_in = cycles[j][i1 - 1][0]
+                    b_out = cycles[j][(i1 + 1) % len(cycles[j])][0]
+
+                    # we can get the angles (and hence the rotation order)
+                    # by taking the arguments of the differences.
+
+                    a_in_arg = direction(center, a_in)
+                    a_out_arg = direction(center, a_out)
+                    b_in_arg = direction(center, b_in)
+                    b_out_arg = direction(center, b_out)
+
+                    # we make sure to test overlap on the indices, so no rounding
+                    # problems occur with that.
+
+                    if (b_in != a_in) and (b_in != a_out):
+                        if (
+                            (a_in_arg < b_in_arg < a_out_arg)
+                            or (b_in_arg < a_out_arg < a_in_arg)
+                            or (a_out_arg < a_in_arg < b_in_arg)
+                        ):
+                            intsum += 1
+                        elif (
+                            (a_out_arg < b_in_arg < a_in_arg)
+                            or (b_in_arg < a_in_arg < a_out_arg)
+                            or (a_in_arg < a_out_arg < b_in_arg)
+                        ):
+                            intsum -= 1
+                        else:
+                            raise RuntimeError("impossible edge orientation")
+                    if (b_out != a_in) and (b_out != a_out):
+                        if (
+                            (a_in_arg < b_out_arg < a_out_arg)
+                            or (b_out_arg < a_out_arg < a_in_arg)
+                            or (a_out_arg < a_in_arg < b_out_arg)
+                        ):
+                            intsum -= 1
+                        elif (
+                            (a_out_arg < b_out_arg < a_in_arg)
+                            or (b_out_arg < a_in_arg < a_out_arg)
+                            or (a_in_arg < a_out_arg < b_out_arg)
+                        ):
+                            intsum += 1
+                        else:
+                            raise RuntimeError("impossible edge orientation")
+                assert (intsum % 2) == 0
+                intsum = intsum // 2
+                intersectionprod[i][j] = intsum
+                # Skew Symmetry
+                intersectionprod[j][i] = -intsum
+        Gmatrix = Matrix(intersectionprod)
+        G_normalized, P = Gmatrix.symplectic_form()
+        if G_normalized.rank() != 2 * self.genus:
+            raise RuntimeError("rank of homology pairing mismatches twice stored genus")
+        # Define the cycle sets.
+        acycles = [[] for i in range(self.genus)]
+        bcycles = [[] for i in range(self.genus)]
+        # There are g a and b cycles.
+        for i in range(self.genus):
+            # Range over the size of the Gram matrix.
+            for j in range(cn):
+                # Forms the acycles and bcycles. If the entry in the
+                # transformation matrix is nonzero, it adds the coefficient at
+                # that entry, and the corresponding cycle. (also, forms it
+                # into a loop)
+                if P[i][j] != 0:
+                    acycles[i] += [(P[i][j], list(cycles[j]) + [cycles[j][0]])]
+                if P[self.genus + i][j] != 0:
+                    bcycles[i] += [
+                        (P[self.genus + i][j], list(cycles[j]) + [cycles[j][0]])
+                    ]
+        return acycles + bcycles
+
+    def make_zw_interpolator(self, upstairs_edge, initial_continuation=None):
+        r"""
+        Given a downstairs edge for which continuation data has been initialised,
+        return a function that computes `z(t), w(t)` , where `t` in `[0,1]` is a
+        parametrization of the edge.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``upstairs_edge`` -- tuple ``((z_start, sb), (z_end,))`` giving the
+          start and end values of the base coordinate along the straight-line
+          path and the starting branch
+        - ``initial_continuation`` -- list (optional);  output of
+          ``homotopy_continuation`` initialising the continuation data
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A tuple ``(g, d)``, where ``g`` is the function that computes the interpolation
+        along the edge and ``d`` is the difference of the z-values of the end and
+        start point.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = w^2 - z^4 + 1
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+            sage: _ = S.homology_basis()
+            sage: u_edge = [(0, 0), (1, 0)]
+            sage: d_edge = tuple(u[0] for u in u_edge)
+            sage: u_edge = [(S._vertices[i], j) for i, j in u_edge]
+            sage: initial_continuation = S._L[d_edge]
+            sage: g, d = S.make_zw_interpolator(u_edge, initial_continuation)
+            sage: all(f(*g(i*0.1)).abs() < 1e-13 for i in range(10))
+            True
+            sage: abs((g(1)[0]-g(0)[0]) - d) < 1e-13
+            True
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The interpolator returned by this method can effectively hang if
+            either ``z_start`` or ``z_end`` are branchpoints. In these situations
+            it is better to take a different approach rather than continue to use
+            the interpolator.
+        """
+        downstairs_edge = tuple(u[0] for u in upstairs_edge)
+        z_start, z_end = downstairs_edge
+        z_start = self._CC(z_start)
+        z_end = self._CC(z_end)
+        if initial_continuation is None:
+            initial_continuation = self.homotopy_continuation(downstairs_edge)
+        currL = initial_continuation
+        windex = upstairs_edge[0][1]
+
+        def w_interpolate(t):
+            if t < 0 or t > 1:
+                raise ValueError("t outside path range")
+            if t == 0:
+                return z_start, currL[0][1][windex]
+            elif t == 1:
+                return z_end, currL[-1][1][windex]
+            while True:
+                i = bisect(currL, t)
+                t1, w1, epsilon = currL[i]
+                w1 = w1[windex]
+                t2, w2, _ = currL[i + 1]
+                w2 = w2[windex]
+                z0 = (1 - t) * z_start + t * z_end
+                w0 = self._CC(((t2 - t) * w1 + (t - t1) * w2) / (t2 - t1))
+                try:
+                    desired_result = self._newton_iteration(z0, w0, epsilon)
+                except ConvergenceError:
+                    pass
+                else:
+                    return z0, desired_result
+                # If we did not succeed, we insert a new point in our interpolation list
+                tnew = t
+                while True:
+                    tnew = (t1 + tnew) / 2
+                    znew = (1 - tnew) * z_start + tnew * z_end
+                    try:
+                        neww1 = self._determine_new_w(znew, currL[i][1], epsilon)
+                    except ConvergenceError:
+                        pass
+                    else:
+                        # When *no* ConvergenceError is raised, we have succeeded and we can exit
+                        break
+                # once the loop has succeeded we insert our new value
+                t1 = tnew
+                currL.insert(i + 1, (t1, neww1, epsilon))
+
+        return w_interpolate, (z_end - z_start)
+
+    def simple_vector_line_integral(self, upstairs_edge, differentials):
+        r"""
+        Perform vectorized integration along a straight path.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``upstairs_edge`` -- tuple; either a pair of integer tuples
+          corresponding to an edge of the upstairs graph, or a tuple
+          ``((z_start, sb), (z_end, ))`` as in the input of
+          ``make_zw_interpolator``
+
+        - ``differentials`` -- list of polynomials; a polynomial `g`
+          represents the differential `g(z,w)/(df/dw) dz` where `f(z,w)=0` is
+          the equation defining the Riemann surface
+
+        OUTPUT: a complex number, the value of the line integral
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = w^2 - z^4 + 1
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f); S
+            Riemann surface defined by polynomial f = -z^4 + w^2 + 1 = 0, with 53 bits of precision
+
+        Since we make use of data from homotopy continuation, we need to compute
+        the necessary data::
+
+            sage: M = S.riemann_matrix()
+            sage: differentials = S.cohomology_basis()
+            sage: S.simple_vector_line_integral([(0, 0), (1, 0)], differentials) #abs tol 0.00000001
+            (1.14590610929717e-16 - 0.352971844594760*I)
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            Uses data that :meth:`homology_basis` initializes, and may give incorrect
+            values if :meth:`homology_basis` has not initialized them. In practice
+            it is more efficient to set ``differentials`` to a fast-callable version
+            of differentials to speed up execution.
+        """
+        d_edge = tuple(u[0] for u in upstairs_edge)
+        # Using a try-catch here allows us to retain a certain amount of back compatibility
+        # for users.
+        try:
+            initial_continuation = self._L[d_edge]
+            upstairs_edge = (
+                (self._vertices[d_edge[0]], upstairs_edge[0][1]),
+                (self._vertices[d_edge[1]],),
+            )
+        except KeyError:
+            initial_continuation = self.homotopy_continuation(d_edge)
+        w_of_t, Delta_z = self.make_zw_interpolator(upstairs_edge, initial_continuation)
+        V = VectorSpace(self._CC, len(differentials))
+
+        def integrand(t):
+            zt, wt = w_of_t(t)
+            dfdwt = self._fastcall_dfdw(zt, wt)
+            return V([omega(zt, wt) / dfdwt for omega in differentials])
+
+        return integrate_vector(integrand, self._prec) * Delta_z
+
+    def cohomology_basis(self, option=1):
+        r"""
+        Compute the cohomology basis of this surface.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``option`` -- presently, this routine uses Singular's ``adjointIdeal``
+          and passes the ``option`` parameter on. Legal values are 1, 2, 3 ,4,
+          where 1 is the default. See the Singular documentation for the
+          meaning. The backend for this function may change, and support for
+          this parameter may disappear.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        This returns a list of polynomials `g` representing the holomorphic
+        differentials `g/(df/dw) dz`, where `f(z,w)=0` is the equation
+        specifying the Riemann surface.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = z^3*w + w^3 + z
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+            sage: S.cohomology_basis()
+            [1, w, z]
+        """
+        if self.genus == 0:
+            self._differentials = []
+            return self._differentials  # [0]
+        if self._differentials is None:
+            # Computes differentials from the adjointIdeal using Singular
+            # First we homogenize
+            base = self.f.base_ring()
+            # It's important we use a degree ordering; see below.
+            R = self._R
+            k = PolynomialRing(base, names='Z,W,U', order='degrevlex')
+            dehom = k.Hom(R)([R.gen(0), R.gen(1), R.one()])
+            fnew = self.f(k.gen(0) / k.gen(2), k.gen(1) / k.gen(2)).numerator()
+
+            # We load the relevant functionality into singularlib
+            import sage.libs.singular.function_factory
+
+            sage.libs.singular.function_factory.lib("paraplanecurves.lib")
+            adjointIdeal = sage.libs.singular.function.singular_function("adjointIdeal")
+            libsing_options = sage.libs.singular.option.LibSingularVerboseOptions()
+
+            # We compute the adjoint ideal (note we need to silence "redefine")
+            redef_save = libsing_options["redefine"]
+            try:
+                libsing_options["redefine"] = False
+                J = adjointIdeal(fnew, option)
+            finally:
+                libsing_options["redefine"] = redef_save
+
+            # We are interested in the (degree-3) subspace of the adjoint ideal.
+            # We compute this by intersecting with (Z,W,U)^(degree-3). Then the
+            # lowest degree generators are a basis of the relevant subspace.
+            d = fnew.total_degree()
+            J2 = k.ideal(J).intersection(
+                k.ideal([k.gen(0), k.gen(1), k.gen(2)])**(d - 3)
+            )
+            generators = [dehom(c) for c in J2.gens() if c.degree() == d - 3]
+            if len(generators) != self.genus:
+                raise ValueError(
+                    "computed regular differentials do not match stored genus"
+                )
+            self._differentials = generators
+        return self._differentials
+
+    def _bounding_data(self, differentials, exact=False):
+        r"""
+        Compute the data required to bound a differential on a circle.
+
+        Given a differential, one can bound it on a circular region using its
+        derivative and its minimal polynomial (in the coordinate of the base).
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``differentials`` -- list of polynomials in ``self._R`` giving
+          the numerators of the differentials, as per the output of
+          :meth:`cohomology_basis`
+
+        - ``exact`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); whether to return the minimal
+          polynomials over the exact base ring, or over ``self._CC``
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A tuple ``(Rzg, [(g, dgdz, F, a0_info), ...])`` where each element of
+        the list corresponds to an element of ``differentials``. Introducing the
+        notation ``RBzg = PolynomialRing(self._R, ['z','g'])`` and
+        ``CCzg = PolynomialRing(self._CC, ['z','g'])``, we have that:
+
+        - ``Rzg`` is either ``RBzg`` or ``CCzg`` depending on the value of
+          ``exact``,
+        - ``g`` is the full rational function in ``self._R.fraction_field()``
+          giving the differential,
+        - ``dgdz`` is the derivative of ``g`` with respect to ``self._R.gen(0)``,
+          written in terms of ``self._R.gen(0)`` and ``g``, hence laying in
+          ``RBzg``,
+        - ``F`` is the minimal polynomial of ``g`` over ``self._R.gen(0)``,
+          laying in the polynomial ring ``Rzg``,
+        - ``a0_info`` is a tuple ``(lc, roots)`` where ``lc`` and ``roots`` are
+          the leading coefficient and roots of the polynomial in ``CCzg.gen(0)``
+          that is the coefficient of the term of ``F`` of highest degree in
+          ``CCzg.gen(1)``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = y^2 - x^3 + 1
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f)
+            sage: differentials = S.cohomology_basis(); differentials
+            [1]
+            sage: S._dfdw
+            2*y
+            sage: S._bounding_data(differentials)
+            (Multivariate Polynomial Ring in z, g over Complex Field with 53 bits of precision,
+             [(1/(2*y),
+               (-3*z^2*g)/(2*z^3 - 2),
+               z^3*g^2 - g^2 - 0.250000000000000,
+               (1.00000000000000,
+                [1.00000000000000,
+                 -0.500000000000000 - 0.866025403784439*I,
+                 -0.500000000000000 + 0.866025403784439*I]))])
+
+        Note that ``self._bounding_data(self._cohomology_basis(), exact=True)``
+        is stored in ``self._cohomology_basis_bounding_data``::
+
+            sage: S._cohomology_basis_bounding_data
+            (Multivariate Polynomial Ring in z, g over Rational Field,
+             [(1/(2*y),
+               (-3*z^2*g)/(2*z^3 - 2),
+               z^3*g^2 - g^2 - 1/4,
+               (1.00000000000000,
+                [1.00000000000000,
+                 -0.500000000000000 - 0.866025403784439*I,
+                 -0.500000000000000 + 0.866025403784439*I]))])
+        """
+        # This copies previous work by NB, outputting the zipped list required
+        # for a certified line integral.
+        RB = self._R.base_ring()
+        P = PolynomialRing(RB, "Z")
+        k = P.fraction_field()
+        KP = PolynomialRing(k, "W")  # W->fraction field
+        fZW = self.f(P.gen(0), KP.gen(0))
+        L = k.extension(fZW, "Wb")
+        dfdw_L = self._dfdw(P.gen(0), L.gen(0))
+        integrand_list = [h / self._dfdw for h in differentials]
+        # minpoly_univ gives the minimal polynomial for h, in variable x, with
+        # coefficients given by polynomials with coefficients in P (i.e.
+        # rational polynomials in Z).
+        minpoly_univ = [
+            (h(P.gen(0), L.gen(0)) / dfdw_L).minpoly().numerator()
+            for h in differentials
+        ]
+        RBzg = PolynomialRing(RB, ["z", "g"])
+        # The following line changes the variables in these minimal polynomials
+        # as Z -> z, x -> G, then evaluates at G = QQzg.gens(1) ( = g )
+        RBzgG = PolynomialRing(RBzg, "G")
+        minpoly_list = [
+            RBzgG([c(RBzg.gen(0)) for c in list(h)])(RBzg.gen(1)) for h in minpoly_univ
+        ]
+        # h(z,g)=0 --> dg/dz = - dhdz/dhdg
+        dgdz_list = [
+            -h.derivative(RBzg.gen(0)) / h.derivative(RBzg.gen(1)) for h in minpoly_list
+        ]
+
+        CCzg = PolynomialRing(self._CC, ["z", "g"])
+        CCminpoly_list = [CCzg(h) for h in minpoly_list]
+
+        a0_list = [P(h.leading_coefficient()) for h in minpoly_univ]
+        # Note that because the field over which the Riemann surface is defined
+        # is embedded into CC, it has characteristic 0, and so we know the
+        # irreducible factors are all separable, i.e. the roots have multiplicity
+        # one.
+        a0_info = [
+            (
+                self._CC(a0.leading_coefficient()),
+                flatten(
+                    [
+                        self._CCz(F).roots(multiplicities=False) * m
+                        for F, m in a0.factor()
+                    ]
+                ),
+            )
+            for a0 in a0_list
+        ]
+        if exact:
+            return RBzg, list(zip(integrand_list, dgdz_list, minpoly_list, a0_info))
+        else:
+            return CCzg, list(zip(integrand_list, dgdz_list, CCminpoly_list, a0_info))
+
+    def rigorous_line_integral(self, upstairs_edge, differentials, bounding_data):
+        r"""
+        Perform vectorized integration along a straight path.
+
+        Using the error bounds for Gauss-Legendre integration found in [Neu2018]_
+        and a method for bounding an algebraic integrand on a circular domains
+        using Cauchy's form of the remainder in Taylor approximation coupled to
+        Fujiwara's bound on polynomial roots (see Bruin-DisneyHogg-Gao, in
+        preparation), this method calculates (semi-)rigorously the integral of a
+        list of differentials along an edge of the upstairs graph.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``upstairs_edge`` -- tuple; either a pair of integer tuples
+          corresponding to an edge of the upstairs graph, or a tuple
+          ``((z_start, sb), (z_end, ))`` as in the input of
+          ``make_zw_interpolator``
+
+        - ``differentials`` -- list of polynomials; a polynomial `g`
+          represents the differential `g(z,w)/(df/dw) dz` where `f(z,w)=0` is
+          the equation defining the Riemann surface
+
+        - ``bounding_data`` -- tuple containing the data required for bounding
+          the integrands. This should be in the form of the output from
+          :meth:`_bounding_data`.
+
+        OUTPUT: a complex number, the value of the line integral
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = w^2 - z^4 + 1
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f); S
+            Riemann surface defined by polynomial f = -z^4 + w^2 + 1 = 0, with 53 bits of precision
+
+        Since we make use of data from homotopy continuation, we need to compute
+        the necessary data::
+
+            sage: _ = S.homology_basis()
+            sage: differentials = S.cohomology_basis()
+            sage: bounding_data = S._bounding_data(differentials)
+            sage: S.rigorous_line_integral([(0,0), (1,0)], differentials, bounding_data)  # abs tol 1e-10
+            (1.80277751848459e-16 - 0.352971844594760*I)
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            Uses data that ``homology_basis`` initializes, and may give incorrect
+            values if :meth:`homology_basis` has not initialized them.
+
+            Note also that the data of the differentials is contained within
+            ``bounding_data``. It is, however, still advantageous to have this
+            be a separate argument, as it lets the user supply a fast-callable
+            version of the differentials, to significantly speed up execution
+            of the integrand calls, and not have to re-calculate these
+            fast-callables for every run of the function. This is also the benefit
+            of representing the  differentials as a polynomial over a known
+            common denominator.
+
+        .. TODO::
+
+            Note that bounding_data contains the information of the integrands,
+            so one may want to check for consistency between ``bounding_data``
+            and ``differentials``. If so one would not want to do so at the
+            expense of speed.
+
+            Moreover, the current implementation bounds along a line by
+            splitting it up into segments, each of which can be covered entirely
+            by a single circle, and then placing inside that the ellipse
+            required to bound as per [Neu2018]_. This is reliably more efficient
+            than the heuristic method, especially in poorly-conditioned cases
+            where discriminant points are close together around the edges, but
+            in the case where the branch locus is well separated, it can require
+            slightly more nodes than necessary. One may want to include a method
+            here to transition in this regime to an algorithm that covers the
+            entire line with one ellipse, then bounds along that ellipse with
+            multiple circles.
+        """
+        # Note that this, in its current formalism, makes no check that bounding
+        # data at all corresponds to  the differentials given. The onus is then
+        # on the design of other functions which use it.
+
+        # CCzg is required to be known as we need to know the ring which the minpolys
+        # lie in.
+        CCzg, bounding_data_list = bounding_data
+        CCz = CCzg.univariate_ring(CCzg.gen(1)).base_ring()
+
+        d_edge = tuple(u[0] for u in upstairs_edge)
+        # Using a try-catch here allows us to retain a certain amount of back
+        # compatibility for users.
+        try:
+            initial_continuation = self._L[d_edge]
+            upstairs_edge = (
+                (self._vertices[d_edge[0]], upstairs_edge[0][1]),
+                (self._vertices[d_edge[1]],),
+            )
+        except KeyError:
+            initial_continuation = self.homotopy_continuation(d_edge)
+
+        zwt, z1_minus_z0 = self.make_zw_interpolator(
+            upstairs_edge, initial_continuation
+        )
+        z0 = zwt(0)[0]
+        z1 = zwt(1)[0]
+
+        # list of (centre, radius) pairs that still need to be processed
+        # None is a sentinel value to indicate that the minimum number of
+        # nodes required to integrate on the corresponding segment within
+        # the required error tolerance is not yet known.
+        ball_stack = [(self._RR(1 / 2), self._RR(1 / 2), None)]
+        alpha = self._RR(912 / 1000)
+        # alpha set manually for scaling purposes. Basic benchmarking shows
+        # that ~0.9 is a sensible value.
+        E_global = self._RR(2)**(-self._prec + 3)
+
+        # Output will iteratively store the output of the integral.
+        V = VectorSpace(self._CC, len(differentials))
+        output = V(0)
+
+        # The purpose of this loop is as follows: We know we will be using
+        # Gauss-Legendre quadrature to do the integral, and results from [Neu2018]_
+        # tell us an upper bound on the number of nodes required to achieve a
+        # given error bound for this quadrature, provided we have a bound for
+        # the integrand on a certain ellipse in the complex plane. The method
+        # developed by Bruin and Gao that uses Cauchy and Fujiwara can bound an
+        # algebraic integrand on a circular region. Hence we need a way to change
+        # from bounding with an ellipse to bounding with a circle. The size of
+        # these circles will be constrained by the distance to the nearest point
+        # where the integrand blows up, i.e. the nearest branchpoint. Basic
+        # benchmarking showed that it was in general a faster method to split
+        # the original line segment into multiple smaller line segments, and
+        # compute the contribution from each of the line segments bounding with
+        # a single circle, the benefits mainly coming when the curve is poorly
+        # conditioned s.t. the branch points are close together. The following
+        # loop does exactly this, repeatedly bisecting a segment if it is not
+        # possible to cover it entirely in a ball which encompasses an appropriate
+        # ellipse.
+        def local_N(ct, rt):
+            cz = (1 - ct) * z0 + ct * z1  # This is the central z-value of our ball.
+            distances = [(cz - b).abs() for b in self.branch_locus]
+            rho_z = min(distances)
+            rho_t = rho_z / (z1_minus_z0).abs()
+            rho_t = alpha * rho_t + (1 - alpha) * rt  # sqrt(rho_t*rt) could also work
+            rho_z = rho_t * (z1_minus_z0).abs()
+            delta_z = (alpha * rho_t + (1 - alpha) * rt) * (z1_minus_z0).abs()
+            # delta_z and delta_z^2 / (rho_z * (rho_z - delta_z)) are the two
+            # prefactors that occur in the computation of the magnitude bound
+            # M. delta_z should never be infinite, but the second factor could
+            # be if rho_z - delta_z is 0. Mathematically it would never be 0
+            # as we ensure rho_t > rt before running local_N, but the
+            # floating point operations can ruin this.
+            # The second prefactor is actually homogeneous in
+            # z1_minus_z0.abs(), so we shall compute this factor without those
+            # multiplications as a function of rho_t / rt which should thus be
+            # more resistance to floating-point errors.
+            pf2 = (alpha + (1 - alpha) * (rt / rho_t))**2 / (
+                  (1 - alpha) * (1 - rt / rho_t)
+            )
+            expr = (
+                rho_t / rt + ((rho_t / rt)**2 - 1).sqrt()
+            )  # Note this is really exp(arcosh(rho_t/rt))
+            Ni = 3
+            cw = zwt(ct)[1]
+            for g, dgdz, minpoly, (a0lc, a0roots) in bounding_data_list:
+                z_1 = a0lc.abs() * prod((cz - r).abs() - rho_z for r in a0roots)
+                n = minpoly.degree(CCzg.gen(1))
+                ai_new = [
+                    CCz(minpoly.coefficient({CCzg.gen(1): i}))(z=cz + self._CCz.gen(0))
+                    for i in range(n)
+                ]
+                ai_pos = [self._RRz([c.abs() for c in h.list()]) for h in ai_new]
+                m = [a(rho_z) / z_1 for a in ai_pos]
+                l = len(m)
+                M_tilde = 2 * max(
+                    (m[i].abs())**(1 / self._RR(l - i)) for i in range(l)
+                )
+                cg = g(cz, cw)
+                cdgdz = dgdz(cz, cg)
+                M = delta_z * cdgdz.abs() + pf2 * M_tilde
+                N_required = (
+                    (M * (self._RR.pi() + 64 / (15 * (expr**2 - 1))) / E_global).log()
+                    / (2 * expr.log())
+                )
+                if N_required.is_positive_infinity():
+                    return 2**max(60, self._prec)
+                Ni = max(Ni, N_required.ceil())
+            return Ni
+
+        while ball_stack:
+            ct, rt, lN = ball_stack.pop()
+            ncts = [ct - rt / 2, ct + rt / 2]
+            nrt = rt / 2
+
+            if lN is None:
+                cz = (1 - ct) * z0 + ct * z1
+                distances = [(cz - b).abs() for b in self.branch_locus]
+                rho_z = min(distances)
+                rho_t = rho_z / (z1_minus_z0).abs()
+
+                if rho_t <= rt:
+                    ball_stack.append((ncts[0], nrt, None))
+                    ball_stack.append((ncts[1], nrt, None))
+                    continue
+
+                lN = local_N(ct, rt)
+
+            nNs = [local_N(nct, nrt) for nct in ncts]
+
+            if sum(nNs) < lN:
+                ball_stack.append((ncts[0], nrt, nNs[0]))
+                ball_stack.append((ncts[1], nrt, nNs[1]))
+                continue
+
+            if lN % 2 and not lN == 3:
+                lN += 1
+
+            ct_minus_rt = ct - rt
+            two_rt = 2 * rt
+
+            def integrand(t):
+                zt, wt = zwt(ct_minus_rt + t * two_rt)
+                dfdwt = self._fastcall_dfdw(zt, wt)
+                return V([h(zt, wt) / dfdwt for h in differentials])
+
+            output += two_rt * integrate_vector_N(integrand, self._prec, lN)
+
+        return output * z1_minus_z0
+
+    def matrix_of_integral_values(self, differentials, integration_method='heuristic'):
+        r"""
+        Compute the path integrals of the given differentials along the homology
+        basis.
+
+        The returned answer has a row for each differential. If the Riemann
+        surface is given by the equation `f(z,w)=0`, then the differentials are
+        encoded by polynomials g, signifying the differential `g(z,w)/(df/dw)
+        dz`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``differentials`` -- list of polynomials
+
+        - ``integration_method`` -- (default: ``'heuristic'``) string specifying
+          the integration method to use. The options are ``'heuristic'`` and
+          ``'rigorous'``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A matrix, one row per differential, containing the values of the path
+        integrals along the homology basis of the Riemann surface.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(x^3 + y^3 + 1)
+            sage: B = S.cohomology_basis()
+            sage: m = S.matrix_of_integral_values(B)
+            sage: parent(m)
+            Full MatrixSpace of 1 by 2 dense matrices over Complex Field with 53 bits of precision
+            sage: (m[0,0]/m[0,1]).algebraic_dependency(3).degree() # curve is CM, so the period is quadratic
+            2
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            If ``differentials is self.cohomology_basis()``, the calculations
+            of the integrals along the edges are written to ``self._integral_dict``.
+            This is as this data will be required when computing the Abel-Jacobi
+            map, and so it is helpful to have is stored rather than recomputing.
+        """
+        cycles = self.homology_basis()
+
+        def normalize_pairs(L):
+            r"""
+            Return a list of edges encoded by the path in L.
+            The edges are normalized to be in the direction in which
+            the homotopy continuation should have been computed along them.
+            """
+            R = []
+            for i in range(len(L) - 1):
+                if L[i][0] < L[i + 1][0]:
+                    R.append((L[i], L[i + 1]))
+                else:
+                    R.append((L[i + 1], L[i]))
+            return R
+
+        occurring_edges = set()
+        occurring_edges.update(*[normalize_pairs(p[1]) for h in cycles for p in h])
+
+        if differentials is self.cohomology_basis():
+            fcd = self._fastcall_cohomology_basis
+            integral_dict = self._integral_dict
+        else:
+            fcd = [fast_callable(omega, domain=self._CC) for omega in differentials]
+            integral_dict = {}
+
+        if integration_method == "heuristic":
+            line_int = lambda edge: self.simple_vector_line_integral(edge, fcd)
+        elif integration_method == "rigorous":
+            bd = self._bounding_data(differentials)
+            line_int = lambda edge: self.rigorous_line_integral(edge, fcd, bd)
+        else:
+            raise ValueError("invalid integration method")
+
+        integral_dict = {edge: line_int(edge) for edge in occurring_edges}
+
+        rows = []
+        for cycle in cycles:
+            V = VectorSpace(self._CC, len(differentials)).zero()
+            for multiplicity, loop in cycle:
+                for i in range(len(loop) - 1):
+                    if loop[i][0] < loop[i + 1][0]:
+                        direction = 1
+                        upstairs_edge = (loop[i], loop[i + 1])
+                    else:
+                        direction = -1
+                        upstairs_edge = (loop[i + 1], loop[i])
+                    V += (multiplicity * direction) * integral_dict[upstairs_edge]
+            rows.append(V)
+        return Matrix(rows).transpose()
+
+    @cached_method
+    def period_matrix(self):
+        r"""
+        Compute the period matrix of the surface.
+
+        OUTPUT: a matrix of complex values
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = z^3*w + w^3 + z
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f, prec=30)
+            sage: M = S.period_matrix()
+
+        The results are highly arbitrary, so it is hard to check if the result
+        produced is correct. The closely related ``riemann_matrix`` is somewhat
+        easier to test.::
+
+            sage: parent(M)
+            Full MatrixSpace of 3 by 6 dense matrices
+             over Complex Field with 30 bits of precision
+            sage: M.rank()
+            3
+
+        One can check that the two methods give similar answers::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = y^2 - x^3 + 1
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f, integration_method='rigorous')
+            sage: T = RiemannSurface(f, integration_method='heuristic')
+            sage: RM_S = S.riemann_matrix()
+            sage: RM_T = T.riemann_matrix()
+            sage: (RM_S-RM_T).norm() < 1e-10
+            True
+        """
+        differentials = self.cohomology_basis()
+        return self.matrix_of_integral_values(differentials, self._integration_method)
+
+    def riemann_matrix(self):
+        r"""
+        Compute the Riemann matrix.
+
+        OUTPUT: a matrix of complex values
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = z^3*w + w^3 + z
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(f, prec=60)
+            sage: M = S.riemann_matrix()
+
+        The Klein quartic has a Riemann matrix with values in a quadratic
+        field::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(QQ)
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^2 - x + 2)
+            sage: all(len(m.algebraic_dependency(6).roots(K)) > 0 for m in M.list())
+            True
+        """
+        PeriodMatrix = self.period_matrix()
+        Am = PeriodMatrix[0 : self.genus, 0 : self.genus]
+        RM = (
+            numerical_inverse(Am)
+            * PeriodMatrix[0 : self.genus, self.genus : 2 * self.genus]
+        )
+        return RM
+
+    def plot_paths(self):
+        r"""
+        Make a graphical representation of the integration paths.
+
+        This returns a two dimensional plot containing the branch points (in red) and
+        the integration paths (obtained from the Voronoi cells of the branch
+        points). The integration paths are plotted by plotting the points that
+        have been computed for homotopy continuation, so the density gives an
+        indication of where numerically sensitive features occur.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(y^2 - x^3 - x)
+            sage: S.plot_paths()                                                        # needs sage.plot
+            Graphics object consisting of 2 graphics primitives
+        """
+        from sage.plot.point import point2d
+
+        P = []
+
+        # trigger the computation of the homology basis, so that self._L is present
+        self.homology_basis()
+
+        for e in self._L.keys():
+            z0 = self._vertices[e[0]]
+            z1 = self._vertices[e[1]]
+
+            def path(t):
+                return (1 - t) * z0 + t * z1
+
+            T = self._L[e]
+            P += [path(t[0]) for t in T]
+        return point2d(P, size=1) + point2d(self.branch_locus, color='red')
+
+    def plot_paths3d(self, thickness=0.01):
+        r"""
+        Return the homology basis as a graph in 3-space.
+
+        The homology basis of the surface is constructed by taking the Voronoi
+        cells around the branch points and taking the inverse image of the edges
+        on the Riemann surface. If the surface is given by the equation
+        `f(z,w)`, the returned object gives the image of this graph in 3-space
+        with coordinates `\left(\operatorname{Re}(z), \operatorname{Im}(z),
+        \operatorname{Im}(w)\right)`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(y^2 - x^3 - x)
+            sage: S.plot_paths3d()                                                      # needs sage.plot
+            Graphics3d Object
+        """
+        from sage.plot.graphics import Graphics
+        from sage.plot.plot3d.shapes2 import point3d, line3d
+
+        P = Graphics()
+
+        # trigger the computation of the homology basis, so that
+        # self._L is present
+        self.homology_basis()
+
+        for e in self._L.keys():
+            z0 = self._vertices[e[0]]
+            z1 = self._vertices[e[1]]
+
+            def path(t):
+                z = (1 - t) * z0 + t * z1
+                return (z.real_part(), z.imag_part())
+
+            T = self._L[e]
+            color = "blue"
+            for i in range(self.degree):
+                P += line3d(
+                    [path(t[0]) + (t[1][i].imag_part(),) for t in T],
+                    color=color,
+                    thickness=thickness,
+                )
+            for z, ws in zip(self._vertices, self._wvalues):
+                for w in ws:
+                    P += point3d(
+                        [z.real_part(), z.imag_part(), w.imag_part()],
+                        color='purple',
+                        size=20,
+                    )
+        return P
+
+    def endomorphism_basis(self, b=None, r=None):
+        r"""
+        Numerically compute a `\ZZ`-basis for the endomorphism ring.
+
+        Let `\left(I | M \right)` be the normalized period matrix (`M` is the
+        `g\times g` :meth:`riemann_matrix`). We consider the system of matrix
+        equations `MA + C = (MB + D)M` where `A, B, C, D` are `g\times g`
+        integer matrices.  We determine small integer (near) solutions using LLL
+        reductions.  These solutions are returned as `2g \times 2g` integer
+        matrices obtained by stacking `\left(D | B\right)` on top of `\left(C |
+        A\right)`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``b`` -- integer (default provided); the equation coefficients are
+          scaled by `2^b` before rounding to integers
+
+        - ``r`` -- integer (default: ``b/4``); solutions that have all
+          coefficients smaller than `2^r` in absolute value are reported as
+          actual solutions
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A list of `2g \times 2g` integer matrices that, for large enough ``r``
+        and ``b-r``, generate the endomorphism ring.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(x^3 + y^3 + 1)
+            sage: B = S.endomorphism_basis(); B #random
+            [
+            [1 0]  [ 0 -1]
+            [0 1], [ 1  1]
+            ]
+            sage: sorted([b.minpoly().disc() for b in B])
+            [-3, 1]
+        """
+        M = self.riemann_matrix()
+        return integer_matrix_relations(M, M, b, r)
+
+    def homomorphism_basis(self, other, b=None, r=None):
+        r"""
+        Numerically compute a `\ZZ`-basis for module of homomorphisms to a given
+        complex torus.
+
+        Given another complex torus (given as the analytic Jacobian of a Riemann
+        surface), numerically compute a basis for the homomorphism module. The
+        answer is returned as a list of `2g \times 2g` integer matrices `T=(D, B; C, A)`
+        such that if the columns of `(I|M_1)` generate the lattice defining the
+        Jacobian of the Riemann surface and the columns of `(I|M_2)` do this for
+        the codomain, then approximately we have `(I|M_2)T=(D+M_2C)(I|M_1)`, i.e., up
+        to a choice of basis for `\CC^g` as a complex vector space, we we
+        realize `(I|M_1)` as a sublattice of `(I|M_2)`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``b`` -- integer (default provided); the equation coefficients are
+          scaled by `2^b` before rounding to integers
+
+        - ``r`` -- integer (default: ``b/4``); solutions that have all
+          coefficients smaller than `2^r` in absolute value are reported as
+          actual solutions
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A list of `2g \times 2g` integer matrices that, for large enough ``r``
+        and ``b-r``, generate the homomorphism module.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: S1 = EllipticCurve("11a1").riemann_surface()
+            sage: S2 = EllipticCurve("11a3").riemann_surface()
+            sage: [m.det() for m in S1.homomorphism_basis(S2)]
+            [5]
+        """
+        M1 = self.riemann_matrix()
+        M2 = other.riemann_matrix()
+        return integer_matrix_relations(M2, M1, b, r)
+
+    def tangent_representation_numerical(self, Rs, other=None):
+        r"""
+        Compute the numerical tangent representations corresponding to the
+        homology representations in ``Rs``.
+
+        The representations on homology ``Rs`` have to be given with respect to
+        the symplectic homology basis of the Jacobian of ``self`` and ``other``.
+        Such matrices can for example be obtained via
+        :meth:`endomorphism_basis`.
+
+        Let `P` and `Q` be the period matrices of ``self`` and ``other``. Then
+        for a homology representation `R`, the corresponding tangential
+        representation `T` satisfies `T P = Q R`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``Rs`` -- set of matrices on homology to be converted to their
+          tangent representations
+
+        - ``other`` -- (default: ``self``) the codomain; another Riemann
+          surface
+
+        OUTPUT: the numerical tangent representations of the matrices in ``Rs``
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: A.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(y^2 - (x^6 + 2*x^4 + 4*x^2 + 8), prec = 100)
+            sage: P = S.period_matrix()
+            sage: Rs = S.endomorphism_basis()
+            sage: Ts = S.tangent_representation_numerical(Rs)
+            sage: all(((T*P - P*R).norm() < 2^(-80)) for [T, R] in zip(Ts, Rs))
+            True
+        """
+        if not other:
+            other = self
+        P = self.period_matrix()
+        CCP = P.base_ring()
+        g = self.genus
+        Q = other.period_matrix()
+        Ptsubinv = numerical_inverse((P.transpose())[list(range(g))])
+        Ts = []
+        for R in Rs:
+            QRtsub = ((Q * R).transpose())[list(range(g))]
+            Tt = Ptsubinv * QRtsub
+            T = Tt.transpose().change_ring(CCP)
+            Ts.append(T)
+        return Ts
+
+    def tangent_representation_algebraic(self, Rs, other=None, epscomp=None):
+        r"""
+        Compute the algebraic tangent representations corresponding to the
+        homology representations in ``Rs``.
+
+        The representations on homology ``Rs`` have to be given with respect to
+        the symplectic homology basis of the Jacobian of ``self`` and ``other``.
+        Such matrices can for example be obtained via
+        :meth:`endomorphism_basis`.
+
+        Let `P` and `Q` be the period matrices of ``self`` and ``other``. Then
+        for a homology representation `R`, the corresponding tangential
+        representation `T` satisfies `T P = Q R`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``Rs`` -- set of matrices on homology to be converted to their
+          tangent representations
+
+        - ``other`` -- (default: ``self``) the codomain; another Riemann
+          surface
+
+        - ``epscomp`` -- real number (default: ``2^(-prec + 30)``). Used to
+          determine whether a complex number is close enough to a root of a
+          polynomial.
+
+        OUTPUT: the algebraic tangent representations of the matrices in ``Rs``
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: A.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(y^2 - (x^6 + 2*x^4 + 4*x^2 + 8), prec = 100)
+            sage: Rs = S.endomorphism_basis()
+            sage: Ts = S.tangent_representation_algebraic(Rs)
+            sage: Ts[0].base_ring().maximal_order().discriminant() == 8
+            True
+        """
+        if not epscomp:
+            epscomp = 2**(-self._prec + 30)
+        QQalg = QQ.algebraic_closure()
+
+        def polynomialize_element(alpha):
+            d = 1
+            while True:
+                d += 1
+                dep = algebraic_dependency(alpha, d, height_bound=10**d)
+                if dep and dep(alpha) < epscomp:
+                    return dep
+
+        def algebraize_element(alpha):
+            alphaPol = polynomialize_element(alpha)
+            CC = alpha.parent()
+            for tup in alphaPol.roots(QQalg):
+                rt = tup[0]
+                if (alpha - CC(rt)).abs() < epscomp:
+                    return rt
+            raise AssertionError("No close root found while algebraizing")
+
+        def algebraize_matrices(Ts):
+            nr = Ts[0].nrows()
+            nc = Ts[0].ncols()
+            TsAlg = [T.apply_map(algebraize_element) for T in Ts]
+            elts = [x for TAl in TsAlg for x in TAl.list()]
+            eltsAlg = number_field_elements_from_algebraics(elts)[1]
+            L = eltsAlg[0].parent()
+            TsAlgL = []
+            for i in range(len(Ts)):
+                TAlgL = [eltsAlg[j] for j in range(i * nr * nc, (i + 1) * nr * nc)]
+                TsAlgL.append(Matrix(L, nr, nc, TAlgL))
+            return TsAlgL
+
+        Ts = self.tangent_representation_numerical(Rs, other=other)
+        return algebraize_matrices(Ts)
+
+    def rosati_involution(self, R):
+        r"""
+        Compute the Rosati involution of an endomorphism.
+
+        The endomorphism in question should be given by its homology
+        representation with respect to the symplectic basis of the Jacobian.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``R`` -- integral matrix
+
+        OUTPUT: the result of applying the Rosati involution to ``R``
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: A.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(y^2 - (x^6 + 2*x^4 + 4*x^2 + 8), prec = 100)
+            sage: Rs = S.endomorphism_basis()
+            sage: S.rosati_involution(S.rosati_involution(Rs[1])) == Rs[1]
+            True
+        """
+
+        def standard_symplectic_matrix(n):
+            one = Matrix.identity(n)
+            zero = Matrix.zero(n)
+            return Matrix.block([[zero, -one], [one, zero]])
+
+        g = self.genus
+        if not (R.nrows() == 2 * g == R.ncols()):
+            raise AssertionError(
+                "Matrix is not the homology representation of an endomorphism"
+            )
+        J = standard_symplectic_matrix(g)
+        return -J * R.transpose() * J
+
+    def symplectic_isomorphisms(self, other=None, hom_basis=None, b=None, r=None):
+        r"""
+        Numerically compute symplectic isomorphisms.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- (default: ``self``) the codomain; another Riemann
+          surface
+
+        - ``hom_basis`` -- (default: ``None``) a `\ZZ`-basis of the
+          homomorphisms from ``self`` to ``other``, as obtained from
+          :meth:`homomorphism_basis`. If you have already calculated this
+          basis, it saves time to pass it via this keyword argument. Otherwise
+          the method will calculate it.
+
+        - ``b`` -- integer (default provided); as for
+          :meth:`homomorphism_basis`, and used in its invocation if
+          (re)calculating said basis
+
+        - ``r`` -- integer (default: ``b/4``);  as for
+          :meth:`homomorphism_basis`, and used in its invocation if
+          (re)calculating said basis
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        This returns the combinations of the elements of
+        :meth:`homomorphism_basis` that correspond to symplectic
+        isomorphisms between the Jacobians of ``self`` and ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = y^2 - (x^6 + 2*x^4 + 4*x^2 + 8)
+            sage: X = RiemannSurface(f, prec=100)
+            sage: P = X.period_matrix()
+            sage: g = y^2 - (x^6 + x^4 + x^2 + 1)
+            sage: Y = RiemannSurface(g, prec=100)
+            sage: Q = Y.period_matrix()
+            sage: Rs = X.symplectic_isomorphisms(Y)
+            sage: Ts = X.tangent_representation_numerical(Rs, other = Y)
+            sage: test1 = all(((T*P - Q*R).norm() < 2^(-80)) for [T, R] in zip(Ts, Rs))
+            sage: test2 = all(det(R) == 1 for R in Rs)
+            sage: test1 and test2
+            True
+        """
+        if not other:
+            other = self
+        if hom_basis:
+            Rs = hom_basis
+        else:
+            Rs = self.homomorphism_basis(other=other, b=b, r=r)
+        r = len(Rs)
+        g = self.genus
+        A = PolynomialRing(QQ, r, "x")
+        gensA = A.gens()
+        # Use that the trace is positive definite; we could also put this as an
+        # extra condition when determining the endomorphism basis to speed up
+        # that calculation slightly
+        R = sum(gensA[i] * Rs[i].change_ring(A) for i in range(r))
+        tr = (R * self.rosati_involution(R)).trace()
+        # Condition tr = 2 g creates ellipsoid
+        M = Matrix(
+            ZZ,
+            r,
+            r,
+            [tr.derivative(gen1).derivative(gen2) for gen1 in gensA for gen2 in gensA],
+        )
+        vs = M.__pari__().qfminim(4 * g)[2].sage().transpose()
+        vs = [v for v in vs if v * M * v == 4 * g]
+        vs += [-v for v in vs]
+        RsIso = []
+        for v in vs:
+            R = sum(v[i] * Rs[i] for i in range(r))
+            if R * self.rosati_involution(R) == 1:
+                RsIso.append(R)
+        return RsIso
+
+    def symplectic_automorphism_group(self, endo_basis=None, b=None, r=None):
+        r"""
+        Numerically compute the symplectic automorphism group as a permutation
+        group.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``endo_basis`` -- (default: ``None``) a `\ZZ`-basis of the
+          endomorphisms of ``self``, as obtained from
+          :meth:`endomorphism_basis`. If you have already calculated this
+          basis, it saves time to pass it via this keyword argument. Otherwise
+          the method will calculate it.
+
+        - ``b`` -- integer (default provided); as for
+          :meth:`homomorphism_basis`, and used in its invocation if
+          (re)calculating said basis
+
+        - ``r`` -- integer (default: ``b/4``);  as for
+          :meth:`homomorphism_basis`, and used in its invocation if
+          (re)calculating said basis
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        The symplectic automorphism group of the Jacobian of the Riemann
+        surface. The automorphism group of the Riemann surface itself can be
+        recovered from this; if the curve is hyperelliptic, then it is
+        identical, and if not, then one divides out by the central element
+        corresponding to multiplication by -1.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: A.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(y^2 - (x^6 + 2*x^4 + 4*x^2 + 8), prec = 100)
+            sage: G = S.symplectic_automorphism_group()
+            sage: G.as_permutation_group().is_isomorphic(DihedralGroup(4))
+            True
+        """
+        RsAut = self.symplectic_isomorphisms(hom_basis=endo_basis, b=b, r=r)
+        return MatrixGroup(RsAut)
+
+    def __add__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Return the disjoint union of the Riemann surface and the other argument.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface, RiemannSurfaceSum
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S1 = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3-x-1)
+            sage: S1+S1
+            Riemann surface sum with period lattice of rank 4
+        """
+        return RiemannSurfaceSum([self, other])
+
+    def _integrate_differentials_iteratively(
+        self, upstairs_edge, cutoff_individually=False, raise_errors=True, prec=None
+    ):
+        r"""
+        Integrate the cohomology basis along a straight line edge.
+
+        The cohomology basis is integrated along a straight line using a version
+        of the double exponential quadrature. This method of integrating the
+        cohomology basis is especially useful when integrating out to infinity,
+        or near roots of ``self._dfdw``. In order to aid with convergence of the
+        method, two main modification to a standard integrator are made, most
+        importantly of which is the truncation of the integral near branch points,
+        where the first term in the Puiseux series of the integrands are used to
+        approximately bound the integral. The ``cutoff_individually`` parameter
+        allows the user to set whether that truncation is uniform over all the
+        integrands, which improves the complexity of the algorithm, but loses
+        the ability to gain benefits where integrands vanish to a high order at
+        the branchpoint.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``upstairs_edge`` -- tuple. A tuple of complex numbers of the form
+          ``((z_start, w_start), z_end)`` specifying the path to integrate
+          along, where ``z_start`` may be infinite, in which case ``w_start``
+          must be an integer specifying the branch.
+
+        - ``cutoff_individually`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); whether to
+          truncate the integrand uniformly or not. If ``None``, then no
+          truncation is applied
+
+        - ``raise_errors`` -- boolean (default: ``True``); by default the code
+          uses convergence errors to ensure any answers returned are accurate.
+          This can be turned off to return answers faster that are not
+          necessarily correct.
+
+        - ``prec`` -- integer (default: ``self._prec``); the precision to try
+          and achieve, defined as `2^{-\text{prec}+3}`
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        Tuple ``(I, gs)`` where ``I`` is the vector of integrals, and ``gs`` are
+        the values of the differentials at ``z_end``.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        We know that for the surface given by `w^2-z^4-1` a cohomology basis is
+        given by `\frac{dz}{2w}`. One can verify analytically that
+        `\int_0^1 frac{dt}{\sqrt{1-t^4}}=\frac{\sqrt{\pi}\Gamma(5/4)}{\Gamma(3/4)}`,
+        and we check this with the integrator, being careful with signs::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<z,w> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(w^2 + z^4 - 1, prec=100)
+            sage: branch = 0
+            sage: eps = S._RR(2)**(-S._prec)
+            sage: z_start = 1 - eps
+            sage: z_end = 0
+            sage: w_start = S.w_values(z_start)[0]
+            sage: s = sign(w_start)
+            sage: u_edge = ((z_start, w_start), z_end)
+            sage: J, _ = S._integrate_differentials_iteratively(u_edge)
+            sage: bool(J[0] + s*S._RR(sqrt(pi)*gamma(5/4)/gamma(3/4)/2) < 1e-10)        # needs sage.symbolic
+            True
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The cutoff methodology is calculating the first term in the Puiseux
+            series of the differentials about z_start. In future it may be
+            desirable to extend this further and use the truncated Puiseux series
+            entirely to integrate the differentials.
+        """
+        (z_start, w_start), z_end = upstairs_edge
+        z_start = self._CC(z_start)
+        z_end = self._CC(z_end)
+
+        if z_end == self._CC(Infinity):
+            raise NotImplementedError
+
+        _, bounding_data_list = self._cohomology_basis_bounding_data
+        mp_list = [bd[2] for bd in bounding_data_list]
+
+        # Parameterise so zbar=0 corresponds to z=z_start
+        mp_list = [reparameterize_differential_minpoly(mp, z_start) for mp in mp_list]
+
+        # Depending on whether we have reparameterized about infinity or not,
+        # we initialise some values we will need in the calculation, including
+        # the function `initalize', which at a given value of zbar, calculates
+        # the starting value for the i-th differential so it can be iterated
+        # from via homotopy continuation.
+        if z_start == self._CC(Infinity):
+            CCzg = PolynomialRing(self._CC, ["zbar", "gbar"])
+            mp_list = [CCzg(mp) for mp in mp_list]
+            J = 1 / z_end
+            endscale = -(z_end**(-2))
+
+            def initialise(z, i):
+                DF = ComplexField(2 * self._prec)
+                DFw = PolynomialRing(DF, "wbar")
+                z = DF(z)
+                R = DF(z**(-1))
+                wR = DFw(self.f(R, DFw.gen(0))).roots(multiplicities=False)[w_start]
+                newg = -(R**2) * self.cohomology_basis()[i](R, wR) / self._dfdw(R, wR)
+                err = mp_list[i](z, newg).abs()
+                if err > tau:
+                    rs = mp_list[i](z, DFw.gen(0)).roots(multiplicities=False)
+                    sb = find_closest_element(newg, rs)
+                    newg = rs[sb]
+                return newg
+
+        else:
+            CCzg = mp_list[0].parent()
+            J = z_end - z_start
+            endscale = 1
+
+            def initialise(z, i):
+                newg = self.cohomology_basis()[i](z_start, w_start) / self._dfdw(
+                    z_start, w_start
+                )
+                err = mp_list[i](z, newg).abs()
+                if err > tau:
+                    rs = mp_list[i](z, self._CCw.gen(0)).roots(multiplicities=False)
+                    sb = find_closest_element(newg, rs)
+                    newg = rs[sb]
+                return newg
+
+        # As multiple calls of the minimal polynomial and it's derivative will
+        # be required for the homotopy continuation, we create fast-callable
+        # versions of these.
+        fc_mp_list = [fast_callable(mp, domain=self._CC) for mp in mp_list]
+        fc_dmp_list = [
+            fast_callable(mp.derivative(CCzg.gen(1)), domain=self._CC) for mp in mp_list
+        ]
+
+        if prec is None:
+            prec = self._prec
+        # tau here is playing the role of the desired error.
+        tau = self._RR(2)**(-prec + 3)
+        one = self._RR.one()
+        la = self._RR.pi() / 2
+
+        # Cutoffs are used to allow us to not have to integrate as close into
+        # a singularity as we might otherwise have to, by knowing that we can
+        # truncate the integration interval and only introduce a finite error
+        # that can be bounded by knowledge of the asymptotics of the integrands,
+        # which we have from their minimal polynomials. This is really a
+        # precursor to what would be ideal to implement eventually, namely
+        # a method that uses Puiseux series to integrate into singularities.
+        # We allow for cutoffs to be tailored to each integrand, or we take a
+        # uniform value.
+        if cutoff_individually is None:
+            cutoffs = [0]
+            cutoff_individually = False
+        else:
+            cutoffs = []
+            A = PolynomialRing(self._CC, "xyz")
+            aes = []
+            for mp in mp_list:
+                d = mp.monomial_coefficients()
+                mp = sum(
+                    [
+                        d[k] * CCzg.gen(0)**k[0] * CCzg.gen(1)**k[1]
+                        for k in d.keys()
+                        if d[k].abs() > tau
+                    ]
+                )
+                cst = min([iz for (iz, ig) in d.keys() if ig == 0])
+                a = QQ(max([(cst - iz) / ig for (iz, ig) in d.keys() if ig > 0]))
+                sum_coeffs = sum(
+                    [
+                        d[k] * A.gen(0)**k[1]
+                        for k in d.keys()
+                        if ((k[1] == 0 and k[0] == cst) or k[1] * a + k[0] - cst == 0)
+                    ]
+                )
+                G = max([r.abs() for r in sum_coeffs.roots(multiplicities=False)])
+                cutoffs.append(((a + 1) * tau / G)**(1 / self._CC(a + 1)) / J.abs())
+                aes.append(a)
+            cutoff_individually = bool(
+                not all(ai <= 0 for ai in aes) and cutoff_individually
+            )
+
+        # The `raise_errors' variable toggles what we do in the event that
+        # newton iteration hasn't converged to the desired precision in a
+        # fixed number of steps, here set to 100.
+        # If the default value of True is taken, then the failure to converge
+        # raises an error. If the value of False is taken, this failure to
+        # converge happens silently, thus allowing the user to get *an*
+        # answer out of the integration, but numerical imprecision is to be
+        # expected. As such, we set the maximum number of steps in the sequence
+        # of DE integrations to be lower in the latter case.
+        if raise_errors:
+            n_steps = self._prec - 1
+        else:
+            n_steps = 15
+
+        from sage.functions.log import lambert_w
+
+        V = VectorSpace(self._CC, self.genus)
+        h = one
+        Nh = (-lambert_w(-1, -tau / 2) / la).log().ceil()
+        h0 = Nh * h
+
+        # Depending on how the cutoffs were defined, we now create the function
+        # which calculates the integrand we want to integrate via double-
+        # exponential methods. This will get the value at the next node by
+        # homotopy-continuing from the last node value. There is also a slight
+        # technical condition which implements the cutoffs.
+        if cutoff_individually:
+            z_fc_list = list(zip(fc_mp_list, fc_dmp_list))
+
+            def fv(hj, previous_estimate_and_validity):
+                u2 = la * hj.sinh()
+                t = 1 / (2 * u2.exp() * u2.cosh())
+                z0 = J * t
+                outg = []
+                valid = self.genus * [True]
+                previous_estimate, validity = previous_estimate_and_validity
+                for i in range(self.genus):
+                    co = cutoffs[i]
+                    pv = validity[i]
+                    if t < co:
+                        outg.append(0)
+                        valid[i] = False
+                    elif not pv:
+                        outg.append(initialise(z0, i))
+                    else:
+                        F, dF = z_fc_list[i]
+                        oldg = previous_estimate[i]
+                        delta = F(z0, oldg) / dF(z0, oldg)
+                        Ndelta = delta.norm()
+                        newg = oldg - delta
+                        for j in range(100):
+                            new_delta = F(z0, newg) / dF(z0, newg)
+                            Nnew_delta = new_delta.norm()
+                            if (new_delta == 0) or (
+                                Nnew_delta >= Ndelta
+                                and (Ndelta.sign_mantissa_exponent()[2] + self._prec)
+                                < newg.norm().sign_mantissa_exponent()[2]
+                            ):
+                                outg.append(newg)
+                                break
+                            delta = new_delta
+                            Ndelta = Nnew_delta
+                            newg -= delta
+                        else:
+                            if raise_errors:
+                                raise ConvergenceError("Newton iteration fails to converge")
+                            else:
+                                outg.append(newg)
+                fj = V(outg)
+                u1 = la * hj.cosh()
+                w = u1 / (2 * u2.cosh()**2)
+                return (fj, valid), w * fj
+
+            f0, v0 = fv(h0, (self.genus * [0], self.genus * [False]))
+        else:
+            cutoffs.append(1)
+            cutoff = min(cutoffs)
+            cutoff_z = J * cutoff
+            J -= cutoff_z
+
+            def fv(hj, previous_estimate):
+                u2 = la * hj.sinh()
+                t = 1 / (2 * u2.exp() * u2.cosh())
+                z0 = cutoff_z + J * t
+                outg = []
+                for F, dF, oldg in zip(fc_mp_list, fc_dmp_list, previous_estimate):
+                    delta = F(z0, oldg) / dF(z0, oldg)
+                    Ndelta = delta.norm()
+                    newg = oldg - delta
+                    for j in range(100):
+                        new_delta = F(z0, newg) / dF(z0, newg)
+                        Nnew_delta = new_delta.norm()
+                        if (new_delta == 0) or (
+                            Nnew_delta >= Ndelta
+                            and (Ndelta.sign_mantissa_exponent()[2] + self._prec)
+                            < newg.norm().sign_mantissa_exponent()[2]
+                        ):
+                            outg.append(newg)
+                            break
+                        delta = new_delta
+                        Ndelta = Nnew_delta
+                        newg -= delta
+                    else:
+                        if raise_errors:
+                            raise ConvergenceError("Newton iteration fails to converge")
+                        else:
+                            outg.append(newg)
+                fj = V(outg)
+                u1 = la * hj.cosh()
+                w = u1 / (2 * u2.cosh()**2)
+                return fj, w * fj
+
+            u1, u2 = (la * h0.cosh(), la * h0.sinh())
+            y, w = (1 / (2 * u2.exp() * u2.cosh()), u1 / (2 * u2.cosh() ** 2))
+            z0 = cutoff_z + J * y
+            f0 = [initialise(z0, i) for i in range(self.genus)]
+            f0 = V(f0)
+            v0 = w * f0
+
+        D3_over_tau = v0.norm(Infinity)
+        D4 = D3_over_tau
+        results = []
+
+        # we now calculate the integral via double-exponential methods
+        # repeatedly halving the step size and then using a heuristic
+        # convergence check. The maximum number of steps allowed is
+        # currently set to make sure the step size does not fall below the
+        # resolution set by the binary precision used.
+        for k in range(n_steps):
+            hj = h0
+            val = v0
+            fj = f0
+            for j in range(2 * Nh):
+                hj -= h
+                try:
+                    fj, v = fv(hj, fj)
+                except ConvergenceError:
+                    break
+                D3_over_tau = max(v.norm(Infinity), D3_over_tau)
+                val += v
+            if j == 2 * Nh - 1:
+                results.append(h * val)
+                D4 = max(D4, v.norm(Infinity))
+            if len(results) > 2:
+                if results[-1] == results[-2] or results[2] == results[-3]:
+                    D = tau
+                else:
+                    D1 = (results[-1] - results[-2]).norm(Infinity)
+                    D2 = (results[-1] - results[-3]).norm(Infinity)
+                    D = min(
+                        one,
+                        max(
+                            D1**(D1.log() / D2.log()),
+                            D2**2,
+                            tau * D3_over_tau,
+                            D4,
+                            tau,
+                        ),
+                    )
+
+                if D <= tau:
+                    if cutoff_individually:
+                        fj = fj[0]
+                    return J * results[-1], endscale * fj
+            h /= 2
+            Nh *= 2
+        # Note that throughout this loop there is a return statement, intended
+        # to be activated when the sequence of integral approximations is
+        # deemed to have converged by the heuristic error. If this has no
+        # happened by the time we have gone through the process n_steps times,
+        # we have one final error handle. Again, this will throw an error if
+        # the raise_errors flag is true, but will just return the answer otherwise.
+        if raise_errors:
+            raise ConvergenceError("Newton iteration fails to converge")
+
+        return (J * results[-1], endscale * fj)
+
+    def _aj_based(self, P):
+        r"""
+        Return the Abel-Jacobi map to ``P`` from ``self._basepoint``.
+
+        Computes a representative of the Abel-Jacobi map from ``self._basepoint``
+        to ``P`` via a well-chosen vertex ``V``. The representative given will be
+        dependent on the path chosen.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``P`` -- tuple. A pair giving the endpoint of the integral, either in
+          the form ``(z, w)`` or ``(Infinity, branch)``, where in the latter case
+          we are using the convention that the `w` value over `\infty` is given by
+          the limit as ``z`` tends to `\infty` of ``self.w_values(z)[branch]``.
+
+        OUTPUT: a vector of length ``self.genus``
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        As the output of ``_aj_based`` is difficult to interpret due to its path
+        dependency, we look at the output of :meth:`abel_jacobi`. We check for
+        two hyperelliptic curves that the Abel-Jacobi map between two branch
+        points is a 2-torsion point over the lattice. Note we must remember to
+        reduce over the period lattice, as results are path dependent::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: p = 100
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3+1, prec=p)
+            sage: divisor = [(-1, (Infinity, 0)), (1, (1, 0))]
+            sage: AJ = S.abel_jacobi(divisor)
+            sage: AJx2 = [2*z for z in AJ]
+            sage: vector(AJx2).norm()  # abs tol 1e-10
+            2.4286506478875809114000865640
+            sage: bool(S.reduce_over_period_lattice(AJx2).norm() < 1e-10)
+            True
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^4+1, prec=p)
+            sage: divisor = [(-1, (-1, 0)), (1, (1, 0))]
+            sage: AJ = S.abel_jacobi(divisor)
+            sage: AJx2 = [2*z for z in AJ]
+            sage: bool(S.reduce_over_period_lattice(AJx2).norm() < 1e-10)
+            True
+        """
+        #####
+        fcd = self._fastcall_cohomology_basis
+
+        if self._integration_method == "heuristic":
+            line_int = lambda edge: self.simple_vector_line_integral(edge, fcd)
+        else:
+            bd = self._cohomology_basis_bounding_data
+            line_int = lambda edge: self.rigorous_line_integral(edge, fcd, bd)
+        #####
+        B = self._basepoint
+        zP, wP = P
+
+        try:
+            Inf = bool(zP == zP.parent()(Infinity))
+        except TypeError:
+            Inf = False
+
+        if Inf:
+            zV = self._vertices[B[0]]
+            if zV == 0:
+                zV += 1
+            upstairs_edge = (P, zV)
+            ci = bool(self._CC(Infinity) in self._differentials_branch_locus)
+            AJ, endgs = self._integrate_differentials_iteratively(
+                upstairs_edge, cutoff_individually=ci
+            )
+            AJ = -AJ
+            g0e = endgs[0]
+            ws = self.w_values(zV)
+            g0s = [self.cohomology_basis()[0](zV, wi) / self._dfdw(zV, wi) for wi in ws]
+            W_index = find_closest_element(g0e, g0s)
+            if (
+                g0e
+                - self.cohomology_basis()[0](zV, ws[W_index])
+                / self._dfdw(zV, ws[W_index])
+            ).abs() > 1e-10:
+                raise ConvergenceError(
+                    "Integrand continuation failed to get representative values, higher precision required."
+                )
+            V_index = B[0]
+        else:
+            zP = self._CC(zP)
+            wP = self._CC(wP)
+            V_index = find_closest_element(zP, self._vertices)
+
+            if zP == self._vertices[V_index]:
+                W_index = find_closest_element(wP, self._wvalues[V_index])
+                AJ = 0
+            else:
+                b_index = find_closest_element(zP, self.branch_locus)
+                b = self.branch_locus[b_index]
+                # bl = self.branch_locus+self._differentials_branch_locus
+                # b_index = find_closest_element(zP, bl)
+                # b = bl[b_index]
+
+                scale = max(b.abs() for b in self.branch_locus)
+                d1 = self._CC(1e-2) * scale
+
+                # We choose the first vertex we want to go to.
+                # If the closest vertex is closer than the nearest branch point, just take that vertex
+                # otherwise we need something smarter.
+                delta = self._RR(2)**(-self._prec + 1)
+                if not (
+                    (zP - self._vertices[V_index]).abs() < (zP - b).abs()
+                    or (zP - b).abs() <= delta
+                ):
+                    region = self.voronoi_diagram.regions[
+                        self.voronoi_diagram.point_region[b_index]
+                    ]
+                    args = [
+                        (self._vertices[i] - zP).argument() - (b - zP).argument()
+                        for i in region
+                    ]
+                    suitable_vertex_indices = [
+                        region[i]
+                        for i in range(len(region))
+                        if args[i].abs() - self._RR.pi() / 2 >= -self._RR(1e-15)
+                    ]
+                    suitable_vertices = [
+                        self._vertices[i] for i in suitable_vertex_indices
+                    ]
+                    if suitable_vertices == []:
+                        raise ValueError(
+                            "There is no satisfactory choice of V for zP={}".format(zP)
+                        )
+                    V_index = suitable_vertex_indices[
+                        find_closest_element(zP, suitable_vertices)
+                    ]
+                #####
+                zV = self._vertices[V_index]
+
+                if (zP - b).abs() >= d1 or b in self._differentials_branch_locus:
+                    wP_index = find_closest_element(wP, self.w_values(zP))
+                    d_edge = (zP, zV)
+                    u_edge = ((zP, wP_index), (zV,))
+                    initial_continuation = self.homotopy_continuation(d_edge)
+                    AJ = -line_int(u_edge)
+
+                    w_end = initial_continuation[-1][1][wP_index]
+                    W_index = find_closest_element(w_end, self._wvalues[V_index])
+                else:
+                    zs = zP
+                    ws = wP
+
+                    #####
+                    # Here we need a block of code to change the vertex if the path
+                    # from zP to zV would go through a ramification point of the integrands
+                    fl = [
+                        c
+                        for c in self._differentials_branch_locus
+                        if not c == self._CC(Infinity)
+                    ]
+                    ts = [
+                        ((c - zP) * (zV - zP).conjugate()).real()
+                        / (zP - zV).norm()**2
+                        for c in fl
+                    ]
+                    ds = [
+                        (fl[i] - zP - ts[i] * (zV - zP)).abs()
+                        for i in range(len(ts))
+                        if (ts[i] >= 0 and ts[i] <= 1)
+                    ]
+                    while len(ds) >= 1 and min(ds) < delta:
+                        V_index = suitable_vertex_indices.pop()
+                        zV = self._vertices[V_index]
+                        ts = [
+                            ((c - zP) * (zV - zP).conjugate()).real()
+                            / (zP - zV).norm()**2
+                            for c in fl
+                        ]
+                        ds = [
+                            (fl[i] - zP - ts[i] * (zV - zP)).abs()
+                            for i in range(len(ts))
+                            if (ts[i] >= 0 and ts[i] <= 1)
+                        ]
+                    #####
+
+                    while self._dfdw(zs, ws).abs() == 0:
+                        zs = zs + delta * (zV - zs) / (zV - zs).abs() / 2
+                        ws_list = self.w_values(zs)
+                        wP_index = find_closest_element(ws, ws_list)
+                        ws = ws_list[wP_index]
+                    upstairs_edge = ((zs, ws), zV)
+                    AJ, endgs = self._integrate_differentials_iteratively(
+                        upstairs_edge, cutoff_individually=False
+                    )
+                    AJ = -AJ
+                    g0e = endgs[0]
+
+                    ws = self.w_values(zV)
+                    g0s = [
+                        self.cohomology_basis()[0](zV, wi) / self._dfdw(zV, wi)
+                        for wi in ws
+                    ]
+                    W_index = find_closest_element(g0e, g0s)
+                    if (
+                        g0e
+                        - self.cohomology_basis()[0](zV, ws[W_index])
+                        / self._dfdw(zV, ws[W_index])
+                    ).abs() > 1e-10:
+                        raise ConvergenceError(
+                            "Integrand continuation failed to get representative values, higher precision required."
+                        )
+
+        uV_index = (V_index, W_index)
+        #####
+        G = self.upstairs_graph()
+        path = G.shortest_path(B, uV_index)
+        edges = [(path[i], path[i + 1]) for i in range(len(path) - 1)]
+        #####
+        for e in edges:
+            if e[1][0] > e[0][0]:
+                s = 1
+            else:
+                s = -1
+                e = tuple(reversed(e))
+            try:
+                AJ += s * self._integral_dict[e]
+            except KeyError:
+                Ie = line_int(e)
+                self._integral_dict[e] = Ie
+                AJ += s * Ie
+        return AJ
+
+    def abel_jacobi(self, divisor, verbose=False):
+        r"""
+        Return the Abel-Jacobi map of ``divisor``.
+
+        Return a representative of the Abel-Jacobi map of a divisor with basepoint
+        ``self._basepoint``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``divisor`` -- list. A list with each entry a tuple of the form ``(v, P)``,
+          where ``v`` is the valuation of the divisor at point ``P``, ``P`` as per
+          the input to :meth:`_aj_based`.
+
+        - ``verbose`` -- logical (default: ``False``); whether to report the progress
+          of the computation, in terms of how many elements of the list ``divisor``
+          have been completed
+
+        OUTPUT: a vector of length ``self.genus``
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        We can test that the Abel-Jacobi map between two branchpoints of a
+        superelliptic curve of degree `p` is a `p`-torsion point in the Jacobian::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: p = 4
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(y^p-x^4+1, prec=100)
+            sage: divisor = [(-1, (-1, 0)), (1, (1, 0))]
+            sage: AJ = S.abel_jacobi(divisor)  # long time (15 seconds)
+            sage: AJxp = [p*z for z in AJ]  # long time
+            sage: bool(S.reduce_over_period_lattice(AJxp).norm()<1e-7)  # long time
+            True
+        """
+        if isinstance(divisor, FunctionFieldDivisor):
+            divisor = self.divisor_to_divisor_list(divisor)
+        ans = 0
+        n = len(divisor)
+        for i in range(n):
+            v, p = divisor[i]
+            if verbose:
+                print("starting computation for p = {}".format(p))
+            ans += v * self._aj_based(p)
+            if verbose:
+                print(
+                    "Done, {}% complete".format(numerical_approx(100 * (i + 1) / n, 11))
+                )
+        return ans
+
+    def reduce_over_period_lattice(
+        self, vector, method='ip', b=None, r=None, normalised=False
+    ):
+        r"""
+        Reduce a vector over the period lattice.
+
+        Given a vector of length ``self.genus``, this method returns a vector
+        in the same orbit of the period lattice that is short. There are two
+        possible methods, ``'svp'`` which returns a certified shortest vector,
+        but can be much slower for higher genus curves, and ``'ip'``, which is
+        faster but not guaranteed to return the shortest vector. In general the
+        latter will perform well when the lattice basis vectors are of similar
+        size.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``vector`` -- vector. A vector of length ``self.genus`` to reduce over
+          the lattice
+
+        - ``method`` -- string (default: ``'ip'``) specifying the method
+          to use to reduce the vector; the options are ``'ip'`` and ``'svp'``
+
+        - ``b`` -- integer (default provided); as for
+          :meth:`homomorphism_basis`, and used in its invocation if
+          (re)calculating said basis
+
+        - ``r`` -- integer (default: ``b/4``);  as for
+          :meth:`homomorphism_basis`, and used in its invocation if
+          (re)calculating said basis
+
+        - ``normalised`` -- logical (default: ``False``); whether to use the
+          period matrix with the differentials normalised s.t. the `A`-matrix
+          is the identity.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        Complex vector of length ``self.genus`` in the same orbit as ``vector``
+        in the lattice.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        We can check that the lattice basis vectors themselves are reduced to
+        zero::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(y^2 - x^5 + 1)
+            sage: epsilon = S._RR(2)^(-S._prec+1)
+            sage: for vector in S.period_matrix().columns():
+            ....:     print(bool(S.reduce_over_period_lattice(vector).norm()<epsilon))
+            True
+            True
+            True
+            True
+
+        We can also check that the method ``'svp'`` always gives a smaller norm
+        than ``'ip'``::
+
+            sage: for vector in S.period_matrix().columns():
+            ....:     n1 = S.reduce_over_period_lattice(vector).norm()
+            ....:     n2 = S.reduce_over_period_lattice(vector, method='svp').norm()
+            ....:     print(bool(n2<=n1))
+            True
+            True
+            True
+            True
+        """
+        if not len(vector) == self.genus:
+            raise ValueError("Input vector needs to be of length {}".format(self.genus))
+
+        VR = VectorSpace(self._RR, 2 * self.genus)
+        VC = VectorSpace(self._CC, self.genus)
+        I = self._CC(0, 1)
+        PM = self.period_matrix()
+
+        if normalised:
+            AM = PM[:, 0 : self.genus]
+            AInv = numerical_inverse(AM)
+            PM = AInv * PM
+
+        if method == "svp":
+            H = max(
+                max(z.real_part().abs() for z in vector),
+                max(z.imag_part().abs() for z in vector),
+            )
+            if b is None:
+                b = self._prec - 5 - H.log2().floor()
+            if r is None:
+                r = b // 4
+            S = 2**b
+            if H * S > 2**(self._prec - 4):
+                raise ValueError("insufficient precision for b=%s" % b)
+
+            def C2Z(v):
+                vR = [(S * z.real_part()).round() for z in v]
+                vR += [(S * z.imag_part()).round() for z in v]
+                return vR
+
+            M = Matrix(
+                ZZ, 2 * self.genus, 2 * self.genus, [C2Z(c) for c in PM.columns()]
+            )
+            u = C2Z(vector)
+            L = IntegerLattice(M)
+            u = VR(u) - VR(L.closest_vector(u))
+            reduced = VC(
+                [self._CC(u[i] + I * u[i + self.genus]) / S for i in range(self.genus)]
+            )
+
+        elif method == "ip":
+
+            def C2R(v):
+                return VR([z.real_part() for z in v] + [z.imag_part() for z in v])
+
+            u = C2R(vector)
+            basis_vecs = [C2R(c) for c in PM.columns()]
+            M = Matrix([[ei.dot_product(ej) for ei in basis_vecs] for ej in basis_vecs])
+            v_dot_e = VR([u.dot_product(e) for e in basis_vecs])
+            coeffs = M.solve_right(v_dot_e)
+            u -= sum([t.round() * e for t, e in zip(coeffs, basis_vecs)])
+            reduced = VC(
+                [self._CC(u[i] + I * u[i + self.genus]) for i in range(self.genus)]
+            )
+        else:
+            raise ValueError("Must give a valid method.")
+
+        return reduced
+
+    def curve(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the curve from which this Riemann surface is obtained.
+
+        Riemann surfaces explicitly obtained from a curve return that same object.
+        For others, the curve is constructed and cached, so that an identical curve is
+        returned upon subsequent calls.
+
+        OUTPUT: curve from which Riemann surface is obtained
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: C = Curve( y^3+x^3-1)
+            sage: S = C.riemann_surface()
+            sage: S.curve() is C
+            True
+        """
+        if self._curve is None:
+            self._curve = Curve(self.f)
+        return self._curve
+
+    def places_at_branch_locus(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the places above the branch locus.
+
+        Return a list of the of places above the branch locus. This must be
+        done over the base ring, and so the places are given in terms of the
+        factors of the discriminant. Currently, this method only works when
+        ``self._R.base_ring() == QQ`` as for other rings, the function field
+        for ``Curve(self.f)`` is not implemented. To go from these divisors to
+        a divisor list, see :meth:`divisor_to_divisor_list`.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        List of places of the functions field ``Curve(self.f).function_field()``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(25*(x^4+y^4+1) - 34*(x^2*y^2+x^2+y^2))
+            sage: S.places_at_branch_locus()
+            [Place (x - 2, (x - 2)*y, y^2 - 17/5, y^3 - 17/5*y),
+             Place (x + 2, (x + 2)*y, y^2 - 17/5, y^3 - 17/5*y),
+             Place (x - 1/2, (x - 1/2)*y, y^2 - 17/20, y^3 - 17/20*y),
+             Place (x + 1/2, (x + 1/2)*y, y^2 - 17/20, y^3 - 17/20*y),
+             Place (x^4 - 34/25*x^2 + 1, y, y^2, y^3),
+             Place (x^4 - 34/25*x^2 + 1, (x^4 - 34/25*x^2 + 1)*y, y^2 - 34/25*x^2 - 34/25, y^3 + (-34/25*x^2 - 34/25)*y)]
+        """
+        BP = []
+        K = self._R.base_ring()
+        if K is not QQ:
+            raise NotImplementedError
+        C = self.curve()
+        KC = C.function_field()
+        g0, g1 = self._R.gens()
+        Kb = FunctionField(K, str(g0))
+        MO = Kb.maximal_order()
+        BP = []
+        for x in self._discriminant.factor():
+            fac = x[0](g0, 0)
+            p0 = MO.ideal(fac).place()
+            BP += KC.places_above(p0)
+        return BP
+
+    def strong_approximation(self, divisor, S):
+        r"""
+        Apply the method of strong approximation to a divisor.
+
+        As described in [Neu2018]_, apply the method of strong approximation to
+        ``divisor`` with list of places to avoid ``S``. Currently, this method
+        only works when ``self._R.base_ring() == QQ`` as for other rings, the function
+        field for ``Curve(self.f)`` is not implemented.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``divisor`` -- an element of ``Curve(self.f).function_field().divisor_group()``
+
+        - ``S`` -- list of places to avoid
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A tuple ``(D, B)``, where ``D`` is a new divisor, linearly equivalent
+        to ``divisor``, but not intersecting ``S``, and ``B`` is a list of tuples
+        ``(v, b)`` where ``b`` are the functions giving the linear equivalence,
+        added with multiplicity ``v``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3+1)
+            sage: avoid = Curve(S.f).places_at_infinity()
+            sage: D = 1*avoid[0]
+            sage: S.strong_approximation(D, avoid)
+            (- Place (x - 2, (x - 2)*y)
+              + Place (x - 1, y)
+              + Place (x^2 + x + 1, y),
+             [(1, (1/(x - 2))*y)])
+        """
+        # One would standardly expect to run this with
+        #     S = Curve(self.f).places_at_infinity()
+        # or
+        #     S = Curve(self.f).places_at_infinity()+self.places_at_branch_locus()
+        #
+        # To avoid current implementation issues with going between divisors
+        # and divisor lists, we implement a method that handles only divisors
+        K = self._R.base_ring()
+        if not K == QQ:
+            raise NotImplementedError
+        C = self.curve()
+        KC = C.function_field()
+        g0, g1 = self._R.gens()
+        Kb = FunctionField(K, str(g0))
+        MO = Kb.maximal_order()
+
+        D_base = -sum(S)
+
+        rr = self._vertices[self._basepoint[0]].real()
+        rr = rr.ceil()
+        Fac = g0 - K(rr)
+        p0 = MO.ideal(Fac).place()
+        q0 = KC.places_above(p0)[0]
+
+        new_divisor = divisor
+        B = []
+        for p in divisor.support():
+            if p in S:
+                v = divisor.valuation(p)
+                i = S.index(p)
+                Q = S[i]
+                D = D_base + Q
+                if not D:
+                    ios = self.genus
+                else:
+                    ios = len(D.basis_differential_space())
+                while ios > 0:
+                    D += q0
+                    ios = len(D.basis_differential_space())
+                LD = D.function_space()
+                V = LD[0]
+                a = LD[1]
+                b = 0
+                for s in S:
+                    LDps = (D + s).function_space()
+                    Vps = LDps[0]
+                    ebd = [LDps[2](a(g)) for g in V.gens()]
+                    U = Vps.span(ebd)
+                    Quot = Vps.quotient(U)
+                    bs = LDps[1](Quot.lift(Quot.basis()[0]))
+                    b += bs
+                B.append((v, b))
+                new_divisor += v * b.divisor()
+        return new_divisor, B
+
+    def divisor_to_divisor_list(self, divisor, eps=None):
+        r"""
+        Turn a divisor into a list for :meth:`abel_jacobi`.
+
+        Given ``divisor`` in ``Curve(self.f).function_field().divisor_group()``,
+        consisting of places above finite points in the base, return an equivalent
+        divisor list suitable for input into :meth:`abel_jacboi`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``divisor`` -- an element of ``Curve(self.f).function_field().divisor_group()``
+        - ``eps`` -- real number (optional); tolerance used to determine whether a complex
+          number is close enough to a root of a polynomial
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A list with elements of the form ``(v, (z, w))`` representing the finite places.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3+1)
+            sage: D = sum(S.places_at_branch_locus())
+            sage: S.divisor_to_divisor_list(D)
+            [(1, (1.00000000000000, 0.000000000000000)),
+             (1, (-0.500000000000000 - 0.866025403784439*I, 0.000000000000000)),
+             (1, (-0.500000000000000 + 0.866025403784439*I, 0.000000000000000))]
+
+        .. TODO::
+
+            Currently this method can only handle places above finite points in
+            the base. It would be useful to extend this to allow for places at
+            infinity.
+        """
+        # If this error bound is too restrictive, this method might fail and
+        # not return. One might want to change the way this error is handled.
+        if not eps:
+            eps = self._RR(2)**(-self._prec + 3)
+        dl = []
+
+        PZ = PolynomialRing(self._R.base(), "z").fraction_field()
+        RF = PolynomialRing(PZ, "w")
+
+        for d in divisor.support():
+            if d.is_infinite_place():
+                raise NotImplementedError(
+                    "Conversion of infinite places not implemented yet."
+                )
+            v = divisor.valuation(d)
+            gs = d._prime.gens()
+
+            g0 = self._R(gs[0])
+            gis = [
+                sum([PZ(gi.list()[i]) * RF.gen()**i for i in range(len(gi.list()))])
+                for gi in gs[1:]
+            ]
+
+            rs = self._CCz(g0).roots()
+            rys = []
+
+            for r, m in rs:
+                ys = []
+                for gi in gis:
+                    # This test is a bit clunky, it surely can be made more efficient.
+                    if ys:
+                        ers = min(gi(y, r).abs() for y in ys)
+                    else:
+                        ers = 1
+
+                    if not ers <= eps:
+                        poly = self._CCw(gi(self._CCw.gen(0), r))
+                        if poly == 0:
+                            nys = []
+                        else:
+                            nys = poly.roots()
+                        ys.extend(ny[0] for ny in nys)
+                        rys.extend((v * m * n, (r, y)) for y, n in nys)
+
+            if rys:
+                dl.extend(rys)
+            else:
+                for r, m in rs:
+                    ys = self._CCw(self.f(r, self._CCw.gen(0))).roots()
+                    dl.extend([(v * m * n, (r, y)) for y, n in ys])
+        if not sum([v[0] for v in dl]) == divisor.degree():
+            raise ValueError(
+                "numerical instability, list of wrong degree, returning list {}".format(
+                    dl
+                )
+            )
+        return dl
+
+
+def integer_matrix_relations(M1, M2, b=None, r=None):
+    r"""
+    Determine integer relations between complex matrices.
+
+    Given two square matrices with complex entries of size `g`, `h` respectively,
+    numerically determine an (approximate) `\ZZ`-basis for the `2g \times 2h` matrices
+    with integer entries of the shape `(D, B; C, A)` such that `B+M_1*A=(D+M_1*C)*M2`.
+    By considering real and imaginary parts separately we obtain `2gh` equations
+    with real coefficients in `4gh` variables. We scale the coefficients by a
+    constant `2^b` and round them to integers, in order to obtain an integer
+    system of equations. Standard application of LLL allows us to determine near
+    solutions.
+
+    The user can specify the parameter `b`, but by default the system will
+    choose a `b` based on the size of the coefficients and the precision with
+    which they are given.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``M1`` -- square complex valued matrix
+
+    - ``M2`` -- square complex valued matrix of same size as ``M1``
+
+    - ``b`` -- integer (default provided); the equation coefficients are scaled
+      by `2^b` before rounding to integers
+
+    - ``r`` -- integer (default: ``b/4``); the vectors found by LLL that satisfy
+      the scaled equations to within `2^r` are reported as solutions
+
+    OUTPUT:
+
+    A list of `2g \times 2h` integer matrices that, for large enough `r`, `b-r`,
+    generate the `\ZZ`-module of relevant transformations.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import integer_matrix_relations
+        sage: M1 = M2 = matrix(CC, 2, 2, [CC(d).sqrt() for d in [2,-3,-3,-6]])
+        sage: T = integer_matrix_relations(M1,M2)
+        sage: id = parent(M1)(1)
+        sage: M1t = [id.augment(M1) * t for t in T]
+        sage: [((m[:,:2]^(-1)*m)[:,2:]-M2).norm() < 1e-13 for m in M1t]
+        [True, True]
+    """
+    if not (M1.is_square() and M2.is_square()):
+        raise ValueError("matrices need to be square")
+    prec = min(M1.base_ring().precision(), M2.base_ring().precision())
+    H = max(
+        max(abs(m.real_part()) for m in M1.list() + M2.list()),
+        max(abs(m.imag_part()) for m in M1.list() + M2.list()),
+    )
+    if b is None:
+        b = prec - 5 - H.log2().floor()
+    if r is None:
+        r = b // 4
+    S = 2**b
+    if H * S > 2**(prec - 4):
+        raise ValueError("insufficient precision for b=%s" % b)
+    g1 = M1.ncols()
+    g2 = M2.ncols()
+    CC = (
+        M1.base_ring()
+        if (M1.base_ring().precision() <= M2.base_ring().precision())
+        else M2.base_ring()
+    )
+    V = ["%s%s" % (n, i) for n in ["a", "b", "c", "d"] for i in range(1, 1 + g1 * g2)]
+    R = PolynomialRing(CC, V)
+    vars = R.gens()
+    A = Matrix(R, g1, g2, vars[: g1 * g2])
+    B = Matrix(R, g1, g2, vars[g1 * g2 : 2 * g1 * g2])
+    C = Matrix(R, g1, g2, vars[2 * g1 * g2 : 3 * g1 * g2])
+    D = Matrix(R, g1, g2, vars[3 * g1 * g2 : 4 * g1 * g2])
+    W = ((M1 * A + B) - (M1 * C + D) * M2).list()
+    vars = R.gens()
+    mt = Matrix(ZZ, [[1 if i == j else 0 for j in range(4 * g1 * g2)] +
+      [(S * w.monomial_coefficient(vi).real_part()).round() for w in W] +
+      [(S * w.monomial_coefficient(vi).imag_part()).round() for w in W]
+                     for i, vi in enumerate(vars)])
+    # we compute an LLL-reduced basis of this lattice:
+    mtL = mt.LLL()
+
+    def vectomat(v):
+        A = Matrix(g1, g2, v[: g1 * g2].list())
+        B = Matrix(g1, g2, v[g1 * g2 : 2 * g1 * g2].list())
+        C = Matrix(g1, g2, v[2 * g1 * g2 : 3 * g1 * g2].list())
+        D = Matrix(g1, g2, v[3 * g1 * g2 : 4 * g1 * g2].list())
+        return D.augment(B).stack(C.augment(A))
+
+    c = 2**r
+    return [vectomat(v) for v in mtL if all(a.abs() <= c for a in v[g1 * g2 :])]
+
+
+class RiemannSurfaceSum(RiemannSurface):
+    r"""
+    Represent the disjoint union of finitely many Riemann surfaces.
+
+    Rudimentary class to represent disjoint unions of Riemann surfaces. Exists
+    mainly (and this is the only functionality actually implemented) to
+    represents direct products of the complex tori that arise as analytic
+    Jacobians of Riemann surfaces.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``L`` -- list of RiemannSurface objects
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: _.<x> = QQ[]
+        sage: SC = HyperellipticCurve(x^6-2*x^4+3*x^2-7).riemann_surface(prec=60)
+        sage: S1 = HyperellipticCurve(x^3-2*x^2+3*x-7).riemann_surface(prec=60)
+        sage: S2 = HyperellipticCurve(1-2*x+3*x^2-7*x^3).riemann_surface(prec=60)
+        sage: len(SC.homomorphism_basis(S1+S2))
+        2
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, L):
+        r"""
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface, RiemannSurfaceSum
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S1 = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3-x-1)
+            sage: S2 = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3-x-5)
+            sage: S = RiemannSurfaceSum([S1,S2])
+            sage: S.riemann_matrix() == S1.riemann_matrix().block_sum(S2.riemann_matrix())
+            True
+        """
+        if not all(isinstance(l, RiemannSurface) for l in L):
+            raise ValueError("summands must be RiemannSurface objects")
+        prec = min(l._prec for l in L)
+        self._prec = prec
+        self.genus = sum(s.genus for s in L)
+        it = iter(L)
+        s = next(it)
+        g = s.genus
+        PM = s.period_matrix()
+        PM1 = PM[:g, :g]
+        PM2 = PM[:g, g : 2 * g]
+        tau = s.riemann_matrix()
+        for s in it:
+            g = s.genus
+            PM = s.period_matrix()
+            PM1 = PM1.block_sum(PM[:g, :g])
+            PM2 = PM2.block_sum(PM[:g, g : 2 * g])
+            tau = tau.block_sum(s.riemann_matrix())
+        self.PM = block_matrix([[PM1, PM2]], subdivide=False)
+        self.tau = tau
+
+    def period_matrix(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the period matrix of the surface.
+
+        This is just the diagonal block matrix constructed from the period
+        matrices of the constituents.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface, RiemannSurfaceSum
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S1 = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3-x-1)
+            sage: S2 = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3-x-5)
+            sage: S = RiemannSurfaceSum([S1,S2])
+            sage: S1S2 = S1.period_matrix().block_sum(S2.period_matrix())
+            sage: S.period_matrix() == S1S2[[0,1],[0,2,1,3]]
+            True
+        """
+        return self.PM
+
+    def riemann_matrix(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the normalized period matrix of the surface.
+
+        This is just the diagonal block matrix constructed from the Riemann
+        matrices of the constituents.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface, RiemannSurfaceSum
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S1 = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3-x-1)
+            sage: S2 = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3-x-5)
+            sage: S = RiemannSurfaceSum([S1,S2])
+            sage: S.riemann_matrix() == S1.riemann_matrix().block_sum(S2.riemann_matrix())
+            True
+        """
+        return self.tau
+
+    def __repr__(self) -> str:
+        r"""
+        Return string describing Riemann surface sum.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface, RiemannSurfaceSum
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S1 = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3-x-1)
+            sage: S2 = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3-x-5)
+            sage: RiemannSurfaceSum([S1,S2])
+            Riemann surface sum with period lattice of rank 4
+        """
+        return "Riemann surface sum with period lattice of rank " + str(2 * self.genus)
+
+    def __add__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Return the disjoint union of the Riemann surface and the other argument.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface import RiemannSurface, RiemannSurfaceSum
+            sage: R.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: S1 = RiemannSurface(y^2-x^3-x-1)
+            sage: S1+S1+S1
+            Riemann surface sum with period lattice of rank 6
+        """
+        return RiemannSurfaceSum([self, other])