passagemath-schemes 10.6.47__cp312-cp312-macosx_13_0_arm64.whl

sage/schemes/curves/projective_curve.py

@@ -0,0 +1,3026 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-schemes
+# sage.doctest: needs sage.libs.singular
+r"""
+Projective curves
+
+Projective curves in Sage are curves in a projective space or a projective plane.
+
+EXAMPLES:
+
+We can construct curves in either a projective plane::
+
+    sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+    sage: C = Curve([y*z^2 - x^3], P); C
+    Projective Plane Curve over Rational Field defined by -x^3 + y*z^2
+
+or in higher dimensional projective spaces::
+
+    sage: P.<x,y,z,w> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 3)
+    sage: C = Curve([y*w^3 - x^4, z*w^3 - x^4], P); C
+    Projective Curve over Rational Field defined by -x^4 + y*w^3, -x^4 + z*w^3
+
+Integral projective curves over finite fields
+---------------------------------------------
+
+If the curve is defined over a finite field and integral, that is reduced and
+irreducible, its function field is tightly coupled with the curve so that
+advanced computations based on Sage's global function field machinery are
+available.
+
+EXAMPLES::
+
+    sage: k = GF(2)
+    sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(k, 2)
+    sage: C = Curve(x^2*z - y^3, P)
+    sage: C.genus()
+    0
+    sage: C.function_field()
+    Function field in z defined by z + y^3
+
+Closed points of arbitrary degree can be computed::
+
+    sage: C.closed_points()
+    [Point (x, y), Point (y, z), Point (x + z, y + z)]
+    sage: C.closed_points(2)
+    [Point (y^2 + y*z + z^2, x + z)]
+    sage: C.closed_points(3)
+    [Point (y^3 + y^2*z + z^3, x + y + z),
+     Point (x^2 + y*z + z^2, x*y + x*z + y*z, y^2 + x*z + y*z + z^2)]
+
+All singular closed points can be found::
+
+    sage: C.singular_closed_points()
+    [Point (x, y)]
+    sage: p = _[0]
+    sage: p.places()  # a unibranch singularity, that is, a cusp
+    [Place (1/y)]
+    sage: pls = _[0]
+    sage: C.place_to_closed_point(pls)
+    Point (x, y)
+
+It is easy to transit to and from the function field of the curve::
+
+    sage: fx = C(x/z)
+    sage: fy = C(y/z)
+    sage: fx^2 - fy^3
+    0
+    sage: fx.divisor()
+    3*Place (1/y)
+     - 3*Place (y)
+    sage: p, = fx.poles()
+    sage: p
+    Place (y)
+    sage: C.place_to_closed_point(p)
+    Point (y, z)
+    sage: _.rational_point()
+    (1 : 0 : 0)
+    sage: _.closed_point()
+    Point (y, z)
+    sage: _.place()
+    Place (y)
+
+Integral projective curves over `\QQ`
+-------------------------------------
+
+An integral curve over `\QQ` is also equipped with the function field. Unlike
+over finite fields, it is not possible to enumerate closed points.
+
+EXAMPLES::
+
+    sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+    sage: C = Curve(x^2*z^2 - x^4 - y^4, P)
+    sage: C.singular_closed_points()
+    [Point (x, y)]
+    sage: p, = _
+    sage: p.places()
+    [Place (1/y, 1/y^2*z - 1), Place (1/y, 1/y^2*z + 1)]
+    sage: fy = C.function(y/z)
+    sage: fy.divisor()
+    Place (1/y, 1/y^2*z - 1)
+     + Place (1/y, 1/y^2*z + 1)
+     + Place (y, z - 1)
+     + Place (y, z + 1)
+     - Place (y^4 + 1, z)
+    sage: supp = _.support()
+    sage: pl = supp[0]
+    sage: C.place_to_closed_point(pl)
+    Point (x, y)
+    sage: pl = supp[1]
+    sage: C.place_to_closed_point(pl)
+    Point (x, y)
+    sage: _.rational_point()
+    (0 : 0 : 1)
+    sage: _ in C
+    True
+
+AUTHORS:
+
+- William Stein (2005-11-13)
+
+- David Joyner (2005-11-13)
+
+- David Kohel (2006-01)
+
+- Moritz Minzlaff (2010-11)
+
+- Grayson Jorgenson (2016-08)
+
+- Kwankyu Lee (2019-05): added integral projective curves
+"""
+# ****************************************************************************
+#       Copyright (C) 2005 William Stein <wstein@gmail.com>
+#
+#  Distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL)
+#
+#  The full text of the GPL is available at:
+#
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# ****************************************************************************
+
+from builtins import sum as add
+
+from sage.categories.fields import Fields
+from sage.categories.homset import hom, Hom, End
+from sage.categories.number_fields import NumberFields
+from sage.libs.singular.function import singular_function, lib as singular_lib, get_printlevel, set_printlevel
+from sage.matrix.constructor import matrix
+from sage.misc.cachefunc import cached_method
+from sage.misc.lazy_attribute import lazy_attribute
+from sage.misc.lazy_import import lazy_import
+from sage.misc.persist import register_unpickle_override
+from sage.rings.integer import Integer
+from sage.rings.integer_ring import IntegerRing
+from sage.rings.polynomial.multi_polynomial_element import degree_lowest_rational_function
+from sage.rings.polynomial.polynomial_ring_constructor import PolynomialRing
+from sage.rings.rational_field import RationalField
+from sage.schemes.projective.projective_space import ProjectiveSpace, ProjectiveSpace_ring
+from sage.schemes.projective.projective_subscheme import (AlgebraicScheme_subscheme_projective,
+                                                          AlgebraicScheme_subscheme_projective_field)
+
+lazy_import('sage.interfaces.singular', 'singular')
+lazy_import('sage.misc.sage_eval', 'sage_eval')
+lazy_import('sage.rings.number_field.number_field', 'NumberField')
+lazy_import('sage.rings.qqbar', ['number_field_elements_from_algebraics', 'QQbar'])
+
+from .curve import Curve_generic
+
+from .point import (ProjectiveCurvePoint_field,
+                    ProjectivePlaneCurvePoint_field,
+                    ProjectivePlaneCurvePoint_finite_field,
+                    IntegralProjectiveCurvePoint,
+                    IntegralProjectiveCurvePoint_finite_field,
+                    IntegralProjectivePlaneCurvePoint,
+                    IntegralProjectivePlaneCurvePoint_finite_field)
+
+from .closed_point import IntegralProjectiveCurveClosedPoint
+
+
+class ProjectiveCurve(Curve_generic, AlgebraicScheme_subscheme_projective):
+    """
+    Curves in projective spaces.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``A`` -- ambient projective space
+
+    - ``X`` -- list of multivariate polynomials; defining equations of the curve
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: P.<x,y,z,w,u> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(7), 4)
+        sage: C = Curve([y*u^2 - x^3, z*u^2 - x^3, w*u^2 - x^3, y^3 - x^3], P); C
+        Projective Curve over Finite Field of size 7 defined
+         by -x^3 + y*u^2, -x^3 + z*u^2, -x^3 + w*u^2, -x^3 + y^3
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        sage: K.<u> = CyclotomicField(11)
+        sage: P.<x,y,z,w> = ProjectiveSpace(K, 3)
+        sage: C = Curve([y*w - u*z^2 - x^2, x*w - 3*u^2*z*w], P); C
+        Projective Curve over Cyclotomic Field of order 11 and degree 10 defined
+         by -x^2 + (-u)*z^2 + y*w, x*w + (-3*u^2)*z*w
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, A, X, category=None):
+        """
+        Initialize.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x*y^2*z^7 - x^10 - x^2*z^8)
+            sage: loads(dumps(C)) == C
+            True
+        """
+        if not isinstance(A, ProjectiveSpace_ring):
+            raise TypeError("A (=%s) must be a projective space" % A)
+
+        Curve_generic.__init__(self, A, X, category=category)
+
+    def _repr_type(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a string representation of the type of this curve.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 3)
+            sage: C = Curve([y^3 - z^3 - w^3, z*x^3 - y^4])
+            sage: C._repr_type()
+            'Projective'
+        """
+        return "Projective"
+
+    def affine_patch(self, i, AA=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the `i`-th affine patch of this projective curve.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``i`` -- affine coordinate chart of the projective ambient space of
+          this curve to compute affine patch with respect to
+
+        - ``AA`` -- (default: ``None``) ambient affine space, this is constructed
+          if it is not given
+
+        OUTPUT: a curve in affine space
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w> = ProjectiveSpace(CC, 3)
+            sage: C = Curve([y*z - x^2, w^2 - x*y], P)
+            sage: C.affine_patch(0)
+            Affine Curve over Complex Field with 53 bits of precision defined
+             by y*z - 1.00000000000000, w^2 - y
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x^3 - x^2*y + y^3 - x^2*z, P)
+            sage: C.affine_patch(1)
+            Affine Plane Curve over Rational Field defined by x^3 - x^2*z - x^2 + 1
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: A.<x,y> = AffineSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: P.<u,v,w> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([u^2 - v^2], P)
+            sage: C.affine_patch(1, A).ambient_space() == A
+            True
+        """
+        from .constructor import Curve
+        return Curve(AlgebraicScheme_subscheme_projective.affine_patch(self, i, AA))
+
+    def projection(self, P=None, PS=None):
+        r"""
+        Return a projection of this curve into projective space of dimension
+        one less than the dimension of the ambient space of this curve.
+
+        This curve must not already be a plane curve. Over finite fields, if
+        this curve contains all points in its ambient space, then an error will
+        be returned.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``P`` -- (default: ``None``) a point not on this curve that will be used
+          to define the projection map; this is constructed if not specified
+
+        - ``PS`` -- (default: ``None``) the projective space the projected curve
+          will be defined in. This space must be defined over the same base ring
+          as this curve, and must have dimension one less than that of the
+          ambient space of this curve. This space will be constructed if not
+          specified.
+
+        OUTPUT: a tuple of
+
+        - a scheme morphism from this curve into a projective space of
+          dimension one less than that of the ambient space of this curve
+
+        - the projective curve that is the image of that morphism
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: K.<a> = CyclotomicField(3)
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w> = ProjectiveSpace(K, 3)
+            sage: C = Curve([y*w - x^2, z*w^2 - a*x^3], P)
+            sage: L.<a,b,c> = ProjectiveSpace(K, 2)
+            sage: proj1 = C.projection(PS=L)
+            sage: proj1
+            (Scheme morphism:
+               From: Projective Curve over Cyclotomic Field of order 3 and degree 2
+                     defined by -x^2 + y*w, (-a)*x^3 + z*w^2
+               To:   Projective Space of dimension 2
+                     over Cyclotomic Field of order 3 and degree 2
+               Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z : w) to
+                     (x : y : -z + w),
+             Projective Plane Curve over Cyclotomic Field of order 3 and degree 2
+              defined by a^6 + (-a)*a^3*b^3 - a^4*b*c)
+            sage: proj1[1].ambient_space() is L
+            True
+            sage: proj2 = C.projection()
+            sage: proj2[1].ambient_space() is L
+            False
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w,a,b,c> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 6)
+            sage: C = Curve([y - x, z - a - b, w^2 - c^2, z - x - a, x^2 - w*z], P)
+            sage: C.projection()
+            (Scheme morphism:
+               From: Projective Curve over Rational Field
+                     defined by -x + y, z - a - b, w^2 - c^2, -x + z - a, x^2 - z*w
+               To:   Projective Space of dimension 5 over Rational Field
+               Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z : w : a : b : c)
+                     to (x : y : -z + w : a : b : c),
+             Projective Curve over Rational Field defined by x1 - x4, x0 - x4, x2*x3
+              + x3^2 + x2*x4 + 2*x3*x4, x2^2 - x3^2 - 2*x3*x4 + x4^2 - x5^2, x2*x4^2 +
+              x3*x4^2 + x4^3 - x3*x5^2 - x4*x5^2, x4^4 - x3^2*x5^2 - 2*x3*x4*x5^2 -
+              x4^2*x5^2)
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(2), 3)
+            sage: C = P.curve([(x - y)*(x - z)*(x - w)*(y - z)*(y - w),
+            ....:              x*y*z*w*(x + y + z + w)])
+            sage: C.projection()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            NotImplementedError: this curve contains all points of its ambient space
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w,u> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(7), 4)
+            sage: C = P.curve([x^3 - y*z*u, w^2 - u^2 + 2*x*z, 3*x*w - y^2])
+            sage: L.<a,b,c,d> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(7), 3)
+            sage: C.projection(PS=L)
+            (Scheme morphism:
+               From: Projective Curve over Finite Field of size 7
+                     defined by x^3 - y*z*u, 2*x*z + w^2 - u^2, -y^2 + 3*x*w
+               To:   Projective Space of dimension 3 over Finite Field of size 7
+               Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z : w : u) to
+                     (x : y : z : w),
+             Projective Curve over Finite Field of size 7 defined by b^2 - 3*a*d,
+              a^5*b + a*b*c^3*d - 3*b*c^2*d^3, a^6 + a^2*c^3*d - 3*a*c^2*d^3)
+            sage: Q.<a,b,c> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(7), 2)
+            sage: C.projection(PS=Q)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: (=Projective Space of dimension 2 over Finite Field of
+            size 7) must have dimension (=3)
+
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: PP.<x,y,z,w> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 3)
+            sage: C = PP.curve([x^3 - z^2*y, w^2 - z*x])
+            sage: Q = PP([1,0,1,1])
+            sage: C.projection(P=Q)
+            (Scheme morphism:
+               From: Projective Curve over Rational Field
+                     defined by x^3 - y*z^2, -x*z + w^2
+               To:   Projective Space of dimension 2 over Rational Field
+               Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z : w) to
+                     (y : -x + z : -x + w),
+             Projective Plane Curve over Rational Field defined by x0*x1^5 -
+              6*x0*x1^4*x2 + 14*x0*x1^3*x2^2 - 16*x0*x1^2*x2^3 + 9*x0*x1*x2^4 -
+              2*x0*x2^5 - x2^6)
+            sage: LL.<a,b,c> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: Q = PP([0,0,0,1])
+            sage: C.projection(PS=LL, P=Q)
+            (Scheme morphism:
+               From: Projective Curve over Rational Field
+                     defined by x^3 - y*z^2, -x*z + w^2
+               To:   Projective Space of dimension 2 over Rational Field
+               Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z : w) to
+                     (x : y : z),
+             Projective Plane Curve over Rational Field defined by a^3 - b*c^2)
+            sage: Q = PP([0,0,1,0])
+            sage: C.projection(P=Q)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: (=(0 : 0 : 1 : 0)) must be a point not on this curve
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = P.curve(y^2 - x^2 + z^2)
+            sage: C.projection()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: this curve is already a plane curve
+        """
+        PP = self.ambient_space()
+        n = PP.dimension_relative()
+        if n == 2:
+            raise TypeError("this curve is already a plane curve")
+        if self.base_ring() not in Fields():
+            raise TypeError("this curve must be defined over a field")
+        if PS is not None:
+            if not isinstance(PS, ProjectiveSpace_ring):
+                raise TypeError("(=%s) must be a projective space" % PS)
+            if PS.dimension_relative() != n - 1:
+                raise TypeError("(=%s) must have dimension (=%s)" % (PS, n - 1))
+            if PS.base_ring() != PP.base_ring():
+                raise TypeError("(=%s) must be defined over the same base field as this curve" % PS)
+        if P is None:
+            # find a point not on the curve if not given
+            if self.base_ring().characteristic() == 0:
+                # when working over a characteristic 0 field, we can construct a point not on the curve.
+                # we do this by constructing a point on which at least one nonzero element of the defining ideal of
+                # this curve does not vanish
+                F = 0
+                # find a nonzero element
+                for i in range(len(self.defining_polynomials())):
+                    if self.defining_polynomials()[i] != 0:
+                        F = self.defining_polynomials()[i]
+                # find a point on which it doesn't vanish
+                l = list(PP.gens())
+                for i in range(n + 1):
+                    l[i] = 0
+                    while F(l) == 0:
+                        l[i] += 1
+                Q = PP(l)  # will be a point not on the curve
+            else:
+                # if the base ring is a finite field, iterate over all points in the ambient space and check which
+                # are on this curve
+                Q = None
+                for P in PP.rational_points():
+                    try:
+                        self(P)
+                    except TypeError:
+                        Q = P
+                        break
+                if Q is None:
+                    raise NotImplementedError("this curve contains all points of its ambient space")
+        else:
+            # make sure the given point is in the ambient space of the curve, but not on the curve
+            Q = None
+            try:
+                Q = self(P)
+            except TypeError:
+                pass
+            if Q is not None:
+                raise TypeError("(=%s) must be a point not on this curve" % P)
+            try:
+                Q = self.ambient_space()(P)
+            except TypeError:
+                raise TypeError("(=%s) must be a point in the ambient space of this curve" % P)
+        # in order to create the change of coordinates map, need to find a coordinate of Q that is nonzero
+        j = 0
+        while Q[j] == 0:
+            j = j + 1
+        # use this Q to project. Apply a change of coordinates to move Q to (0:...:0:1:0:...:0)
+        # where 1 is in the jth coordinate
+        if PS is None:
+            PP2 = ProjectiveSpace(self.base_ring(), n - 1)
+        else:
+            PP2 = PS
+        H = Hom(self, PP2)
+        coords = [PP.gens()[i] - Q[i]/Q[j]*PP.gens()[j] for i in range(n + 1)]
+        coords.pop(j)
+        psi = H(coords)
+        # compute image of psi via elimination
+        # first construct the image of this curve by the change of coordinates. This can be found by composing the
+        # defining polynomials of this curve with the polynomials defining the inverse of the change of coordinates
+        invcoords = [Q[i]*PP.gens()[j] + PP.gens()[i] for i in range(n + 1)]
+        invcoords[j] = Q[j]*PP.gens()[j]
+        id = PP.coordinate_ring().ideal([f(invcoords) for f in self.defining_polynomials()])
+        J = id.elimination_ideal(PP.gens()[j])
+        K = Hom(PP.coordinate_ring(), PP2.coordinate_ring())
+        ll = list(PP2.gens())
+        ll.insert(j, 0)
+        phi = K(ll)
+        G = [phi(f) for f in J.gens()]
+        C = PP2.curve(G)
+        return (psi, C)
+
+    def plane_projection(self, PP=None):
+        r"""
+        Return a projection of this curve into a projective plane.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``PP`` -- (default: ``None``) the projective plane the projected curve
+          will be defined in. This space must be defined over the same base field
+          as this curve, and must have dimension two. This space is constructed
+          if not specified.
+
+        OUTPUT: a tuple of
+
+        - a scheme morphism from this curve into a projective plane
+
+        - the projective curve that is the image of that morphism
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w,u,v> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 5)
+            sage: C = P.curve([x*u - z*v, w - y, w*y - x^2, y^3*u*2*z - w^4*w])
+            sage: L.<a,b,c> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: proj1 = C.plane_projection(PP=L)
+            sage: proj1
+            (Scheme morphism:
+               From: Projective Curve over Rational Field
+                     defined by x*u - z*v, -y + w, -x^2 + y*w, -w^5 + 2*y^3*z*u
+               To:   Projective Space of dimension 2 over Rational Field
+               Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z : w : u : v) to
+                     (x : -z + u : -z + v),
+             Projective Plane Curve over Rational Field defined by a^8 + 6*a^7*b +
+              4*a^5*b^3 - 4*a^7*c - 2*a^6*b*c - 4*a^5*b^2*c + 2*a^6*c^2)
+            sage: proj1[1].ambient_space() is L
+            True
+            sage: proj2 = C.projection()
+            sage: proj2[1].ambient_space() is L
+            False
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w,u> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(7), 4)
+            sage: C = P.curve([x^2 - 6*y^2, w*z*u - y^3 + 4*y^2*z, u^2 - x^2])
+            sage: C.plane_projection()
+            (Scheme morphism:
+               From: Projective Curve over Finite Field of size 7
+                     defined by x^2 + y^2, -y^3 - 3*y^2*z + z*w*u, -x^2 + u^2
+               To:   Projective Space of dimension 2 over Finite Field of size 7
+               Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z : w : u) to
+                     (x : z : -y + w),
+             Projective Plane Curve over Finite Field of size 7
+              defined by x0^10 + 2*x0^8*x1^2 + 2*x0^6*x1^4 - 3*x0^6*x1^3*x2
+                         + 2*x0^6*x1^2*x2^2 - 2*x0^4*x1^4*x2^2 + x0^2*x1^4*x2^4)
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(17), 2)
+            sage: C = P.curve(x^2 - y*z - z^2)
+            sage: C.plane_projection()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: this curve is already a plane curve
+        """
+        PS = self.ambient_space()
+        n = PS.dimension_relative()
+        if n == 2:
+            raise TypeError("this curve is already a plane curve")
+        C = self
+        H = Hom(PS, PS)
+        phi = H([PS.gens()[i] for i in range(n + 1)])
+        for i in range(n - 2):
+            if i == n - 3:
+                L = C.projection(PS=PP)
+            else:
+                L = C.projection()
+            C = L[1]
+            # compose the scheme morphisms that are created
+            K = Hom(phi.codomain().coordinate_ring(), PS.coordinate_ring())
+            psi = K(phi.defining_polynomials())
+            H = Hom(self, L[1].ambient_space())
+            phi = H([psi(L[0].defining_polynomials()[i]) for i in range(len(L[0].defining_polynomials()))])
+        return (phi, C)
+
+
+class ProjectivePlaneCurve(ProjectiveCurve):
+    r"""
+    Curves in projective planes.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``A`` -- projective plane
+
+    - ``f`` -- homogeneous polynomial in the homogeneous coordinate ring of the plane
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    A projective plane curve defined over an algebraic closure of `\QQ`::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQbar, 2)
+        sage: set_verbose(-1)  # suppress warnings for slow computation
+        sage: C = Curve([y*z - x^2 - QQbar.gen()*z^2], P); C
+        Projective Plane Curve over Algebraic Field
+         defined by -x^2 + y*z + (-I)*z^2
+
+    A projective plane curve defined over a finite field::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+        sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(5^2, 'v'), 2)
+        sage: C = Curve([y^2*z - x*z^2 - z^3], P); C
+        Projective Plane Curve over Finite Field in v of size 5^2
+         defined by y^2*z - x*z^2 - z^3
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, A, f, category=None):
+        """
+        Initialize.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8)
+            sage: loads(dumps(C)) == C
+            True
+        """
+        if not (isinstance(A, ProjectiveSpace_ring) and A.dimension != 2):
+            raise TypeError("the ambient space is not a projective plane")
+
+        super().__init__(A, [f], category=category)
+
+    def _repr_type(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a string representation of the type of this curve.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([y*z^3 - 5/7*x^4 + 4*x^3*z - 9*z^4], P)
+            sage: C._repr_type()
+            'Projective Plane'
+        """
+        return "Projective Plane"
+
+    def divisor_of_function(self, r):
+        """
+        Return the divisor of a function on a curve.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``r`` is a rational function on X
+
+        OUTPUT: list; the divisor of r represented as a list of coefficients
+        and points. (TODO: This will change to a more structural output in the
+        future.)
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: FF = FiniteField(5)
+            sage: P2 = ProjectiveSpace(2, FF, names=['x','y','z'])
+            sage: R = P2.coordinate_ring()
+            sage: x, y, z = R.gens()
+            sage: f = y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8
+            sage: C = Curve(f)
+            sage: K = FractionField(R)
+            sage: r = 1/x
+            sage: C.divisor_of_function(r)     # todo: not implemented  !!!!
+            [[-1, (0, 0, 1)]]
+            sage: r = 1/x^3
+            sage: C.divisor_of_function(r)     # todo: not implemented  !!!!
+            [[-3, (0, 0, 1)]]
+        """
+        F = self.base_ring()
+        f = self.defining_polynomial()
+        x, y, z = f.parent().gens()
+        pnts = self.rational_points()
+        divf = []
+        for P in pnts:
+            if P[2] != F(0):
+                # What is the '5' in this line and the 'r()' in the next???
+                lcs = self.local_coordinates(P, 5)
+                ldg = degree_lowest_rational_function(r(lcs[0], lcs[1]), z)
+                if ldg != 0:
+                    divf.append([ldg, P])
+        return divf
+
+    def local_coordinates(self, pt, n):
+        r"""
+        Return local coordinates to precision n at the given point.
+
+        Behaviour is flaky - some choices of `n` are worse than
+        others.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``pt`` -- a rational point on X which is not a point of ramification
+          for the projection `(x,y) \to x`
+
+        - ``n`` -- the number of terms desired
+
+        OUTPUT: `x = x0 + t`, `y = y0` + power series in `t`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: FF = FiniteField(5)
+            sage: P2 = ProjectiveSpace(2, FF, names=['x','y','z'])
+            sage: x, y, z = P2.coordinate_ring().gens()
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8)
+            sage: pt = C([2,3,1])
+            sage: C.local_coordinates(pt,9)     # todo: not implemented  !!!!
+            [2 + t,
+             3 + 3*t^2 + t^3 + 3*t^4 + 3*t^6 + 3*t^7 + t^8 + 2*t^9 + 3*t^11 + 3*t^12]
+        """
+
+        f = self.defining_polynomial()
+        R = f.parent()
+        F = self.base_ring()
+        p = F.characteristic()
+        x0 = F(pt[0])
+        y0 = F(pt[1])
+        astr = ["a"+str(i) for i in range(1, 2*n)]
+        x, y = R.gens()
+        R0 = PolynomialRing(F, 2 * n + 2, names=[str(x), str(y), "t"] + astr)
+        vars0 = R0.gens()
+        t = vars0[2]
+        yt = y0*t**0 + add([vars0[i]*t**(i-2) for i in range(3, 2*n+2)])
+        xt = x0+t
+        ft = f(xt, yt)
+        S = singular
+        S.eval('ring s = '+str(p)+','+str(R0.gens())+',lp;')
+        S.eval('poly f = '+str(ft))
+        cmd = 'matrix c = coeffs ('+str(ft)+',t)'
+        S.eval(cmd)
+        N = int(S.eval('size(c)'))
+        b = ','.join("c[{},1]".format(i) for i in range(2, N//2 - 4))
+        cmd = 'ideal I = ' + b
+        S.eval(cmd)
+        c = S.eval('slimgb(I)')
+        d = c.split("=")
+        d = d[1:]
+        d[len(d)-1] += "\n"
+        e = [xx[:xx.index("\n")] for xx in d]
+        vals = []
+        for x in e:
+            for y in vars0:
+                if str(y) in x:
+                    if x.replace(str(y), ""):
+                        i = x.find("-")
+                        if i > 0:
+                            vals.append([eval(x[1:i]), x[:i], F(eval(x[i+1:]))])
+                        i = x.find("+")
+                        if i > 0:
+                            vals.append([eval(x[1:i]), x[:i], -F(eval(x[i+1:]))])
+                    else:
+                        vals.append([eval(str(y)[1:]), str(y), F(0)])
+        vals.sort()
+        return [x0 + t, y0 + add(v[2] * t**(j + 1) for j, v in enumerate(vals))]
+
+    def plot(self, *args, **kwds):
+        """
+        Plot the real points of an affine patch of this projective
+        plane curve.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- an affine plane curve
+
+        - ``patch`` -- (optional) the affine patch to be plotted; if not
+          specified, the patch corresponding to the last projective
+          coordinate being nonzero
+
+        - ``*args`` -- (optional) tuples (variable, minimum, maximum) for
+          plotting dimensions
+
+        - ``**kwds`` -- optional keyword arguments passed on to ``implicit_plot``
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        A cuspidal curve::
+
+            sage: R.<x, y, z> = QQ[]
+            sage: C = Curve(x^3 - y^2*z)
+            sage: C.plot()                                                              # needs sage.plot
+            Graphics object consisting of 1 graphics primitive
+
+        The other affine patches of the same curve::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.plot
+            sage: C.plot(patch=0)
+            Graphics object consisting of 1 graphics primitive
+            sage: C.plot(patch=1)
+            Graphics object consisting of 1 graphics primitive
+
+        An elliptic curve::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.plot
+            sage: E = EllipticCurve('101a')
+            sage: C = Curve(E)
+            sage: C.plot()
+            Graphics object consisting of 1 graphics primitive
+            sage: C.plot(patch=0)
+            Graphics object consisting of 1 graphics primitive
+            sage: C.plot(patch=1)
+            Graphics object consisting of 1 graphics primitive
+
+        A hyperelliptic curve::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.plot
+            sage: P.<x> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = 4*x^5 - 30*x^3 + 45*x - 22
+            sage: C = HyperellipticCurve(f)
+            sage: C.plot()
+            Graphics object consisting of 1 graphics primitive
+            sage: C.plot(patch=0)
+            Graphics object consisting of 1 graphics primitive
+            sage: C.plot(patch=1)
+            Graphics object consisting of 1 graphics primitive
+        """
+        # if user has not specified a favorite affine patch, take the
+        # one avoiding "infinity", i.e. the one corresponding to the
+        # last projective coordinate being nonzero
+        patch = kwds.pop('patch', self.ngens() - 1)
+        from .constructor import Curve
+        C = Curve(self.affine_patch(patch))
+        return C.plot(*args, **kwds)
+
+    def is_singular(self, P=None):
+        r"""
+        Return whether this curve is singular or not, or if a point ``P`` is
+        provided, whether ``P`` is a singular point of this curve.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``P`` -- (default: ``None``) a point on this curve
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        If no point ``P`` is provided, return ``True`` or ``False`` depending
+        on whether this curve is singular or not. If a point ``P`` is provided,
+        return ``True`` or ``False`` depending on whether ``P`` is or is not a
+        singular point of this curve.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Over `\QQ`::
+
+            sage: F = QQ
+            sage: P2.<X,Y,Z> = ProjectiveSpace(F, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(X^3 - Y^2*Z)
+            sage: C.is_singular()
+            True
+
+        Over a finite field::
+
+            sage: F = GF(19)
+            sage: P2.<X,Y,Z> = ProjectiveSpace(F, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(X^3 + Y^3 + Z^3)
+            sage: C.is_singular()
+            False
+            sage: D = Curve(X^4 - X*Z^3)
+            sage: D.is_singular()
+            True
+            sage: E = Curve(X^5 + 19*Y^5 + Z^5)
+            sage: E.is_singular()
+            True
+            sage: E = Curve(X^5 + 9*Y^5 + Z^5)
+            sage: E.is_singular()
+            False
+
+        Over `\CC`::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.function_field
+            sage: F = CC
+            sage: P2.<X,Y,Z> = ProjectiveSpace(F, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(X)
+            sage: C.is_singular()
+            False
+            sage: D = Curve(Y^2*Z - X^3)
+            sage: D.is_singular()
+            True
+            sage: E = Curve(Y^2*Z - X^3 + Z^3)
+            sage: E.is_singular()
+            False
+
+        Showing that :issue:`12187` is fixed::
+
+            sage: F.<X,Y,Z> = GF(2)[]
+            sage: G = Curve(X^2 + Y*Z)
+            sage: G.is_singular()
+            False
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.fings.function_field
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(CC, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([y^4 - x^3*z], P)
+            sage: Q = P([0,0,1])
+            sage: C.is_singular()
+            True
+        """
+        if P is None:
+            poly = self.defining_polynomial()
+            return poly.parent().ideal(poly.gradient()+[poly]).dimension() > 0
+        else:
+            return not self.is_smooth(P)
+
+    def degree(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the degree of this projective curve.
+
+        For a plane curve, this is just the degree of its defining polynomial.
+
+        OUTPUT: integer
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = P.curve([y^7 - x^2*z^5 + 7*z^7])
+            sage: C.degree()
+            7
+        """
+        return self.defining_polynomial().degree()
+
+    def tangents(self, P, factor=True):
+        r"""
+        Return the tangents of this projective plane curve at the point ``P``.
+
+        These are found by homogenizing the tangents of an affine patch of this
+        curve containing ``P``. The point ``P`` must be a point on this curve.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``P`` -- a point on this curve
+
+        - ``factor`` -- boolean (default: ``True``); whether to attempt computing the
+          polynomials of the individual tangent lines over the base field of this
+          curve, or to just return the polynomial corresponding to the union of
+          the tangent lines (which requires fewer computations)
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A list of polynomials in the coordinate ring of the ambient space of
+        this curve.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: set_verbose(-1)
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQbar, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([x^3*y + 2*x^2*y^2 + x*y^3 + x^3*z
+            ....:            + 7*x^2*y*z + 14*x*y^2*z + 9*y^3*z], P)
+            sage: Q = P([0,0,1])
+            sage: C.tangents(Q)
+            [x + 4.147899035704788?*y,
+             x + (1.426050482147607? + 0.3689894074818041?*I)*y,
+             x + (1.426050482147607? - 0.3689894074818041?*I)*y]
+            sage: C.tangents(Q, factor=False)
+            [6*x^3 + 42*x^2*y + 84*x*y^2 + 54*y^3]
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = P.curve([x^2*y^3*z^4 - y^6*z^3 - 4*x^2*y^4*z^3 - 4*x^4*y^2*z^3
+            ....:              + 3*y^7*z^2 + 10*x^2*y^5*z^2 + 9*x^4*y^3*z^2 + 5*x^6*y*z^2
+            ....:              - 3*y^8*z - 9*x^2*y^6*z - 11*x^4*y^4*z - 7*x^6*y^2*z
+            ....:              - 2*x^8*z + y^9 + 2*x^2*y^7 + 3*x^4*y^5 + 4*x^6*y^3 + 2*x^8*y])
+            sage: Q = P([0,1,1])
+            sage: C.tangents(Q)
+            [-y + z, 3*x^2 - y^2 + 2*y*z - z^2]
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = P.curve([z^3*x + y^4 - x^2*z^2])
+            sage: Q = P([1,1,1])
+            sage: C.tangents(Q)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: (=(1 : 1 : 1)) is not a point on (=Projective Plane Curve
+            over Rational Field defined by y^4 - x^2*z^2 + x*z^3)
+        """
+        PP = self.ambient_space()
+        # Check whether P is a point on this curve
+        try:
+            P = self(P)
+        except TypeError:
+            raise TypeError("(=%s) is not a point on (=%s)" % (P, self))
+
+        # Find an affine chart of the ambient space of self that contains P
+        i = 0
+        while P[i] == 0:
+            i += 1
+        C = self.affine_patch(i)
+        L = C.tangents(C(P.dehomogenize(i)), factor)
+        R = PP.coordinate_ring()
+        H = Hom(C.ambient_space().coordinate_ring(), R)
+        G = list(R.gens())
+        x = G.pop(i)
+        phi = H(G)
+        return [phi(g).homogenize(x) for g in L]
+
+    def is_ordinary_singularity(self, P):
+        r"""
+        Return whether the singular point ``P`` of this projective plane curve is an ordinary singularity.
+
+        The point ``P`` is an ordinary singularity of this curve if it is a singular point, and
+        if the tangents of this curve at ``P`` are distinct.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``P`` -- a point on this curve
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        boolean; ``True`` or ``False`` depending on whether ``P`` is or is not
+        an ordinary singularity of this curve, respectively. An error is raised
+        if ``P`` is not a singular point of this curve.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([y^2*z^3 - x^5], P)
+            sage: Q = P([0,0,1])
+            sage: C.is_ordinary_singularity(Q)
+            False
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: R.<a> = QQ[]
+            sage: K.<b> = NumberField(a^2 - 3)
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(K, 2)
+            sage: C = P.curve([x^2*y^3*z^4 - y^6*z^3 - 4*x^2*y^4*z^3 - 4*x^4*y^2*z^3
+            ....:              + 3*y^7*z^2 + 10*x^2*y^5*z^2 + 9*x^4*y^3*z^2
+            ....:              + 5*x^6*y*z^2 - 3*y^8*z - 9*x^2*y^6*z - 11*x^4*y^4*z
+            ....:              - 7*x^6*y^2*z - 2*x^8*z + y^9 + 2*x^2*y^7 + 3*x^4*y^5
+            ....:              + 4*x^6*y^3 + 2*x^8*y])
+            sage: Q = P([0,1,1])
+            sage: C.is_ordinary_singularity(Q)
+            True
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = P.curve([z^5 - y^5 + x^5 + x*y^2*z^2])
+            sage: Q = P([0,1,1])
+            sage: C.is_ordinary_singularity(Q)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: (=(0 : 1 : 1)) is not a singular point of (=Projective Plane
+            Curve over Rational Field defined by x^5 - y^5 + x*y^2*z^2 + z^5)
+        """
+        r = self.multiplicity(P)
+        if r < 2:
+            raise TypeError("(=%s) is not a singular point of (=%s)" % (P, self))
+
+        # Find an affine chart of the ambient space of self that contains P
+        i = 0
+        while P[i] == 0:
+            i += 1
+        C = self.affine_patch(i)
+        return C.is_ordinary_singularity(C(P.dehomogenize(i)))
+
+    def quadratic_transform(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a birational map from this curve to the proper transform of this curve with respect to the standard
+        Cremona transformation.
+
+        The standard Cremona transformation is the birational automorphism of `\mathbb{P}^{2}` defined
+        `(x : y : z)\mapsto (yz : xz : xy)`.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - a scheme morphism representing the restriction of the standard Cremona transformation from this curve
+          to the proper transform.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x^3*y - z^4 - z^2*x^2, P)
+            sage: C.quadratic_transform()
+            Scheme morphism:
+              From: Projective Plane Curve over Rational Field
+                    defined by x^3*y - x^2*z^2 - z^4
+              To:   Projective Plane Curve over Rational Field
+                    defined by -x^3*y - x*y*z^2 + z^4
+              Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z) to
+                    (y*z : x*z : x*y)
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(17), 2)
+            sage: C = P.curve([y^7*z^2 - 16*x^9 + x*y*z^7 + 2*z^9])
+            sage: C.quadratic_transform()
+            Scheme morphism:
+              From: Projective Plane Curve over Finite Field of size 17
+                    defined by x^9 + y^7*z^2 + x*y*z^7 + 2*z^9
+              To:   Projective Plane Curve over Finite Field of size 17
+                    defined by 2*x^9*y^7 + x^8*y^6*z^2 + x^9*z^7 + y^7*z^9
+              Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z) to
+                    (y*z : x*z : x*y)
+        """
+        PP = self.ambient_space()
+        R = PP.coordinate_ring()
+        L = R.gens()
+        coords = [L[1]*L[2], L[0]*L[2], L[0]*L[1]]
+        G = self.defining_polynomial()(coords)
+        # remove the component of the curve corresponding to the exceptional divisor
+        degs = [G.degree()]*len(L)
+        for F in G.monomials():
+            for i in range(len(L)):
+                degs[i] = min(F.degree(L[i]), degs[i])
+        T = []
+        for item in G.monomial_coefficients().items():
+            tup = tuple([item[0][i] - degs[i] for i in range(len(L))])
+            T.append((tup, item[1]))
+        G = R(dict(T))
+        H = Hom(self, PP.curve(G))
+        phi = H(coords)
+        return phi
+
+    def excellent_position(self, Q):
+        r"""
+        Return a transformation of this curve into one in excellent position with respect to the point ``Q``.
+
+        Here excellent position is defined as in [Ful1989]_. A curve `C` of degree `d` containing the point
+        `(0 : 0 : 1)` with multiplicity `r` is said to be in excellent position if none of the coordinate lines
+        are tangent to `C` at any of the fundamental points `(1 : 0 : 0)`, `(0 : 1 : 0)`, and `(0 : 0 : 1)`, and
+        if the two coordinate lines containing `(0 : 0 : 1)` intersect `C` transversally in `d - r` distinct
+        non-fundamental points, and if the other coordinate line intersects `C` transversally at `d` distinct,
+        non-fundamental points.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``Q`` -- a point on this curve
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A scheme morphism from this curve to a curve in excellent position that
+        is a restriction of a change of coordinates map of the projective plane.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([x*y - z^2], P)
+            sage: Q = P([1,1,1])
+            sage: C.excellent_position(Q)
+            Scheme morphism:
+              From: Projective Plane Curve over Rational Field defined by x*y - z^2
+              To:   Projective Plane Curve over Rational Field
+                    defined by -x^2 - 3*x*y - 4*y^2 - x*z - 3*y*z
+              Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z) to
+                    (-x + 1/2*y + 1/2*z : -1/2*y + 1/2*z : x + 1/2*y - 1/2*z)
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: R.<a> = QQ[]
+            sage: K.<b> = NumberField(a^2 - 3)
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(K, 2)
+            sage: C = P.curve([z^2*y^3*x^4 - y^6*x^3 - 4*z^2*y^4*x^3 - 4*z^4*y^2*x^3
+            ....:              + 3*y^7*x^2 + 10*z^2*y^5*x^2 + 9*z^4*y^3*x^2
+            ....:              + 5*z^6*y*x^2 - 3*y^8*x - 9*z^2*y^6*x - 11*z^4*y^4*x
+            ....:              - 7*z^6*y^2*x - 2*z^8*x + y^9 + 2*z^2*y^7 + 3*z^4*y^5
+            ....:              + 4*z^6*y^3 + 2*z^8*y])
+            sage: Q = P([1,0,0])
+            sage: C.excellent_position(Q)
+            Scheme morphism:
+              From: Projective Plane Curve over Number Field in b
+                    with defining polynomial a^2 - 3
+                    defined by -x^3*y^6 + 3*x^2*y^7 - 3*x*y^8 + y^9 + x^4*y^3*z^2
+                               - 4*x^3*y^4*z^2 + 10*x^2*y^5*z^2 - 9*x*y^6*z^2
+                               + 2*y^7*z^2 - 4*x^3*y^2*z^4 + 9*x^2*y^3*z^4
+                               - 11*x*y^4*z^4 + 3*y^5*z^4 + 5*x^2*y*z^6
+                               - 7*x*y^2*z^6 + 4*y^3*z^6 - 2*x*z^8 + 2*y*z^8
+              To:   Projective Plane Curve over Number Field in b
+                    with defining polynomial a^2 - 3
+                    defined by 900*x^9 - 7410*x^8*y + 29282*x^7*y^2 - 69710*x^6*y^3
+                               + 110818*x^5*y^4 - 123178*x^4*y^5 + 96550*x^3*y^6
+                               - 52570*x^2*y^7 + 18194*x*y^8 - 3388*y^9 - 1550*x^8*z
+                               + 9892*x^7*y*z - 30756*x^6*y^2*z + 58692*x^5*y^3*z
+                               - 75600*x^4*y^4*z + 67916*x^3*y^5*z - 42364*x^2*y^6*z
+                               + 16844*x*y^7*z - 3586*y^8*z + 786*x^7*z^2
+                               - 3958*x^6*y*z^2 + 9746*x^5*y^2*z^2 - 14694*x^4*y^3*z^2
+                               + 15174*x^3*y^4*z^2 - 10802*x^2*y^5*z^2
+                               + 5014*x*y^6*z^2 - 1266*y^7*z^2 - 144*x^6*z^3
+                               + 512*x^5*y*z^3 - 912*x^4*y^2*z^3 + 1024*x^3*y^3*z^3
+                               - 816*x^2*y^4*z^3 + 512*x*y^5*z^3 - 176*y^6*z^3
+                               + 8*x^5*z^4 - 8*x^4*y*z^4 - 16*x^3*y^2*z^4
+                               + 16*x^2*y^3*z^4 + 8*x*y^4*z^4 - 8*y^5*z^4
+              Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z) to
+                    (1/4*y + 1/2*z : -1/4*y + 1/2*z : x + 1/4*y - 1/2*z)
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field sage.symbolic
+            sage: set_verbose(-1)
+            sage: a = QQbar(sqrt(2))
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQbar, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([(-1/4*a)*x^3 + (-3/4*a)*x^2*y
+            ....:            + (-3/4*a)*x*y^2 + (-1/4*a)*y^3 - 2*x*y*z], P)
+            sage: Q = P([0,0,1])
+            sage: C.excellent_position(Q)
+            Scheme morphism:
+              From: Projective Plane Curve over Algebraic Field defined
+                    by (-0.3535533905932738?)*x^3 + (-1.060660171779822?)*x^2*y
+                       + (-1.060660171779822?)*x*y^2 + (-0.3535533905932738?)*y^3
+                       + (-2)*x*y*z
+              To:   Projective Plane Curve over Algebraic Field defined
+                    by (-2.828427124746190?)*x^3 + (-2)*x^2*y + 2*y^3
+                       + (-2)*x^2*z + 2*y^2*z
+              Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z) to
+                    (1/2*x + 1/2*y : (-1/2)*x + 1/2*y : 1/2*x + (-1/2)*y + z)
+        """
+        PP = self.ambient_space()
+        # check that Q is on this curve
+        try:
+            Q = self(Q)
+        except TypeError:
+            raise TypeError("(=%s) must be a point on this curve" % Q)
+        r = self.multiplicity(Q)
+        d = self.degree()
+        # first move Q to (0 : 0 : 1), (1 : 0 : 0), or (0 : 1 : 0)
+        # this makes it easier to construct the main transformation
+        i = 0
+        while Q[i] == 0:
+            i += 1
+        coords = [PP.gens()[j] + Q[j]/Q[i]*PP.gens()[i] for j in range(3)]
+        coords[i] = PP.gens()[i]
+        accoords = [PP.gens()[j] - Q[j]/Q[i]*PP.gens()[i] for j in range(3)]  # coords used in map construction
+        accoords[i] = PP.gens()[i]
+        baseC = PP.curve(self.defining_polynomial()(coords))
+        P = [0]*3
+        P[i] = 1
+        P = PP(P)
+        l = [0, 1, 2]
+        l.pop(i)
+        # choose points forming a triangle with one vertex at P to map to the coordinate triangle
+        good = False
+        a = 0
+        while not good:
+            a = a + 1
+            # find points to map to (1 : 0 : 0) and (0 : 1 : 0), not on the curve
+            Px = [0]*3
+            Px[l[0]] = a
+            Px[l[1]] = 1
+            Py = [0]*3
+            Py[l[0]] = -a
+            Py[l[1]] = 1
+            Py[i] = 1
+            try:
+                Px = baseC(Px)
+                Py = baseC(Py)
+                continue
+            except TypeError:
+                pass
+            # by construction, P, Px, Py are linearly independent so the following matrix is invertible
+            M = matrix([[Px[j], Py[j], P[j]] for j in range(3)])
+            # M defines a change of coordinates sending (1 : 0 : 0) to Py, (0 : 1 : 0) to Px, (0 : 0 : 1) to P; the
+            # inverse of the transformation we want, used to create the new defining polynomial
+            coords = [sum([M.row(j)[k]*PP.gens()[k] for k in range(3)]) for j in range(3)]
+            C = PP.curve(baseC.defining_polynomial()(coords))
+            # check tangents at (0 : 0 : 1)
+            T = C.tangents(PP([0, 0, 1]), factor=False)[0]
+            if all(e[0] > 0 for e in T.exponents()) or all(e[1] > 0 for e in T.exponents()):
+                continue
+            # check that the other intersections of C with the exceptional lines are correct
+            need_continue = False
+            for j in range(3):
+                poly = C.defining_polynomial().subs({PP.gens()[j]: 0})
+                # this is a homogeneous polynomial in the other two variables
+                # and so should factor completely into homogeneous linear factors
+                # each corresponding to an intersection point where the jth coord is 0.
+                # check if there are enough roots, up to multiplicity (that is, that PP.gens()[j]
+                # doesn't divide the defining polynomial of C)
+                if poly.degree() != d:
+                    need_continue = True
+                    break
+                # if j != 2, then there should be d - r multiplicity 1 roots,
+                # besides the root corresponding to (0 : 0 : 1)
+                # if j == 2, then all roots should have multiplicity 1
+                npoly = poly
+                if j != 2:
+                    # since (0 : 0 : 1) has multiplicity r, divide out by the highest
+                    # shared power of the corresponding variable before doing the resultant computations
+                    if j == 0:
+                        div_pow = min(e[1] for e in npoly.exponents())
+                        npoly = PP.coordinate_ring()({(v0, v1 - div_pow, v2): g
+                                                      for (v0, v1, v2), g in npoly.monomial_coefficients().items()})
+                    else:
+                        div_pow = min(e[0] for e in npoly.exponents())
+                        npoly = PP.coordinate_ring()({(v0 - div_pow, v1, v2): g
+                                                      for (v0, v1, v2), g in npoly.monomial_coefficients().items()})
+                    # check the degree again
+                    if npoly.degree() != d - r:
+                        need_continue = True
+                        break
+                    # check that npoly isn't a constant now
+                    if npoly.degree() > 0:
+                        t = 0
+                        while npoly.degree(PP.gens()[t]) == 0:
+                            t = t + 1
+                        if npoly.resultant(npoly.derivative(PP.gens()[t]), PP.gens()[t]) == 0:
+                            need_continue = True
+                            break
+                else:
+                    t = 0
+                    while npoly.degree(PP.gens()[t]) == 0:
+                        t = t + 1
+                    if poly.resultant(poly.derivative(PP.gens()[t]), PP.gens()[t]) == 0:
+                        need_continue = True
+                        break
+                # check that intersections with the line PP.gens()[j] are transverse.
+                # at a simple point P of the curve, the tangent at that point is
+                # given by F_x(P)*x + F_y(P)*y + F_z(P)*z where F is the defining polynomial
+                # of the curve
+                tmp_l = [0, 1, 2]
+                tmp_l.pop(j)
+                poly1 = npoly.derivative(PP.gens()[tmp_l[0]])
+                poly2 = npoly.derivative(PP.gens()[tmp_l[1]])
+                if poly1.degree() > 0 or poly2.degree() > 0:
+                    t = 0
+                    while poly1.degree(PP.gens()[t]) == 0 and poly2.degree(PP.gens()[t]) == 0:
+                        t = t + 1
+                    # maybe a stricter check than necessary
+                    if poly1.resultant(poly2, PP.gens()[t]) == 0:
+                        need_continue = True
+                        break
+            if need_continue:
+                continue
+            good = True
+            # coords for map
+            M = M.inverse()
+            accoords2 = [sum([M.row(j)[k]*PP.gens()[k] for k in range(3)]) for j in range(3)]
+            H = Hom(self, C)
+            phi = H([f(accoords) for f in accoords2])
+        return phi
+
+    def ordinary_model(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a birational map from this curve to a plane curve with only ordinary singularities.
+
+        Currently only implemented over number fields. If not all of the coordinates of the non-ordinary
+        singularities of this curve are contained in its base field, then the domain and codomain of the
+        map returned will be defined over an extension. This curve must be irreducible.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - a scheme morphism from this curve to a curve with only ordinary singularities that defines a
+          birational map between the two curves.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: set_verbose(-1)
+            sage: K = QuadraticField(3)
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(K, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([x^5 - K.0*y*z^4], P)
+            sage: C.ordinary_model()
+            Scheme morphism:
+              From: Projective Plane Curve over Number Field in a
+                    with defining polynomial x^2 - 3 with a = 1.732050807568878?
+                    defined by x^5 + (-a)*y*z^4
+              To:   Projective Plane Curve over Number Field in a
+                    with defining polynomial x^2 - 3 with a = 1.732050807568878?
+                    defined by (-a)*x^5*y + (-4*a)*x^4*y^2 + (-6*a)*x^3*y^3
+                               + (-4*a)*x^2*y^4 + (-a)*x*y^5 + (-a - 1)*x^5*z
+                               + (-4*a + 5)*x^4*y*z + (-6*a - 10)*x^3*y^2*z
+                               + (-4*a + 10)*x^2*y^3*z + (-a - 5)*x*y^4*z + y^5*z
+              Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z) to
+                    (-1/4*x^2 - 1/2*x*y + 1/2*x*z + 1/2*y*z - 1/4*z^2 :
+                     1/4*x^2 + 1/2*x*y + 1/2*y*z - 1/4*z^2 :
+                     -1/4*x^2 + 1/4*z^2)
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: set_verbose(-1)
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([y^2*z^2 - x^4 - x^3*z], P)
+            sage: D = C.ordinary_model(); D  # long time (2 seconds)
+            Scheme morphism:
+              From: Projective Plane Curve over Rational Field defined
+                    by -x^4 - x^3*z + y^2*z^2
+              To:   Projective Plane Curve over Rational Field defined
+                    by 4*x^6*y^3 - 24*x^5*y^4 + 36*x^4*y^5 + 8*x^6*y^2*z
+                       - 40*x^5*y^3*z + 24*x^4*y^4*z + 72*x^3*y^5*z - 4*x^6*y*z^2
+                       + 8*x^5*y^2*z^2 - 56*x^4*y^3*z^2 + 104*x^3*y^4*z^2
+                       + 44*x^2*y^5*z^2 + 8*x^6*z^3 - 16*x^5*y*z^3
+                       - 24*x^4*y^2*z^3 + 40*x^3*y^3*z^3 + 48*x^2*y^4*z^3
+                       + 8*x*y^5*z^3 - 8*x^5*z^4 + 36*x^4*y*z^4 - 56*x^3*y^2*z^4
+                       + 20*x^2*y^3*z^4 + 40*x*y^4*z^4 - 16*y^5*z^4
+              Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z) to
+                    (-3/64*x^4 + 9/64*x^2*y^2 - 3/32*x*y^3 - 1/16*x^3*z
+                      - 1/8*x^2*y*z + 1/4*x*y^2*z - 1/16*y^3*z - 1/8*x*y*z^2
+                      + 1/16*y^2*z^2 :
+                     -1/64*x^4 + 3/64*x^2*y^2 - 1/32*x*y^3 + 1/16*x*y^2*z
+                      - 1/16*y^3*z + 1/16*y^2*z^2 :
+                     3/64*x^4 - 3/32*x^3*y + 3/64*x^2*y^2 + 1/16*x^3*z
+                      - 3/16*x^2*y*z + 1/8*x*y^2*z - 1/8*x*y*z^2 + 1/16*y^2*z^2)
+            sage: all(D.codomain().is_ordinary_singularity(Q)  # long time
+            ....:     for Q in D.codomain().singular_points())
+            True
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: set_verbose(-1)
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([(x^2 + y^2 - y*z - 2*z^2)*(y*z - x^2 + 2*z^2)*z + y^5], P)
+            sage: C.ordinary_model() # long time (5 seconds)
+            Scheme morphism:
+              From: Projective Plane Curve over Number Field in a
+                    with defining polynomial y^2 - 2 defined
+                    by y^5 - x^4*z - x^2*y^2*z + 2*x^2*y*z^2 + y^3*z^2
+                       + 4*x^2*z^3 + y^2*z^3 - 4*y*z^4 - 4*z^5
+              To:   Projective Plane Curve over Number Field in a
+                    with defining polynomial y^2 - 2 defined
+                    by (-29*a + 1)*x^8*y^6 + (10*a + 158)*x^7*y^7
+                       + (-109*a - 31)*x^6*y^8 + (-80*a - 198)*x^8*y^5*z
+                       + (531*a + 272)*x^7*y^6*z + (170*a - 718)*x^6*y^7*z
+                       + (19*a - 636)*x^5*y^8*z + (-200*a - 628)*x^8*y^4*z^2
+                       + (1557*a - 114)*x^7*y^5*z^2 + (2197*a - 2449)*x^6*y^6*z^2
+                       + (1223*a - 3800)*x^5*y^7*z^2 + (343*a - 1329)*x^4*y^8*z^2
+                       + (-323*a - 809)*x^8*y^3*z^3 + (1630*a - 631)*x^7*y^4*z^3
+                       + (4190*a - 3126)*x^6*y^5*z^3 + (3904*a - 7110)*x^5*y^6*z^3
+                       + (1789*a - 5161)*x^4*y^7*z^3 + (330*a - 1083)*x^3*y^8*z^3
+                       + (-259*a - 524)*x^8*y^2*z^4 + (720*a - 605)*x^7*y^3*z^4
+                       + (3082*a - 2011)*x^6*y^4*z^4 + (4548*a - 5462)*x^5*y^5*z^4
+                       + (2958*a - 6611)*x^4*y^6*z^4 + (994*a - 2931)*x^3*y^7*z^4
+                       + (117*a - 416)*x^2*y^8*z^4 + (-108*a - 184)*x^8*y*z^5
+                       + (169*a - 168)*x^7*y^2*z^5 + (831*a - 835)*x^6*y^3*z^5
+                       + (2225*a - 1725)*x^5*y^4*z^5 + (1970*a - 3316)*x^4*y^5*z^5
+                       + (952*a - 2442)*x^3*y^6*z^5 + (217*a - 725)*x^2*y^7*z^5
+                       + (16*a - 77)*x*y^8*z^5 + (-23*a - 35)*x^8*z^6
+                       + (43*a + 24)*x^7*y*z^6 + (21*a - 198)*x^6*y^2*z^6
+                       + (377*a - 179)*x^5*y^3*z^6 + (458*a - 537)*x^4*y^4*z^6
+                       + (288*a - 624)*x^3*y^5*z^6 + (100*a - 299)*x^2*y^6*z^6
+                       + (16*a - 67)*x*y^7*z^6 - 5*y^8*z^6
+              Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (x : y : z) to
+                    ((-5/128*a - 5/128)*x^4 + (-5/32*a + 5/32)*x^3*y
+                      + (-1/16*a + 3/32)*x^2*y^2 + (1/16*a - 1/16)*x*y^3
+                      + (1/32*a - 1/32)*y^4 - 1/32*x^3*z + (3/16*a - 5/8)*x^2*y*z
+                      + (1/8*a - 5/16)*x*y^2*z + (1/8*a + 5/32)*x^2*z^2
+                      + (-3/16*a + 5/16)*x*y*z^2 + (-3/16*a - 1/16)*y^2*z^2
+                      + 1/16*x*z^3 + (1/4*a + 1/4)*y*z^3 + (-3/32*a - 5/32)*z^4 :
+                     (-5/128*a - 5/128)*x^4 + (5/32*a)*x^3*y
+                      + (3/32*a + 3/32)*x^2*y^2 + (-1/16*a)*x*y^3
+                      + (-1/32*a - 1/32)*y^4 - 1/32*x^3*z + (-11/32*a)*x^2*y*z
+                      + (1/8*a + 5/16)*x*y^2*z + (3/16*a + 1/4)*y^3*z
+                      + (1/8*a + 5/32)*x^2*z^2 + (-1/16*a - 3/8)*x*y*z^2
+                      + (-3/8*a - 9/16)*y^2*z^2 + 1/16*x*z^3 + (5/16*a + 1/2)*y*z^3
+                      + (-3/32*a - 5/32)*z^4 :
+                     (1/64*a + 3/128)*x^4 + (-1/32*a - 1/32)*x^3*y
+                      + (3/32*a - 9/32)*x^2*y^2 + (1/16*a - 3/16)*x*y^3 - 1/32*y^4
+                      + (3/32*a + 1/8)*x^2*y*z + (-1/8*a + 1/8)*x*y^2*z
+                      + (-1/16*a)*y^3*z + (-1/16*a - 3/32)*x^2*z^2
+                      + (1/16*a + 1/16)*x*y*z^2 + (3/16*a + 3/16)*y^2*z^2
+                      + (-3/16*a - 1/4)*y*z^3 + (1/16*a + 3/32)*z^4)
+        """
+        # helper function for extending the base field
+
+        def extension(self):
+            F = self.base_ring()
+            pts = self.change_ring(F.embeddings(QQbar)[0]).rational_points()
+            L = [t for pt in pts for t in pt]
+            K = number_field_elements_from_algebraics(L)[0]
+            if isinstance(K, RationalField):
+                return F.embeddings(F)[0]
+            else:
+                if isinstance(F, RationalField):
+                    return F.embeddings(K)[0]
+                else:
+                    # make sure the defining polynomial variable names are the same for K, N
+                    N = NumberField(K.defining_polynomial().parent()(F.defining_polynomial()), str(K.gen()))
+                    return N.composite_fields(K, both_maps=True)[0][1]*F.embeddings(N)[0]
+        if self.base_ring() not in NumberFields():
+            raise NotImplementedError("the base ring of this curve must be a number field")
+        if not self.is_irreducible():
+            raise TypeError("this curve must be irreducible")
+        C_orig = self
+        C = self
+        PP = C.ambient_space()
+        # extend the base field if necessary to find all singular points
+        emb = extension(C.singular_subscheme())
+        PP = PP.change_ring(emb)
+        C = C.change_ring(emb)
+        C_orig = C_orig.change_ring(emb)
+        pts = C.singular_points()
+        H = End(C)
+        phi = H(list(C.ambient_space().gens()))
+        while pts:
+            for i in range(len(pts) - 1, -1, -1):
+                try:
+                    if C.is_ordinary_singularity(pts[i]):
+                        pts.pop(i)
+                except TypeError:
+                    pts.pop(i)
+            if pts:
+                temp_exc = C.excellent_position(pts[0])
+                temp_qua = temp_exc.codomain().quadratic_transform()
+                C = temp_qua.codomain()
+                phi = temp_qua*temp_exc*phi
+                # transform the old points
+                for i in range(len(pts) - 1, -1, -1):
+                    # find image if it is a point the composition map is defined on
+                    try:
+                        temp_pt = (temp_qua*temp_exc)(temp_exc.domain()(pts[i]))
+                        pts.pop(i)
+                        if PP(list(temp_pt)) not in [PP(list(tpt)) for tpt in pts]:
+                            pts.append(temp_pt)
+                    except (TypeError, ValueError):
+                        pass
+                # add points from the intersection of C and the line z
+                PPline = ProjectiveSpace(PP.base_ring(), 1)
+                # make sure the conversion happens in the right order
+                ringH = Hom(PP.coordinate_ring(), PPline.coordinate_ring())
+                psi = ringH(list(PPline.gens()) + [0])
+                X = PPline.subscheme([psi(f) for f in C.singular_subscheme().defining_polynomials()])
+                emb = extension(X)
+                PP = PP.change_ring(emb)
+                phi = phi.change_ring(emb)
+                C = C.change_ring(emb)
+                C_orig = C_orig.change_ring(emb)
+                X = X.change_ring(emb)
+                pts = [PP(pt.change_ring(emb)) for pt in pts]
+                newpts = [PP(list(pt) + [0]) for pt in X.rational_points()]
+                # avoid duplicates
+                for pt in newpts:
+                    if PP(list(pt)) not in [PP(list(tpt)) for tpt in pts]:
+                        pts.append(pt)
+        return phi
+
+    def is_transverse(self, C, P):
+        r"""
+        Return whether the intersection of this curve with the curve ``C`` at the point ``P`` is transverse.
+
+        The intersection at ``P`` is transverse if ``P`` is a nonsingular point of both curves, and if the
+        tangents of the curves at ``P`` are distinct.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``C`` -- a curve in the ambient space of this curve
+
+        - ``P`` -- a point in the intersection of both curves
+
+        OUTPUT: boolean
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([x^2 - y^2], P)
+            sage: D = Curve([x - y], P)
+            sage: Q = P([1,1,0])
+            sage: C.is_transverse(D, Q)
+            False
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: K = QuadraticField(-1)
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(K, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([y^2*z - K.0*x^3], P)
+            sage: D = Curve([z*x + y^2], P)
+            sage: Q = P([0,0,1])
+            sage: C.is_transverse(D, Q)
+            False
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([x^2 - 2*y^2 - 2*z^2], P)
+            sage: D = Curve([y - z], P)
+            sage: Q = P([2,1,1])
+            sage: C.is_transverse(D, Q)
+            True
+        """
+        if not self.intersects_at(C, P):
+            raise TypeError("(=%s) must be a point in the intersection of (=%s) and this curve" % (P, C))
+        if self.is_singular(P) or C.is_singular(P):
+            return False
+
+        # there is only one tangent at a nonsingular point of a plane curve
+        return not self.tangents(P)[0] == C.tangents(P)[0]
+
+
+class ProjectiveCurve_field(ProjectiveCurve, AlgebraicScheme_subscheme_projective_field):
+    """
+    Projective curves over fields.
+    """
+    _point = ProjectiveCurvePoint_field
+
+    def __init__(self, A, X, category=None):
+        """
+        Initialize.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x*y^2*z^7 - x^10 - x^2*z^8)
+            sage: loads(dumps(C)) == C
+            True
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: P.<x0,x1,x2,x3,x4> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 4)
+            sage: C = Curve([x0^4 - x1^2*x4^2 - 19*x4^4, x2^4 - x3^2*x4^2 - 23*x4^4])
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: defining equations (=[x0^4 - x1^2*x4^2 - 19*x4^4, x2^4 - x3^2*x4^2 - 23*x4^4])
+            define a scheme of dimension 2 != 1
+        """
+        super().__init__(A, X, category=category)
+
+        if A.base_ring() not in Fields():
+            raise TypeError("curve not defined over a field")
+
+        d = super(Curve_generic, self).dimension()
+        if d != 1:
+            raise ValueError(f"defining equations (={X}) define a scheme of dimension {d} != 1")
+
+    @lazy_attribute
+    def _genus(self):
+        """
+        The geometric genus of this projective curve.
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Geometric genus is not defined for geometrically reducible curves. You
+        may get a nonsensical answer if the condition is not met::
+
+            sage: P2.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x^2 + y^2)
+            sage: C.genus()  # indirect test
+            -1
+        """
+        return self.defining_ideal().genus()
+
+    def arithmetic_genus(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the arithmetic genus of this projective curve.
+
+        This is the arithmetic genus `p_a(C)` as defined in [Har1977]_. If `P`
+        is the Hilbert polynomial of the defining ideal of this curve, then the
+        arithmetic genus of this curve is `1 - P(0)`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 3)
+            sage: C = P.curve([w*z - x^2, w^2 + y^2 + z^2])
+            sage: C.arithmetic_genus()
+            1
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w,t> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(7), 4)
+            sage: C = P.curve([t^3 - x*y*w, x^3 + y^3 + z^3, z - w])
+            sage: C.arithmetic_genus()
+            10
+        """
+        return 1 - self.defining_ideal().hilbert_polynomial()(0)
+
+    def is_complete_intersection(self):
+        r"""
+        Return whether this projective curve is a complete intersection.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 3)
+            sage: C = Curve([x*y - z*w, x^2 - y*w, y^2*w - x*z*w], P)
+            sage: C.is_complete_intersection()
+            False
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 3)
+            sage: C = Curve([y*w - x^2, z*w^2 - x^3], P)
+            sage: C.is_complete_intersection()
+            True
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 3)
+            sage: C = Curve([z^2 - y*w, y*z - x*w, y^2 - x*z], P)
+            sage: C.is_complete_intersection()
+            False
+        """
+        singular_lib("sing.lib")
+        simplify = singular_function("simplify")
+        is_ci = singular_function("is_ci")
+
+        # verbose unless printlevel is -1.
+        saved_printlevel = get_printlevel()
+        set_printlevel(-1)
+        id = simplify(self.defining_ideal(), 10)
+        L = is_ci(id)[-1]
+        set_printlevel(saved_printlevel)
+
+        return len(self.ambient_space().gens()) - len(id) == L
+
+    def tangent_line(self, p):
+        """
+        Return the tangent line at the point ``p``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``p`` -- a rational point of the curve
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z,w> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 3)
+            sage: C = Curve([x*y - z*w, x^2 - y*w, y^2*w - x*z*w], P)
+            sage: p = C(1,1,1,1)
+            sage: C.tangent_line(p)
+            Projective Curve over Rational Field
+             defined by -2*x + y + w, -3*x + z + 2*w
+        """
+        for i in range(len(p)):
+            if p[i]:
+                C = self.affine_patch(i)
+                q = p.dehomogenize(i)
+                T = C.tangent_line(q)
+                return T.projective_closure(i, self.ambient_space())
+
+        raise TypeError("{} does not define a point in the projective space".format(p))
+
+
+class ProjectivePlaneCurve_field(ProjectivePlaneCurve, ProjectiveCurve_field):
+    """
+    Projective plane curves over fields.
+    """
+    _point = ProjectivePlaneCurvePoint_field
+
+    def arithmetic_genus(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the arithmetic genus of this projective curve.
+
+        This is the arithmetic genus `p_a(C)` as defined in [Har1977]_.
+
+        For an irreducible projective plane curve of degree `d`, this is simply
+        `(d - 1)(d - 2)/2`. It need *not* equal the geometric genus (the genus
+        of the normalization of the curve).
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x,y,z = PolynomialRing(GF(5), 3, 'xyz').gens()
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8); C
+            Projective Plane Curve over Finite Field of size 5
+             defined by -x^9 + y^2*z^7 - x*z^8
+            sage: C.arithmetic_genus()
+            28
+            sage: C.genus()  # geometric
+            4
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([y^3*x - x^2*y*z - 7*z^4])
+            sage: C.arithmetic_genus()
+            3
+        """
+        if self.is_irreducible():
+            # use genus-degree formula
+            d = self.defining_polynomial().total_degree()
+            return Integer(d - 1).binomial(2)
+        return super().arithmetic_genus()
+
+    def fundamental_group(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a presentation of the fundamental group of the complement
+        of ``self``.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The curve must be defined over the rationals or a number field
+            with an embedding over `\QQbar`.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+           This functionality requires the ``sirocco`` package to be installed.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = P.curve(x^2*z - y^3)
+            sage: C.fundamental_group()                                 # needs sirocco
+            Finitely presented group < x0 | x0^3 >
+            sage: g = P.curve(z*(x^2*z - y^3)).fundamental_group()      # needs sirocco
+            sage: g.sorted_presentation()                               # needs sirocco
+            Finitely presented group < x0, x1 | x1^-1*x0^-1*x1^-1*x0*x1*x0 >
+
+        In the case of number fields, they need to have an embedding
+        into the algebraic field::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: a = QQ[x](x^2 + 5).roots(QQbar)[0][0]
+            sage: a
+            -2.236067977499790?*I
+            sage: F = NumberField(a.minpoly(), 'a', embedding=a)
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(F, 2)
+            sage: F.inject_variables()
+            Defining a
+            sage: C = P.curve(x^2 + a * y^2)
+            sage: C.fundamental_group()                         # needs sirocco
+            Finitely presented group < x0 |  >
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.combinat
+            sage: F.<x0, x1> = FreeGroup()
+            sage: G = F / [x1^-1*(x1^-1*x0^-1*x1*x0^-1)^2, (x1^-1*x0^-1)^2*x1^-1*(x0*x1)^2*x0]
+            sage: G.order()
+            320
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = P.curve(z^2*y^3 - z*(33*x*z+2*x^2+8*z^2)*y^2
+            ....:             + (21*z^2+21*x*z-x^2)*(z^2+11*x*z-x^2)*y
+            ....:             + (x-18*z)*(z^2+11*x*z-x^2)^2)
+            sage: G0 = C.fundamental_group()                    # needs sirocco
+            sage: G.is_isomorphic(G0)                           # needs sirocco
+            True
+            sage: C = P.curve(z)
+            sage: C.fundamental_group()                         # needs sirocco
+            Finitely presented group <  |  >
+        """
+        from sage.schemes.curves.zariski_vankampen import fundamental_group
+        F = self.base_ring()
+        from sage.rings.qqbar import QQbar
+        if QQbar.coerce_map_from(F) is None:
+            raise NotImplementedError("the base field must have an embedding"
+                                      " to the algebraic field")
+        g = self.defining_polynomial()
+        ring = self.ambient_space().affine_patch(2).coordinate_ring()
+        if g.degree() == 1:
+            return fundamental_group(ring.one())
+        f = ring(self.affine_patch(2).defining_polynomial())
+        if f.degree() == self.degree():
+            return fundamental_group(f, projective=True)
+        else:  # in this case, the line at infinity is part of the curve, so the complement lies in the affine patch
+            return fundamental_group(f, projective=False)
+
+    def rational_parameterization(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a rational parameterization of this curve.
+
+        This curve must have rational coefficients and be absolutely irreducible (i.e. irreducible
+        over the algebraic closure of the rational field). The curve must also be rational (have
+        geometric genus zero).
+
+        The rational parameterization may have coefficients in a quadratic extension of the rational
+        field.
+
+        OUTPUT: a birational map between `\mathbb{P}^{1}` and this curve, given as a scheme morphism
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([y^2*z - x^3], P)
+            sage: C.rational_parameterization()
+            Scheme morphism:
+              From: Projective Space of dimension 1 over Rational Field
+              To:   Projective Plane Curve over Rational Field
+                    defined by -x^3 + y^2*z
+              Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (s : t) to
+                    (s^2*t : s^3 : t^3)
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([x^3 - 4*y*z^2 + x*z^2 - x*y*z], P)
+            sage: C.rational_parameterization()
+            Scheme morphism:
+              From: Projective Space of dimension 1 over Rational Field
+              To:   Projective Plane Curve over Rational Field
+                    defined by x^3 - x*y*z + x*z^2 - 4*y*z^2
+              Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (s : t) to
+                    (4*s^2*t + s*t^2 : s^2*t + t^3 : 4*s^3 + s^2*t)
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve([x^2 + y^2 + z^2], P)
+            sage: C.rational_parameterization()
+            Scheme morphism:
+              From: Projective Space of dimension 1 over Number Field in a
+                    with defining polynomial a^2 + 1
+              To:   Projective Plane Curve over Number Field in a
+                    with defining polynomial a^2 + 1 defined by x^2 + y^2 + z^2
+              Defn: Defined on coordinates by sending (s : t) to
+                    ((-a)*s^2 + (-a)*t^2 : s^2 - t^2 : 2*s*t)
+        """
+        if self.genus():
+            raise TypeError("this curve must have geometric genus zero")
+        if not isinstance(self.base_ring(), RationalField):
+            raise TypeError("this curve must be defined over the rational field")
+
+        singular.lib("paraplanecurves.lib")
+        R = singular.paraPlaneCurve(self.defining_polynomial())  # ring
+        R.set_ring()
+        param = singular('PARA').sage().gens()  # ideal
+        R = R.sage()
+
+        C = self.change_ring(R.base_ring())
+        H = Hom(ProjectiveSpace(R.base_ring(), 1, R.gens()), C)
+        return H(param)
+
+    def riemann_surface(self, **kwargs):
+        r"""
+        Return the complex Riemann surface determined by this curve.
+
+        OUTPUT: a :class:`~sage.schemes.riemann_surfaces.riemann_surface.RiemannSurface` object
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<x,y,z> = QQ[]
+            sage: C = Curve(x^3 + 3*y^3 + 5*z^3)
+            sage: C.riemann_surface()                                                   # needs sage.graphs
+            Riemann surface defined by polynomial f = x^3 + 3*y^3 + 5 = 0,
+            with 53 bits of precision
+        """
+        return self.affine_patch(2).riemann_surface(**kwargs)
+
+
+class ProjectivePlaneCurve_finite_field(ProjectivePlaneCurve_field):
+    """
+    Projective plane curves over finite fields
+    """
+    _point = ProjectivePlaneCurvePoint_finite_field
+
+    def rational_points_iterator(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a generator object for the rational points on this curve.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- a projective curve
+
+        OUTPUT: a generator of all the rational points on the curve defined over its base field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F = GF(37)
+            sage: P2.<X,Y,Z> = ProjectiveSpace(F, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(X^7 + Y*X*Z^5*55 + Y^7*12)
+            sage: len(list(C.rational_points_iterator()))
+            37
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: F = GF(2)
+            sage: P2.<X,Y,Z> = ProjectiveSpace(F, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(X*Y*Z)
+            sage: a = C.rational_points_iterator()
+            sage: next(a)
+            (1 : 0 : 0)
+            sage: next(a)
+            (0 : 1 : 0)
+            sage: next(a)
+            (1 : 1 : 0)
+            sage: next(a)
+            (0 : 0 : 1)
+            sage: next(a)
+            (1 : 0 : 1)
+            sage: next(a)
+            (0 : 1 : 1)
+            sage: next(a)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            StopIteration
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: F = GF(3^2,'a')
+            sage: P2.<X,Y,Z> = ProjectiveSpace(F, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(X^3 + 5*Y^2*Z - 33*X*Y*X)
+            sage: b = C.rational_points_iterator()
+            sage: next(b)
+            (0 : 1 : 0)
+            sage: next(b)
+            (0 : 0 : 1)
+            sage: next(b)
+            (2*a + 2 : a : 1)
+            sage: next(b)
+            (2 : a + 1 : 1)
+            sage: next(b)
+            (a + 1 : 2*a + 1 : 1)
+            sage: next(b)
+            (1 : 2 : 1)
+            sage: next(b)
+            (2*a + 2 : 2*a : 1)
+            sage: next(b)
+            (2 : 2*a + 2 : 1)
+            sage: next(b)
+            (a + 1 : a + 2 : 1)
+            sage: next(b)
+            (1 : 1 : 1)
+            sage: next(b)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            StopIteration
+        """
+        g = self.defining_polynomial()
+        K = g.parent().base_ring()
+        from sage.rings.polynomial.polynomial_ring_constructor import PolynomialRing
+        R = PolynomialRing(K, 'X')
+        X = R.gen()
+        one = K.one()
+        zero = K.zero()
+
+        # the point with  Z = 0 = Y
+        try:
+            t = self.point([one, zero, zero])
+            yield t
+        except TypeError:
+            pass
+
+        # points with Z = 0, Y = 1
+        g10 = R(g(X, one, zero))
+        if g10.is_zero():
+            for x in K:
+                yield self.point([x, one, zero])
+        else:
+            for x in g10.roots(multiplicities=False):
+                yield self.point([x, one, zero])
+
+        # points with Z = 1
+        for y in K:
+            gy1 = R(g(X, y, one))
+            if gy1.is_zero():
+                for x in K:
+                    yield self.point([x, y, one])
+            else:
+                for x in gy1.roots(multiplicities=False):
+                    yield self.point([x, y, one])
+
+    def _points_via_singular(self, sort=True):
+        r"""
+        Return all rational points on this curve, computed using Singular's
+        Brill-Noether implementation.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``sort`` -- boolean (default: ``True``); if ``True`` return the
+          point list sorted. If ``False``, returns the points in the order
+          computed by Singular.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x, y, z = PolynomialRing(GF(5), 3, 'xyz').gens()
+            sage: f = y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8
+            sage: C = Curve(f); C
+            Projective Plane Curve over Finite Field of size 5 defined by
+            -x^9 + y^2*z^7 - x*z^8
+            sage: C._points_via_singular()
+            [(0 : 0 : 1), (0 : 1 : 0), (2 : 2 : 1), (2 : 3 : 1),
+             (3 : 1 : 1), (3 : 4 : 1)]
+            sage: C._points_via_singular(sort=False)     # random
+            [(0 : 1 : 0), (3 : 1 : 1), (3 : 4 : 1), (2 : 2 : 1),
+             (0 : 0 : 1), (2 : 3 : 1)]
+
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The Brill-Noether package does not always work (i.e., the
+            'bn' algorithm. When it fails a :exc:`RuntimeError` exception is
+            raised.
+        """
+        f = self.defining_polynomial()._singular_()
+        singular = f.parent()
+        singular.lib('brnoeth')
+        try:
+            X1 = f.Adj_div()
+        except (TypeError, RuntimeError) as s:
+            raise RuntimeError(str(s) + "\n\n ** Unable to use the\
+                                          Brill-Noether Singular package to\
+                                          compute all points (see above).")
+
+        X2 = singular.NSplaces(1, X1)
+        R = X2[5][1][1]
+        R.set_ring()
+
+        # We use sage_flattened_str_list since iterating through
+        # the entire list through the sage/singular interface directly
+        # would involve hundreds of calls to singular, and timing issues with
+        # the expect interface could crop up.  Also, this is vastly
+        # faster (and more robust).
+        v = singular('POINTS').sage_flattened_str_list()
+        pnts = [self(int(v[3*i]), int(v[3*i+1]), int(v[3*i+2]))
+                for i in range(len(v)//3)]
+        # singular always dehomogenizes with respect to the last variable
+        # so if this variable divides the curve equation, we need to add
+        # points at infinity
+        F = self.defining_polynomial()
+        z = F.parent().gens()[-1]
+        if z.divides(F):
+            pnts += [self(1, a, 0) for a in self.base_ring()]
+            pnts += [self(0, 1, 0)]
+        # remove multiple points
+        pnts = list(set(pnts))
+        if sort:
+            pnts.sort()
+        return pnts
+
+    def riemann_roch_basis(self, D):
+        r"""
+        Return a basis for the Riemann-Roch space corresponding to `D`.
+
+        This uses Singular's Brill-Noether implementation.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``D`` -- a divisor
+
+        OUTPUT: list of function field elements that form a basis of the
+        Riemann-Roch space
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<x,y,z> = GF(2)[]
+            sage: f = x^3*y + y^3*z + x*z^3
+            sage: C = Curve(f); pts = C.rational_points()
+            sage: D = C.divisor([ (4, pts[0]), (4, pts[2]) ])
+            sage: C.riemann_roch_basis(D)
+            [x/y, 1, z/y, z^2/y^2, z/x, z^2/(x*y)]
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: R.<x,y,z> = GF(5)[]
+            sage: f = x^7 + y^7 + z^7
+            sage: C = Curve(f); pts = C.rational_points()
+            sage: D = C.divisor([ (3, pts[0]), (-1,pts[1]), (10, pts[5]) ])
+            sage: C.riemann_roch_basis(D)
+            [(-2*x + y)/(x + y), (-x + z)/(x + y)]
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            Currently this only works over prime field and divisors
+            supported on rational points.
+        """
+        F = self.base_ring()
+        if not F.is_prime_field():
+            raise TypeError("only works for curves over prime finite fields")
+
+        f = self.defining_polynomial()._singular_()
+        singular = f.parent()
+        singular.lib('brnoeth')
+        try:
+            X1 = f.Adj_div()
+        except (TypeError, RuntimeError) as s:
+            raise RuntimeError(str(s) + "\n\n ** Unable to use the Brill-Noether Singular package to compute all points (see above).")
+        X2 = singular.NSplaces(1, X1)
+        # retrieve list of all computed closed points (possibly of degree >1)
+        v = X2[3].sage_flattened_str_list()
+        # We use sage_flattened_str_list since iterating through
+        # the entire list through the sage/singular interface directly
+        # would involve hundreds of calls to singular, and timing issues with
+        # the expect interface could crop up.  Also, this is vastly
+        # faster (and more robust).
+
+        v = [v[i].partition(',') for i in range(len(v))]
+        pnts = [(int(v[i][0]), int(v[i][2])-1) for i in range(len(v))]
+        # retrieve coordinates of rational points
+        R = X2[5][1][1]
+        R.set_ring()
+        v = singular('POINTS').sage_flattened_str_list()
+        coords = [self(int(v[3*i]), int(v[3*i+1]), int(v[3*i+2])) for i in range(len(v)//3)]
+        # build correct representation of D for singular
+        Dcoeffs = []
+        for x in pnts:
+            if x[0] == 1:
+                Dcoeffs.append(D.coefficient(coords[x[1]]))
+            else:
+                Dcoeffs.append(0)
+        G = singular(','.join(str(x) for x in Dcoeffs), type='intvec')
+        # call singular's brill noether routine and return
+        T = X2[1][2]
+        T.set_ring()
+        LG = G.BrillNoether(X2)
+        LG = [X.split(',\n') for X in LG.sage_structured_str_list()]
+        x, y, z = self.ambient_space().coordinate_ring().gens()
+        vars = {'x': x, 'y': y, 'z': z}
+        V = [(sage_eval(a, vars)/sage_eval(b, vars)) for a, b in LG]
+        return V
+
+    def rational_points(self, algorithm='enum', sort=True):
+        r"""
+        Return the rational points on this curve.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``algorithm`` -- one of
+
+           - ``'enum'`` -- straightforward enumeration
+
+           - ``'bn'`` -- via Singular's brnoeth package
+
+        - ``sort`` -- boolean (default: ``True``); whether the output
+          points should be sorted.  If ``False``, the order of the output
+          is non-deterministic.
+
+        OUTPUT: list of all the rational points on the curve, possibly sorted
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+           The Brill-Noether package does not always work (i.e., the 'bn'
+           algorithm. When it fails a :exc:`RuntimeError` exception is raised.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x, y, z = PolynomialRing(GF(5), 3, 'xyz').gens()
+            sage: f = y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8
+            sage: C = Curve(f); C
+            Projective Plane Curve over Finite Field of size 5
+             defined by -x^9 + y^2*z^7 - x*z^8
+            sage: C.rational_points()
+            [(0 : 0 : 1), (0 : 1 : 0), (2 : 2 : 1), (2 : 3 : 1),
+             (3 : 1 : 1), (3 : 4 : 1)]
+            sage: C = Curve(x - y + z)
+            sage: C.rational_points()
+            [(0 : 1 : 1), (1 : 1 : 0), (1 : 2 : 1), (2 : 3 : 1),
+             (3 : 4 : 1), (4 : 0 : 1)]
+            sage: C = Curve(x*z + z^2)
+            sage: C.rational_points('all')
+            [(0 : 1 : 0), (1 : 0 : 0), (1 : 1 : 0), (2 : 1 : 0),
+             (3 : 1 : 0), (4 : 0 : 1), (4 : 1 : 0), (4 : 1 : 1),
+             (4 : 2 : 1), (4 : 3 : 1), (4 : 4 : 1)]
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: F = GF(7)
+            sage: P2.<X,Y,Z> = ProjectiveSpace(F, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(X^3 + Y^3 - Z^3)
+            sage: C.rational_points()
+            [(0 : 1 : 1), (0 : 2 : 1), (0 : 4 : 1), (1 : 0 : 1), (2 : 0 : 1),
+            (3 : 1 : 0), (4 : 0 : 1), (5 : 1 : 0), (6 : 1 : 0)]
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: F = GF(1237)
+            sage: P2.<X,Y,Z> = ProjectiveSpace(F, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(X^7 + 7*Y^6*Z + Z^4*X^2*Y*89)
+            sage: len(C.rational_points())
+            1237
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: F = GF(2^6,'a')
+            sage: P2.<X,Y,Z> = ProjectiveSpace(F, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(X^5 + 11*X*Y*Z^3 + X^2*Y^3 - 13*Y^2*Z^3)
+            sage: len(C.rational_points())
+            104
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: R.<x,y,z> = GF(2)[]
+            sage: f = x^3*y + y^3*z + x*z^3
+            sage: C = Curve(f); pts = C.rational_points()
+            sage: pts
+            [(0 : 0 : 1), (0 : 1 : 0), (1 : 0 : 0)]
+        """
+        if algorithm == "enum":
+            points = list(self.rational_points_iterator())
+            if sort:
+                points.sort()
+            return points
+
+        F = self.base_ring()
+        if not F.is_prime_field():
+            raise TypeError("other algorithms only works for curves over prime finite fields")
+
+        if algorithm == "bn":
+            return self._points_via_singular(sort=sort)
+
+        if algorithm == "all":
+            S_enum = self.rational_points(algorithm='enum')
+            S_bn = self.rational_points(algorithm='bn')
+            if S_enum != S_bn:
+                raise RuntimeError("Bug in rational_points -- different\
+                                     algorithms give different answers for\
+                                     curve %s!" % self)
+            return S_enum
+
+        raise ValueError(f"No algorithm '{algorithm}' known")
+
+
+class IntegralProjectiveCurve(ProjectiveCurve_field):
+    """
+    Integral projective curve.
+    """
+    _point = IntegralProjectiveCurvePoint
+    _closed_point = IntegralProjectiveCurveClosedPoint
+
+    def __init__(self, A, f):
+        """
+        Initialize.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(5), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8)
+            sage: loads(dumps(C)) == C
+            True
+        """
+        super().__init__(A, f)
+
+        ideal = self.defining_ideal()
+        gs = self.ambient_space().gens()
+        for i in range(self.ngens()):
+            if gs[i] not in ideal:
+                self._open_affine = self.affine_patch(i)
+                self._open_affine_index = i
+                break
+        else:
+            raise ValueError("no projective curve defined")
+
+    def function_field(self):
+        """
+        Return the function field of this curve.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x^2 + y^2 + z^2, P)
+            sage: C.function_field()
+            Function field in z defined by z^2 + y^2 + 1
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(4), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x^5 + y^5 + x*y*z^3 + z^5)
+            sage: C.function_field()
+            Function field in z defined by z^5 + y*z^3 + y^5 + 1
+        """
+        return self._function_field
+
+    @lazy_attribute
+    def _genus(self):
+        """
+        The geometric genus of the curve.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(4), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x^5 + y^5 + x*y*z^3 + z^5)
+            sage: C.genus()  # indirect doctest
+            1
+        """
+        return self._open_affine.genus()
+
+    def __call__(self, *args):
+        """
+        Return a rational point, a pointset or a function depending on ``args``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(4), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x^5 + y^5 + x*y*z^3 + z^5)
+            sage: C(1,1,1)
+            (1 : 1 : 1)
+            sage: C(y/z)
+            (y/(y^5 + 1))*z^4 + (y^2/(y^5 + 1))*z^2
+            sage: C(GF(4^2))
+            Set of rational points of Closed subscheme of Projective Space of
+             dimension 2 over Finite Field in z4 of size 2^4 defined by:
+              x^5 + y^5 + x*y*z^3 + z^5
+        """
+        try:
+            return super().__call__(*args)
+        except TypeError as e:
+            try:
+                return self.function(*args)
+            except AttributeError:
+                raise e
+
+    def function(self, f):
+        """
+        Return the function field element corresponding to ``f``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``f`` -- a fraction of homogeneous polynomials of the coordinate ring
+          of the ambient space of the curve
+
+        OUTPUT: an element of the function field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(4), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x^5 + y^5 + x*y*z^3 + z^5)
+            sage: f = C.function(x/y); f
+            1/y
+            sage: f.divisor()
+            Place (1/y, 1/y^2*z^2 + z2/y*z + 1)
+             + Place (1/y, 1/y^2*z^2 + ((z2 + 1)/y)*z + 1)
+             + Place (1/y, 1/y*z + 1)
+             - Place (y, z^2 + z2*z + 1)
+             - Place (y, z^2 + (z2 + 1)*z + 1)
+             - Place (y, z + 1)
+        """
+        S = self.ambient_space().coordinate_ring()
+        phi = self._map_to_function_field
+        num = S(f.numerator())
+        den = S(f.denominator())
+        if num.degree() != den.degree():
+            raise ValueError("not define a function on the curve")
+
+        return phi(num)/phi(den)
+
+    def coordinate_functions(self, i=None):
+        """
+        Return the coordinate functions for the ``i``-th affine patch.
+
+        If ``i`` is ``None``, return the homogeneous coordinate functions.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(4), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x^5 + y^5 + x*y*z^3 + z^5)
+            sage: C.coordinate_functions(0)
+            (y, z)
+            sage: C.coordinate_functions(1)
+            (1/y, 1/y*z)
+        """
+        coords = self._coordinate_functions
+        if i is None:
+            return coords
+        inv = ~coords[i]
+        return tuple([coords[j]*inv for j in range(len(coords)) if j != i])
+
+    def pull_from_function_field(self, f):
+        """
+        Return the fraction corresponding to ``f``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``f`` -- an element of the function field
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A fraction of homogeneous polynomials in the coordinate ring of the
+        ambient space of the curve.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(4), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x^5 + y^5 + x*y*z^3 + z^5)
+            sage: F = C.function_field()
+            sage: C.pull_from_function_field(F.gen())
+            z/x
+            sage: C.pull_from_function_field(F.one())
+            1
+            sage: C.pull_from_function_field(F.zero())
+            0
+            sage: f1 = F.gen()
+            sage: f2 = F.base_ring().gen()
+            sage: C.function(C.pull_from_function_field(f1)) == f1
+            True
+            sage: C.function(C.pull_from_function_field(f2)) == f2
+            True
+        """
+        return self._map_from_function_field(f)
+
+    @lazy_attribute
+    def _function_field(self):
+        """
+        Return the abstract function field of the curve.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(5), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8)
+            sage: C._function_field
+            Function field in z defined by z^8 + 4*y^2*z^7 + 1
+        """
+        return self._open_affine._function_field
+
+    @lazy_attribute
+    def _map_to_function_field(self):
+        """
+        Return the map to the function field of the curve.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(5), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8)
+            sage: C._map_to_function_field
+            Ring morphism:
+              From: Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y, z over Finite Field of size 5
+              To:   Function field in z defined by z^8 + 4*y^2*z^7 + 1
+              Defn: x |--> 1
+                    y |--> y
+                    z |--> z
+        """
+        F = self._function_field
+        S = self.ambient_space().coordinate_ring()
+        return hom(S, F, self._coordinate_functions)
+
+    @lazy_attribute
+    def _coordinate_functions(self):
+        """
+        Return the homogeneous coordinate functions of the curve.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(5), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8)
+            sage: C._coordinate_functions
+            (1, y, z)
+        """
+        # homogeneous coordinate functions
+        coords = list(self._open_affine._coordinate_functions)
+        coords.insert(self._open_affine_index, self._function_field.one())
+        return tuple(coords)
+
+    @lazy_attribute
+    def _map_from_function_field(self):
+        """
+        Return the map from the function field of the curve.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(5), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8)
+            sage: F = C.function_field()
+            sage: f = F.random_element()
+            sage: C.function(C._map_from_function_field(f)) == f
+            True
+        """
+        S = self.ambient_space().coordinate_ring()
+        phi = self._open_affine._nonsingular_model[2]
+        i = self._open_affine_index
+
+        def m(f):
+            pf = phi(f)
+            num = S(pf.numerator()).homogenize(i)
+            den = S(pf.denominator()).homogenize(i)
+            return num / den * S.gen(i) ** (den.total_degree() - num.total_degree())
+
+        return m
+
+    @lazy_attribute
+    def _singularities(self):
+        """
+        Return a list of the pairs of a singular closed point and the places above it.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(5), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8)
+            sage: C._singularities
+            [(Point (x, z), [Place (1/y, 1/y*z^5 + 4*y*z^4 + 1/y^2*z)])]
+            sage: D = Curve(x)
+            sage: D._singularities
+            []
+        """
+        S = self.ambient_space().coordinate_ring()
+        to_F = self._map_to_function_field
+        sing = self.singular_subscheme()  # singular locus
+
+        # for each affine patch, places on which the dehomogenized polynomials
+        # defining the singular locus are collected.
+        places = []
+        for i in range(self.ngens()):
+            denom = self._coordinate_functions[i]
+            if denom:
+                funcs = []
+                for p in S._first_ngens(i) + sing.defining_polynomials():
+                    f = to_F(p)/denom**p.degree()
+                    if not f.is_zero():
+                        funcs.append(f)
+
+                if funcs:
+                    f = funcs.pop()
+                    pls = f.zeros()
+                    for f in funcs:
+                        pls = [p for p in pls if f.valuation(p) > 0]
+
+                    places.extend(pls)
+
+        # compute closed points below the places lying on the singular locus,
+        # and then collect places lying on each closed points
+        points_and_places = []
+        for place in places:
+            p = self.place_to_closed_point(place)
+            for q, places in points_and_places:
+                if p == q:
+                    places.append(place)
+                    break
+            else:  # new singularity
+                points_and_places.append((p, [place]))
+
+        return points_and_places
+
+    def singular_closed_points(self):
+        """
+        Return the singular closed points of the curve.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*z - x^3, P)
+            sage: C.singular_closed_points()
+            [Point (x, y)]
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(5), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8)
+            sage: C.singular_closed_points()
+            [Point (x, z)]
+        """
+        return [p[0] for p in self._singularities]
+
+    @cached_method
+    def place_to_closed_point(self, place):
+        """
+        Return the closed point at the place.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``place`` -- a place of the function field of the curve
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(5), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8)
+            sage: pls = C.places()
+            sage: C.place_to_closed_point(pls[-1])
+            Point (x - 2*z, y - 2*z)
+            sage: pls2 = C.places(2)
+            sage: C.place_to_closed_point(pls2[0])
+            Point (y^2 + y*z + z^2, x + y)
+        """
+        F = self.function_field()
+
+        A = self.ambient_space()
+        S = A.coordinate_ring().change_ring(order='degrevlex')  # homogeneous coordinate ring
+
+        # prepare coordinates for the affine patch containing the place
+        vals = [f.valuation(place) for f in self._coordinate_functions]
+        imin = vals.index(min(vals))
+        R = S.remove_var(S.gen(imin))
+        hcoords = self._coordinate_functions
+        coords = [hcoords[i]/hcoords[imin] for i in range(S.ngens()) if i != imin]
+
+        k, from_k, to_k = place.residue_field()
+        V, from_V, to_V = k.vector_space(F.constant_base_field(), map=True)
+
+        # implement an FGLM-like algorithm
+        e = [0 for i in range(R.ngens())]
+        basis = [R.one()]
+        basis_vecs = [to_V(k.one())]  # represent as a vector
+
+        gens = []
+        gens_lts = []
+        terminate = False
+        while True:  # check FGLM termination condition
+            # compute next exponent in degree reverse lexicographical order
+            j = R.ngens() - 1
+            while j > 0 and not e[j]:
+                j -= 1
+
+            if not j:  # j is zero
+                if terminate:
+                    break
+                terminate = True
+                d = e[0]
+                e[0] = 0
+                e[-1] = d + 1
+            else:
+                e[j] -= 1
+                e[j-1] += 1
+
+            m = R.monomial(*e)
+            if any(g.divides(m) for g in gens_lts):
+                continue
+
+            prod = 1
+            for i in range(R.ngens()):
+                prod *= coords[i]**e[i]
+            vec = to_V(to_k(prod))  # represent as a vector
+            mat = matrix(basis_vecs)
+            try:
+                s = mat.solve_left(vec)
+            except ValueError:  # no solution
+                basis.append(m)
+                basis_vecs.append(vec)
+                terminate = False
+                continue
+
+            gens.append(m - sum([s[i] * basis[i] for i in range(len(basis))]))
+            gens_lts.append(m)
+
+        gens_homo = [S(g).homogenize(imin) for g in gens]
+        prime = S.ideal(gens_homo).groebner_basis().ideal()
+
+        return self._closed_point(self, prime, len(basis))
+
+    def places_on(self, point):
+        """
+        Return the places on the closed point.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``point`` -- a closed point of the curve
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(QQ, 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x*y*z^4 - x^6 - y^6)
+            sage: C.singular_closed_points()
+            [Point (x, y)]
+            sage: p, = _
+            sage: C.places_on(p)
+            [Place (1/y, 1/y^2*z, 1/y^3*z^2, 1/y^4*z^3),
+             Place (y, y*z, y*z^2, y*z^3)]
+            sage: pl1, pl2 =_
+            sage: C.place_to_closed_point(pl1)
+            Point (x, y)
+            sage: C.place_to_closed_point(pl2)
+            Point (x, y)
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(5), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x^2*z - y^3)
+            sage: [C.places_on(p) for p in C.closed_points()]
+            [[Place (1/y)],
+             [Place (y)],
+             [Place (y + 1)],
+             [Place (y + 2)],
+             [Place (y + 3)],
+             [Place (y + 4)]]
+        """
+        prime = point.prime_ideal()
+
+        # determine the affine patch where the point lies
+        S = prime.ring()
+        for i in range(S.ngens()):
+            if S.gen(i) not in prime:
+                break
+
+        phi = self._map_to_function_field
+        denom = self._coordinate_functions[i]
+        gs = [phi(f)/denom**f.degree() for f in prime.gens()]
+        fs = [g for g in gs if not g.is_zero()]
+        f = fs.pop()
+        places = []
+        for p in f.zeros():
+            if all(f.valuation(p) > 0 for f in fs):
+                places.append(p)
+        return places
+
+    def jacobian(self, model, base_div=None):
+        """
+        Return the Jacobian of this curve.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``model`` -- model to use for arithmetic
+
+        - ``base_div`` -- an effective divisor for the model
+
+        The degree of the base divisor should satisfy certain degree condition
+        corresponding to the model used. The following table lists these
+        conditions. Let `g` be the geometric genus of the curve.
+
+        - ``hess``: ideal-based arithmetic; requires base divisor of degree `g`
+
+        - ``km_large``: Khuri-Makdisi's large model; requires base divisor of
+          degree at least `2g + 1`
+
+        - ``km_medium``: Khuri-Makdisi's medium model; requires base divisor of
+          degree at least `2g + 1`
+
+        - ``km_small``: Khuri-Makdisi's small model requires base divisor of
+          degree at least `g + 1`
+
+        We assume the curve (or its function field) has a rational place. If a
+        base divisor is not given, one is chosen using a rational place.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: A.<x,y> = AffineSpace(GF(5), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2*(x^3 - 1) - (x^3 - 2)).projective_closure()
+            sage: J = C.jacobian(model='hess'); J
+            Jacobian of Projective Plane Curve over Finite Field of size 5
+             defined by 2*x0^5 - x0^2*x1^3 - x0^3*x2^2 + x1^3*x2^2 (Hess model)
+            sage: J.base_divisor().degree() == C.genus()
+            True
+        """
+        return self.function_field().jacobian(model, base_div, curve=self)
+
+
+class IntegralProjectiveCurve_finite_field(IntegralProjectiveCurve):
+    """
+    Integral projective curve over a finite field.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``A`` -- an ambient projective space
+
+    - ``f`` -- homogeneous polynomials defining the curve
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(5), 2)
+        sage: C = Curve(y^2*z^7 - x^9 - x*z^8)
+        sage: C.function_field()
+        Function field in z defined by z^8 + 4*y^2*z^7 + 1
+        sage: C.closed_points()
+        [Point (x, z),
+         Point (x, y),
+         Point (x - 2*z, y + 2*z),
+         Point (x + 2*z, y + z),
+         Point (x + 2*z, y - z),
+         Point (x - 2*z, y - 2*z)]
+    """
+    _point = IntegralProjectiveCurvePoint_finite_field
+
+    def places(self, degree=1):
+        """
+        Return all places on the curve of the ``degree``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``degree`` -- positive integer
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = ProjectiveSpace(GF(5), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(x^2*z - y^3)
+            sage: C.places()
+            [Place (1/y),
+             Place (y),
+             Place (y + 1),
+             Place (y + 2),
+             Place (y + 3),
+             Place (y + 4)]
+            sage: C.places(2)
+            [Place (y^2 + 2),
+             Place (y^2 + 3),
+             Place (y^2 + y + 1),
+             Place (y^2 + y + 2),
+             Place (y^2 + 2*y + 3),
+             Place (y^2 + 2*y + 4),
+             Place (y^2 + 3*y + 3),
+             Place (y^2 + 3*y + 4),
+             Place (y^2 + 4*y + 1),
+             Place (y^2 + 4*y + 2)]
+        """
+        F = self.function_field()
+        return F.places(degree)
+
+    def closed_points(self, degree=1):
+        """
+        Return a list of closed points of ``degree`` of the curve.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``degree`` -- positive integer
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: A.<x,y> = AffineSpace(GF(9),2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2 - x^5 - x^4 - 2*x^3 - 2*x-2)
+            sage: Cp = C.projective_closure()
+            sage: Cp.closed_points()
+            [Point (x0, x1),
+             Point (x0 + (-z2 - 1)*x2, x1),
+             Point (x0 + (z2 + 1)*x2, x1),
+             Point (x0 + z2*x2, x1 + (z2 - 1)*x2),
+             Point (x0 + (-z2)*x2, x1 + (-z2 + 1)*x2),
+             Point (x0 + (-z2 - 1)*x2, x1 + (-z2 - 1)*x2),
+             Point (x0 + (z2 + 1)*x2, x1 + (z2 + 1)*x2),
+             Point (x0 + (z2 - 1)*x2, x1 + z2*x2),
+             Point (x0 + (-z2 + 1)*x2, x1 + (-z2)*x2),
+             Point (x0 + x2, x1 - x2),
+             Point (x0 - x2, x1 + x2)]
+        """
+        F = self.function_field()
+        places_above = F.places(degree)
+
+        points = []
+
+        # consider singular points
+        for p in self.singular_closed_points():
+            if p.degree() == degree:
+                points.append(p)
+            for place in p.places():
+                if place.degree() == degree:
+                    places_above.remove(place)
+
+        for place in places_above:
+            p = self.place_to_closed_point(place)
+            assert p.degree() == degree  # sanity check
+            points.append(p)
+
+        return points
+
+    @cached_method
+    def L_polynomial(self, name='t'):
+        """
+        Return the L-polynomial of this possibly singular curve.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``name`` -- (default: ``t``) name of the variable of the polynomial
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: A.<x,y> = AffineSpace(GF(3), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2 - x^5 - x^4 - 2*x^3 - 2*x - 2)
+            sage: Cbar = C.projective_closure()
+            sage: Cbar.L_polynomial()
+            9*t^4 - 3*t^3 + t^2 - t + 1
+        """
+        F = self.function_field()
+        L = F.L_polynomial()
+
+        R = L.parent()
+        T = R.gen()
+
+        f = R.one()
+        for p, places in self._singularities:
+            for place in places:
+                f = f * (1 - T**place.degree())
+            f = f // (1 - T**p.degree())
+
+        return L * f
+
+    def number_of_rational_points(self, r=1):
+        """
+        Return the number of rational points of the curve with
+        constant field extended by degree ``r``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``r`` -- positive integer (default: `1`)
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: A.<x,y> = AffineSpace(GF(3), 2)
+            sage: C = Curve(y^2 - x^5 - x^4 - 2*x^3 - 2*x - 2)
+            sage: Cbar = C.projective_closure()
+            sage: Cbar.number_of_rational_points(3)
+            21
+            sage: D = Cbar.change_ring(Cbar.base_ring().extension(3))
+            sage: D.base_ring()
+            Finite Field in z3 of size 3^3
+            sage: len(D.closed_points())
+            21
+        """
+        q = self.base_ring().order()
+        L = self.L_polynomial()
+        Lp = L.derivative()
+
+        R = IntegerRing()[[L.parent().gen()]]  # power series ring
+        L = R(L)
+        Lp = R(Lp)
+
+        f = R(Lp / L, prec=r)
+        n = f[r-1] + q**r + 1
+
+        return n
+
+
+class IntegralProjectivePlaneCurve(IntegralProjectiveCurve, ProjectivePlaneCurve_field):
+    _point = IntegralProjectivePlaneCurvePoint
+
+
+class IntegralProjectivePlaneCurve_finite_field(IntegralProjectiveCurve_finite_field,
+                                                ProjectivePlaneCurve_finite_field):
+    """
+    Integral projective plane curve over a finite field.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``A`` -- ambient projective plane
+
+    - ``f`` -- a homogeneous equation that defines the curve
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+        sage: A.<x,y> = AffineSpace(GF(9), 2)
+        sage: C = Curve(y^2 - x^5 - x^4 - 2*x^3 - 2*x - 2)
+        sage: Cb = C.projective_closure()
+        sage: Cb.singular_closed_points()
+        [Point (x0, x1)]
+        sage: Cb.function_field()
+        Function field in y defined by y^2 + 2*x^5 + 2*x^4 + x^3 + x + 1
+    """
+    _point = IntegralProjectivePlaneCurvePoint_finite_field
+
+
+def Hasse_bounds(q, genus=1):
+    r"""
+    Return the Hasse-Weil bounds for the cardinality of a nonsingular
+    curve defined over `\GF{q}` of given ``genus``.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``q`` -- integer; a prime power
+
+    - ``genus`` -- nonnegative integer (default: 1)
+
+    OUTPUT: tuple; the Hasse bounds (lb,ub) for the cardinality of a curve of
+    genus ``genus`` defined over `\GF{q}`
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: Hasse_bounds(2)
+        (1, 5)
+        sage: Hasse_bounds(next_prime(10^30))                                           # needs sage.libs.pari
+        (999999999999998000000000000058, 1000000000000002000000000000058)
+    """
+    if genus == 1:
+        rq = (4*q).isqrt()
+    else:
+        rq = (4*(genus**2)*q).isqrt()
+    return (q+1-rq, q+1+rq)
+
+
+# Fix pickles from changing class names and plane_curves folder name
+register_unpickle_override('sage.schemes.plane_curves.projective_curve',
+                           'ProjectiveCurve_generic', ProjectivePlaneCurve)