wasmtime 24.0.0 → 25.0.0

data/ext/cargo-vendor/wasmparser-0.217.0/src/readers/core/types.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,1987 @@
+/* Copyright 2018 Mozilla Foundation
+ *
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+
+use crate::limits::{
+    MAX_WASM_FUNCTION_PARAMS, MAX_WASM_FUNCTION_RETURNS, MAX_WASM_STRUCT_FIELDS,
+    MAX_WASM_SUPERTYPES, MAX_WASM_TYPES,
+};
+use crate::prelude::*;
+#[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+use crate::types::CoreTypeId;
+use crate::{BinaryReader, BinaryReaderError, FromReader, Result, SectionLimited};
+use core::cmp::Ordering;
+use core::fmt::{self, Debug};
+use core::hash::{Hash, Hasher};
+
+#[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+mod matches;
+#[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+pub(crate) use self::matches::{Matches, WithRecGroup};
+
+/// A packed representation of a type index.
+///
+/// This type is morally an `enum` of either:
+///
+/// 1. An index into a Wasm module's type space.
+///
+/// 2. A `CoreTypeId` identifier.
+///
+/// 3. An index into a recursion group's elements.
+///
+/// The latter two variants are *canonical* while the first is not. Reading raw
+/// types will produce (1), while working with types after validation will
+/// produce (2) and (3).
+//
+// This is a bit-packed `u32` with the following layout:
+//
+//     [ unused:u10 kind:u2 index:u20 ]
+//
+// It must fit in 22 bits to keep `RefType` in 24 bits and `ValType` in 32 bits,
+// so the top ten bits are unused.
+//
+// The `index` field's interpretation depends on the `kind` field, which may be
+// one of the following:
+//
+// * `00`: The `index` is an index into the module's type space.
+//
+// * `01`: The `index` is an index into the containing type's recursion group.
+//
+// * `10`: The `index` is a `CoreTypeId`.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Hash)]
+pub struct PackedIndex(u32);
+
+// Assert that we can fit indices up to `MAX_WASM_TYPES` inside `RefType`.
+#[test]
+fn can_fit_max_wasm_types_in_packed_index() {
+    assert!(PackedIndex::can_represent_index(
+        crate::limits::MAX_WASM_TYPES as u32
+    ));
+    assert!(PackedIndex::can_represent_index(
+        0b00000000_00001111_00000000_00000000
+    ));
+    assert!(PackedIndex::can_represent_index(
+        0b00000000_00000000_11111111_00000000
+    ));
+    assert!(PackedIndex::can_represent_index(
+        0b00000000_00000000_00000000_11111111
+    ));
+    assert!(PackedIndex::can_represent_index(0));
+}
+
+impl PackedIndex {
+    const UNUSED_MASK: u32 = u32::MAX & !(Self::KIND_MASK | Self::INDEX_MASK);
+    const KIND_MASK: u32 = 0b11 << 20;
+    const INDEX_MASK: u32 = (1 << 20) - 1;
+
+    const MODULE_KIND: u32 = 0b00 << 20;
+    const REC_GROUP_KIND: u32 = 0b01 << 20;
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    const ID_KIND: u32 = 0b10 << 20;
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn unchecked_from_u32(x: u32) -> Self {
+        debug_assert_eq!(Self::UNUSED_MASK & x, 0);
+        Self(x)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn to_u32(id: Self) -> u32 {
+        let x = id.0;
+        debug_assert_eq!(Self::UNUSED_MASK & x, 0);
+        x
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn can_represent_index(index: u32) -> bool {
+        index & Self::INDEX_MASK == index
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn kind(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.0 & Self::KIND_MASK
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn index(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.0 & Self::INDEX_MASK
+    }
+
+    /// Construct a `PackedIndex` from an index into a module's types space.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn from_module_index(index: u32) -> Option<Self> {
+        if PackedIndex::can_represent_index(index) {
+            Some(PackedIndex(PackedIndex::MODULE_KIND | index))
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Construct a `PackedIndex` from an index into the index's containing
+    /// recursion group.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn from_rec_group_index(index: u32) -> Option<Self> {
+        if PackedIndex::can_represent_index(index) {
+            Some(PackedIndex(PackedIndex::REC_GROUP_KIND | index))
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Construct a `PackedIndex` from the given `CoreTypeId`.
+    #[inline]
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub fn from_id(id: CoreTypeId) -> Option<Self> {
+        let index = u32::try_from(crate::types::TypeIdentifier::index(&id)).unwrap();
+        if PackedIndex::can_represent_index(index) {
+            Some(PackedIndex(PackedIndex::ID_KIND | index))
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Is this index in canonical form?
+    #[inline]
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub fn is_canonical(&self) -> bool {
+        match self.kind() {
+            Self::REC_GROUP_KIND | Self::ID_KIND => true,
+            Self::MODULE_KIND => false,
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Uncompress this packed index into an actual `enum` that can be matched
+    /// on.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn unpack(&self) -> UnpackedIndex {
+        match self.kind() {
+            Self::MODULE_KIND => UnpackedIndex::Module(self.index()),
+            Self::REC_GROUP_KIND => UnpackedIndex::RecGroup(self.index()),
+            #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+            Self::ID_KIND => UnpackedIndex::Id(
+                <CoreTypeId as crate::types::TypeIdentifier>::from_index(self.index()),
+            ),
+            _ => unreachable!(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the underlying index into a module's types space, if any.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn as_module_index(&self) -> Option<u32> {
+        if self.kind() == Self::MODULE_KIND {
+            Some(self.index())
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the underlying index into the containing recursion group, if any.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn as_rec_group_index(&self) -> Option<u32> {
+        if self.kind() == Self::REC_GROUP_KIND {
+            Some(self.index())
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the underlying `CoreTypeId`, if any.
+    #[inline]
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub fn as_core_type_id(&self) -> Option<CoreTypeId> {
+        if self.kind() == Self::ID_KIND {
+            Some(<CoreTypeId as crate::types::TypeIdentifier>::from_index(
+                self.index(),
+            ))
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Debug for PackedIndex {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> core::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("CoreTypeIndex")
+            .field(
+                "kind",
+                match self.kind() {
+                    Self::MODULE_KIND => &"module",
+                    Self::REC_GROUP_KIND => &"recgroup",
+                    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+                    Self::ID_KIND => &"id",
+                    _ => unreachable!(),
+                },
+            )
+            .field("index", &self.index())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for PackedIndex {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> core::fmt::Result {
+        fmt::Display::fmt(&self.unpack(), f)
+    }
+}
+
+/// The uncompressed form of a `PackedIndex`.
+///
+/// Can be used for `match` statements.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub enum UnpackedIndex {
+    /// An index into a Wasm module's types space.
+    Module(u32),
+
+    /// An index into the containing recursion group's elements.
+    RecGroup(u32),
+
+    /// A type identifier.
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    Id(CoreTypeId),
+}
+
+impl UnpackedIndex {
+    /// Compress this index into its packed form.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` if an index is beyond implementation limits.
+    pub fn pack(&self) -> Option<PackedIndex> {
+        match self {
+            UnpackedIndex::Module(i) => PackedIndex::from_module_index(*i),
+            UnpackedIndex::RecGroup(i) => PackedIndex::from_rec_group_index(*i),
+            #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+            UnpackedIndex::Id(id) => PackedIndex::from_id(*id),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Is this index in canonical form?
+    #[inline]
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub fn is_canonical(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, UnpackedIndex::RecGroup(_) | UnpackedIndex::Id(_))
+    }
+
+    /// Get the underlying index into a module's types space, if any.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn as_module_index(&self) -> Option<u32> {
+        if let Self::Module(i) = *self {
+            Some(i)
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the underlying index into the containing recursion group, if any.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn as_rec_group_index(&self) -> Option<u32> {
+        if let Self::RecGroup(i) = *self {
+            Some(i)
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the underlying `CoreTypeId`, if any.
+    #[inline]
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub fn as_core_type_id(&self) -> Option<CoreTypeId> {
+        if let Self::Id(id) = *self {
+            Some(id)
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for UnpackedIndex {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> core::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            UnpackedIndex::Module(i) => write!(f, "(module {i})"),
+            UnpackedIndex::RecGroup(i) => write!(f, "(recgroup {i})"),
+            #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+            UnpackedIndex::Id(id) => write!(f, "(id {})", crate::types::TypeIdentifier::index(id)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Represents a recursive type group in a WebAssembly module.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct RecGroup {
+    inner: RecGroupInner,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+enum RecGroupInner {
+    Implicit((usize, SubType)),
+    Explicit(Vec<(usize, SubType)>),
+}
+
+impl RecGroup {
+    /// Create an explicit `RecGroup` for the given types.
+    pub(crate) fn explicit(types: Vec<(usize, SubType)>) -> Self {
+        RecGroup {
+            inner: RecGroupInner::Explicit(types),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create an implicit `RecGroup` for a type that was not contained
+    /// in a `(rec ...)`.
+    pub(crate) fn implicit(offset: usize, ty: SubType) -> Self {
+        RecGroup {
+            inner: RecGroupInner::Implicit((offset, ty)),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Is this an explicit recursion group?
+    pub fn is_explicit_rec_group(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self.inner, RecGroupInner::Explicit(..))
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the list of subtypes in the recursive type group.
+    pub fn types(&self) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = &SubType> + '_ {
+        let types = match &self.inner {
+            RecGroupInner::Implicit(ty) => core::slice::from_ref(ty),
+            RecGroupInner::Explicit(types) => types,
+        };
+        types.iter().map(|(_, ty)| ty)
+    }
+
+    /// Return a mutable borrow of the list of subtypes in this
+    /// recursive type group.
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub(crate) fn types_mut(&mut self) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = &mut SubType> + '_ {
+        let types = match &mut self.inner {
+            RecGroupInner::Implicit(ty) => core::slice::from_mut(ty),
+            RecGroupInner::Explicit(types) => types,
+        };
+        types.iter_mut().map(|(_, ty)| ty)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns an owning iterator of all subtypes in this recursion
+    /// group.
+    pub fn into_types(self) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = SubType> {
+        self.into_types_and_offsets().map(|(_, ty)| ty)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns an owning iterator of all subtypes in this recursion
+    /// group, along with their offset.
+    pub fn into_types_and_offsets(self) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = (usize, SubType)> {
+        return match self.inner {
+            RecGroupInner::Implicit(tup) => Iter::Implicit(Some(tup)),
+            RecGroupInner::Explicit(types) => Iter::Explicit(types.into_iter()),
+        };
+
+        enum Iter {
+            Implicit(Option<(usize, SubType)>),
+            Explicit(alloc::vec::IntoIter<(usize, SubType)>),
+        }
+
+        impl Iterator for Iter {
+            type Item = (usize, SubType);
+
+            fn next(&mut self) -> Option<(usize, SubType)> {
+                match self {
+                    Self::Implicit(ty) => ty.take(),
+                    Self::Explicit(types) => types.next(),
+                }
+            }
+
+            fn size_hint(&self) -> (usize, Option<usize>) {
+                match self {
+                    Self::Implicit(None) => (0, Some(0)),
+                    Self::Implicit(Some(_)) => (1, Some(1)),
+                    Self::Explicit(types) => types.size_hint(),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        impl ExactSizeIterator for Iter {}
+    }
+}
+
+impl Hash for RecGroup {
+    fn hash<H: Hasher>(&self, hasher: &mut H) {
+        let types = self.types();
+        types.len().hash(hasher);
+        for ty in types {
+            ty.hash(hasher);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for RecGroup {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &RecGroup) -> bool {
+        let self_tys = self.types();
+        let other_tys = other.types();
+        self_tys.len() == other_tys.len() && self_tys.zip(other_tys).all(|(a, b)| a == b)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Eq for RecGroup {}
+
+impl Ord for RecGroup {
+    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Ordering {
+        let self_tys = self.types();
+        let other_tys = other.types();
+        self_tys.cmp(other_tys)
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialOrd for RecGroup {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<core::cmp::Ordering> {
+        Some(self.cmp(other))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Represents a subtype of possible other types in a WebAssembly module.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Hash, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)]
+pub struct SubType {
+    /// Is the subtype final.
+    pub is_final: bool,
+    /// The list of supertype indexes. As of GC MVP, there can be at most one supertype.
+    pub supertype_idx: Option<PackedIndex>,
+    /// The composite type of the subtype.
+    pub composite_type: CompositeType,
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for SubType {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        if self.is_final && self.supertype_idx.is_none() {
+            fmt::Display::fmt(&self.composite_type, f)
+        } else {
+            write!(f, "(sub ")?;
+            if self.is_final {
+                write!(f, "final ")?;
+            }
+            if let Some(idx) = self.supertype_idx {
+                write!(f, "{idx} ")?;
+            }
+            fmt::Display::fmt(&self.composite_type, f)?;
+            write!(f, ")")
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl SubType {
+    /// Unwrap an `ArrayType` or panic.
+    ///
+    /// Does not check finality or whether there is a supertype.
+    pub fn unwrap_array(&self) -> &ArrayType {
+        self.composite_type.unwrap_array()
+    }
+
+    /// Unwrap an `FuncType` or panic.
+    ///
+    /// Does not check finality or whether there is a supertype.
+    pub fn unwrap_func(&self) -> &FuncType {
+        self.composite_type.unwrap_func()
+    }
+
+    /// Unwrap an `StructType` or panic.
+    ///
+    /// Does not check finality or whether there is a supertype.
+    pub fn unwrap_struct(&self) -> &StructType {
+        self.composite_type.unwrap_struct()
+    }
+
+    /// Maps any `UnpackedIndex` via the specified closure.
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub(crate) fn remap_indices(
+        &mut self,
+        f: &mut dyn FnMut(&mut PackedIndex) -> Result<()>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(idx) = &mut self.supertype_idx {
+            f(idx)?;
+        }
+        match &mut self.composite_type.inner {
+            CompositeInnerType::Func(ty) => {
+                for ty in ty.params_mut() {
+                    ty.remap_indices(f)?;
+                }
+                for ty in ty.results_mut() {
+                    ty.remap_indices(f)?;
+                }
+            }
+            CompositeInnerType::Array(ty) => {
+                ty.0.remap_indices(f)?;
+            }
+            CompositeInnerType::Struct(ty) => {
+                for field in ty.fields.iter_mut() {
+                    field.remap_indices(f)?;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Represents a composite type in a WebAssembly module.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Hash, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)]
+pub struct CompositeType {
+    /// The type defined inside the composite type.
+    pub inner: CompositeInnerType,
+    /// Is the composite type shared? This is part of the
+    /// shared-everything-threads proposal.
+    pub shared: bool,
+}
+
+/// A [`CompositeType`] can contain one of these types.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Hash, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)]
+pub enum CompositeInnerType {
+    /// The type is for a function.
+    Func(FuncType),
+    /// The type is for an array.
+    Array(ArrayType),
+    /// The type is for a struct.
+    Struct(StructType),
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for CompositeType {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        use CompositeInnerType::*;
+        if self.shared {
+            write!(f, "(shared ")?;
+        }
+        match self.inner {
+            Array(_) => write!(f, "(array ...)"),
+            Func(_) => write!(f, "(func ...)"),
+            Struct(_) => write!(f, "(struct ...)"),
+        }?;
+        if self.shared {
+            write!(f, ")")?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl CompositeType {
+    /// Unwrap a `FuncType` or panic.
+    pub fn unwrap_func(&self) -> &FuncType {
+        match &self.inner {
+            CompositeInnerType::Func(f) => f,
+            _ => panic!("not a func"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Unwrap a `ArrayType` or panic.
+    pub fn unwrap_array(&self) -> &ArrayType {
+        match &self.inner {
+            CompositeInnerType::Array(a) => a,
+            _ => panic!("not a array"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Unwrap a `StructType` or panic.
+    pub fn unwrap_struct(&self) -> &StructType {
+        match &self.inner {
+            CompositeInnerType::Struct(s) => s,
+            _ => panic!("not a struct"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Represents a type of a function in a WebAssembly module.
+#[derive(Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Ord, PartialOrd, Hash)]
+pub struct FuncType {
+    /// The combined parameters and result types.
+    params_results: Box<[ValType]>,
+    /// The number of parameter types.
+    len_params: usize,
+}
+
+impl fmt::Debug for FuncType {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("FuncType")
+            .field("params", &self.params())
+            .field("results", &self.results())
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl FuncType {
+    /// Creates a new [`FuncType`] from the given `params` and `results`.
+    pub fn new<P, R>(params: P, results: R) -> Self
+    where
+        P: IntoIterator<Item = ValType>,
+        R: IntoIterator<Item = ValType>,
+    {
+        let mut buffer = params.into_iter().collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let len_params = buffer.len();
+        buffer.extend(results);
+        Self {
+            params_results: buffer.into(),
+            len_params,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a new [`FuncType`] fom its raw parts.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// If `len_params` is greater than the length of `params_results` combined.
+    pub(crate) fn from_raw_parts(params_results: Box<[ValType]>, len_params: usize) -> Self {
+        assert!(len_params <= params_results.len());
+        Self {
+            params_results,
+            len_params,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a shared slice to the parameter types of the [`FuncType`].
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn params(&self) -> &[ValType] {
+        &self.params_results[..self.len_params]
+    }
+
+    /// Returns an exclusive slice to the parameter types of the
+    /// [`FuncType`].
+    #[inline]
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub(crate) fn params_mut(&mut self) -> &mut [ValType] {
+        &mut self.params_results[..self.len_params]
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a shared slice to the result types of the [`FuncType`].
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn results(&self) -> &[ValType] {
+        &self.params_results[self.len_params..]
+    }
+
+    /// Returns an exclusive slice to the result types of the
+    /// [`FuncType`].
+    #[inline]
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub(crate) fn results_mut(&mut self) -> &mut [ValType] {
+        &mut self.params_results[self.len_params..]
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub(crate) fn desc(&self) -> String {
+        use core::fmt::Write;
+
+        let mut s = String::new();
+        s.push_str("[");
+        for (i, param) in self.params().iter().enumerate() {
+            if i > 0 {
+                s.push_str(" ");
+            }
+            write!(s, "{param}").unwrap();
+        }
+        s.push_str("] -> [");
+        for (i, result) in self.results().iter().enumerate() {
+            if i > 0 {
+                s.push_str(" ");
+            }
+            write!(s, "{result}").unwrap();
+        }
+        s.push_str("]");
+        s
+    }
+}
+
+/// Represents a type of an array in a WebAssembly module.
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Ord, PartialOrd, Hash)]
+pub struct ArrayType(pub FieldType);
+
+/// Represents a field type of an array or a struct.
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Ord, PartialOrd, Hash)]
+pub struct FieldType {
+    /// Array element type.
+    pub element_type: StorageType,
+    /// Are elements mutable.
+    pub mutable: bool,
+}
+
+impl FieldType {
+    /// Maps any `UnpackedIndex` via the specified closure.
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub(crate) fn remap_indices(
+        &mut self,
+        f: &mut dyn FnMut(&mut PackedIndex) -> Result<()>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        match &mut self.element_type {
+            StorageType::I8 | StorageType::I16 => Ok(()),
+            StorageType::Val(ty) => ty.remap_indices(f),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Represents storage types introduced in the GC spec for array and struct fields.
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Hash)]
+pub enum StorageType {
+    /// The storage type is i8.
+    I8,
+    /// The storage type is i16.
+    I16,
+    /// The storage type is a value type.
+    Val(ValType),
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for StorageType {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::I8 => write!(f, "i8"),
+            Self::I16 => write!(f, "i16"),
+            Self::Val(v) => fmt::Display::fmt(v, f),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl StorageType {
+    /// Is this a packed storage type, i.e. one that must be sign- or
+    /// zero-extended when converted to a `ValType`?
+    pub fn is_packed(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Self::I8 | Self::I16 => true,
+            Self::Val(_) => false,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Unpack this storage type into the valtype that it is represented as on
+    /// the operand stack.
+    pub fn unpack(&self) -> ValType {
+        match *self {
+            Self::Val(ty) => ty,
+            Self::I8 | Self::I16 => ValType::I32,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Represents a type of a struct in a WebAssembly module.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Ord, PartialOrd, Hash)]
+pub struct StructType {
+    /// Struct fields.
+    pub fields: Box<[FieldType]>,
+}
+
+/// Represents the types of values in a WebAssembly module.
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Hash)]
+pub enum ValType {
+    /// The value type is i32.
+    I32,
+    /// The value type is i64.
+    I64,
+    /// The value type is f32.
+    F32,
+    /// The value type is f64.
+    F64,
+    /// The value type is v128.
+    V128,
+    /// The value type is a reference.
+    Ref(RefType),
+}
+
+impl From<RefType> for ValType {
+    #[inline]
+    fn from(ty: RefType) -> ValType {
+        ValType::Ref(ty)
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for ValType {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            ValType::I32 => f.write_str("i32"),
+            ValType::I64 => f.write_str("i64"),
+            ValType::F32 => f.write_str("f32"),
+            ValType::F64 => f.write_str("f64"),
+            ValType::V128 => f.write_str("v128"),
+            ValType::Ref(r) => fmt::Display::fmt(r, f),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ValType {
+    /// Alias for the wasm `funcref` type.
+    pub const FUNCREF: ValType = ValType::Ref(RefType::FUNCREF);
+
+    /// Alias for the wasm `externref` type.
+    pub const EXTERNREF: ValType = ValType::Ref(RefType::EXTERNREF);
+
+    /// Alias for the wasm `exnref` type.
+    pub const EXNREF: ValType = ValType::Ref(RefType::EXNREF);
+
+    /// Returns whether this value type is a "reference type".
+    ///
+    /// Only reference types are allowed in tables, for example, and with some
+    /// instructions. Current reference types include `funcref` and `externref`.
+    pub fn is_reference_type(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, ValType::Ref(_))
+    }
+
+    /// Get the underlying reference type, if any.
+    pub fn as_reference_type(&self) -> Option<RefType> {
+        match *self {
+            ValType::Ref(r) => Some(r),
+            ValType::I32 | ValType::I64 | ValType::F32 | ValType::F64 | ValType::V128 => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Whether the type is defaultable, i.e. it is not a non-nullable reference
+    /// type.
+    pub fn is_defaultable(&self) -> bool {
+        match *self {
+            Self::I32 | Self::I64 | Self::F32 | Self::F64 | Self::V128 => true,
+            Self::Ref(rt) => rt.is_nullable(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Maps any `UnpackedIndex` via the specified closure.
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub(crate) fn remap_indices(
+        &mut self,
+        map: &mut dyn FnMut(&mut PackedIndex) -> Result<()>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            ValType::Ref(r) => {
+                if let Some(mut idx) = r.type_index() {
+                    map(&mut idx)?;
+                    *r = RefType::concrete(r.is_nullable(), idx);
+                }
+            }
+            ValType::I32 | ValType::I64 | ValType::F32 | ValType::F64 | ValType::V128 => {}
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// A reference type.
+///
+/// The reference types proposal first introduced `externref` and
+/// `funcref`.
+///
+/// The function references proposal introduced typed function
+/// references.
+///
+/// The GC proposal introduces heap types: any, eq, i31, struct, array,
+/// nofunc, noextern, none.
+//
+// RefType is a bit-packed enum that fits in a `u24` aka `[u8; 3]`. Note that
+// its content is opaque (and subject to change), but its API is stable.
+//
+// It has the following internal structure:
+//
+// ```
+// [nullable:u1 concrete==1:u1 index:u22]
+// [nullable:u1 concrete==0:u1 shared:u1 abstype:u4 (unused):u17]
+// ```
+//
+// Where
+//
+// - `nullable` determines nullability of the ref,
+//
+// - `concrete` determines if the ref is of a dynamically defined type with an
+//   index (encoded in a following bit-packing section) or of a known fixed
+//   type,
+//
+// - `index` is the type index,
+//
+// - `shared` determines if the ref is shared, but only if it is not concrete in
+//   which case we would need to examine the type at the concrete index,
+//
+// - `abstype` is an enumeration of abstract types:
+//
+//   ```
+//   1111 = any
+//
+//   1101 = eq
+//   1000 = i31
+//   1001 = struct
+//   1100 = array
+//
+//   0101 = func
+//   0100 = nofunc
+//
+//   0011 = extern
+//   0010 = noextern
+//
+//   0001 = exn
+//
+//   0000 = none
+//   ```
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Hash)]
+pub struct RefType([u8; 3]);
+
+impl fmt::Debug for RefType {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        let heap_type = self.heap_type();
+        match heap_type {
+            // All abstract types follow the same general pattern.
+            HeapType::Abstract { shared, ty } => {
+                let nullable = self.is_nullable();
+
+                let name = ty.as_str(nullable);
+                match (nullable, shared) {
+                    // Print the shortened form if nullable; i.e., `*ref`.
+                    (true, true) => write!(f, "(shared {}ref)", name),
+                    (true, false) => write!(f, "{}ref", name),
+                    // Print the long form otherwise; i.e., `(ref *)`.
+                    (false, true) => write!(f, "(ref (shared {}))", name),
+                    (false, false) => write!(f, "(ref {})", name),
+                }
+            }
+            // Handle concrete types separately; they always use the long form
+            // and don't show `shared`-ness.
+            HeapType::Concrete(index) => {
+                if self.is_nullable() {
+                    write!(f, "(ref null {})", index)
+                } else {
+                    write!(f, "(ref {})", index)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for RefType {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        fmt::Debug::fmt(self, f)
+    }
+}
+
+// Assert that we can fit indices up to `MAX_WASM_TYPES` inside `RefType`.
+#[test]
+fn can_fit_max_wasm_types_in_ref_type() {
+    fn can_roundtrip_index(index: u32) -> bool {
+        assert!(RefType::can_represent_type_index(index));
+        let rt = RefType::concrete(true, PackedIndex::from_module_index(index).unwrap());
+        assert!(rt.is_nullable());
+        let actual_index = match rt.type_index() {
+            Some(i) => i,
+            None => panic!(),
+        };
+        actual_index.as_module_index() == Some(index)
+    }
+
+    assert!(can_roundtrip_index(crate::limits::MAX_WASM_TYPES as u32));
+    assert!(can_roundtrip_index(0b00000000_00001111_00000000_00000000));
+    assert!(can_roundtrip_index(0b00000000_00000000_11111111_00000000));
+    assert!(can_roundtrip_index(0b00000000_00000000_00000000_11111111));
+    assert!(can_roundtrip_index(0));
+}
+
+impl RefType {
+    // These bits are valid for all `RefType`s.
+    const NULLABLE_BIT: u32 = 1 << 23;
+    const CONCRETE_BIT: u32 = 1 << 22;
+
+    // The `abstype` field is valid only when `concrete == 0`.
+    const SHARED_BIT: u32 = 1 << 21;
+    const ABSTYPE_MASK: u32 = 0b1111 << 17;
+    const ANY_ABSTYPE: u32 = 0b1111 << 17;
+    const EQ_ABSTYPE: u32 = 0b1101 << 17;
+    const I31_ABSTYPE: u32 = 0b1000 << 17;
+    const STRUCT_ABSTYPE: u32 = 0b1001 << 17;
+    const ARRAY_ABSTYPE: u32 = 0b1100 << 17;
+    const FUNC_ABSTYPE: u32 = 0b0101 << 17;
+    const NOFUNC_ABSTYPE: u32 = 0b0100 << 17;
+    const EXTERN_ABSTYPE: u32 = 0b0011 << 17;
+    const NOEXTERN_ABSTYPE: u32 = 0b0010 << 17;
+    const EXN_ABSTYPE: u32 = 0b0001 << 17;
+    const NOEXN_ABSTYPE: u32 = 0b1110 << 17;
+    const NONE_ABSTYPE: u32 = 0b0000 << 17;
+
+    // The `index` is valid only when `concrete == 1`.
+    const INDEX_MASK: u32 = (1 << 22) - 1;
+
+    /// A nullable untyped function reference aka `(ref null func)` aka
+    /// `funcref` aka `anyfunc`.
+    pub const FUNCREF: Self = RefType::FUNC.nullable();
+
+    /// A nullable reference to an extern object aka `(ref null extern)` aka
+    /// `externref`.
+    pub const EXTERNREF: Self = RefType::EXTERN.nullable();
+
+    /// A nullable reference to any object aka `(ref null any)` aka `anyref`.
+    pub const ANYREF: Self = RefType::ANY.nullable();
+
+    /// A nullable reference to no object aka `(ref null none)` aka `nullref`.
+    pub const NULLREF: Self = RefType::NONE.nullable();
+
+    /// A nullable reference to a noextern object aka `(ref null noextern)` aka
+    /// `nullexternref`.
+    pub const NULLEXTERNREF: Self = RefType::NOEXTERN.nullable();
+
+    /// A nullable reference to a nofunc object aka `(ref null nofunc)` aka
+    /// `nullfuncref`.
+    pub const NULLFUNCREF: Self = RefType::NOFUNC.nullable();
+
+    /// A nullable reference to an eq object aka `(ref null eq)` aka `eqref`.
+    pub const EQREF: Self = RefType::EQ.nullable();
+
+    /// A nullable reference to a struct aka `(ref null struct)` aka
+    /// `structref`.
+    pub const STRUCTREF: Self = RefType::STRUCT.nullable();
+
+    /// A nullable reference to an array aka `(ref null array)` aka `arrayref`.
+    pub const ARRAYREF: Self = RefType::ARRAY.nullable();
+
+    /// A nullable reference to an i31 object aka `(ref null i31)` aka `i31ref`.
+    pub const I31REF: Self = RefType::I31.nullable();
+
+    /// A nullable reference to an exception object aka `(ref null exn)` aka
+    /// `exnref`.
+    pub const EXNREF: Self = RefType::EXN.nullable();
+
+    /// A nullable reference to a noexn object aka `(ref null noexn)` aka
+    /// `nullexnref`.
+    pub const NULLEXNREF: Self = RefType::NOEXN.nullable();
+
+    /// A non-nullable untyped function reference aka `(ref func)`.
+    pub const FUNC: Self = RefType::from_u32(Self::FUNC_ABSTYPE);
+
+    /// A non-nullable reference to an extern object aka `(ref extern)`.
+    pub const EXTERN: Self = RefType::from_u32(Self::EXTERN_ABSTYPE);
+
+    /// A non-nullable reference to any object aka `(ref any)`.
+    pub const ANY: Self = RefType::from_u32(Self::ANY_ABSTYPE);
+
+    /// A non-nullable reference to no object aka `(ref none)`.
+    pub const NONE: Self = RefType::from_u32(Self::NONE_ABSTYPE);
+
+    /// A non-nullable reference to a noextern object aka `(ref noextern)`.
+    pub const NOEXTERN: Self = RefType::from_u32(Self::NOEXTERN_ABSTYPE);
+
+    /// A non-nullable reference to a nofunc object aka `(ref nofunc)`.
+    pub const NOFUNC: Self = RefType::from_u32(Self::NOFUNC_ABSTYPE);
+
+    /// A non-nullable reference to an eq object aka `(ref eq)`.
+    pub const EQ: Self = RefType::from_u32(Self::EQ_ABSTYPE);
+
+    /// A non-nullable reference to a struct aka `(ref struct)`.
+    pub const STRUCT: Self = RefType::from_u32(Self::STRUCT_ABSTYPE);
+
+    /// A non-nullable reference to an array aka `(ref array)`.
+    pub const ARRAY: Self = RefType::from_u32(Self::ARRAY_ABSTYPE);
+
+    /// A non-nullable reference to an i31 object aka `(ref i31)`.
+    pub const I31: Self = RefType::from_u32(Self::I31_ABSTYPE);
+
+    /// A non-nullable reference to an exn object aka `(ref exn)`.
+    pub const EXN: Self = RefType::from_u32(Self::EXN_ABSTYPE);
+
+    /// A non-nullable reference to a noexn object aka `(ref noexn)`.
+    pub const NOEXN: Self = RefType::from_u32(Self::NOEXN_ABSTYPE);
+
+    const fn can_represent_type_index(index: u32) -> bool {
+        index & Self::INDEX_MASK == index
+    }
+
+    const fn u24_to_u32(bytes: [u8; 3]) -> u32 {
+        let expanded_bytes = [bytes[0], bytes[1], bytes[2], 0];
+        u32::from_le_bytes(expanded_bytes)
+    }
+
+    const fn u32_to_u24(x: u32) -> [u8; 3] {
+        let bytes = x.to_le_bytes();
+        debug_assert!(bytes[3] == 0);
+        [bytes[0], bytes[1], bytes[2]]
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    const fn as_u32(&self) -> u32 {
+        Self::u24_to_u32(self.0)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    const fn from_u32(x: u32) -> Self {
+        debug_assert!(x & (0b11111111 << 24) == 0);
+
+        // Either concrete or it must be a known abstract type.
+        debug_assert!(
+            x & Self::CONCRETE_BIT != 0
+                || matches!(
+                    x & Self::ABSTYPE_MASK,
+                    Self::ANY_ABSTYPE
+                        | Self::EQ_ABSTYPE
+                        | Self::I31_ABSTYPE
+                        | Self::STRUCT_ABSTYPE
+                        | Self::ARRAY_ABSTYPE
+                        | Self::FUNC_ABSTYPE
+                        | Self::NOFUNC_ABSTYPE
+                        | Self::EXTERN_ABSTYPE
+                        | Self::NOEXTERN_ABSTYPE
+                        | Self::NONE_ABSTYPE
+                        | Self::EXN_ABSTYPE
+                        | Self::NOEXN_ABSTYPE
+                )
+        );
+
+        RefType(Self::u32_to_u24(x))
+    }
+
+    /// Create a reference to a concrete Wasm-defined type at the given
+    /// index.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` when the type index is beyond this crate's
+    /// implementation limits and therefore is not representable.
+    pub fn concrete(nullable: bool, index: PackedIndex) -> Self {
+        let index: u32 = PackedIndex::to_u32(index);
+        debug_assert!(Self::can_represent_type_index(index));
+        let nullable32 = Self::NULLABLE_BIT * nullable as u32;
+        RefType::from_u32(nullable32 | Self::CONCRETE_BIT | index)
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new `RefType`.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` when the heap type's type index (if any) is beyond this
+    /// crate's implementation limits and therefore is not representable.
+    pub fn new(nullable: bool, heap_type: HeapType) -> Option<Self> {
+        let base32 = Self::NULLABLE_BIT * (nullable as u32);
+        match heap_type {
+            HeapType::Concrete(index) => Some(RefType::concrete(nullable, index.pack()?)),
+            HeapType::Abstract { shared, ty } => {
+                use AbstractHeapType::*;
+                let base32 = base32 | (Self::SHARED_BIT * (shared as u32));
+                match ty {
+                    Func => Some(Self::from_u32(base32 | Self::FUNC_ABSTYPE)),
+                    Extern => Some(Self::from_u32(base32 | Self::EXTERN_ABSTYPE)),
+                    Any => Some(Self::from_u32(base32 | Self::ANY_ABSTYPE)),
+                    None => Some(Self::from_u32(base32 | Self::NONE_ABSTYPE)),
+                    NoExtern => Some(Self::from_u32(base32 | Self::NOEXTERN_ABSTYPE)),
+                    NoFunc => Some(Self::from_u32(base32 | Self::NOFUNC_ABSTYPE)),
+                    Eq => Some(Self::from_u32(base32 | Self::EQ_ABSTYPE)),
+                    Struct => Some(Self::from_u32(base32 | Self::STRUCT_ABSTYPE)),
+                    Array => Some(Self::from_u32(base32 | Self::ARRAY_ABSTYPE)),
+                    I31 => Some(Self::from_u32(base32 | Self::I31_ABSTYPE)),
+                    Exn => Some(Self::from_u32(base32 | Self::EXN_ABSTYPE)),
+                    NoExn => Some(Self::from_u32(base32 | Self::NOEXN_ABSTYPE)),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Compute the [type difference] between the two given ref types.
+    ///
+    /// [type difference]: https://webassembly.github.io/gc/core/valid/conventions.html#aux-reftypediff
+    pub fn difference(a: RefType, b: RefType) -> RefType {
+        RefType::new(
+            if b.is_nullable() {
+                false
+            } else {
+                a.is_nullable()
+            },
+            a.heap_type(),
+        )
+        .unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Is this a reference to an concrete type?
+    pub const fn is_concrete_type_ref(&self) -> bool {
+        self.as_u32() & Self::CONCRETE_BIT != 0
+    }
+
+    /// If this is a reference to a concrete Wasm-defined type, get its
+    /// type index.
+    pub fn type_index(&self) -> Option<PackedIndex> {
+        if self.is_concrete_type_ref() {
+            let index = self.as_u32() & Self::INDEX_MASK;
+            Some(PackedIndex::unchecked_from_u32(index))
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    const fn abstype(&self) -> u32 {
+        debug_assert!(!self.is_concrete_type_ref());
+        self.as_u32() & Self::ABSTYPE_MASK
+    }
+
+    /// Is this the abstract untyped function reference type aka `(ref
+    /// null func)` aka `funcref` aka `anyfunc`?
+    pub const fn is_func_ref(&self) -> bool {
+        !self.is_concrete_type_ref() && self.abstype() == Self::FUNC_ABSTYPE
+    }
+
+    /// Is this the abstract external reference type aka `(ref null
+    /// extern)` aka `externref`?
+    pub const fn is_extern_ref(&self) -> bool {
+        !self.is_concrete_type_ref() && self.abstype() == Self::EXTERN_ABSTYPE
+    }
+
+    /// Is this the abstract untyped array reference type aka `(ref null
+    /// array)` aka `arrayref`?
+    pub const fn is_array_ref(&self) -> bool {
+        !self.is_concrete_type_ref() && self.abstype() == Self::ARRAY_ABSTYPE
+    }
+
+    /// Is this the abstract untyped struct reference type aka `(ref
+    /// null struct)` aka `structref`?
+    pub const fn is_struct_ref(&self) -> bool {
+        !self.is_concrete_type_ref() && self.abstype() == Self::STRUCT_ABSTYPE
+    }
+
+    /// Is this ref type nullable?
+    pub const fn is_nullable(&self) -> bool {
+        self.as_u32() & Self::NULLABLE_BIT != 0
+    }
+
+    /// Get the non-nullable version of this ref type.
+    pub const fn as_non_null(&self) -> Self {
+        Self::from_u32(self.as_u32() & !Self::NULLABLE_BIT)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the nullable version of this ref type.
+    pub const fn nullable(&self) -> Self {
+        Self::from_u32(self.as_u32() | Self::NULLABLE_BIT)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the shared version of this ref type as long as it is abstract.
+    pub const fn shared(&self) -> Option<Self> {
+        if self.is_concrete_type_ref() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(Self::from_u32(self.as_u32() | Self::SHARED_BIT))
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the heap type that this is a reference to.
+    pub fn heap_type(&self) -> HeapType {
+        let s = self.as_u32();
+        if self.is_concrete_type_ref() {
+            HeapType::Concrete(self.type_index().unwrap().unpack())
+        } else {
+            use AbstractHeapType::*;
+            let shared = s & Self::SHARED_BIT != 0;
+            let ty = match s & Self::ABSTYPE_MASK {
+                Self::FUNC_ABSTYPE => Func,
+                Self::EXTERN_ABSTYPE => Extern,
+                Self::ANY_ABSTYPE => Any,
+                Self::NONE_ABSTYPE => None,
+                Self::NOEXTERN_ABSTYPE => NoExtern,
+                Self::NOFUNC_ABSTYPE => NoFunc,
+                Self::EQ_ABSTYPE => Eq,
+                Self::STRUCT_ABSTYPE => Struct,
+                Self::ARRAY_ABSTYPE => Array,
+                Self::I31_ABSTYPE => I31,
+                Self::EXN_ABSTYPE => Exn,
+                Self::NOEXN_ABSTYPE => NoExn,
+                _ => unreachable!(),
+            };
+            HeapType::Abstract { shared, ty }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Note that this is similar to `Display for RefType` except that it has
+    // the indexes stubbed out.
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub(crate) fn wat(&self) -> &'static str {
+        let nullable = self.is_nullable();
+        match self.heap_type() {
+            HeapType::Abstract { shared, ty } => {
+                use AbstractHeapType::*;
+                match (shared, nullable, ty) {
+                    // Shared and nullable.
+                    (true, true, Func) => "(shared funcref)",
+                    (true, true, Extern) => "(shared externref)",
+                    (true, true, Any) => "(shared anyref)",
+                    (true, true, None) => "(shared nullref)",
+                    (true, true, NoExtern) => "(shared nullexternref)",
+                    (true, true, NoFunc) => "(shared nullfuncref)",
+                    (true, true, Eq) => "(shared eqref)",
+                    (true, true, Struct) => "(shared structref)",
+                    (true, true, Array) => "(shared arrayref)",
+                    (true, true, I31) => "(shared i31ref)",
+                    (true, true, Exn) => "(shared exnref)",
+                    (true, true, NoExn) => "(shared nullexnref)",
+                    // Unshared but nullable.
+                    (false, true, Func) => "funcref",
+                    (false, true, Extern) => "externref",
+                    (false, true, Any) => "anyref",
+                    (false, true, None) => "nullref",
+                    (false, true, NoExtern) => "nullexternref",
+                    (false, true, NoFunc) => "nullfuncref",
+                    (false, true, Eq) => "eqref",
+                    (false, true, Struct) => "structref",
+                    (false, true, Array) => "arrayref",
+                    (false, true, I31) => "i31ref",
+                    (false, true, Exn) => "exnref",
+                    (false, true, NoExn) => "nullexnref",
+                    // Shared but not nullable.
+                    (true, false, Func) => "(ref (shared func))",
+                    (true, false, Extern) => "(ref (shared extern))",
+                    (true, false, Any) => "(ref (shared any))",
+                    (true, false, None) => "(ref (shared none))",
+                    (true, false, NoExtern) => "(ref (shared noextern))",
+                    (true, false, NoFunc) => "(ref (shared nofunc))",
+                    (true, false, Eq) => "(ref (shared eq))",
+                    (true, false, Struct) => "(ref (shared struct))",
+                    (true, false, Array) => "(ref (shared array))",
+                    (true, false, I31) => "(ref (shared i31))",
+                    (true, false, Exn) => "(ref (shared exn))",
+                    (true, false, NoExn) => "(ref (shared noexn))",
+                    // Neither shared nor nullable.
+                    (false, false, Func) => "(ref func)",
+                    (false, false, Extern) => "(ref extern)",
+                    (false, false, Any) => "(ref any)",
+                    (false, false, None) => "(ref none)",
+                    (false, false, NoExtern) => "(ref noextern)",
+                    (false, false, NoFunc) => "(ref nofunc)",
+                    (false, false, Eq) => "(ref eq)",
+                    (false, false, Struct) => "(ref struct)",
+                    (false, false, Array) => "(ref array)",
+                    (false, false, I31) => "(ref i31)",
+                    (false, false, Exn) => "(ref exn)",
+                    (false, false, NoExn) => "(ref noexn)",
+                }
+            }
+            HeapType::Concrete(_) => {
+                if nullable {
+                    "(ref null $type)"
+                } else {
+                    "(ref $type)"
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A heap type.
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub enum HeapType {
+    /// An abstract heap type; e.g., `anyref`.
+    Abstract {
+        /// Whether the type is shared.
+        ///
+        /// Introduced in the shared-everything-threads proposal.
+        shared: bool,
+        /// The actual heap type.
+        ty: AbstractHeapType,
+    },
+    /// A concrete, user-defined type.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the function-references proposal.
+    Concrete(UnpackedIndex),
+}
+
+impl HeapType {
+    /// Alias for an unshared `func` heap type.
+    pub const FUNC: Self = Self::Abstract {
+        shared: false,
+        ty: AbstractHeapType::Func,
+    };
+
+    /// Alias for an unshared `extern` heap type.
+    pub const EXTERN: Self = Self::Abstract {
+        shared: false,
+        ty: AbstractHeapType::Extern,
+    };
+}
+
+/// An abstract heap type.
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub enum AbstractHeapType {
+    /// The abstract, untyped (any) function.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the references-types proposal.
+    Func,
+
+    /// The abstract, external heap type.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the references-types proposal.
+    Extern,
+
+    /// The abstract `any` heap type.
+    ///
+    /// The common supertype (a.k.a. top) of all internal types.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the GC proposal.
+    Any,
+
+    /// The abstract `none` heap type.
+    ///
+    /// The common subtype (a.k.a. bottom) of all internal types.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the GC proposal.
+    None,
+
+    /// The abstract `noextern` heap type.
+    ///
+    /// The common subtype (a.k.a. bottom) of all external types.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the GC proposal.
+    NoExtern,
+
+    /// The abstract `nofunc` heap type.
+    ///
+    /// The common subtype (a.k.a. bottom) of all function types.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the GC proposal.
+    NoFunc,
+
+    /// The abstract `eq` heap type.
+    ///
+    /// The common supertype of all heap types on which the `ref.eq`
+    /// instruction is allowed.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the GC proposal.
+    Eq,
+
+    /// The abstract `struct` heap type.
+    ///
+    /// The common supertype of all struct types.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the GC proposal.
+    Struct,
+
+    /// The abstract `array` heap type.
+    ///
+    /// The common supertype of all array types.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the GC proposal.
+    Array,
+
+    /// The abstract `i31` heap type.
+    ///
+    /// It is not expected that Wasm runtimes actually store these
+    /// values on the heap, but unbox them inline into the `i31ref`s
+    /// themselves instead.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the GC proposal.
+    I31,
+
+    /// The abstraction `exception` heap type.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the exception-handling proposal.
+    Exn,
+
+    /// The abstract `noexn` heap type.
+    ///
+    /// The common subtype (a.k.a. bottom) of all exception types.
+    ///
+    /// Introduced in the exception-handling proposal.
+    NoExn,
+}
+
+impl AbstractHeapType {
+    pub(crate) const fn as_str(&self, nullable: bool) -> &str {
+        use AbstractHeapType::*;
+        match (nullable, self) {
+            (_, Any) => "any",
+            (true, None) => "null",
+            (false, None) => "none",
+            (true, NoExtern) => "nullextern",
+            (false, NoExtern) => "noextern",
+            (true, NoFunc) => "nullfunc",
+            (false, NoFunc) => "nofunc",
+            (_, Eq) => "eq",
+            (_, Struct) => "struct",
+            (_, Array) => "array",
+            (_, I31) => "i31",
+            (_, Extern) => "extern",
+            (_, Func) => "func",
+            (_, Exn) => "exn",
+            (true, NoExn) => "nullexn",
+            (false, NoExn) => "noexn",
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "validate")]
+    pub(crate) fn is_subtype_of(&self, other: AbstractHeapType) -> bool {
+        use AbstractHeapType::*;
+
+        match (self, other) {
+            (a, b) if *a == b => true,
+            (Eq | I31 | Struct | Array | None, Any) => true,
+            (I31 | Struct | Array | None, Eq) => true,
+            (NoExtern, Extern) => true,
+            (NoFunc, Func) => true,
+            (None, I31 | Array | Struct) => true,
+            (NoExn, Exn) => true,
+            // Nothing else matches. (Avoid full wildcard matches so
+            // that adding/modifying variants is easier in the
+            // future.)
+            (
+                Func | Extern | Exn | Any | Eq | Array | I31 | Struct | None | NoFunc | NoExtern
+                | NoExn,
+                _,
+            ) => false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> FromReader<'a> for StorageType {
+    fn from_reader(reader: &mut BinaryReader<'a>) -> Result<Self> {
+        // NB: See `FromReader<'a> for ValType` for a table of how this
+        // interacts with other value encodings.
+        match reader.peek()? {
+            0x78 => {
+                reader.read_u8()?;
+                Ok(StorageType::I8)
+            }
+            0x77 => {
+                reader.read_u8()?;
+                Ok(StorageType::I16)
+            }
+            _ => Ok(StorageType::Val(reader.read()?)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> FromReader<'a> for ValType {
+    fn from_reader(reader: &mut BinaryReader<'a>) -> Result<Self> {
+        // Decoding value types is sort of subtle because the space of what's
+        // being decoded here is actually spread out across an number of
+        // locations. This comment here is intended to serve as a bit of a
+        // reference to what's being decoded here and how it interacts with
+        // other locations.
+        //
+        // Note that all value types are encoded as canonical-form negative
+        // numbers in the sleb128 encoding scheme. Currently in the wasm spec
+        // sleb128 isn't actually used but it looks to be modelled to allow it
+        // one day. In the meantime the current values used are:
+        //
+        // | sleb128 | decimal | type         | notes                        |
+        // |---------|---------|--------------|------------------------------|
+        // | 0x7F    | -1      | i32          |                              |
+        // | 0x7E    | -2      | i64          |                              |
+        // | 0x7D    | -3      | f32          |                              |
+        // | 0x7C    | -4      | f64          |                              |
+        // | 0x7B    | -5      | v128         | simd proposal                |
+        // | 0x78    | -8      | i8           | gc proposal, in `FieldType`  |
+        // | 0x77    | -9      | i16          | gc proposal, in `FieldType`  |
+        // | 0x74    | -12     | noexn        | gc + exceptions proposal     |
+        // | 0x73    | -13     | nofunc       | gc proposal                  |
+        // | 0x72    | -14     | noextern     | gc proposal                  |
+        // | 0x71    | -15     | nullref      | gc proposal                  |
+        // | 0x70    | -16     | func         | reference types proposal     |
+        // | 0x6F    | -17     | extern       | reference types proposal     |
+        // | 0x6E    | -18     | any          | gc proposal                  |
+        // | 0x6D    | -19     | eq           | gc proposal                  |
+        // | 0x6C    | -20     | i31          | gc proposal                  |
+        // | 0x6B    | -21     | struct       | gc proposal                  |
+        // | 0x6A    | -22     | array        | gc proposal                  |
+        // | 0x69    | -23     | exnref       | gc + exceptions proposal     |
+        // | 0x65    | -27     | shared $t    | shared-everything proposal   |
+        // | 0x64    | -28     | ref $t       | gc proposal, prefix byte     |
+        // | 0x63    | -29     | ref null $t  | gc proposal, prefix byte     |
+        // | 0x60    | -32     | func $t      | prefix byte                  |
+        // | 0x5f    | -33     | struct $t    | gc proposal, prefix byte     |
+        // | 0x5e    | -34     | array $t     | gc proposal, prefix byte     |
+        // | 0x50    | -48     | sub $t       | gc proposal, prefix byte     |
+        // | 0x4F    | -49     | sub final $t | gc proposal, prefix byte     |
+        // | 0x4E    | -50     | rec $t       | gc proposal, prefix byte     |
+        // | 0x40    | -64     | ε            | empty block type             |
+        //
+        // Note that not all of these encodings are parsed here, for example
+        // 0x78 as the encoding for `i8` is parsed only in `FieldType`. The
+        // parsing of `FieldType` will delegate here without actually consuming
+        // anything though so the encoding 0x78 still must be disjoint and not
+        // read here otherwise.
+        match reader.peek()? {
+            0x7F => {
+                reader.read_u8()?;
+                Ok(ValType::I32)
+            }
+            0x7E => {
+                reader.read_u8()?;
+                Ok(ValType::I64)
+            }
+            0x7D => {
+                reader.read_u8()?;
+                Ok(ValType::F32)
+            }
+            0x7C => {
+                reader.read_u8()?;
+                Ok(ValType::F64)
+            }
+            0x7B => {
+                reader.read_u8()?;
+                Ok(ValType::V128)
+            }
+            0x70 | 0x6F | 0x65 | 0x64 | 0x63 | 0x6E | 0x71 | 0x72 | 0x73 | 0x74 | 0x6D | 0x6B
+            | 0x6A | 0x6C | 0x69 => Ok(ValType::Ref(reader.read()?)),
+            _ => bail!(reader.original_position(), "invalid value type"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> FromReader<'a> for RefType {
+    fn from_reader(reader: &mut BinaryReader<'a>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let absheapty = |byte, pos| match byte {
+            0x70 => Ok(RefType::FUNC.nullable()),
+            0x6F => Ok(RefType::EXTERN.nullable()),
+            0x6E => Ok(RefType::ANY.nullable()),
+            0x71 => Ok(RefType::NONE.nullable()),
+            0x72 => Ok(RefType::NOEXTERN.nullable()),
+            0x73 => Ok(RefType::NOFUNC.nullable()),
+            0x6D => Ok(RefType::EQ.nullable()),
+            0x6B => Ok(RefType::STRUCT.nullable()),
+            0x6A => Ok(RefType::ARRAY.nullable()),
+            0x6C => Ok(RefType::I31.nullable()),
+            0x69 => Ok(RefType::EXN.nullable()),
+            0x74 => Ok(RefType::NOEXN.nullable()),
+            _ => bail!(pos, "invalid abstract heap type"),
+        };
+
+        // NB: See `FromReader<'a> for ValType` for a table of how this
+        // interacts with other value encodings.
+        match reader.read()? {
+            byte @ (0x70 | 0x6F | 0x6E | 0x71 | 0x72 | 0x73 | 0x6D | 0x6B | 0x6A | 0x6C | 0x69
+            | 0x74) => {
+                let pos = reader.original_position();
+                absheapty(byte, pos)
+            }
+            0x65 => {
+                let byte = reader.read()?;
+                let pos = reader.original_position();
+                Ok(absheapty(byte, pos)?.shared().expect("must be abstract"))
+            }
+            byte @ (0x63 | 0x64) => {
+                let nullable = byte == 0x63;
+                let pos = reader.original_position();
+                RefType::new(nullable, reader.read()?)
+                    .ok_or_else(|| crate::BinaryReaderError::new("type index too large", pos))
+            }
+            _ => bail!(reader.original_position(), "malformed reference type"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> FromReader<'a> for HeapType {
+    fn from_reader(reader: &mut BinaryReader<'a>) -> Result<Self> {
+        // NB: See `FromReader<'a> for ValType` for a table of how this
+        // interacts with other value encodings.
+        match reader.peek()? {
+            0x65 => {
+                reader.read_u8()?;
+                let ty = reader.read()?;
+                Ok(HeapType::Abstract { shared: true, ty })
+            }
+            0x70 | 0x6F | 0x6E | 0x71 | 0x72 | 0x73 | 0x6D | 0x6B | 0x6A | 0x6C | 0x69 | 0x74 => {
+                let ty = reader.read()?;
+                Ok(HeapType::Abstract { shared: false, ty })
+            }
+            _ => {
+                let idx = match u32::try_from(reader.read_var_s33()?) {
+                    Ok(idx) => idx,
+                    Err(_) => {
+                        bail!(reader.original_position(), "invalid indexed ref heap type");
+                    }
+                };
+                let idx = PackedIndex::from_module_index(idx).ok_or_else(|| {
+                    BinaryReaderError::new(
+                        "type index greater than implementation limits",
+                        reader.original_position(),
+                    )
+                })?;
+                Ok(HeapType::Concrete(idx.unpack()))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> FromReader<'a> for AbstractHeapType {
+    fn from_reader(reader: &mut BinaryReader<'a>) -> Result<Self> {
+        use AbstractHeapType::*;
+        match reader.read_u8()? {
+            0x70 => Ok(Func),
+            0x6F => Ok(Extern),
+            0x6E => Ok(Any),
+            0x71 => Ok(None),
+            0x72 => Ok(NoExtern),
+            0x73 => Ok(NoFunc),
+            0x6D => Ok(Eq),
+            0x6B => Ok(Struct),
+            0x6A => Ok(Array),
+            0x6C => Ok(I31),
+            0x69 => Ok(Exn),
+            0x74 => Ok(NoExn),
+            _ => {
+                bail!(reader.original_position(), "invalid abstract heap type");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Represents a table's type.
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub struct TableType {
+    /// The table's element type.
+    pub element_type: RefType,
+    /// Whether or not this is a 64-bit table.
+    ///
+    /// This is part of the memory64 proposal in WebAssembly.
+    pub table64: bool,
+    /// Initial size of this table, in elements.
+    ///
+    /// For 32-bit tables (when `table64` is `false`) this is guaranteed to
+    /// be at most `u32::MAX` for valid types.
+    pub initial: u64,
+    /// Optional maximum size of the table, in elements.
+    ///
+    /// For 32-bit tables (when `table64` is `false`) this is guaranteed to
+    /// be at most `u32::MAX` for valid types.
+    pub maximum: Option<u64>,
+    /// Whether this table is shared or not.
+    ///
+    /// This is included the shared-everything-threads proposal.
+    pub shared: bool,
+}
+
+impl TableType {
+    /// Gets the index type for the table.
+    pub fn index_type(&self) -> ValType {
+        if self.table64 {
+            ValType::I64
+        } else {
+            ValType::I32
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Represents a memory's type.
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub struct MemoryType {
+    /// Whether or not this is a 64-bit memory, using i64 as an index. If this
+    /// is false it's a 32-bit memory using i32 as an index.
+    ///
+    /// This is part of the memory64 proposal in WebAssembly.
+    pub memory64: bool,
+
+    /// Whether or not this is a "shared" memory, indicating that it should be
+    /// send-able across threads and the `maximum` field is always present for
+    /// valid types.
+    ///
+    /// This is part of the threads proposal in WebAssembly.
+    pub shared: bool,
+
+    /// Initial size of this memory, in wasm pages.
+    ///
+    /// For 32-bit memories (when `memory64` is `false`) this is guaranteed to
+    /// be at most `u32::MAX` for valid types.
+    pub initial: u64,
+
+    /// Optional maximum size of this memory, in wasm pages.
+    ///
+    /// For 32-bit memories (when `memory64` is `false`) this is guaranteed to
+    /// be at most `u32::MAX` for valid types. This field is always present for
+    /// valid wasm memories when `shared` is `true`.
+    pub maximum: Option<u64>,
+
+    /// The log base 2 of the memory's custom page size.
+    ///
+    /// Memory pages are, by default, 64KiB large (i.e. 2<sup>16</sup> or
+    /// `65536`).
+    ///
+    /// [The custom-page-sizes proposal] allows changing it to other values.
+    ///
+    /// [The custom-page-sizes proposal]: https://github.com/WebAssembly/custom-page-sizes
+    pub page_size_log2: Option<u32>,
+}
+
+impl MemoryType {
+    /// Gets the index type for the memory.
+    pub fn index_type(&self) -> ValType {
+        if self.memory64 {
+            ValType::I64
+        } else {
+            ValType::I32
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Represents a global's type.
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub struct GlobalType {
+    /// The global's type.
+    pub content_type: ValType,
+    /// Whether or not the global is mutable.
+    pub mutable: bool,
+    /// Whether or not the global is shared.
+    pub shared: bool,
+}
+
+/// Represents a tag kind.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum TagKind {
+    /// The tag is an exception type.
+    Exception,
+}
+
+/// A tag's type.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub struct TagType {
+    /// The kind of tag
+    pub kind: TagKind,
+    /// The function type this tag uses.
+    pub func_type_idx: u32,
+}
+
+/// A reader for the type section of a WebAssembly module.
+pub type TypeSectionReader<'a> = SectionLimited<'a, RecGroup>;
+
+impl<'a> TypeSectionReader<'a> {
+    /// Returns an iterator over this type section which will only yield
+    /// function types and any usage of GC types from the GC proposal will
+    /// be translated into an error.
+    pub fn into_iter_err_on_gc_types(self) -> impl Iterator<Item = Result<FuncType>> + 'a {
+        self.into_iter_with_offsets().map(|item| {
+            let (offset, group) = item?;
+            let mut types = group.into_types();
+            let ty = match (types.next(), types.next()) {
+                (Some(ty), None) => ty,
+                _ => bail!(offset, "gc proposal not supported"),
+            };
+            if !ty.is_final || ty.supertype_idx.is_some() {
+                bail!(offset, "gc proposal not supported");
+            }
+            match ty.composite_type.inner {
+                CompositeInnerType::Func(f) => Ok(f),
+                CompositeInnerType::Array(_) | CompositeInnerType::Struct(_) => {
+                    bail!(offset, "gc proposal not supported");
+                }
+            }
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> FromReader<'a> for CompositeType {
+    fn from_reader(reader: &mut BinaryReader<'a>) -> Result<Self> {
+        read_composite_type(reader.read_u8()?, reader)
+    }
+}
+
+fn read_composite_type(
+    opcode: u8,
+    reader: &mut BinaryReader,
+) -> Result<CompositeType, BinaryReaderError> {
+    // NB: See `FromReader<'a> for ValType` for a table of how this
+    // interacts with other value encodings.
+    let (shared, opcode) = if opcode == 0x65 {
+        (true, reader.read_u8()?)
+    } else {
+        (false, opcode)
+    };
+    let inner = match opcode {
+        0x60 => CompositeInnerType::Func(reader.read()?),
+        0x5e => CompositeInnerType::Array(reader.read()?),
+        0x5f => CompositeInnerType::Struct(reader.read()?),
+        x => return reader.invalid_leading_byte(x, "type"),
+    };
+    Ok(CompositeType { shared, inner })
+}
+
+impl<'a> FromReader<'a> for RecGroup {
+    fn from_reader(reader: &mut BinaryReader<'a>) -> Result<Self> {
+        // NB: See `FromReader<'a> for ValType` for a table of how this
+        // interacts with other value encodings.
+        match reader.peek()? {
+            0x4e => {
+                reader.read_u8()?;
+                let mut iter = reader.read_iter(MAX_WASM_TYPES, "rec group types")?;
+                let mut types = Vec::with_capacity(iter.size_hint().0);
+                let mut offset = iter.reader.original_position();
+                while let Some(ty) = iter.next() {
+                    types.push((offset, ty?));
+                    offset = iter.reader.original_position();
+                }
+                Ok(RecGroup::explicit(types))
+            }
+            _ => Ok(RecGroup::implicit(
+                reader.original_position(),
+                reader.read()?,
+            )),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> FromReader<'a> for SubType {
+    fn from_reader(reader: &mut BinaryReader<'a>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let pos = reader.original_position();
+        // NB: See `FromReader<'a> for ValType` for a table of how this
+        // interacts with other value encodings.
+        Ok(match reader.read_u8()? {
+            opcode @ (0x4f | 0x50) => {
+                let idx_iter = reader.read_iter(MAX_WASM_SUPERTYPES, "supertype idxs")?;
+                let idxs = idx_iter.collect::<Result<Vec<u32>>>()?;
+                if idxs.len() > 1 {
+                    return Err(BinaryReaderError::new(
+                        "multiple supertypes not supported",
+                        pos,
+                    ));
+                }
+                let supertype_idx = idxs
+                    .first()
+                    .copied()
+                    .map(|idx| {
+                        PackedIndex::from_module_index(idx).ok_or_else(|| {
+                            BinaryReaderError::new(
+                                "type index greater than implementation limits",
+                                reader.original_position(),
+                            )
+                        })
+                    })
+                    .transpose()?;
+                SubType {
+                    is_final: opcode == 0x4f,
+                    supertype_idx,
+                    composite_type: read_composite_type(reader.read_u8()?, reader)?,
+                }
+            }
+            opcode => SubType {
+                is_final: true,
+                supertype_idx: None,
+                composite_type: read_composite_type(opcode, reader)?,
+            },
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> FromReader<'a> for FuncType {
+    fn from_reader(reader: &mut BinaryReader<'a>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let mut params_results = reader
+            .read_iter(MAX_WASM_FUNCTION_PARAMS, "function params")?
+            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>>>()?;
+        let len_params = params_results.len();
+        let results = reader.read_iter(MAX_WASM_FUNCTION_RETURNS, "function returns")?;
+        params_results.reserve(results.size_hint().0);
+        for result in results {
+            params_results.push(result?);
+        }
+        Ok(FuncType::from_raw_parts(params_results.into(), len_params))
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> FromReader<'a> for FieldType {
+    fn from_reader(reader: &mut BinaryReader<'a>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let element_type = reader.read()?;
+        let mutable = reader.read_u8()?;
+        Ok(FieldType {
+            element_type,
+            mutable: match mutable {
+                0 => false,
+                1 => true,
+                _ => bail!(
+                    reader.original_position(),
+                    "malformed mutability byte for field type"
+                ),
+            },
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> FromReader<'a> for ArrayType {
+    fn from_reader(reader: &mut BinaryReader<'a>) -> Result<Self> {
+        Ok(ArrayType(FieldType::from_reader(reader)?))
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> FromReader<'a> for StructType {
+    fn from_reader(reader: &mut BinaryReader<'a>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let fields = reader.read_iter(MAX_WASM_STRUCT_FIELDS, "struct fields")?;
+        Ok(StructType {
+            fields: fields.collect::<Result<_>>()?,
+        })
+    }
+}