wasmtime 20.0.2 → 21.0.1

data/ext/cargo-vendor/wasmtime-21.0.1/src/runtime/store.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,2820 @@
+//! Wasmtime's "store" type
+//!
+//! This module, and its submodules, contain the `Store` type and various types
+//! used to interact with it. At first glance this is a pretty confusing module
+//! where you need to know the difference between:
+//!
+//! * `Store<T>`
+//! * `StoreContext<T>`
+//! * `StoreContextMut<T>`
+//! * `AsContext`
+//! * `AsContextMut`
+//! * `StoreInner<T>`
+//! * `StoreOpaque`
+//! * `StoreData`
+//!
+//! There's... quite a lot going on here, and it's easy to be confused. This
+//! comment is ideally going to serve the purpose of clarifying what all these
+//! types are for and why they're motivated.
+//!
+//! First it's important to know what's "internal" and what's "external". Almost
+//! everything above is defined as `pub`, but only some of the items are
+//! reexported to the outside world to be usable from this crate. Otherwise all
+//! items are `pub` within this `store` module, and the `store` module is
+//! private to the `wasmtime` crate. Notably `Store<T>`, `StoreContext<T>`,
+//! `StoreContextMut<T>`, `AsContext`, and `AsContextMut` are all public
+//! interfaces to the `wasmtime` crate. You can think of these as:
+//!
+//! * `Store<T>` - an owned reference to a store, the "root of everything"
+//! * `StoreContext<T>` - basically `&StoreInner<T>`
+//! * `StoreContextMut<T>` - more-or-less `&mut StoreInner<T>` with caveats.
+//!   Explained later.
+//! * `AsContext` - similar to `AsRef`, but produces `StoreContext<T>`
+//! * `AsContextMut` - similar to `AsMut`, but produces `StoreContextMut<T>`
+//!
+//! Next comes the internal structure of the `Store<T>` itself. This looks like:
+//!
+//! * `Store<T>` - this type is just a pointer large. It's primarily just
+//!   intended to be consumed by the outside world. Note that the "just a
+//!   pointer large" is a load-bearing implementation detail in Wasmtime. This
+//!   enables it to store a pointer to its own trait object which doesn't need
+//!   to change over time.
+//!
+//! * `StoreInner<T>` - the first layer of the contents of a `Store<T>`, what's
+//!   stored inside the `Box`. This is the general Rust pattern when one struct
+//!   is a layer over another. The surprising part, though, is that this is
+//!   further subdivided. This structure only contains things which actually
+//!   need `T` itself. The downside of this structure is that it's always
+//!   generic and means that code is monomorphized into consumer crates. We
+//!   strive to have things be as monomorphic as possible in `wasmtime` so this
+//!   type is not heavily used.
+//!
+//! * `StoreOpaque` - this is the primary contents of the `StoreInner<T>` type.
+//!   Stored inline in the outer type the "opaque" here means that it's a
+//!   "store" but it doesn't have access to the `T`. This is the primary
+//!   "internal" reference that Wasmtime uses since `T` is rarely needed by the
+//!   internals of Wasmtime.
+//!
+//! * `StoreData` - this is a final helper struct stored within `StoreOpaque`.
+//!   All references of Wasm items into a `Store` are actually indices into a
+//!   table in this structure, and the `StoreData` being separate makes it a bit
+//!   easier to manage/define/work with. There's no real fundamental reason this
+//!   is split out, although sometimes it's useful to have separate borrows into
+//!   these tables than the `StoreOpaque`.
+//!
+//! A major caveat with these representations is that the internal `&mut
+//! StoreInner<T>` is never handed out publicly to consumers of this crate, only
+//! through a wrapper of `StoreContextMut<'_, T>`. The reason for this is that
+//! we want to provide mutable, but not destructive, access to the contents of a
+//! `Store`. For example if a `StoreInner<T>` were replaced with some other
+//! `StoreInner<T>` then that would drop live instances, possibly those
+//! currently executing beneath the current stack frame. This would not be a
+//! safe operation.
+//!
+//! This means, though, that the `wasmtime` crate, which liberally uses `&mut
+//! StoreOpaque` internally, has to be careful to never actually destroy the
+//! contents of `StoreOpaque`. This is an invariant that we, as the authors of
+//! `wasmtime`, must uphold for the public interface to be safe.
+
+use crate::instance::InstanceData;
+use crate::linker::Definition;
+use crate::module::{BareModuleInfo, RegisteredModuleId};
+use crate::prelude::*;
+use crate::runtime::vm::mpk::{self, ProtectionKey, ProtectionMask};
+use crate::runtime::vm::{
+    Backtrace, ExportGlobal, GcHeapAllocationIndex, GcRootsList, GcStore,
+    InstanceAllocationRequest, InstanceAllocator, InstanceHandle, OnDemandInstanceAllocator,
+    SignalHandler, StoreBox, StorePtr, VMContext, VMFuncRef, VMGcRef, VMRuntimeLimits, WasmFault,
+};
+use crate::trampoline::VMHostGlobalContext;
+use crate::RootSet;
+use crate::{module::ModuleRegistry, Engine, Module, Trap, Val, ValRaw};
+use crate::{Global, Instance, Memory, RootScope, Table};
+use alloc::sync::Arc;
+use anyhow::{anyhow, bail, Result};
+use core::cell::UnsafeCell;
+use core::fmt;
+use core::future::Future;
+use core::marker;
+use core::mem::{self, ManuallyDrop};
+use core::num::NonZeroU64;
+use core::ops::{Deref, DerefMut};
+use core::pin::Pin;
+use core::ptr;
+use core::sync::atomic::AtomicU64;
+use core::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+mod context;
+pub use self::context::*;
+mod data;
+pub use self::data::*;
+mod func_refs;
+use func_refs::FuncRefs;
+
+/// A [`Store`] is a collection of WebAssembly instances and host-defined state.
+///
+/// All WebAssembly instances and items will be attached to and refer to a
+/// [`Store`]. For example instances, functions, globals, and tables are all
+/// attached to a [`Store`]. Instances are created by instantiating a
+/// [`Module`](crate::Module) within a [`Store`].
+///
+/// A [`Store`] is intended to be a short-lived object in a program. No form
+/// of GC is implemented at this time so once an instance is created within a
+/// [`Store`] it will not be deallocated until the [`Store`] itself is dropped.
+/// This makes [`Store`] unsuitable for creating an unbounded number of
+/// instances in it because [`Store`] will never release this memory. It's
+/// recommended to have a [`Store`] correspond roughly to the lifetime of a
+/// "main instance" that an embedding is interested in executing.
+///
+/// ## Type parameter `T`
+///
+/// Each [`Store`] has a type parameter `T` associated with it. This `T`
+/// represents state defined by the host. This state will be accessible through
+/// the [`Caller`](crate::Caller) type that host-defined functions get access
+/// to. This `T` is suitable for storing `Store`-specific information which
+/// imported functions may want access to.
+///
+/// The data `T` can be accessed through methods like [`Store::data`] and
+/// [`Store::data_mut`].
+///
+/// ## Stores, contexts, oh my
+///
+/// Most methods in Wasmtime take something of the form
+/// [`AsContext`](crate::AsContext) or [`AsContextMut`](crate::AsContextMut) as
+/// the first argument. These two traits allow ergonomically passing in the
+/// context you currently have to any method. The primary two sources of
+/// contexts are:
+///
+/// * `Store<T>`
+/// * `Caller<'_, T>`
+///
+/// corresponding to what you create and what you have access to in a host
+/// function. You can also explicitly acquire a [`StoreContext`] or
+/// [`StoreContextMut`] and pass that around as well.
+///
+/// Note that all methods on [`Store`] are mirrored onto [`StoreContext`],
+/// [`StoreContextMut`], and [`Caller`](crate::Caller). This way no matter what
+/// form of context you have you can call various methods, create objects, etc.
+///
+/// ## Stores and `Default`
+///
+/// You can create a store with default configuration settings using
+/// `Store::default()`. This will create a brand new [`Engine`] with default
+/// configuration (see [`Config`](crate::Config) for more information).
+///
+/// ## Cross-store usage of items
+///
+/// In `wasmtime` wasm items such as [`Global`] and [`Memory`] "belong" to a
+/// [`Store`]. The store they belong to is the one they were created with
+/// (passed in as a parameter) or instantiated with. This store is the only
+/// store that can be used to interact with wasm items after they're created.
+///
+/// The `wasmtime` crate will panic if the [`Store`] argument passed in to these
+/// operations is incorrect. In other words it's considered a programmer error
+/// rather than a recoverable error for the wrong [`Store`] to be used when
+/// calling APIs.
+pub struct Store<T> {
+    // for comments about `ManuallyDrop`, see `Store::into_data`
+    inner: ManuallyDrop<Box<StoreInner<T>>>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug)]
+/// Passed to the argument of [`Store::call_hook`] to indicate a state transition in
+/// the WebAssembly VM.
+pub enum CallHook {
+    /// Indicates the VM is calling a WebAssembly function, from the host.
+    CallingWasm,
+    /// Indicates the VM is returning from a WebAssembly function, to the host.
+    ReturningFromWasm,
+    /// Indicates the VM is calling a host function, from WebAssembly.
+    CallingHost,
+    /// Indicates the VM is returning from a host function, to WebAssembly.
+    ReturningFromHost,
+}
+
+impl CallHook {
+    /// Indicates the VM is entering host code (exiting WebAssembly code)
+    pub fn entering_host(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            CallHook::ReturningFromWasm | CallHook::CallingHost => true,
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+    /// Indicates the VM is exiting host code (entering WebAssembly code)
+    pub fn exiting_host(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            CallHook::ReturningFromHost | CallHook::CallingWasm => true,
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Internal contents of a `Store<T>` that live on the heap.
+///
+/// The members of this struct are those that need to be generic over `T`, the
+/// store's internal type storage. Otherwise all things that don't rely on `T`
+/// should go into `StoreOpaque`.
+pub struct StoreInner<T> {
+    /// Generic metadata about the store that doesn't need access to `T`.
+    inner: StoreOpaque,
+
+    limiter: Option<ResourceLimiterInner<T>>,
+    call_hook: Option<CallHookInner<T>>,
+    epoch_deadline_behavior:
+        Option<Box<dyn FnMut(StoreContextMut<T>) -> Result<UpdateDeadline> + Send + Sync>>,
+    // for comments about `ManuallyDrop`, see `Store::into_data`
+    data: ManuallyDrop<T>,
+}
+
+enum ResourceLimiterInner<T> {
+    Sync(Box<dyn FnMut(&mut T) -> &mut (dyn crate::ResourceLimiter) + Send + Sync>),
+    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+    Async(Box<dyn FnMut(&mut T) -> &mut (dyn crate::ResourceLimiterAsync) + Send + Sync>),
+}
+
+/// An object that can take callbacks when the runtime enters or exits hostcalls.
+#[cfg(feature = "async")]
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+pub trait CallHookHandler<T>: Send {
+    /// A callback to run when wasmtime is about to enter a host call, or when about to
+    /// exit the hostcall.
+    async fn handle_call_event(&self, t: &mut T, ch: CallHook) -> Result<()>;
+}
+
+enum CallHookInner<T> {
+    Sync(Box<dyn FnMut(&mut T, CallHook) -> Result<()> + Send + Sync>),
+    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+    Async(Box<dyn CallHookHandler<T> + Send + Sync>),
+}
+
+/// What to do after returning from a callback when the engine epoch reaches
+/// the deadline for a Store during execution of a function using that store.
+pub enum UpdateDeadline {
+    /// Extend the deadline by the specified number of ticks.
+    Continue(u64),
+    /// Extend the deadline by the specified number of ticks after yielding to
+    /// the async executor loop. This can only be used with an async [`Store`]
+    /// configured via [`Config::async_support`](crate::Config::async_support).
+    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+    Yield(u64),
+}
+
+// Forward methods on `StoreOpaque` to also being on `StoreInner<T>`
+impl<T> Deref for StoreInner<T> {
+    type Target = StoreOpaque;
+    fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target {
+        &self.inner
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> DerefMut for StoreInner<T> {
+    fn deref_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Self::Target {
+        &mut self.inner
+    }
+}
+
+/// Monomorphic storage for a `Store<T>`.
+///
+/// This structure contains the bulk of the metadata about a `Store`. This is
+/// used internally in Wasmtime when dependence on the `T` of `Store<T>` isn't
+/// necessary, allowing code to be monomorphic and compiled into the `wasmtime`
+/// crate itself.
+pub struct StoreOpaque {
+    // This `StoreOpaque` structure has references to itself. These aren't
+    // immediately evident, however, so we need to tell the compiler that it
+    // contains self-references. This notably suppresses `noalias` annotations
+    // when this shows up in compiled code because types of this structure do
+    // indeed alias itself. An example of this is `default_callee` holds a
+    // `*mut dyn Store` to the address of this `StoreOpaque` itself, indeed
+    // aliasing!
+    //
+    // It's somewhat unclear to me at this time if this is 100% sufficient to
+    // get all the right codegen in all the right places. For example does
+    // `Store` need to internally contain a `Pin<Box<StoreInner<T>>>`? Do the
+    // contexts need to contain `Pin<&mut StoreInner<T>>`? I'm not familiar
+    // enough with `Pin` to understand if it's appropriate here (we do, for
+    // example want to allow movement in and out of `data: T`, just not movement
+    // of most of the other members). It's also not clear if using `Pin` in a
+    // few places buys us much other than a bunch of `unsafe` that we already
+    // sort of hand-wave away.
+    //
+    // In any case this seems like a good mid-ground for now where we're at
+    // least telling the compiler something about all the aliasing happening
+    // within a `Store`.
+    _marker: marker::PhantomPinned,
+
+    engine: Engine,
+    runtime_limits: VMRuntimeLimits,
+    instances: Vec<StoreInstance>,
+    #[cfg(feature = "component-model")]
+    num_component_instances: usize,
+    signal_handler: Option<Box<SignalHandler<'static>>>,
+    modules: ModuleRegistry,
+    func_refs: FuncRefs,
+    host_globals: Vec<StoreBox<VMHostGlobalContext>>,
+
+    // GC-related fields.
+    gc_store: Option<GcStore>,
+    gc_roots: RootSet,
+    gc_roots_list: GcRootsList,
+
+    // Numbers of resources instantiated in this store, and their limits
+    instance_count: usize,
+    instance_limit: usize,
+    memory_count: usize,
+    memory_limit: usize,
+    table_count: usize,
+    table_limit: usize,
+    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+    async_state: AsyncState,
+    // If fuel_yield_interval is enabled, then we store the remaining fuel (that isn't in
+    // runtime_limits) here. The total amount of fuel is the runtime limits and reserve added
+    // together. Then when we run out of gas, we inject the yield amount from the reserve
+    // until the reserve is empty.
+    fuel_reserve: u64,
+    fuel_yield_interval: Option<NonZeroU64>,
+    /// Indexed data within this `Store`, used to store information about
+    /// globals, functions, memories, etc.
+    ///
+    /// Note that this is `ManuallyDrop` because it needs to be dropped before
+    /// `rooted_host_funcs` below. This structure contains pointers which are
+    /// otherwise kept alive by the `Arc` references in `rooted_host_funcs`.
+    store_data: ManuallyDrop<StoreData>,
+    default_caller: InstanceHandle,
+
+    /// Used to optimzed wasm->host calls when the host function is defined with
+    /// `Func::new` to avoid allocating a new vector each time a function is
+    /// called.
+    hostcall_val_storage: Vec<Val>,
+    /// Same as `hostcall_val_storage`, but for the direction of the host
+    /// calling wasm.
+    wasm_val_raw_storage: Vec<ValRaw>,
+
+    /// A list of lists of definitions which have been used to instantiate
+    /// within this `Store`.
+    ///
+    /// Note that not all instantiations end up pushing to this list. At the
+    /// time of this writing only the `InstancePre<T>` type will push to this
+    /// list. Pushes to this list are typically accompanied with
+    /// `HostFunc::to_func_store_rooted` to clone an `Arc` here once which
+    /// preserves a strong reference to the `Arc` for each `HostFunc` stored
+    /// within the list of `Definition`s.
+    ///
+    /// Note that this is `ManuallyDrop` as it must be dropped after
+    /// `store_data` above, where the function pointers are stored.
+    rooted_host_funcs: ManuallyDrop<Vec<Arc<[Definition]>>>,
+
+    /// Keep track of what protection key is being used during allocation so
+    /// that the right memory pages can be enabled when entering WebAssembly
+    /// guest code.
+    pkey: Option<ProtectionKey>,
+
+    /// Runtime state for components used in the handling of resources, borrow,
+    /// and calls. These also interact with the `ResourceAny` type and its
+    /// internal representation.
+    #[cfg(feature = "component-model")]
+    component_host_table: crate::runtime::vm::component::ResourceTable,
+    #[cfg(feature = "component-model")]
+    component_calls: crate::runtime::vm::component::CallContexts,
+    #[cfg(feature = "component-model")]
+    host_resource_data: crate::component::HostResourceData,
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "async")]
+struct AsyncState {
+    current_suspend: UnsafeCell<*mut wasmtime_fiber::Suspend<Result<()>, (), Result<()>>>,
+    current_poll_cx: UnsafeCell<*mut Context<'static>>,
+}
+
+// Lots of pesky unsafe cells and pointers in this structure. This means we need
+// to declare explicitly that we use this in a threadsafe fashion.
+#[cfg(feature = "async")]
+unsafe impl Send for AsyncState {}
+#[cfg(feature = "async")]
+unsafe impl Sync for AsyncState {}
+
+/// An RAII type to automatically mark a region of code as unsafe for GC.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub struct AutoAssertNoGc<'a> {
+    store: &'a mut StoreOpaque,
+    entered: bool,
+}
+
+impl<'a> AutoAssertNoGc<'a> {
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn new(store: &'a mut StoreOpaque) -> Self {
+        let entered = if let Some(gc_store) = store.gc_store.as_mut() {
+            gc_store.gc_heap.enter_no_gc_scope();
+            true
+        } else {
+            false
+        };
+
+        AutoAssertNoGc { store, entered }
+    }
+}
+
+impl core::ops::Deref for AutoAssertNoGc<'_> {
+    type Target = StoreOpaque;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target {
+        &*self.store
+    }
+}
+
+impl core::ops::DerefMut for AutoAssertNoGc<'_> {
+    #[inline]
+    fn deref_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Self::Target {
+        &mut *self.store
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for AutoAssertNoGc<'_> {
+    #[inline]
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        if self.entered {
+            self.store.unwrap_gc_store_mut().gc_heap.exit_no_gc_scope();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Used to associate instances with the store.
+///
+/// This is needed to track if the instance was allocated explicitly with the on-demand
+/// instance allocator.
+struct StoreInstance {
+    handle: InstanceHandle,
+    kind: StoreInstanceKind,
+}
+
+enum StoreInstanceKind {
+    /// An actual, non-dummy instance.
+    Real {
+        /// The id of this instance's module inside our owning store's
+        /// `ModuleRegistry`.
+        module_id: RegisteredModuleId,
+    },
+
+    /// This is a dummy instance that is just an implementation detail for
+    /// something else. For example, host-created memories internally create a
+    /// dummy instance.
+    ///
+    /// Regardless of the configured instance allocator for the engine, dummy
+    /// instances always use the on-demand allocator to deallocate the instance.
+    Dummy,
+}
+
+impl<T> Store<T> {
+    /// Creates a new [`Store`] to be associated with the given [`Engine`] and
+    /// `data` provided.
+    ///
+    /// The created [`Store`] will place no additional limits on the size of
+    /// linear memories or tables at runtime. Linear memories and tables will
+    /// be allowed to grow to any upper limit specified in their definitions.
+    /// The store will limit the number of instances, linear memories, and
+    /// tables created to 10,000. This can be overridden with the
+    /// [`Store::limiter`] configuration method.
+    pub fn new(engine: &Engine, data: T) -> Self {
+        let pkey = engine.allocator().next_available_pkey();
+
+        let mut inner = Box::new(StoreInner {
+            inner: StoreOpaque {
+                _marker: marker::PhantomPinned,
+                engine: engine.clone(),
+                runtime_limits: Default::default(),
+                instances: Vec::new(),
+                #[cfg(feature = "component-model")]
+                num_component_instances: 0,
+                signal_handler: None,
+                gc_store: None,
+                gc_roots: RootSet::default(),
+                gc_roots_list: GcRootsList::default(),
+                modules: ModuleRegistry::default(),
+                func_refs: FuncRefs::default(),
+                host_globals: Vec::new(),
+                instance_count: 0,
+                instance_limit: crate::DEFAULT_INSTANCE_LIMIT,
+                memory_count: 0,
+                memory_limit: crate::DEFAULT_MEMORY_LIMIT,
+                table_count: 0,
+                table_limit: crate::DEFAULT_TABLE_LIMIT,
+                #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+                async_state: AsyncState {
+                    current_suspend: UnsafeCell::new(ptr::null_mut()),
+                    current_poll_cx: UnsafeCell::new(ptr::null_mut()),
+                },
+                fuel_reserve: 0,
+                fuel_yield_interval: None,
+                store_data: ManuallyDrop::new(StoreData::new()),
+                default_caller: InstanceHandle::null(),
+                hostcall_val_storage: Vec::new(),
+                wasm_val_raw_storage: Vec::new(),
+                rooted_host_funcs: ManuallyDrop::new(Vec::new()),
+                pkey,
+                #[cfg(feature = "component-model")]
+                component_host_table: Default::default(),
+                #[cfg(feature = "component-model")]
+                component_calls: Default::default(),
+                #[cfg(feature = "component-model")]
+                host_resource_data: Default::default(),
+            },
+            limiter: None,
+            call_hook: None,
+            epoch_deadline_behavior: None,
+            data: ManuallyDrop::new(data),
+        });
+
+        // Wasmtime uses the callee argument to host functions to learn about
+        // the original pointer to the `Store` itself, allowing it to
+        // reconstruct a `StoreContextMut<T>`. When we initially call a `Func`,
+        // however, there's no "callee" to provide. To fix this we allocate a
+        // single "default callee" for the entire `Store`. This is then used as
+        // part of `Func::call` to guarantee that the `callee: *mut VMContext`
+        // is never null.
+        inner.default_caller = {
+            let module = Arc::new(wasmtime_environ::Module::default());
+            let shim = BareModuleInfo::empty(module).into_traitobj();
+            let allocator = OnDemandInstanceAllocator::default();
+            allocator
+                .validate_module(shim.module(), shim.offsets())
+                .unwrap();
+            let mut instance = unsafe {
+                allocator
+                    .allocate_module(InstanceAllocationRequest {
+                        host_state: Box::new(()),
+                        imports: Default::default(),
+                        store: StorePtr::empty(),
+                        runtime_info: &shim,
+                        wmemcheck: engine.config().wmemcheck,
+                        pkey: None,
+                    })
+                    .expect("failed to allocate default callee")
+            };
+
+            // Note the erasure of the lifetime here into `'static`, so in
+            // general usage of this trait object must be strictly bounded to
+            // the `Store` itself, and is a variant that we have to maintain
+            // throughout Wasmtime.
+            unsafe {
+                let traitobj = mem::transmute::<
+                    *mut (dyn crate::runtime::vm::Store + '_),
+                    *mut (dyn crate::runtime::vm::Store + 'static),
+                >(&mut *inner);
+                instance.set_store(traitobj);
+            }
+            instance
+        };
+
+        Self {
+            inner: ManuallyDrop::new(inner),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Access the underlying data owned by this `Store`.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn data(&self) -> &T {
+        self.inner.data()
+    }
+
+    /// Access the underlying data owned by this `Store`.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn data_mut(&mut self) -> &mut T {
+        self.inner.data_mut()
+    }
+
+    /// Consumes this [`Store`], destroying it, and returns the underlying data.
+    pub fn into_data(mut self) -> T {
+        // This is an unsafe operation because we want to avoid having a runtime
+        // check or boolean for whether the data is actually contained within a
+        // `Store`. The data itself is stored as `ManuallyDrop` since we're
+        // manually managing the memory here, and there's also a `ManuallyDrop`
+        // around the `Box<StoreInner<T>>`. The way this works though is a bit
+        // tricky, so here's how things get dropped appropriately:
+        //
+        // * When a `Store<T>` is normally dropped, the custom destructor for
+        //   `Store<T>` will drop `T`, then the `self.inner` field. The
+        //   rustc-glue destructor runs for `Box<StoreInner<T>>` which drops
+        //   `StoreInner<T>`. This cleans up all internal fields and doesn't
+        //   touch `T` because it's wrapped in `ManuallyDrop`.
+        //
+        // * When calling this method we skip the top-level destructor for
+        //   `Store<T>` with `mem::forget`. This skips both the destructor for
+        //   `T` and the destructor for `StoreInner<T>`. We do, however, run the
+        //   destructor for `Box<StoreInner<T>>` which, like above, will skip
+        //   the destructor for `T` since it's `ManuallyDrop`.
+        //
+        // In both cases all the other fields of `StoreInner<T>` should all get
+        // dropped, and the manual management of destructors is basically
+        // between this method and `Drop for Store<T>`. Note that this also
+        // means that `Drop for StoreInner<T>` cannot access `self.data`, so
+        // there is a comment indicating this as well.
+        unsafe {
+            let mut inner = ManuallyDrop::take(&mut self.inner);
+            core::mem::forget(self);
+            ManuallyDrop::take(&mut inner.data)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Configures the [`ResourceLimiter`] used to limit resource creation
+    /// within this [`Store`].
+    ///
+    /// Whenever resources such as linear memory, tables, or instances are
+    /// allocated the `limiter` specified here is invoked with the store's data
+    /// `T` and the returned [`ResourceLimiter`] is used to limit the operation
+    /// being allocated. The returned [`ResourceLimiter`] is intended to live
+    /// within the `T` itself, for example by storing a
+    /// [`StoreLimits`](crate::StoreLimits).
+    ///
+    /// Note that this limiter is only used to limit the creation/growth of
+    /// resources in the future, this does not retroactively attempt to apply
+    /// limits to the [`Store`].
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use wasmtime::*;
+    ///
+    /// struct MyApplicationState {
+    ///     my_state: u32,
+    ///     limits: StoreLimits,
+    /// }
+    ///
+    /// let engine = Engine::default();
+    /// let my_state = MyApplicationState {
+    ///     my_state: 42,
+    ///     limits: StoreLimitsBuilder::new()
+    ///         .memory_size(1 << 20 /* 1 MB */)
+    ///         .instances(2)
+    ///         .build(),
+    /// };
+    /// let mut store = Store::new(&engine, my_state);
+    /// store.limiter(|state| &mut state.limits);
+    ///
+    /// // Creation of smaller memories is allowed
+    /// Memory::new(&mut store, MemoryType::new(1, None)).unwrap();
+    ///
+    /// // Creation of a larger memory, however, will exceed the 1MB limit we've
+    /// // configured
+    /// assert!(Memory::new(&mut store, MemoryType::new(1000, None)).is_err());
+    ///
+    /// // The number of instances in this store is limited to 2, so the third
+    /// // instance here should fail.
+    /// let module = Module::new(&engine, "(module)").unwrap();
+    /// assert!(Instance::new(&mut store, &module, &[]).is_ok());
+    /// assert!(Instance::new(&mut store, &module, &[]).is_ok());
+    /// assert!(Instance::new(&mut store, &module, &[]).is_err());
+    /// ```
+    ///
+    /// [`ResourceLimiter`]: crate::ResourceLimiter
+    pub fn limiter(
+        &mut self,
+        mut limiter: impl FnMut(&mut T) -> &mut (dyn crate::ResourceLimiter) + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    ) {
+        // Apply the limits on instances, tables, and memory given by the limiter:
+        let inner = &mut self.inner;
+        let (instance_limit, table_limit, memory_limit) = {
+            let l = limiter(&mut inner.data);
+            (l.instances(), l.tables(), l.memories())
+        };
+        let innermost = &mut inner.inner;
+        innermost.instance_limit = instance_limit;
+        innermost.table_limit = table_limit;
+        innermost.memory_limit = memory_limit;
+
+        // Save the limiter accessor function:
+        inner.limiter = Some(ResourceLimiterInner::Sync(Box::new(limiter)));
+    }
+
+    /// Configures the [`ResourceLimiterAsync`](crate::ResourceLimiterAsync)
+    /// used to limit resource creation within this [`Store`].
+    ///
+    /// This method is an asynchronous variant of the [`Store::limiter`] method
+    /// where the embedder can block the wasm request for more resources with
+    /// host `async` execution of futures.
+    ///
+    /// By using a [`ResourceLimiterAsync`](`crate::ResourceLimiterAsync`)
+    /// with a [`Store`], you can no longer use
+    /// [`Memory::new`](`crate::Memory::new`),
+    /// [`Memory::grow`](`crate::Memory::grow`),
+    /// [`Table::new`](`crate::Table::new`), and
+    /// [`Table::grow`](`crate::Table::grow`). Instead, you must use their
+    /// `async` variants: [`Memory::new_async`](`crate::Memory::new_async`),
+    /// [`Memory::grow_async`](`crate::Memory::grow_async`),
+    /// [`Table::new_async`](`crate::Table::new_async`), and
+    /// [`Table::grow_async`](`crate::Table::grow_async`).
+    ///
+    /// Note that this limiter is only used to limit the creation/growth of
+    /// resources in the future, this does not retroactively attempt to apply
+    /// limits to the [`Store`]. Additionally this must be used with an async
+    /// [`Store`] configured via
+    /// [`Config::async_support`](crate::Config::async_support).
+    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+    pub fn limiter_async(
+        &mut self,
+        mut limiter: impl FnMut(&mut T) -> &mut (dyn crate::ResourceLimiterAsync)
+            + Send
+            + Sync
+            + 'static,
+    ) {
+        debug_assert!(self.inner.async_support());
+        // Apply the limits on instances, tables, and memory given by the limiter:
+        let inner = &mut self.inner;
+        let (instance_limit, table_limit, memory_limit) = {
+            let l = limiter(&mut inner.data);
+            (l.instances(), l.tables(), l.memories())
+        };
+        let innermost = &mut inner.inner;
+        innermost.instance_limit = instance_limit;
+        innermost.table_limit = table_limit;
+        innermost.memory_limit = memory_limit;
+
+        // Save the limiter accessor function:
+        inner.limiter = Some(ResourceLimiterInner::Async(Box::new(limiter)));
+    }
+
+    /// Configures an async function that runs on calls and returns between
+    /// WebAssembly and host code. For the non-async equivalent of this method,
+    /// see [`Store::call_hook`].
+    ///
+    /// The function is passed a [`CallHook`] argument, which indicates which
+    /// state transition the VM is making.
+    ///
+    /// This function's future may return a [`Trap`]. If a trap is returned
+    /// when an import was called, it is immediately raised as-if the host
+    /// import had returned the trap. If a trap is returned after wasm returns
+    /// to the host then the wasm function's result is ignored and this trap is
+    /// returned instead.
+    ///
+    /// After this function returns a trap, it may be called for subsequent
+    /// returns to host or wasm code as the trap propagates to the root call.
+    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+    pub fn call_hook_async(&mut self, hook: impl CallHookHandler<T> + Send + Sync + 'static) {
+        self.inner.call_hook = Some(CallHookInner::Async(Box::new(hook)));
+    }
+
+    /// Configure a function that runs on calls and returns between WebAssembly
+    /// and host code.
+    ///
+    /// The function is passed a [`CallHook`] argument, which indicates which
+    /// state transition the VM is making.
+    ///
+    /// This function may return a [`Trap`]. If a trap is returned when an
+    /// import was called, it is immediately raised as-if the host import had
+    /// returned the trap. If a trap is returned after wasm returns to the host
+    /// then the wasm function's result is ignored and this trap is returned
+    /// instead.
+    ///
+    /// After this function returns a trap, it may be called for subsequent returns
+    /// to host or wasm code as the trap propagates to the root call.
+    pub fn call_hook(
+        &mut self,
+        hook: impl FnMut(&mut T, CallHook) -> Result<()> + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    ) {
+        self.inner.call_hook = Some(CallHookInner::Sync(Box::new(hook)));
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the [`Engine`] that this store is associated with.
+    pub fn engine(&self) -> &Engine {
+        self.inner.engine()
+    }
+
+    /// Perform garbage collection.
+    ///
+    /// Note that it is not required to actively call this function. GC will
+    /// automatically happen according to various internal heuristics. This is
+    /// provided if fine-grained control over the GC is desired.
+    ///
+    /// This method is only available when the `gc` Cargo feature is enabled.
+    #[cfg(feature = "gc")]
+    pub fn gc(&mut self) {
+        self.inner.gc()
+    }
+
+    /// Perform garbage collection asynchronously.
+    ///
+    /// Note that it is not required to actively call this function. GC will
+    /// automatically happen according to various internal heuristics. This is
+    /// provided if fine-grained control over the GC is desired.
+    ///
+    /// This method is only available when the `gc` Cargo feature is enabled.
+    #[cfg(all(feature = "async", feature = "gc"))]
+    pub async fn gc_async(&mut self)
+    where
+        T: Send,
+    {
+        self.inner.gc_async().await;
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the amount fuel in this [`Store`]. When fuel is enabled, it must
+    /// be configured via [`Store::set_fuel`].
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// This function will return an error if fuel consumption is not enabled
+    /// via [`Config::consume_fuel`](crate::Config::consume_fuel).
+    pub fn get_fuel(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        self.inner.get_fuel()
+    }
+
+    /// Set the fuel to this [`Store`] for wasm to consume while executing.
+    ///
+    /// For this method to work fuel consumption must be enabled via
+    /// [`Config::consume_fuel`](crate::Config::consume_fuel). By default a
+    /// [`Store`] starts with 0 fuel for wasm to execute with (meaning it will
+    /// immediately trap). This function must be called for the store to have
+    /// some fuel to allow WebAssembly to execute.
+    ///
+    /// Most WebAssembly instructions consume 1 unit of fuel. Some
+    /// instructions, such as `nop`, `drop`, `block`, and `loop`, consume 0
+    /// units, as any execution cost associated with them involves other
+    /// instructions which do consume fuel.
+    ///
+    /// Note that when fuel is entirely consumed it will cause wasm to trap.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// This function will return an error if fuel consumption is not enabled via
+    /// [`Config::consume_fuel`](crate::Config::consume_fuel).
+    pub fn set_fuel(&mut self, fuel: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        self.inner.set_fuel(fuel)
+    }
+
+    /// Configures a [`Store`] to yield execution of async WebAssembly code
+    /// periodically.
+    ///
+    /// When a [`Store`] is configured to consume fuel with
+    /// [`Config::consume_fuel`](crate::Config::consume_fuel) this method will
+    /// configure WebAssembly to be suspended and control will be yielded back to the
+    /// caller every `interval` units of fuel consumed. This is only suitable with use of
+    /// a store associated with an [async config](crate::Config::async_support) because
+    /// only then are futures used and yields are possible.
+    ///
+    /// The purpose of this behavior is to ensure that futures which represent
+    /// execution of WebAssembly do not execute too long inside their
+    /// `Future::poll` method. This allows for some form of cooperative
+    /// multitasking where WebAssembly will voluntarily yield control
+    /// periodically (based on fuel consumption) back to the running thread.
+    ///
+    /// Note that futures returned by this crate will automatically flag
+    /// themselves to get re-polled if a yield happens. This means that
+    /// WebAssembly will continue to execute, just after giving the host an
+    /// opportunity to do something else.
+    ///
+    /// The `interval` parameter indicates how much fuel should be
+    /// consumed between yields of an async future. When fuel runs out wasm will trap.
+    ///
+    /// # Error
+    ///
+    /// This method will error if it is not called on a store associated with an [async
+    /// config](crate::Config::async_support).
+    pub fn fuel_async_yield_interval(&mut self, interval: Option<u64>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.inner.fuel_async_yield_interval(interval)
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the epoch deadline to a certain number of ticks in the future.
+    ///
+    /// When the Wasm guest code is compiled with epoch-interruption
+    /// instrumentation
+    /// ([`Config::epoch_interruption()`](crate::Config::epoch_interruption)),
+    /// and when the `Engine`'s epoch is incremented
+    /// ([`Engine::increment_epoch()`](crate::Engine::increment_epoch))
+    /// past a deadline, execution can be configured to either trap or
+    /// yield and then continue.
+    ///
+    /// This deadline is always set relative to the current epoch:
+    /// `delta_beyond_current` ticks in the future. The deadline can
+    /// be set explicitly via this method, or refilled automatically
+    /// on a yield if configured via
+    /// [`epoch_deadline_async_yield_and_update()`](Store::epoch_deadline_async_yield_and_update). After
+    /// this method is invoked, the deadline is reached when
+    /// [`Engine::increment_epoch()`] has been invoked at least
+    /// `ticks_beyond_current` times.
+    ///
+    /// By default a store will trap immediately with an epoch deadline of 0
+    /// (which has always "elapsed"). This method is required to be configured
+    /// for stores with epochs enabled to some future epoch deadline.
+    ///
+    /// See documentation on
+    /// [`Config::epoch_interruption()`](crate::Config::epoch_interruption)
+    /// for an introduction to epoch-based interruption.
+    pub fn set_epoch_deadline(&mut self, ticks_beyond_current: u64) {
+        self.inner.set_epoch_deadline(ticks_beyond_current);
+    }
+
+    /// Configures epoch-deadline expiration to trap.
+    ///
+    /// When epoch-interruption-instrumented code is executed on this
+    /// store and the epoch deadline is reached before completion,
+    /// with the store configured in this way, execution will
+    /// terminate with a trap as soon as an epoch check in the
+    /// instrumented code is reached.
+    ///
+    /// This behavior is the default if the store is not otherwise
+    /// configured via
+    /// [`epoch_deadline_trap()`](Store::epoch_deadline_trap),
+    /// [`epoch_deadline_callback()`](Store::epoch_deadline_callback) or
+    /// [`epoch_deadline_async_yield_and_update()`](Store::epoch_deadline_async_yield_and_update).
+    ///
+    /// This setting is intended to allow for coarse-grained
+    /// interruption, but not a deterministic deadline of a fixed,
+    /// finite interval. For deterministic interruption, see the
+    /// "fuel" mechanism instead.
+    ///
+    /// Note that when this is used it's required to call
+    /// [`Store::set_epoch_deadline`] or otherwise wasm will always immediately
+    /// trap.
+    ///
+    /// See documentation on
+    /// [`Config::epoch_interruption()`](crate::Config::epoch_interruption)
+    /// for an introduction to epoch-based interruption.
+    pub fn epoch_deadline_trap(&mut self) {
+        self.inner.epoch_deadline_trap();
+    }
+
+    /// Configures epoch-deadline expiration to invoke a custom callback
+    /// function.
+    ///
+    /// When epoch-interruption-instrumented code is executed on this
+    /// store and the epoch deadline is reached before completion, the
+    /// provided callback function is invoked.
+    ///
+    /// This callback should either return an [`UpdateDeadline`], or
+    /// return an error, which will terminate execution with a trap.
+    ///
+    /// The [`UpdateDeadline`] is a positive number of ticks to
+    /// add to the epoch deadline, as well as indicating what
+    /// to do after the callback returns. If the [`Store`] is
+    /// configured with async support, then the callback may return
+    /// [`UpdateDeadline::Yield`] to yield to the async executor before
+    /// updating the epoch deadline. Alternatively, the callback may
+    /// return [`UpdateDeadline::Continue`] to update the epoch deadline
+    /// immediately.
+    ///
+    /// This setting is intended to allow for coarse-grained
+    /// interruption, but not a deterministic deadline of a fixed,
+    /// finite interval. For deterministic interruption, see the
+    /// "fuel" mechanism instead.
+    ///
+    /// See documentation on
+    /// [`Config::epoch_interruption()`](crate::Config::epoch_interruption)
+    /// for an introduction to epoch-based interruption.
+    pub fn epoch_deadline_callback(
+        &mut self,
+        callback: impl FnMut(StoreContextMut<T>) -> Result<UpdateDeadline> + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    ) {
+        self.inner.epoch_deadline_callback(Box::new(callback));
+    }
+
+    /// Configures epoch-deadline expiration to yield to the async
+    /// caller and the update the deadline.
+    ///
+    /// When epoch-interruption-instrumented code is executed on this
+    /// store and the epoch deadline is reached before completion,
+    /// with the store configured in this way, execution will yield
+    /// (the future will return `Pending` but re-awake itself for
+    /// later execution) and, upon resuming, the store will be
+    /// configured with an epoch deadline equal to the current epoch
+    /// plus `delta` ticks.
+    ///
+    /// This setting is intended to allow for cooperative timeslicing
+    /// of multiple CPU-bound Wasm guests in different stores, all
+    /// executing under the control of an async executor. To drive
+    /// this, stores should be configured to "yield and update"
+    /// automatically with this function, and some external driver (a
+    /// thread that wakes up periodically, or a timer
+    /// signal/interrupt) should call
+    /// [`Engine::increment_epoch()`](crate::Engine::increment_epoch).
+    ///
+    /// See documentation on
+    /// [`Config::epoch_interruption()`](crate::Config::epoch_interruption)
+    /// for an introduction to epoch-based interruption.
+    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+    pub fn epoch_deadline_async_yield_and_update(&mut self, delta: u64) {
+        self.inner.epoch_deadline_async_yield_and_update(delta);
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a, T> StoreContext<'a, T> {
+    pub(crate) fn async_support(&self) -> bool {
+        self.0.async_support()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the underlying [`Engine`] this store is connected to.
+    pub fn engine(&self) -> &Engine {
+        self.0.engine()
+    }
+
+    /// Access the underlying data owned by this `Store`.
+    ///
+    /// Same as [`Store::data`].
+    pub fn data(&self) -> &'a T {
+        self.0.data()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the remaining fuel in this store.
+    ///
+    /// For more information see [`Store::get_fuel`].
+    pub fn get_fuel(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        self.0.get_fuel()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a, T> StoreContextMut<'a, T> {
+    /// Access the underlying data owned by this `Store`.
+    ///
+    /// Same as [`Store::data`].
+    pub fn data(&self) -> &T {
+        self.0.data()
+    }
+
+    /// Access the underlying data owned by this `Store`.
+    ///
+    /// Same as [`Store::data_mut`].
+    pub fn data_mut(&mut self) -> &mut T {
+        self.0.data_mut()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the underlying [`Engine`] this store is connected to.
+    pub fn engine(&self) -> &Engine {
+        self.0.engine()
+    }
+
+    /// Perform garbage collection of `ExternRef`s.
+    ///
+    /// Same as [`Store::gc`].
+    ///
+    /// This method is only available when the `gc` Cargo feature is enabled.
+    #[cfg(feature = "gc")]
+    pub fn gc(&mut self) {
+        self.0.gc()
+    }
+
+    /// Perform garbage collection of `ExternRef`s.
+    ///
+    /// Same as [`Store::gc`].
+    ///
+    /// This method is only available when the `gc` Cargo feature is enabled.
+    #[cfg(all(feature = "async", feature = "gc"))]
+    pub async fn gc_async(&mut self)
+    where
+        T: Send,
+    {
+        self.0.gc_async().await;
+    }
+
+    /// Returns remaining fuel in this store.
+    ///
+    /// For more information see [`Store::get_fuel`]
+    pub fn get_fuel(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        self.0.get_fuel()
+    }
+
+    /// Set the amount of fuel in this store.
+    ///
+    /// For more information see [`Store::set_fuel`]
+    pub fn set_fuel(&mut self, fuel: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        self.0.set_fuel(fuel)
+    }
+
+    /// Configures this `Store` to periodically yield while executing futures.
+    ///
+    /// For more information see [`Store::fuel_async_yield_interval`]
+    pub fn fuel_async_yield_interval(&mut self, interval: Option<u64>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.0.fuel_async_yield_interval(interval)
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the epoch deadline to a certain number of ticks in the future.
+    ///
+    /// For more information see [`Store::set_epoch_deadline`].
+    pub fn set_epoch_deadline(&mut self, ticks_beyond_current: u64) {
+        self.0.set_epoch_deadline(ticks_beyond_current);
+    }
+
+    /// Configures epoch-deadline expiration to trap.
+    ///
+    /// For more information see [`Store::epoch_deadline_trap`].
+    pub fn epoch_deadline_trap(&mut self) {
+        self.0.epoch_deadline_trap();
+    }
+
+    /// Configures epoch-deadline expiration to yield to the async
+    /// caller and the update the deadline.
+    ///
+    /// For more information see
+    /// [`Store::epoch_deadline_async_yield_and_update`].
+    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+    pub fn epoch_deadline_async_yield_and_update(&mut self, delta: u64) {
+        self.0.epoch_deadline_async_yield_and_update(delta);
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> StoreInner<T> {
+    #[inline]
+    fn data(&self) -> &T {
+        &self.data
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn data_mut(&mut self) -> &mut T {
+        &mut self.data
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn call_hook(&mut self, s: CallHook) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.inner.pkey.is_none() && self.call_hook.is_none() {
+            Ok(())
+        } else {
+            self.call_hook_slow_path(s)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn call_hook_slow_path(&mut self, s: CallHook) -> Result<()> {
+        if let Some(pkey) = &self.inner.pkey {
+            let allocator = self.engine().allocator();
+            match s {
+                CallHook::CallingWasm | CallHook::ReturningFromHost => {
+                    allocator.restrict_to_pkey(*pkey)
+                }
+                CallHook::ReturningFromWasm | CallHook::CallingHost => allocator.allow_all_pkeys(),
+            }
+        }
+
+        match &mut self.call_hook {
+            Some(CallHookInner::Sync(hook)) => hook(&mut self.data, s),
+
+            #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+            Some(CallHookInner::Async(handler)) => unsafe {
+                Ok(self
+                    .inner
+                    .async_cx()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| anyhow!("couldn't grab async_cx for call hook"))?
+                    .block_on(handler.handle_call_event(&mut self.data, s).as_mut())??)
+            },
+
+            None => Ok(()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn get_fuel(injected_fuel: i64, fuel_reserve: u64) -> u64 {
+    fuel_reserve.saturating_add_signed(-injected_fuel)
+}
+
+// Add remaining fuel from the reserve into the active fuel if there is any left.
+fn refuel(
+    injected_fuel: &mut i64,
+    fuel_reserve: &mut u64,
+    yield_interval: Option<NonZeroU64>,
+) -> bool {
+    let fuel = get_fuel(*injected_fuel, *fuel_reserve);
+    if fuel > 0 {
+        set_fuel(injected_fuel, fuel_reserve, yield_interval, fuel);
+        true
+    } else {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+fn set_fuel(
+    injected_fuel: &mut i64,
+    fuel_reserve: &mut u64,
+    yield_interval: Option<NonZeroU64>,
+    new_fuel_amount: u64,
+) {
+    let interval = yield_interval.unwrap_or(NonZeroU64::MAX).get();
+    // If we're yielding periodically we only store the "active" amount of fuel into consumed_ptr
+    // for the VM to use.
+    let injected = core::cmp::min(interval, new_fuel_amount);
+    // Fuel in the VM is stored as an i64, so we have to cap the amount of fuel we inject into the
+    // VM at once to be i64 range.
+    let injected = core::cmp::min(injected, i64::MAX as u64);
+    // Add whatever is left over after injection to the reserve for later use.
+    *fuel_reserve = new_fuel_amount - injected;
+    // Within the VM we increment to count fuel, so inject a negative amount. The VM will halt when
+    // this counter is positive.
+    *injected_fuel = -(injected as i64);
+}
+
+#[doc(hidden)]
+impl StoreOpaque {
+    pub fn id(&self) -> StoreId {
+        self.store_data.id()
+    }
+
+    pub fn bump_resource_counts(&mut self, module: &Module) -> Result<()> {
+        fn bump(slot: &mut usize, max: usize, amt: usize, desc: &str) -> Result<()> {
+            let new = slot.saturating_add(amt);
+            if new > max {
+                bail!(
+                    "resource limit exceeded: {} count too high at {}",
+                    desc,
+                    new
+                );
+            }
+            *slot = new;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+
+        let module = module.env_module();
+        let memories = module.memory_plans.len() - module.num_imported_memories;
+        let tables = module.table_plans.len() - module.num_imported_tables;
+
+        bump(&mut self.instance_count, self.instance_limit, 1, "instance")?;
+        bump(
+            &mut self.memory_count,
+            self.memory_limit,
+            memories,
+            "memory",
+        )?;
+        bump(&mut self.table_count, self.table_limit, tables, "table")?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn async_support(&self) -> bool {
+        cfg!(feature = "async") && self.engine().config().async_support
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn engine(&self) -> &Engine {
+        &self.engine
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn store_data(&self) -> &StoreData {
+        &self.store_data
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn store_data_mut(&mut self) -> &mut StoreData {
+        &mut self.store_data
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn modules(&self) -> &ModuleRegistry {
+        &self.modules
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn modules_mut(&mut self) -> &mut ModuleRegistry {
+        &mut self.modules
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn func_refs(&mut self) -> &mut FuncRefs {
+        &mut self.func_refs
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn fill_func_refs(&mut self) {
+        self.func_refs.fill(&mut self.modules);
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn push_instance_pre_func_refs(&mut self, func_refs: Arc<[VMFuncRef]>) {
+        self.func_refs.push_instance_pre_func_refs(func_refs);
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn host_globals(&mut self) -> &mut Vec<StoreBox<VMHostGlobalContext>> {
+        &mut self.host_globals
+    }
+
+    pub fn module_for_instance(&self, instance: InstanceId) -> Option<&'_ Module> {
+        match self.instances[instance.0].kind {
+            StoreInstanceKind::Dummy => None,
+            StoreInstanceKind::Real { module_id } => {
+                let module = self
+                    .modules()
+                    .lookup_module_by_id(module_id)
+                    .expect("should always have a registered module for real instances");
+                Some(module)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub unsafe fn add_instance(
+        &mut self,
+        handle: InstanceHandle,
+        module_id: RegisteredModuleId,
+    ) -> InstanceId {
+        self.instances.push(StoreInstance {
+            handle: handle.clone(),
+            kind: StoreInstanceKind::Real { module_id },
+        });
+        InstanceId(self.instances.len() - 1)
+    }
+
+    /// Add a dummy instance that to the store.
+    ///
+    /// These are instances that are just implementation details of something
+    /// else (e.g. host-created memories that are not actually defined in any
+    /// Wasm module) and therefore shouldn't show up in things like core dumps.
+    pub unsafe fn add_dummy_instance(&mut self, handle: InstanceHandle) -> InstanceId {
+        self.instances.push(StoreInstance {
+            handle: handle.clone(),
+            kind: StoreInstanceKind::Dummy,
+        });
+        InstanceId(self.instances.len() - 1)
+    }
+
+    pub fn instance(&self, id: InstanceId) -> &InstanceHandle {
+        &self.instances[id.0].handle
+    }
+
+    pub fn instance_mut(&mut self, id: InstanceId) -> &mut InstanceHandle {
+        &mut self.instances[id.0].handle
+    }
+
+    /// Get all instances (ignoring dummy instances) within this store.
+    pub fn all_instances<'a>(&'a mut self) -> impl ExactSizeIterator<Item = Instance> + 'a {
+        let instances = self
+            .instances
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter_map(|(idx, inst)| {
+                let id = InstanceId::from_index(idx);
+                if let StoreInstanceKind::Dummy = inst.kind {
+                    None
+                } else {
+                    Some(InstanceData::from_id(id))
+                }
+            })
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        instances
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|i| Instance::from_wasmtime(i, self))
+    }
+
+    /// Get all memories (host- or Wasm-defined) within this store.
+    pub fn all_memories<'a>(&'a mut self) -> impl Iterator<Item = Memory> + 'a {
+        // NB: Host-created memories have dummy instances. Therefore, we can get
+        // all memories in the store by iterating over all instances (including
+        // dummy instances) and getting each of their defined memories.
+        let mems = self
+            .instances
+            .iter_mut()
+            .flat_map(|instance| instance.handle.defined_memories())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        mems.into_iter()
+            .map(|memory| unsafe { Memory::from_wasmtime_memory(memory, self) })
+    }
+
+    /// Iterate over all tables (host- or Wasm-defined) within this store.
+    pub fn for_each_table(&mut self, mut f: impl FnMut(&mut Self, Table)) {
+        // NB: Host-created tables have dummy instances. Therefore, we can get
+        // all memories in the store by iterating over all instances (including
+        // dummy instances) and getting each of their defined memories.
+
+        struct TempTakeInstances<'a> {
+            instances: Vec<StoreInstance>,
+            store: &'a mut StoreOpaque,
+        }
+
+        impl<'a> TempTakeInstances<'a> {
+            fn new(store: &'a mut StoreOpaque) -> Self {
+                let instances = mem::take(&mut store.instances);
+                Self { instances, store }
+            }
+        }
+
+        impl Drop for TempTakeInstances<'_> {
+            fn drop(&mut self) {
+                assert!(self.store.instances.is_empty());
+                self.store.instances = mem::take(&mut self.instances);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut temp = TempTakeInstances::new(self);
+        for instance in temp.instances.iter_mut() {
+            for table in instance.handle.defined_tables() {
+                let table = unsafe { Table::from_wasmtime_table(table, temp.store) };
+                f(temp.store, table);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Iterate over all globals (host- or Wasm-defined) within this store.
+    pub fn for_each_global(&mut self, mut f: impl FnMut(&mut Self, Global)) {
+        struct TempTakeHostGlobalsAndInstances<'a> {
+            host_globals: Vec<StoreBox<VMHostGlobalContext>>,
+            instances: Vec<StoreInstance>,
+            store: &'a mut StoreOpaque,
+        }
+
+        impl<'a> TempTakeHostGlobalsAndInstances<'a> {
+            fn new(store: &'a mut StoreOpaque) -> Self {
+                let host_globals = mem::take(&mut store.host_globals);
+                let instances = mem::take(&mut store.instances);
+                Self {
+                    host_globals,
+                    instances,
+                    store,
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        impl Drop for TempTakeHostGlobalsAndInstances<'_> {
+            fn drop(&mut self) {
+                assert!(self.store.host_globals.is_empty());
+                self.store.host_globals = mem::take(&mut self.host_globals);
+                assert!(self.store.instances.is_empty());
+                self.store.instances = mem::take(&mut self.instances);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let mut temp = TempTakeHostGlobalsAndInstances::new(self);
+        unsafe {
+            // First enumerate all the host-created globals.
+            for global in temp.host_globals.iter() {
+                let export = ExportGlobal {
+                    definition: &mut (*global.get()).global as *mut _,
+                    vmctx: core::ptr::null_mut(),
+                    global: (*global.get()).ty.to_wasm_type(),
+                };
+                let global = Global::from_wasmtime_global(export, temp.store);
+                f(temp.store, global);
+            }
+
+            // Then enumerate all instances' defined globals.
+            for instance in temp.instances.iter_mut() {
+                for (_, export) in instance.handle.defined_globals() {
+                    let global = Global::from_wasmtime_global(export, temp.store);
+                    f(temp.store, global);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg_attr(not(target_os = "linux"), allow(dead_code))] // not used on all platforms
+    pub fn set_signal_handler(&mut self, handler: Option<Box<SignalHandler<'static>>>) {
+        self.signal_handler = handler;
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn runtime_limits(&self) -> &VMRuntimeLimits {
+        &self.runtime_limits
+    }
+
+    #[inline(never)]
+    pub(crate) fn allocate_gc_heap(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        assert!(self.gc_store.is_none());
+        let gc_store = allocate_gc_store(self.engine())?;
+        self.gc_store = Some(gc_store);
+        return Ok(());
+
+        #[cfg(feature = "gc")]
+        fn allocate_gc_store(engine: &Engine) -> Result<GcStore> {
+            let (index, heap) = if engine
+                .config()
+                .features
+                .contains(wasmparser::WasmFeatures::REFERENCE_TYPES)
+            {
+                engine
+                    .allocator()
+                    .allocate_gc_heap(&**engine.gc_runtime())?
+            } else {
+                (
+                    GcHeapAllocationIndex::default(),
+                    crate::runtime::vm::disabled_gc_heap(),
+                )
+            };
+            Ok(GcStore::new(index, heap))
+        }
+
+        #[cfg(not(feature = "gc"))]
+        fn allocate_gc_store(_engine: &Engine) -> Result<GcStore> {
+            Ok(GcStore::new(
+                GcHeapAllocationIndex::default(),
+                crate::runtime::vm::disabled_gc_heap(),
+            ))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[cfg(feature = "gc")]
+    pub(crate) fn gc_store(&self) -> Result<&GcStore> {
+        match &self.gc_store {
+            Some(gc_store) => Ok(gc_store),
+            None => bail!("GC heap not initialized yet"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn gc_store_mut(&mut self) -> Result<&mut GcStore> {
+        if self.gc_store.is_none() {
+            self.allocate_gc_heap()?;
+        }
+        Ok(self.unwrap_gc_store_mut())
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[cfg(feature = "gc")]
+    pub(crate) fn unwrap_gc_store(&self) -> &GcStore {
+        self.gc_store
+            .as_ref()
+            .expect("attempted to access the store's GC heap before it has been allocated")
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn unwrap_gc_store_mut(&mut self) -> &mut GcStore {
+        self.gc_store
+            .as_mut()
+            .expect("attempted to access the store's GC heap before it has been allocated")
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn gc_roots(&self) -> &RootSet {
+        &self.gc_roots
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn gc_roots_mut(&mut self) -> &mut RootSet {
+        &mut self.gc_roots
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn exit_gc_lifo_scope(&mut self, scope: usize) {
+        if let Some(gc_store) = self.gc_store.as_mut() {
+            self.gc_roots.exit_lifo_scope(gc_store, scope);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "gc")]
+    pub fn gc(&mut self) {
+        // If the GC heap hasn't been initialized, there is nothing to collect.
+        if self.gc_store.is_none() {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // Take the GC roots out of `self` so we can borrow it mutably but still
+        // call mutable methods on `self`.
+        let mut roots = core::mem::take(&mut self.gc_roots_list);
+
+        self.trace_roots(&mut roots);
+        self.unwrap_gc_store_mut().gc(unsafe { roots.iter() });
+
+        // Restore the GC roots for the next GC.
+        roots.clear();
+        self.gc_roots_list = roots;
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[cfg(not(feature = "gc"))]
+    pub fn gc(&mut self) {
+        // Nothing to collect.
+        //
+        // Note that this is *not* a public method, this is just defined for the
+        // crate-internal `StoreOpaque` type. This is a convenience so that we
+        // don't have to `cfg` every call site.
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "gc")]
+    fn trace_roots(&mut self, gc_roots_list: &mut GcRootsList) {
+        log::trace!("Begin trace GC roots");
+
+        // We shouldn't have any leftover, stale GC roots.
+        assert!(gc_roots_list.is_empty());
+
+        self.trace_wasm_stack_roots(gc_roots_list);
+        self.trace_vmctx_roots(gc_roots_list);
+        self.trace_user_roots(gc_roots_list);
+
+        log::trace!("End trace GC roots")
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(feature = "async", feature = "gc"))]
+    pub async fn gc_async(&mut self) {
+        assert!(
+            self.async_support(),
+            "cannot use `gc_async` without enabling async support in the config",
+        );
+
+        // If the GC heap hasn't been initialized, there is nothing to collect.
+        if self.gc_store.is_none() {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // Take the GC roots out of `self` so we can borrow it mutably but still
+        // call mutable methods on `self`.
+        let mut roots = std::mem::take(&mut self.gc_roots_list);
+
+        self.trace_roots_async(&mut roots).await;
+        self.unwrap_gc_store_mut()
+            .gc_async(unsafe { roots.iter() })
+            .await;
+
+        // Restore the GC roots for the next GC.
+        roots.clear();
+        self.gc_roots_list = roots;
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[cfg(all(feature = "async", not(feature = "gc")))]
+    pub async fn gc_async(&mut self) {
+        // Nothing to collect.
+        //
+        // Note that this is *not* a public method, this is just defined for the
+        // crate-internal `StoreOpaque` type. This is a convenience so that we
+        // don't have to `cfg` every call site.
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(all(feature = "async", feature = "gc"))]
+    async fn trace_roots_async(&mut self, gc_roots_list: &mut GcRootsList) {
+        use crate::runtime::vm::Yield;
+
+        log::trace!("Begin trace GC roots");
+
+        // We shouldn't have any leftover, stale GC roots.
+        assert!(gc_roots_list.is_empty());
+
+        self.trace_wasm_stack_roots(gc_roots_list);
+        Yield::new().await;
+        self.trace_vmctx_roots(gc_roots_list);
+        Yield::new().await;
+        self.trace_user_roots(gc_roots_list);
+
+        log::trace!("End trace GC roots")
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "gc")]
+    fn trace_wasm_stack_roots(&mut self, gc_roots_list: &mut GcRootsList) {
+        use core::ptr::NonNull;
+
+        use crate::runtime::vm::{ModuleInfoLookup, SendSyncPtr};
+
+        log::trace!("Begin trace GC roots :: Wasm stack");
+
+        Backtrace::trace(self.vmruntime_limits().cast_const(), |frame| {
+            let pc = frame.pc();
+            debug_assert!(pc != 0, "we should always get a valid PC for Wasm frames");
+
+            let fp = frame.fp();
+            debug_assert!(
+                fp != 0,
+                "we should always get a valid frame pointer for Wasm frames"
+            );
+            let module_info = self
+                .modules()
+                .lookup(pc)
+                .expect("should have module info for Wasm frame");
+
+            let stack_map = match module_info.lookup_stack_map(pc) {
+                Some(sm) => sm,
+                None => {
+                    log::trace!("No stack map for this Wasm frame");
+                    return core::ops::ControlFlow::Continue(());
+                }
+            };
+            log::trace!(
+                "We have a stack map that maps {} words in this Wasm frame",
+                stack_map.mapped_words()
+            );
+
+            let sp = fp - stack_map.mapped_words() as usize * mem::size_of::<usize>();
+
+            for i in 0..(stack_map.mapped_words() as usize) {
+                // Stack maps have one bit per word in the frame, and the
+                // zero^th bit is the *lowest* addressed word in the frame,
+                // i.e. the closest to the SP. So to get the `i`^th word in
+                // this frame, we add `i * sizeof(word)` to the SP.
+                let stack_slot = sp + i * mem::size_of::<usize>();
+                let stack_slot = stack_slot as *mut u64;
+
+                if !stack_map.get_bit(i) {
+                    log::trace!("Stack slot @ {stack_slot:p} does not contain gc_refs");
+                    continue;
+                }
+
+                let gc_ref = unsafe { core::ptr::read(stack_slot) };
+                log::trace!("Stack slot @ {stack_slot:p} = {gc_ref:#x}");
+
+                let gc_ref = VMGcRef::from_r64(gc_ref)
+                    .expect("we should never use the high 32 bits of an r64");
+
+                if gc_ref.is_some() {
+                    unsafe {
+                        gc_roots_list.add_wasm_stack_root(SendSyncPtr::new(
+                            NonNull::new(stack_slot).unwrap(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            core::ops::ControlFlow::Continue(())
+        });
+
+        log::trace!("End trace GC roots :: Wasm stack");
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "gc")]
+    fn trace_vmctx_roots(&mut self, gc_roots_list: &mut GcRootsList) {
+        log::trace!("Begin trace GC roots :: vmctx");
+        self.for_each_global(|store, global| global.trace_root(store, gc_roots_list));
+        self.for_each_table(|store, table| table.trace_roots(store, gc_roots_list));
+        log::trace!("End trace GC roots :: vmctx");
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "gc")]
+    fn trace_user_roots(&mut self, gc_roots_list: &mut GcRootsList) {
+        log::trace!("Begin trace GC roots :: user");
+        self.gc_roots.trace_roots(gc_roots_list);
+        log::trace!("End trace GC roots :: user");
+    }
+
+    /// Yields the async context, assuming that we are executing on a fiber and
+    /// that fiber is not in the process of dying. This function will return
+    /// None in the latter case (the fiber is dying), and panic if
+    /// `async_support()` is false.
+    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn async_cx(&self) -> Option<AsyncCx> {
+        assert!(self.async_support());
+
+        let poll_cx_box_ptr = self.async_state.current_poll_cx.get();
+        if poll_cx_box_ptr.is_null() {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let poll_cx_inner_ptr = unsafe { *poll_cx_box_ptr };
+        if poll_cx_inner_ptr.is_null() {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        Some(AsyncCx {
+            current_suspend: self.async_state.current_suspend.get(),
+            current_poll_cx: poll_cx_box_ptr,
+            track_pkey_context_switch: self.pkey.is_some(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn get_fuel(&self) -> Result<u64> {
+        anyhow::ensure!(
+            self.engine().tunables().consume_fuel,
+            "fuel is not configured in this store"
+        );
+        let injected_fuel = unsafe { *self.runtime_limits.fuel_consumed.get() };
+        Ok(get_fuel(injected_fuel, self.fuel_reserve))
+    }
+
+    fn refuel(&mut self) -> bool {
+        let injected_fuel = unsafe { &mut *self.runtime_limits.fuel_consumed.get() };
+        refuel(
+            injected_fuel,
+            &mut self.fuel_reserve,
+            self.fuel_yield_interval,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_fuel(&mut self, fuel: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        anyhow::ensure!(
+            self.engine().tunables().consume_fuel,
+            "fuel is not configured in this store"
+        );
+        let injected_fuel = unsafe { &mut *self.runtime_limits.fuel_consumed.get() };
+        set_fuel(
+            injected_fuel,
+            &mut self.fuel_reserve,
+            self.fuel_yield_interval,
+            fuel,
+        );
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn fuel_async_yield_interval(&mut self, interval: Option<u64>) -> Result<()> {
+        anyhow::ensure!(
+            self.engine().tunables().consume_fuel,
+            "fuel is not configured in this store"
+        );
+        anyhow::ensure!(
+            self.engine().config().async_support,
+            "async support is not configured in this store"
+        );
+        anyhow::ensure!(
+            interval != Some(0),
+            "fuel_async_yield_interval must not be 0"
+        );
+        self.fuel_yield_interval = interval.and_then(|i| NonZeroU64::new(i));
+        // Reset the fuel active + reserve states by resetting the amount.
+        self.set_fuel(self.get_fuel()?)
+    }
+
+    /// Yields execution to the caller on out-of-gas or epoch interruption.
+    ///
+    /// This only works on async futures and stores, and assumes that we're
+    /// executing on a fiber. This will yield execution back to the caller once.
+    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+    fn async_yield_impl(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        use crate::runtime::vm::Yield;
+
+        let mut future = Yield::new();
+
+        // When control returns, we have a `Result<()>` passed
+        // in from the host fiber. If this finished successfully then
+        // we were resumed normally via a `poll`, so keep going.  If
+        // the future was dropped while we were yielded, then we need
+        // to clean up this fiber. Do so by raising a trap which will
+        // abort all wasm and get caught on the other side to clean
+        // things up.
+        unsafe {
+            self.async_cx()
+                .expect("attempted to pull async context during shutdown")
+                .block_on(Pin::new_unchecked(&mut future))
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn signal_handler(&self) -> Option<*const SignalHandler<'static>> {
+        let handler = self.signal_handler.as_ref()?;
+        Some(&**handler as *const _)
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn vmruntime_limits(&self) -> *mut VMRuntimeLimits {
+        &self.runtime_limits as *const VMRuntimeLimits as *mut VMRuntimeLimits
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn default_caller(&self) -> *mut VMContext {
+        self.default_caller.vmctx()
+    }
+
+    pub fn traitobj(&self) -> *mut dyn crate::runtime::vm::Store {
+        self.default_caller.store()
+    }
+
+    /// Takes the cached `Vec<Val>` stored internally across hostcalls to get
+    /// used as part of calling the host in a `Func::new` method invocation.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn take_hostcall_val_storage(&mut self) -> Vec<Val> {
+        mem::take(&mut self.hostcall_val_storage)
+    }
+
+    /// Restores the vector previously taken by `take_hostcall_val_storage`
+    /// above back into the store, allowing it to be used in the future for the
+    /// next wasm->host call.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn save_hostcall_val_storage(&mut self, storage: Vec<Val>) {
+        if storage.capacity() > self.hostcall_val_storage.capacity() {
+            self.hostcall_val_storage = storage;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Same as `take_hostcall_val_storage`, but for the direction of the host
+    /// calling wasm.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn take_wasm_val_raw_storage(&mut self) -> Vec<ValRaw> {
+        mem::take(&mut self.wasm_val_raw_storage)
+    }
+
+    /// Same as `save_hostcall_val_storage`, but for the direction of the host
+    /// calling wasm.
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn save_wasm_val_raw_storage(&mut self, storage: Vec<ValRaw>) {
+        if storage.capacity() > self.wasm_val_raw_storage.capacity() {
+            self.wasm_val_raw_storage = storage;
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn push_rooted_funcs(&mut self, funcs: Arc<[Definition]>) {
+        self.rooted_host_funcs.push(funcs);
+    }
+
+    /// Translates a WebAssembly fault at the native `pc` and native `addr` to a
+    /// WebAssembly-relative fault.
+    ///
+    /// This function may abort the process if `addr` is not found to actually
+    /// reside in any linear memory. In such a situation it means that the
+    /// segfault was erroneously caught by Wasmtime and is possibly indicative
+    /// of a code generator bug.
+    ///
+    /// This function returns `None` for dynamically-bounds-checked-memories
+    /// with spectre mitigations enabled since the hardware fault address is
+    /// always zero in these situations which means that the trapping context
+    /// doesn't have enough information to report the fault address.
+    pub(crate) fn wasm_fault(&self, pc: usize, addr: usize) -> Option<WasmFault> {
+        // There are a few instances where a "close to zero" pointer is loaded
+        // and we expect that to happen:
+        //
+        // * Explicitly bounds-checked memories with spectre-guards enabled will
+        //   cause out-of-bounds accesses to get routed to address 0, so allow
+        //   wasm instructions to fault on the null address.
+        // * `call_indirect` when invoking a null function pointer may load data
+        //   from the a `VMFuncRef` whose address is null, meaning any field of
+        //   `VMFuncRef` could be the address of the fault.
+        //
+        // In these situations where the address is so small it won't be in any
+        // instance, so skip the checks below.
+        if addr <= mem::size_of::<VMFuncRef>() {
+            const _: () = {
+                // static-assert that `VMFuncRef` isn't too big to ensure that
+                // it lives solely within the first page as we currently only
+                // have the guarantee that the first page of memory is unmapped,
+                // no more.
+                assert!(mem::size_of::<VMFuncRef>() <= 512);
+            };
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        // Search all known instances in this store for this address. Note that
+        // this is probably not the speediest way to do this. Traps, however,
+        // are generally not expected to be super fast and additionally stores
+        // probably don't have all that many instances or memories.
+        //
+        // If this loop becomes hot in the future, however, it should be
+        // possible to precompute maps about linear memories in a store and have
+        // a quicker lookup.
+        let mut fault = None;
+        for instance in self.instances.iter() {
+            if let Some(f) = instance.handle.wasm_fault(addr) {
+                assert!(fault.is_none());
+                fault = Some(f);
+            }
+        }
+        if fault.is_some() {
+            return fault;
+        }
+
+        cfg_if::cfg_if! {
+            if #[cfg(any(feature = "std", unix, windows))] {
+                // With the standard library a rich error can be printed here
+                // to stderr and the native abort path is used.
+                eprintln!(
+                    "\
+Wasmtime caught a segfault for a wasm program because the faulting instruction
+is allowed to segfault due to how linear memories are implemented. The address
+that was accessed, however, is not known to any linear memory in use within this
+Store. This may be indicative of a critical bug in Wasmtime's code generation
+because all addresses which are known to be reachable from wasm won't reach this
+message.
+
+    pc:      0x{pc:x}
+    address: 0x{addr:x}
+
+This is a possible security issue because WebAssembly has accessed something it
+shouldn't have been able to. Other accesses may have succeeded and this one just
+happened to be caught. The process will now be aborted to prevent this damage
+from going any further and to alert what's going on. If this is a security
+issue please reach out to the Wasmtime team via its security policy
+at https://bytecodealliance.org/security.
+"
+                );
+                std::process::abort();
+            } else if #[cfg(panic = "abort")] {
+                // Without the standard library but with `panic=abort` then
+                // it's safe to panic as that's known to halt execution. For
+                // now avoid the above error message as well since without
+                // `std` it's probably best to be a bit more size-conscious.
+                let _ = pc;
+                panic!("invalid fault");
+            } else {
+                // Without `std` and with `panic = "unwind"` there's no way to
+                // abort the process portably, so flag a compile time error.
+                //
+                // NB: if this becomes a problem in the future one option would
+                // be to extend the `capi.rs` module for no_std platforms, but
+                // it remains yet to be seen at this time if this is hit much.
+                compile_error!("either `std` or `panic=abort` must be enabled");
+                None
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieve the store's protection key.
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn get_pkey(&self) -> Option<ProtectionKey> {
+        self.pkey.clone()
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    #[cfg(feature = "component-model")]
+    pub(crate) fn component_resource_state(
+        &mut self,
+    ) -> (
+        &mut crate::runtime::vm::component::CallContexts,
+        &mut crate::runtime::vm::component::ResourceTable,
+        &mut crate::component::HostResourceData,
+    ) {
+        (
+            &mut self.component_calls,
+            &mut self.component_host_table,
+            &mut self.host_resource_data,
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "component-model")]
+    pub(crate) fn push_component_instance(&mut self, instance: crate::component::Instance) {
+        // We don't actually need the instance itself right now, but it seems
+        // like something we will almost certainly eventually want to keep
+        // around, so force callers to provide it.
+        let _ = instance;
+
+        self.num_component_instances += 1;
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> StoreContextMut<'_, T> {
+    /// Executes a synchronous computation `func` asynchronously on a new fiber.
+    ///
+    /// This function will convert the synchronous `func` into an asynchronous
+    /// future. This is done by running `func` in a fiber on a separate native
+    /// stack which can be suspended and resumed from.
+    ///
+    /// Most of the nitty-gritty here is how we juggle the various contexts
+    /// necessary to suspend the fiber later on and poll sub-futures. It's hoped
+    /// that the various comments are illuminating as to what's going on here.
+    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+    pub(crate) async fn on_fiber<R>(
+        &mut self,
+        func: impl FnOnce(&mut StoreContextMut<'_, T>) -> R + Send,
+    ) -> Result<R>
+    where
+        T: Send,
+    {
+        let config = self.engine().config();
+        debug_assert!(self.0.async_support());
+        debug_assert!(config.async_stack_size > 0);
+
+        let mut slot = None;
+        let future = {
+            let current_poll_cx = self.0.async_state.current_poll_cx.get();
+            let current_suspend = self.0.async_state.current_suspend.get();
+            let stack = self.engine().allocator().allocate_fiber_stack()?;
+
+            let engine = self.engine().clone();
+            let slot = &mut slot;
+            let fiber = wasmtime_fiber::Fiber::new(stack, move |keep_going, suspend| {
+                // First check and see if we were interrupted/dropped, and only
+                // continue if we haven't been.
+                keep_going?;
+
+                // Configure our store's suspension context for the rest of the
+                // execution of this fiber. Note that a raw pointer is stored here
+                // which is only valid for the duration of this closure.
+                // Consequently we at least replace it with the previous value when
+                // we're done. This reset is also required for correctness because
+                // otherwise our value will overwrite another active fiber's value.
+                // There should be a test that segfaults in `async_functions.rs` if
+                // this `Replace` is removed.
+                unsafe {
+                    let _reset = Reset(current_suspend, *current_suspend);
+                    *current_suspend = suspend;
+
+                    *slot = Some(func(self));
+                    Ok(())
+                }
+            })?;
+
+            // Once we have the fiber representing our synchronous computation, we
+            // wrap that in a custom future implementation which does the
+            // translation from the future protocol to our fiber API.
+            FiberFuture {
+                fiber,
+                current_poll_cx,
+                engine,
+                state: Some(crate::runtime::vm::AsyncWasmCallState::new()),
+            }
+        };
+        future.await?;
+
+        return Ok(slot.unwrap());
+
+        struct FiberFuture<'a> {
+            fiber: wasmtime_fiber::Fiber<'a, Result<()>, (), Result<()>>,
+            current_poll_cx: *mut *mut Context<'static>,
+            engine: Engine,
+            // See comments in `FiberFuture::resume` for this
+            state: Option<crate::runtime::vm::AsyncWasmCallState>,
+        }
+
+        // This is surely the most dangerous `unsafe impl Send` in the entire
+        // crate. There are two members in `FiberFuture` which cause it to not
+        // be `Send`. One is `current_poll_cx` and is entirely uninteresting.
+        // This is just used to manage `Context` pointers across `await` points
+        // in the future, and requires raw pointers to get it to happen easily.
+        // Nothing too weird about the `Send`-ness, values aren't actually
+        // crossing threads.
+        //
+        // The really interesting piece is `fiber`. Now the "fiber" here is
+        // actual honest-to-god Rust code which we're moving around. What we're
+        // doing is the equivalent of moving our thread's stack to another OS
+        // thread. Turns out we, in general, have no idea what's on the stack
+        // and would generally have no way to verify that this is actually safe
+        // to do!
+        //
+        // Thankfully, though, Wasmtime has the power. Without being glib it's
+        // actually worth examining what's on the stack. It's unfortunately not
+        // super-local to this function itself. Our closure to `Fiber::new` runs
+        // `func`, which is given to us from the outside. Thankfully, though, we
+        // have tight control over this. Usage of `on_fiber` is typically done
+        // *just* before entering WebAssembly itself, so we'll have a few stack
+        // frames of Rust code (all in Wasmtime itself) before we enter wasm.
+        //
+        // Once we've entered wasm, well then we have a whole bunch of wasm
+        // frames on the stack. We've got this nifty thing called Cranelift,
+        // though, which allows us to also have complete control over everything
+        // on the stack!
+        //
+        // Finally, when wasm switches back to the fiber's starting pointer
+        // (this future we're returning) then it means wasm has reentered Rust.
+        // Suspension can only happen via the `block_on` function of an
+        // `AsyncCx`. This, conveniently, also happens entirely in Wasmtime
+        // controlled code!
+        //
+        // There's an extremely important point that should be called out here.
+        // User-provided futures **are not on the stack** during suspension
+        // points. This is extremely crucial because we in general cannot reason
+        // about Send/Sync for stack-local variables since rustc doesn't analyze
+        // them at all. With our construction, though, we are guaranteed that
+        // Wasmtime owns all stack frames between the stack of a fiber and when
+        // the fiber suspends (and it could move across threads). At this time
+        // the only user-provided piece of data on the stack is the future
+        // itself given to us. Lo-and-behold as you might notice the future is
+        // required to be `Send`!
+        //
+        // What this all boils down to is that we, as the authors of Wasmtime,
+        // need to be extremely careful that on the async fiber stack we only
+        // store Send things. For example we can't start using `Rc` willy nilly
+        // by accident and leave a copy in TLS somewhere. (similarly we have to
+        // be ready for TLS to change while we're executing wasm code between
+        // suspension points).
+        //
+        // While somewhat onerous it shouldn't be too too hard (the TLS bit is
+        // the hardest bit so far). This does mean, though, that no user should
+        // ever have to worry about the `Send`-ness of Wasmtime. If rustc says
+        // it's ok, then it's ok.
+        //
+        // With all that in mind we unsafely assert here that wasmtime is
+        // correct. We declare the fiber as only containing Send data on its
+        // stack, despite not knowing for sure at compile time that this is
+        // correct. That's what `unsafe` in Rust is all about, though, right?
+        unsafe impl Send for FiberFuture<'_> {}
+
+        impl FiberFuture<'_> {
+            /// This is a helper function to call `resume` on the underlying
+            /// fiber while correctly managing Wasmtime's thread-local data.
+            ///
+            /// Wasmtime's implementation of traps leverages thread-local data
+            /// to get access to metadata during a signal. This thread-local
+            /// data is a linked list of "activations" where the nodes of the
+            /// linked list are stored on the stack. It would be invalid as a
+            /// result to suspend a computation with the head of the linked list
+            /// on this stack then move the stack to another thread and resume
+            /// it. That means that a different thread would point to our stack
+            /// and our thread doesn't point to our stack at all!
+            ///
+            /// Basically management of TLS is required here one way or another.
+            /// The strategy currently settled on is to manage the list of
+            /// activations created by this fiber as a unit. When a fiber
+            /// resumes the linked list is prepended to the current thread's
+            /// list. When the fiber is suspended then the fiber's list of
+            /// activations are all removed en-masse and saved within the fiber.
+            fn resume(&mut self, val: Result<()>) -> Result<Result<()>, ()> {
+                unsafe {
+                    let prev = self.state.take().unwrap().push();
+                    let restore = Restore {
+                        fiber: self,
+                        state: Some(prev),
+                    };
+                    return restore.fiber.fiber.resume(val);
+                }
+
+                struct Restore<'a, 'b> {
+                    fiber: &'a mut FiberFuture<'b>,
+                    state: Option<crate::runtime::vm::PreviousAsyncWasmCallState>,
+                }
+
+                impl Drop for Restore<'_, '_> {
+                    fn drop(&mut self) {
+                        unsafe {
+                            self.fiber.state = Some(self.state.take().unwrap().restore());
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        impl Future for FiberFuture<'_> {
+            type Output = Result<()>;
+
+            fn poll(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context) -> Poll<Self::Output> {
+                // We need to carry over this `cx` into our fiber's runtime
+                // for when it tries to poll sub-futures that are created. Doing
+                // this must be done unsafely, however, since `cx` is only alive
+                // for this one singular function call. Here we do a `transmute`
+                // to extend the lifetime of `Context` so it can be stored in
+                // our `Store`, and then we replace the current polling context
+                // with this one.
+                //
+                // Note that the replace is done for weird situations where
+                // futures might be switching contexts and there's multiple
+                // wasmtime futures in a chain of futures.
+                //
+                // On exit from this function, though, we reset the polling
+                // context back to what it was to signify that `Store` no longer
+                // has access to this pointer.
+                unsafe {
+                    let _reset = Reset(self.current_poll_cx, *self.current_poll_cx);
+                    *self.current_poll_cx =
+                        core::mem::transmute::<&mut Context<'_>, *mut Context<'static>>(cx);
+
+                    // After that's set up we resume execution of the fiber, which
+                    // may also start the fiber for the first time. This either
+                    // returns `Ok` saying the fiber finished (yay!) or it
+                    // returns `Err` with the payload passed to `suspend`, which
+                    // in our case is `()`.
+                    match self.resume(Ok(())) {
+                        Ok(result) => Poll::Ready(result),
+
+                        // If `Err` is returned that means the fiber polled a
+                        // future but it said "Pending", so we propagate that
+                        // here.
+                        //
+                        // An additional safety check is performed when leaving
+                        // this function to help bolster the guarantees of
+                        // `unsafe impl Send` above. Notably this future may get
+                        // re-polled on a different thread. Wasmtime's
+                        // thread-local state points to the stack, however,
+                        // meaning that it would be incorrect to leave a pointer
+                        // in TLS when this function returns. This function
+                        // performs a runtime assert to verify that this is the
+                        // case, notably that the one TLS pointer Wasmtime uses
+                        // is not pointing anywhere within the stack. If it is
+                        // then that's a bug indicating that TLS management in
+                        // Wasmtime is incorrect.
+                        Err(()) => {
+                            if let Some(range) = self.fiber.stack().range() {
+                                crate::runtime::vm::AsyncWasmCallState::assert_current_state_not_in_range(range);
+                            }
+                            Poll::Pending
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Dropping futures is pretty special in that it means the future has
+        // been requested to be cancelled. Here we run the risk of dropping an
+        // in-progress fiber, and if we were to do nothing then the fiber would
+        // leak all its owned stack resources.
+        //
+        // To handle this we implement `Drop` here and, if the fiber isn't done,
+        // resume execution of the fiber saying "hey please stop you're
+        // interrupted". Our `Trap` created here (which has the stack trace
+        // of whomever dropped us) will then get propagated in whatever called
+        // `block_on`, and the idea is that the trap propagates all the way back
+        // up to the original fiber start, finishing execution.
+        //
+        // We don't actually care about the fiber's return value here (no one's
+        // around to look at it), we just assert the fiber finished to
+        // completion.
+        impl Drop for FiberFuture<'_> {
+            fn drop(&mut self) {
+                if !self.fiber.done() {
+                    let result = self.resume(Err(anyhow!("future dropped")));
+                    // This resumption with an error should always complete the
+                    // fiber. While it's technically possible for host code to catch
+                    // the trap and re-resume, we'd ideally like to signal that to
+                    // callers that they shouldn't be doing that.
+                    debug_assert!(result.is_ok());
+                }
+
+                self.state.take().unwrap().assert_null();
+
+                unsafe {
+                    self.engine
+                        .allocator()
+                        .deallocate_fiber_stack(self.fiber.stack());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "async")]
+pub struct AsyncCx {
+    current_suspend: *mut *mut wasmtime_fiber::Suspend<Result<()>, (), Result<()>>,
+    current_poll_cx: *mut *mut Context<'static>,
+    track_pkey_context_switch: bool,
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "async")]
+impl AsyncCx {
+    /// Blocks on the asynchronous computation represented by `future` and
+    /// produces the result here, in-line.
+    ///
+    /// This function is designed to only work when it's currently executing on
+    /// a native fiber. This fiber provides the ability for us to handle the
+    /// future's `Pending` state as "jump back to whomever called the fiber in
+    /// an asynchronous fashion and propagate `Pending`". This tight coupling
+    /// with `on_fiber` below is what powers the asynchronicity of calling wasm.
+    /// Note that the asynchronous part only applies to host functions, wasm
+    /// itself never really does anything asynchronous at this time.
+    ///
+    /// This function takes a `future` and will (appear to) synchronously wait
+    /// on the result. While this function is executing it will fiber switch
+    /// to-and-from the original frame calling `on_fiber` which should be a
+    /// guarantee due to how async stores are configured.
+    ///
+    /// The return value here is either the output of the future `T`, or a trap
+    /// which represents that the asynchronous computation was cancelled. It is
+    /// not recommended to catch the trap and try to keep executing wasm, so
+    /// we've tried to liberally document this.
+    pub unsafe fn block_on<U>(
+        &self,
+        mut future: Pin<&mut (dyn Future<Output = U> + Send)>,
+    ) -> Result<U> {
+        // Take our current `Suspend` context which was configured as soon as
+        // our fiber started. Note that we must load it at the front here and
+        // save it on our stack frame. While we're polling the future other
+        // fibers may be started for recursive computations, and the current
+        // suspend context is only preserved at the edges of the fiber, not
+        // during the fiber itself.
+        //
+        // For a little bit of extra safety we also replace the current value
+        // with null to try to catch any accidental bugs on our part early.
+        // This is all pretty unsafe so we're trying to be careful...
+        //
+        // Note that there should be a segfaulting test  in `async_functions.rs`
+        // if this `Reset` is removed.
+        let suspend = *self.current_suspend;
+        let _reset = Reset(self.current_suspend, suspend);
+        *self.current_suspend = ptr::null_mut();
+        assert!(!suspend.is_null());
+
+        loop {
+            let future_result = {
+                let poll_cx = *self.current_poll_cx;
+                let _reset = Reset(self.current_poll_cx, poll_cx);
+                *self.current_poll_cx = ptr::null_mut();
+                assert!(!poll_cx.is_null());
+                future.as_mut().poll(&mut *poll_cx)
+            };
+
+            match future_result {
+                Poll::Ready(t) => break Ok(t),
+                Poll::Pending => {}
+            }
+
+            // In order to prevent this fiber's MPK state from being munged by
+            // other fibers while it is suspended, we save and restore it once
+            // once execution resumes. Note that when MPK is not supported,
+            // these are noops.
+            let previous_mask = if self.track_pkey_context_switch {
+                let previous_mask = mpk::current_mask();
+                mpk::allow(ProtectionMask::all());
+                previous_mask
+            } else {
+                ProtectionMask::all()
+            };
+            (*suspend).suspend(())?;
+            if self.track_pkey_context_switch {
+                mpk::allow(previous_mask);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+unsafe impl<T> crate::runtime::vm::Store for StoreInner<T> {
+    fn vmruntime_limits(&self) -> *mut VMRuntimeLimits {
+        <StoreOpaque>::vmruntime_limits(self)
+    }
+
+    fn epoch_ptr(&self) -> *const AtomicU64 {
+        self.engine.epoch_counter() as *const _
+    }
+
+    fn maybe_gc_store(&mut self) -> Option<&mut GcStore> {
+        self.gc_store.as_mut()
+    }
+
+    fn memory_growing(
+        &mut self,
+        current: usize,
+        desired: usize,
+        maximum: Option<usize>,
+    ) -> Result<bool, anyhow::Error> {
+        match self.limiter {
+            Some(ResourceLimiterInner::Sync(ref mut limiter)) => {
+                limiter(&mut self.data).memory_growing(current, desired, maximum)
+            }
+            #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+            Some(ResourceLimiterInner::Async(ref mut limiter)) => unsafe {
+                self.inner
+                    .async_cx()
+                    .expect("ResourceLimiterAsync requires async Store")
+                    .block_on(
+                        limiter(&mut self.data)
+                            .memory_growing(current, desired, maximum)
+                            .as_mut(),
+                    )?
+            },
+            None => Ok(true),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn memory_grow_failed(&mut self, error: anyhow::Error) -> Result<()> {
+        match self.limiter {
+            Some(ResourceLimiterInner::Sync(ref mut limiter)) => {
+                limiter(&mut self.data).memory_grow_failed(error)
+            }
+            #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+            Some(ResourceLimiterInner::Async(ref mut limiter)) => {
+                limiter(&mut self.data).memory_grow_failed(error)
+            }
+            None => {
+                log::debug!("ignoring memory growth failure error: {error:?}");
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn table_growing(
+        &mut self,
+        current: u32,
+        desired: u32,
+        maximum: Option<u32>,
+    ) -> Result<bool, anyhow::Error> {
+        // Need to borrow async_cx before the mut borrow of the limiter.
+        // self.async_cx() panicks when used with a non-async store, so
+        // wrap this in an option.
+        #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+        let async_cx = if self.async_support()
+            && matches!(self.limiter, Some(ResourceLimiterInner::Async(_)))
+        {
+            Some(self.async_cx().unwrap())
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+        match self.limiter {
+            Some(ResourceLimiterInner::Sync(ref mut limiter)) => {
+                limiter(&mut self.data).table_growing(current, desired, maximum)
+            }
+            #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+            Some(ResourceLimiterInner::Async(ref mut limiter)) => unsafe {
+                async_cx
+                    .expect("ResourceLimiterAsync requires async Store")
+                    .block_on(
+                        limiter(&mut self.data)
+                            .table_growing(current, desired, maximum)
+                            .as_mut(),
+                    )?
+            },
+            None => Ok(true),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn table_grow_failed(&mut self, error: anyhow::Error) -> Result<()> {
+        match self.limiter {
+            Some(ResourceLimiterInner::Sync(ref mut limiter)) => {
+                limiter(&mut self.data).table_grow_failed(error)
+            }
+            #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+            Some(ResourceLimiterInner::Async(ref mut limiter)) => {
+                limiter(&mut self.data).table_grow_failed(error)
+            }
+            None => {
+                log::debug!("ignoring table growth failure: {error:?}");
+                Ok(())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn out_of_gas(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        if !self.refuel() {
+            return Err(Trap::OutOfFuel).err2anyhow();
+        }
+        #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+        if self.fuel_yield_interval.is_some() {
+            self.async_yield_impl()?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn new_epoch(&mut self) -> Result<u64, anyhow::Error> {
+        // Temporarily take the configured behavior to avoid mutably borrowing
+        // multiple times.
+        let mut behavior = self.epoch_deadline_behavior.take();
+        let delta_result = match &mut behavior {
+            None => Err(Trap::Interrupt).err2anyhow(),
+            Some(callback) => callback((&mut *self).as_context_mut()).and_then(|update| {
+                let delta = match update {
+                    UpdateDeadline::Continue(delta) => delta,
+
+                    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+                    UpdateDeadline::Yield(delta) => {
+                        assert!(
+                            self.async_support(),
+                            "cannot use `UpdateDeadline::Yield` without enabling async support in the config"
+                        );
+                        // Do the async yield. May return a trap if future was
+                        // canceled while we're yielded.
+                        self.async_yield_impl()?;
+                        delta
+                    }
+                };
+
+                // Set a new deadline and return the new epoch deadline so
+                // the Wasm code doesn't have to reload it.
+                self.set_epoch_deadline(delta);
+                Ok(self.get_epoch_deadline())
+            })
+        };
+
+        // Put back the original behavior which was replaced by `take`.
+        self.epoch_deadline_behavior = behavior;
+        delta_result
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "gc")]
+    fn gc(&mut self, root: Option<VMGcRef>) -> Result<Option<VMGcRef>> {
+        let mut scope = RootScope::new(self);
+        let store = scope.as_context_mut().0;
+        let store_id = store.id();
+        let root = root.map(|r| store.gc_roots_mut().push_lifo_root(store_id, r));
+
+        if store.async_support() {
+            #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+            unsafe {
+                let async_cx = store.async_cx();
+                let mut future = store.gc_async();
+                async_cx
+                    .expect("attempted to pull async context during shutdown")
+                    .block_on(Pin::new_unchecked(&mut future))?;
+            }
+        } else {
+            (**store).gc();
+        }
+
+        let root = match root {
+            None => None,
+            Some(r) => {
+                let r = r
+                    .unchecked_get_gc_ref(store)
+                    .expect("still in scope")
+                    .unchecked_copy();
+                Some(store.gc_store_mut()?.clone_gc_ref(&r))
+            }
+        };
+
+        Ok(root)
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(not(feature = "gc"))]
+    fn gc(&mut self, root: Option<VMGcRef>) -> Result<Option<VMGcRef>> {
+        Ok(root)
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "component-model")]
+    fn component_calls(&mut self) -> &mut crate::runtime::vm::component::CallContexts {
+        &mut self.component_calls
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> StoreInner<T> {
+    pub(crate) fn set_epoch_deadline(&mut self, delta: u64) {
+        // Set a new deadline based on the "epoch deadline delta".
+        //
+        // Safety: this is safe because the epoch deadline in the
+        // `VMRuntimeLimits` is accessed only here and by Wasm guest code
+        // running in this store, and we have a `&mut self` here.
+        //
+        // Also, note that when this update is performed while Wasm is
+        // on the stack, the Wasm will reload the new value once we
+        // return into it.
+        let epoch_deadline = unsafe { (*self.vmruntime_limits()).epoch_deadline.get_mut() };
+        *epoch_deadline = self.engine().current_epoch() + delta;
+    }
+
+    fn epoch_deadline_trap(&mut self) {
+        self.epoch_deadline_behavior = None;
+    }
+
+    fn epoch_deadline_callback(
+        &mut self,
+        callback: Box<dyn FnMut(StoreContextMut<T>) -> Result<UpdateDeadline> + Send + Sync>,
+    ) {
+        self.epoch_deadline_behavior = Some(callback);
+    }
+
+    fn epoch_deadline_async_yield_and_update(&mut self, delta: u64) {
+        assert!(
+            self.async_support(),
+            "cannot use `epoch_deadline_async_yield_and_update` without enabling async support in the config"
+        );
+        #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+        {
+            self.epoch_deadline_behavior =
+                Some(Box::new(move |_store| Ok(UpdateDeadline::Yield(delta))));
+        }
+        let _ = delta; // suppress warning in non-async build
+    }
+
+    fn get_epoch_deadline(&self) -> u64 {
+        // Safety: this is safe because, as above, it is only invoked
+        // from within `new_epoch` which is called from guest Wasm
+        // code, which will have an exclusive borrow on the Store.
+        let epoch_deadline = unsafe { (*self.vmruntime_limits()).epoch_deadline.get_mut() };
+        *epoch_deadline
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: Default> Default for Store<T> {
+    fn default() -> Store<T> {
+        Store::new(&Engine::default(), T::default())
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: fmt::Debug> fmt::Debug for Store<T> {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
+        let inner = &**self.inner as *const StoreInner<T>;
+        f.debug_struct("Store")
+            .field("inner", &inner)
+            .field("data", &self.inner.data)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> Drop for Store<T> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        // for documentation on this `unsafe`, see `into_data`.
+        unsafe {
+            ManuallyDrop::drop(&mut self.inner.data);
+            ManuallyDrop::drop(&mut self.inner);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for StoreOpaque {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        // NB it's important that this destructor does not access `self.data`.
+        // That is deallocated by `Drop for Store<T>` above.
+
+        unsafe {
+            let allocator = self.engine.allocator();
+            let ondemand = OnDemandInstanceAllocator::default();
+            for instance in self.instances.iter_mut() {
+                if let StoreInstanceKind::Dummy = instance.kind {
+                    ondemand.deallocate_module(&mut instance.handle);
+                } else {
+                    allocator.deallocate_module(&mut instance.handle);
+                }
+            }
+            ondemand.deallocate_module(&mut self.default_caller);
+
+            #[cfg(feature = "gc")]
+            if let Some(gc_store) = self.gc_store.take() {
+                allocator.deallocate_gc_heap(gc_store.allocation_index, gc_store.gc_heap);
+            }
+
+            #[cfg(feature = "component-model")]
+            {
+                for _ in 0..self.num_component_instances {
+                    allocator.decrement_component_instance_count();
+                }
+            }
+
+            // See documentation for these fields on `StoreOpaque` for why they
+            // must be dropped in this order.
+            ManuallyDrop::drop(&mut self.store_data);
+            ManuallyDrop::drop(&mut self.rooted_host_funcs);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl crate::runtime::vm::ModuleInfoLookup for ModuleRegistry {
+    fn lookup(&self, pc: usize) -> Option<&dyn crate::runtime::vm::ModuleInfo> {
+        self.lookup_module_info(pc)
+    }
+}
+
+struct Reset<T: Copy>(*mut T, T);
+
+impl<T: Copy> Drop for Reset<T> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        unsafe {
+            *self.0 = self.1;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::{get_fuel, refuel, set_fuel};
+    use std::num::NonZeroU64;
+
+    struct FuelTank {
+        pub consumed_fuel: i64,
+        pub reserve_fuel: u64,
+        pub yield_interval: Option<NonZeroU64>,
+    }
+
+    impl FuelTank {
+        fn new() -> Self {
+            FuelTank {
+                consumed_fuel: 0,
+                reserve_fuel: 0,
+                yield_interval: None,
+            }
+        }
+        fn get_fuel(&self) -> u64 {
+            get_fuel(self.consumed_fuel, self.reserve_fuel)
+        }
+        fn refuel(&mut self) -> bool {
+            refuel(
+                &mut self.consumed_fuel,
+                &mut self.reserve_fuel,
+                self.yield_interval,
+            )
+        }
+        fn set_fuel(&mut self, fuel: u64) {
+            set_fuel(
+                &mut self.consumed_fuel,
+                &mut self.reserve_fuel,
+                self.yield_interval,
+                fuel,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn smoke() {
+        let mut tank = FuelTank::new();
+        tank.set_fuel(10);
+        assert_eq!(tank.consumed_fuel, -10);
+        assert_eq!(tank.reserve_fuel, 0);
+
+        tank.yield_interval = NonZeroU64::new(10);
+        tank.set_fuel(25);
+        assert_eq!(tank.consumed_fuel, -10);
+        assert_eq!(tank.reserve_fuel, 15);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn does_not_lose_precision() {
+        let mut tank = FuelTank::new();
+        tank.set_fuel(u64::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(tank.get_fuel(), u64::MAX);
+
+        tank.set_fuel(i64::MAX as u64);
+        assert_eq!(tank.get_fuel(), i64::MAX as u64);
+
+        tank.set_fuel(i64::MAX as u64 + 1);
+        assert_eq!(tank.get_fuel(), i64::MAX as u64 + 1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn yielding_does_not_lose_precision() {
+        let mut tank = FuelTank::new();
+
+        tank.yield_interval = NonZeroU64::new(10);
+        tank.set_fuel(u64::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(tank.get_fuel(), u64::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(tank.consumed_fuel, -10);
+        assert_eq!(tank.reserve_fuel, u64::MAX - 10);
+
+        tank.yield_interval = NonZeroU64::new(u64::MAX);
+        tank.set_fuel(u64::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(tank.get_fuel(), u64::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(tank.consumed_fuel, -i64::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(tank.reserve_fuel, u64::MAX - (i64::MAX as u64));
+
+        tank.yield_interval = NonZeroU64::new((i64::MAX as u64) + 1);
+        tank.set_fuel(u64::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(tank.get_fuel(), u64::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(tank.consumed_fuel, -i64::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(tank.reserve_fuel, u64::MAX - (i64::MAX as u64));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn refueling() {
+        // It's possible to fuel to have consumed over the limit as some instructions can consume
+        // multiple units of fuel at once. Refueling should be strict in it's consumption and not
+        // add more fuel than there is.
+        let mut tank = FuelTank::new();
+
+        tank.yield_interval = NonZeroU64::new(10);
+        tank.reserve_fuel = 42;
+        tank.consumed_fuel = 4;
+        assert!(tank.refuel());
+        assert_eq!(tank.reserve_fuel, 28);
+        assert_eq!(tank.consumed_fuel, -10);
+
+        tank.yield_interval = NonZeroU64::new(1);
+        tank.reserve_fuel = 8;
+        tank.consumed_fuel = 4;
+        assert_eq!(tank.get_fuel(), 4);
+        assert!(tank.refuel());
+        assert_eq!(tank.reserve_fuel, 3);
+        assert_eq!(tank.consumed_fuel, -1);
+        assert_eq!(tank.get_fuel(), 4);
+
+        tank.yield_interval = NonZeroU64::new(10);
+        tank.reserve_fuel = 3;
+        tank.consumed_fuel = 4;
+        assert_eq!(tank.get_fuel(), 0);
+        assert!(!tank.refuel());
+        assert_eq!(tank.reserve_fuel, 3);
+        assert_eq!(tank.consumed_fuel, 4);
+        assert_eq!(tank.get_fuel(), 0);
+    }
+}