passagemath-symbolics 10.8.1a1__cp311-cp311-macosx_13_0_arm64.whl

sage/manifolds/scalarfield.py

@@ -0,0 +1,3718 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-symbolics
+r"""
+Scalar Fields
+
+Given a topological manifold `M` over a topological field `K` (in most
+applications, `K = \RR` or `K = \CC`), a *scalar field* on `M` is a
+continuous map
+
+.. MATH::
+
+    f:  M \longrightarrow K
+
+Scalar fields are implemented by the class :class:`ScalarField`.
+
+AUTHORS:
+
+- Eric Gourgoulhon, Michal Bejger (2013-2015): initial version
+- Travis Scrimshaw (2016): review tweaks
+- Marco Mancini (2017): SymPy as an optional symbolic engine, alternative to SR
+- Florentin Jaffredo (2018) : series expansion with respect to a given
+  parameter
+- Michael Jung (2019) : improve restrictions; make ``display()`` show all
+  distinct expressions
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+- [Lee2011]_
+- [KN1963]_
+"""
+
+# *****************************************************************************
+#       Copyright (C) 2015 Eric Gourgoulhon <eric.gourgoulhon@obspm.fr>
+#       Copyright (C) 2015 Michal Bejger <bejger@camk.edu.pl>
+#       Copyright (C) 2016 Travis Scrimshaw <tscrimsh@umn.edu>
+#       Copyright (C) 2017 Marco Mancini <marco.mancini@obspm.fr>
+#
+#  Distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL)
+#  as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of
+#  the License, or (at your option) any later version.
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# *****************************************************************************
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
+
+from sage.manifolds.chart_func import ChartFunction
+from sage.misc.cachefunc import cached_method
+from sage.structure.element import (
+    CommutativeAlgebraElement,
+    ModuleElementWithMutability,
+)
+from sage.symbolic.expression import Expression
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from sage.manifolds.chart import Chart
+    from sage.tensor.modules.format_utilities import FormattedExpansion
+
+
+class ScalarField(CommutativeAlgebraElement, ModuleElementWithMutability):
+    r"""
+    Scalar field on a topological manifold.
+
+    Given a topological manifold `M` over a topological field `K` (in most
+    applications, `K = \RR` or `K = \CC`), a *scalar field on* `M` is a
+    continuous map
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        f: M \longrightarrow K.
+
+    A scalar field on `M` is an element of the commutative algebra
+    `C^0(M)` (see
+    :class:`~sage.manifolds.scalarfield_algebra.ScalarFieldAlgebra`).
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``parent`` -- the algebra of scalar fields containing the scalar field
+      (must be an instance of class
+      :class:`~sage.manifolds.scalarfield_algebra.ScalarFieldAlgebra`)
+
+    - ``coord_expression`` -- (default: ``None``) coordinate expression(s) of
+      the scalar field; this can be either
+
+      * a dictionary of coordinate expressions in various charts on
+        the domain, with the charts as keys;
+      * a single coordinate expression; if the argument ``chart`` is
+        ``'all'``, this expression is set to all the charts defined
+        on the open set; otherwise, the expression is set in the
+        specific chart provided by the argument ``chart``
+
+    - ``chart`` -- (default: ``None``) chart defining the coordinates used
+      in ``coord_expression`` when the latter is a single coordinate
+      expression; if none is provided (default), the default chart of the
+      open set is assumed. If ``chart=='all'``, ``coord_expression`` is
+      assumed to be independent of the chart (constant scalar field).
+
+    - ``name`` -- (default: ``None``) string; name (symbol) given to the
+      scalar field
+
+    - ``latex_name`` -- (default: ``None``) string; LaTeX symbol to denote the
+      scalar field; if none is provided, the LaTeX symbol is set to ``name``
+
+    If ``coord_expression`` is ``None`` or incomplete, coordinate
+    expressions can be added after the creation of the object, by means of
+    the methods :meth:`add_expr`, :meth:`add_expr_by_continuation` and
+    :meth:`set_expr`.
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    A scalar field on the 2-sphere::
+
+        sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological') # the 2-dimensional sphere S^2
+        sage: U = M.open_subset('U') # complement of the North pole
+        sage: c_xy.<x,y> = U.chart() # stereographic coordinates from the North pole
+        sage: V = M.open_subset('V') # complement of the South pole
+        sage: c_uv.<u,v> = V.chart() # stereographic coordinates from the South pole
+        sage: M.declare_union(U,V)   # S^2 is the union of U and V
+        sage: xy_to_uv = c_xy.transition_map(c_uv, (x/(x^2+y^2), y/(x^2+y^2)),
+        ....:                                intersection_name='W',
+        ....:                                restrictions1= x^2+y^2!=0,
+        ....:                                restrictions2= u^2+v^2!=0)
+        sage: uv_to_xy = xy_to_uv.inverse()
+        sage: f = M.scalar_field({c_xy: 1/(1+x^2+y^2), c_uv: (u^2+v^2)/(1+u^2+v^2)},
+        ....:                    name='f') ; f
+        Scalar field f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: f.display()
+        f: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u^2 + v^2)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    For scalar fields defined by a single coordinate expression, the latter
+    can be passed instead of the dictionary over the charts::
+
+        sage: g = U.scalar_field(x*y, chart=c_xy, name='g') ; g
+        Scalar field g on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+
+    The above is indeed equivalent to::
+
+        sage: g = U.scalar_field({c_xy: x*y}, name='g') ; g
+        Scalar field g on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+
+    Since ``c_xy`` is the default chart of ``U``, the argument ``chart`` can
+    be skipped::
+
+        sage: g = U.scalar_field(x*y, name='g') ; g
+        Scalar field g on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+
+    The scalar field `g` is defined on `U` and has an expression in terms of
+    the coordinates `(u,v)` on `W=U\cap V`::
+
+        sage: g.display()
+        g: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ x*y
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u*v/(u^4 + 2*u^2*v^2 + v^4)
+
+    Scalar fields on `M` can also be declared with a single chart::
+
+        sage: f = M.scalar_field(1/(1+x^2+y^2), chart=c_xy, name='f') ; f
+        Scalar field f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+
+    Their definition must then be completed by providing the expressions on
+    other charts, via the method :meth:`add_expr`, to get a global cover of
+    the manifold::
+
+        sage: f.add_expr((u^2+v^2)/(1+u^2+v^2), chart=c_uv)
+        sage: f.display()
+        f: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u^2 + v^2)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    We can even first declare the scalar field without any coordinate
+    expression and provide them subsequently::
+
+        sage: f = M.scalar_field(name='f')
+        sage: f.add_expr(1/(1+x^2+y^2), chart=c_xy)
+        sage: f.add_expr((u^2+v^2)/(1+u^2+v^2), chart=c_uv)
+        sage: f.display()
+        f: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u^2 + v^2)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    We may also use the method :meth:`add_expr_by_continuation` to complete
+    the coordinate definition using the analytic continuation from domains in
+    which charts overlap::
+
+        sage: f = M.scalar_field(1/(1+x^2+y^2), chart=c_xy, name='f') ; f
+        Scalar field f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: f.add_expr_by_continuation(c_uv, U.intersection(V))
+        sage: f.display()
+        f: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u^2 + v^2)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    A scalar field can also be defined by some unspecified function of the
+    coordinates::
+
+        sage: h = U.scalar_field(function('H')(x, y), name='h') ; h
+        Scalar field h on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: h.display()
+        h: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ H(x, y)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ H(u/(u^2 + v^2), v/(u^2 + v^2))
+
+    We may use the argument ``latex_name`` to specify the LaTeX symbol denoting
+    the scalar field if the latter is different from ``name``::
+
+        sage: latex(f)
+        f
+        sage: f = M.scalar_field({c_xy: 1/(1+x^2+y^2), c_uv: (u^2+v^2)/(1+u^2+v^2)},
+        ....:                    name='f', latex_name=r'\mathcal{F}')
+        sage: latex(f)
+        \mathcal{F}
+
+    The coordinate expression in a given chart is obtained via the method
+    :meth:`expr`, which returns a symbolic expression::
+
+        sage: f.expr(c_uv)
+        (u^2 + v^2)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+        sage: type(f.expr(c_uv))
+        <class 'sage.symbolic.expression.Expression'>
+
+    The method :meth:`coord_function` returns instead a function of the
+    chart coordinates, i.e. an instance of
+    :class:`~sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunction`::
+
+        sage: f.coord_function(c_uv)
+        (u^2 + v^2)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+        sage: type(f.coord_function(c_uv))
+        <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+        sage: f.coord_function(c_uv).display()
+        (u, v) ↦ (u^2 + v^2)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    The value returned by the method :meth:`expr` is actually the coordinate
+    expression of the chart function::
+
+        sage: f.expr(c_uv) is f.coord_function(c_uv).expr()
+        True
+
+    A constant scalar field is declared by setting the argument ``chart`` to
+    ``'all'``::
+
+        sage: c = M.scalar_field(2, chart='all', name='c') ; c
+        Scalar field c on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: c.display()
+        c: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 2
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ 2
+
+    A shortcut is to use the method
+    :meth:`~sage.manifolds.manifold.TopologicalManifold.constant_scalar_field`::
+
+        sage: c == M.constant_scalar_field(2)
+        True
+
+    The constant value can be some unspecified parameter::
+
+        sage: var('a')
+        a
+        sage: c = M.constant_scalar_field(a, name='c') ; c
+        Scalar field c on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: c.display()
+        c: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ a
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ a
+
+    A special case of constant field is the zero scalar field::
+
+        sage: zer = M.constant_scalar_field(0) ; zer
+        Scalar field zero on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: zer.display()
+        zero: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 0
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ 0
+
+    It can be obtained directly by means of the function
+    :meth:`~sage.manifolds.manifold.TopologicalManifold.zero_scalar_field`::
+
+        sage: zer is M.zero_scalar_field()
+        True
+
+    A third way is to get it as the zero element of the algebra `C^0(M)`
+    of scalar fields on `M` (see below)::
+
+        sage: zer is M.scalar_field_algebra().zero()
+        True
+
+    The constant scalar fields zero and one are immutable, and therefore
+    their expressions cannot be changed::
+
+        sage: zer.is_immutable()
+        True
+        sage: zer.set_expr(x)
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: the expressions of an immutable element cannot be
+         changed
+        sage: one = M.one_scalar_field()
+        sage: one.is_immutable()
+        True
+        sage: one.set_expr(x)
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: the expressions of an immutable element cannot be
+         changed
+
+    Other scalar fields can be declared immutable, too::
+
+        sage: c.is_immutable()
+        False
+        sage: c.set_immutable()
+        sage: c.is_immutable()
+        True
+        sage: c.set_expr(y^2)
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: the expressions of an immutable element cannot be
+         changed
+        sage: c.set_name('b')
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: the name of an immutable element cannot be changed
+
+    Immutable elements are hashable and can therefore be used as keys for
+    dictionaries::
+
+        sage: {c: 1}[c]
+        1
+
+    By definition, a scalar field acts on the manifold's points, sending
+    them to elements of the manifold's base field (real numbers in the
+    present case)::
+
+        sage: N = M.point((0,0), chart=c_uv) # the North pole
+        sage: S = M.point((0,0), chart=c_xy) # the South pole
+        sage: E = M.point((1,0), chart=c_xy) # a point at the equator
+        sage: f(N)
+        0
+        sage: f(S)
+        1
+        sage: f(E)
+        1/2
+        sage: h(E)
+        H(1, 0)
+        sage: c(E)
+        a
+        sage: zer(E)
+        0
+
+    A scalar field can be compared to another scalar field::
+
+        sage: f == g
+        False
+
+    ...to a symbolic expression::
+
+        sage: f == x*y
+        False
+        sage: g == x*y
+        True
+        sage: c == a
+        True
+
+    ...to a number::
+
+        sage: f == 2
+        False
+        sage: zer == 0
+        True
+
+    ...to anything else::
+
+        sage: f == M
+        False
+
+    Standard mathematical functions are implemented::
+
+        sage: sqrt(f)
+        Scalar field sqrt(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: sqrt(f).display()
+        sqrt(f): M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/sqrt(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ sqrt(u^2 + v^2)/sqrt(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: tan(f)
+        Scalar field tan(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: tan(f).display()
+        tan(f): M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ sin(1/(x^2 + y^2 + 1))/cos(1/(x^2 + y^2 + 1))
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ sin((u^2 + v^2)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1))/cos((u^2 + v^2)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1))
+
+    .. RUBRIC:: Arithmetics of scalar fields
+
+    Scalar fields on `M` (resp. `U`) belong to the algebra `C^0(M)`
+    (resp. `C^0(U)`)::
+
+        sage: f.parent()
+        Algebra of scalar fields on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: f.parent() is M.scalar_field_algebra()
+        True
+        sage: g.parent()
+        Algebra of scalar fields on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional
+         topological manifold M
+        sage: g.parent() is U.scalar_field_algebra()
+        True
+
+    Consequently, scalar fields can be added::
+
+        sage: s = f + c ; s
+        Scalar field f+c on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f+c: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ (a*x^2 + a*y^2 + a + 1)/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ ((a + 1)*u^2 + (a + 1)*v^2 + a)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    and subtracted::
+
+        sage: s = f - c ; s
+        Scalar field f-c on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f-c: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ -(a*x^2 + a*y^2 + a - 1)/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ -((a - 1)*u^2 + (a - 1)*v^2 + a)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    Some tests::
+
+        sage: f + zer == f
+        True
+        sage: f - f == zer
+        True
+        sage: f + (-f) == zer
+        True
+        sage: (f+c)-f == c
+        True
+        sage: (f-c)+c == f
+        True
+
+    We may add a number (interpreted as a constant scalar field) to a scalar
+    field::
+
+        sage: s = f + 1 ; s
+        Scalar field f+1 on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f+1: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ (x^2 + y^2 + 2)/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (2*u^2 + 2*v^2 + 1)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+        sage: (f+1)-1 == f
+        True
+
+    The number can represented by a symbolic variable::
+
+        sage: s = a + f ; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s == c + f
+        True
+
+    However if the symbolic variable is a chart coordinate, the addition
+    is performed only on the chart domain::
+
+        sage: s = f + x; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ (x^3 + x*y^2 + x + 1)/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ (u^4 + v^4 + u^3 + (2*u^2 + u)*v^2 + u)/(u^4 + v^4 + (2*u^2 + 1)*v^2 + u^2)
+        sage: s = f + u; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        M → ℝ
+        on W: (x, y) ↦ (x^3 + (x + 1)*y^2 + x^2 + x)/(x^4 + y^4 + (2*x^2 + 1)*y^2 + x^2)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u^3 + (u + 1)*v^2 + u^2 + u)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    The addition of two scalar fields with different domains is possible if
+    the domain of one of them is a subset of the domain of the other; the
+    domain of the result is then this subset::
+
+        sage: f.domain()
+        2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: g.domain()
+        Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s = f + g ; s
+        Scalar field f+g on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.domain()
+        Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f+g: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ (x*y^3 + (x^3 + x)*y + 1)/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ (u^6 + 3*u^4*v^2 + 3*u^2*v^4 + v^6 + u*v^3
+         + (u^3 + u)*v)/(u^6 + v^6 + (3*u^2 + 1)*v^4 + u^4 + (3*u^4 + 2*u^2)*v^2)
+
+    The operation actually performed is `f|_U + g`::
+
+        sage: s == f.restrict(U) + g
+        True
+
+    In Sage framework, the addition of `f` and `g` is permitted because
+    there is a *coercion* of the parent of `f`, namely `C^0(M)`, to
+    the parent of `g`, namely `C^0(U)` (see
+    :class:`~sage.manifolds.scalarfield_algebra.ScalarFieldAlgebra`)::
+
+        sage: CM = M.scalar_field_algebra()
+        sage: CU = U.scalar_field_algebra()
+        sage: CU.has_coerce_map_from(CM)
+        True
+
+    The coercion map is nothing but the restriction to domain `U`::
+
+        sage: CU.coerce(f) == f.restrict(U)
+        True
+
+    Since the algebra `C^0(M)` is a vector space over `\RR`, scalar fields
+    can be multiplied by a number, either an explicit one::
+
+        sage: s = 2*f ; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 2/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ 2*(u^2 + v^2)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    or a symbolic one::
+
+        sage: s = a*f ; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ a/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u^2 + v^2)*a/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    However, if the symbolic variable is a chart coordinate, the
+    multiplication is performed only in the corresponding chart::
+
+        sage: s = x*f; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ x/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+        sage: s = u*f; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        M → ℝ
+        on W: (x, y) ↦ x/(x^4 + y^4 + (2*x^2 + 1)*y^2 + x^2)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u^2 + v^2)*u/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    Some tests::
+
+        sage: 0*f == 0
+        True
+        sage: 0*f == zer
+        True
+        sage: 1*f == f
+        True
+        sage: (-2)*f == - f - f
+        True
+
+    The ring multiplication of the algebras `C^0(M)` and `C^0(U)`
+    is the pointwise multiplication of functions::
+
+        sage: s = f*f ; s
+        Scalar field f*f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f*f: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/(x^4 + y^4 + 2*(x^2 + 1)*y^2 + 2*x^2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u^4 + 2*u^2*v^2 + v^4)/(u^4 + v^4 + 2*(u^2 + 1)*v^2
+         + 2*u^2 + 1)
+        sage: s = g*h ; s
+        Scalar field g*h on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        g*h: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ x*y*H(x, y)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u*v*H(u/(u^2 + v^2), v/(u^2 + v^2))/(u^4 + 2*u^2*v^2 + v^4)
+
+    Thanks to the coercion `C^0(M) \to C^0(U)` mentioned above,
+    it is possible to multiply a scalar field defined on `M` by a
+    scalar field defined on `U`, the result being a scalar field
+    defined on `U`::
+
+        sage: f.domain(), g.domain()
+        (2-dimensional topological manifold M,
+         Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological manifold M)
+        sage: s = f*g ; s
+        Scalar field f*g on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f*g: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ x*y/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u*v/(u^4 + v^4 + (2*u^2 + 1)*v^2 + u^2)
+        sage: s == f.restrict(U)*g
+        True
+
+    Scalar fields can be divided (pointwise division)::
+
+        sage: s = f/c ; s
+        Scalar field f/c on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f/c: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/(a*x^2 + a*y^2 + a)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u^2 + v^2)/(a*u^2 + a*v^2 + a)
+        sage: s = g/h ; s
+        Scalar field g/h on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        g/h: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ x*y/H(x, y)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u*v/((u^4 + 2*u^2*v^2 + v^4)*H(u/(u^2 + v^2), v/(u^2 + v^2)))
+        sage: s = f/g ; s
+        Scalar field f/g on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f/g: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ 1/(x*y^3 + (x^3 + x)*y)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ (u^6 + 3*u^4*v^2 + 3*u^2*v^4 + v^6)/(u*v^3 + (u^3 + u)*v)
+        sage: s == f.restrict(U)/g
+        True
+
+    For scalar fields defined on a single chart domain, we may perform some
+    arithmetics with symbolic expressions involving the chart coordinates::
+
+        sage: s = g + x^2 - y ; s
+        Scalar field on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        U → ℝ
+        (x, y) ↦ x^2 + (x - 1)*y
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ -(v^3 - u^2 + (u^2 - u)*v)/(u^4 + 2*u^2*v^2 + v^4)
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: s = g*x ; s
+        Scalar field on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        U → ℝ
+        (x, y) ↦ x^2*y
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u^2*v/(u^6 + 3*u^4*v^2 + 3*u^2*v^4 + v^6)
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: s = g/x ; s
+        Scalar field on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        U → ℝ
+        (x, y) ↦ y
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ v/(u^2 + v^2)
+        sage: s = x/g ; s
+        Scalar field on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        U → ℝ
+        (x, y) ↦ 1/y
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ (u^2 + v^2)/v
+
+
+    .. RUBRIC:: Examples with SymPy as the symbolic engine
+
+    From now on, we ask that all symbolic calculus on manifold `M` are
+    performed by SymPy::
+
+        sage: M.set_calculus_method('sympy')
+
+    We define `f` as above::
+
+        sage: f = M.scalar_field({c_xy: 1/(1+x^2+y^2), c_uv: (u^2+v^2)/(1+u^2+v^2)},
+        ....:                    name='f') ; f
+        Scalar field f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: f.display()  # notice the SymPy display of exponents
+        f: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+        sage: type(f.coord_function(c_xy).expr())
+        <class 'sympy.core.power.Pow'>
+
+    The scalar field `g` defined on `U`::
+
+        sage: g = U.scalar_field({c_xy: x*y}, name='g')
+        sage: g.display() # again notice the SymPy display of exponents
+        g: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ x*y
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u*v/(u**4 + 2*u**2*v**2 + v**4)
+
+    Definition on a single chart and subsequent completion::
+
+        sage: f = M.scalar_field(1/(1+x^2+y^2), chart=c_xy, name='f')
+        sage: f.add_expr((u^2+v^2)/(1+u^2+v^2), chart=c_uv)
+        sage: f.display()
+        f: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+
+    Definition without any coordinate expression and subsequent completion::
+
+        sage: f = M.scalar_field(name='f')
+        sage: f.add_expr(1/(1+x^2+y^2), chart=c_xy)
+        sage: f.add_expr((u^2+v^2)/(1+u^2+v^2), chart=c_uv)
+        sage: f.display()
+        f: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+
+    Use of :meth:`add_expr_by_continuation`::
+
+        sage: f = M.scalar_field(1/(1+x^2+y^2), chart=c_xy, name='f')
+        sage: f.add_expr_by_continuation(c_uv, U.intersection(V))
+        sage: f.display()
+        f: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+
+    A scalar field defined by some unspecified function of the
+    coordinates::
+
+        sage: h = U.scalar_field(function('H')(x, y), name='h') ; h
+        Scalar field h on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: h.display()
+        h: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ H(x, y)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ H(u/(u**2 + v**2), v/(u**2 + v**2))
+
+    The coordinate expression in a given chart is obtained via the method
+    :meth:`expr`, which in the present context, returns a SymPy object::
+
+        sage: f.expr(c_uv)
+        (u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+        sage: type(f.expr(c_uv))
+        <class 'sympy.core.mul.Mul'>
+
+    The method :meth:`coord_function` returns instead a function of the
+    chart coordinates, i.e. an instance of
+    :class:`~sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunction`::
+
+        sage: f.coord_function(c_uv)
+        (u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+        sage: type(f.coord_function(c_uv))
+        <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+        sage: f.coord_function(c_uv).display()
+        (u, v) ↦ (u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+
+    The value returned by the method :meth:`expr` is actually the coordinate
+    expression of the chart function::
+
+        sage: f.expr(c_uv) is f.coord_function(c_uv).expr()
+        True
+
+    We may ask for the ``SR`` representation of the coordinate function::
+
+        sage: f.coord_function(c_uv).expr('SR')
+        (u^2 + v^2)/(u^2 + v^2 + 1)
+
+    A constant scalar field with SymPy representation::
+
+        sage: c = M.constant_scalar_field(2, name='c')
+        sage: c.display()
+        c: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 2
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ 2
+        sage: type(c.expr(c_xy))
+        <class 'sympy.core.numbers.Integer'>
+
+    The constant value can be some unspecified parameter::
+
+        sage: var('a')
+        a
+        sage: c = M.constant_scalar_field(a, name='c')
+        sage: c.display()
+        c: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ a
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ a
+        sage: type(c.expr(c_xy))
+        <class 'sympy.core.symbol.Symbol'>
+
+    The zero scalar field::
+
+        sage: zer = M.constant_scalar_field(0) ; zer
+        Scalar field zero on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: zer.display()
+        zero: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 0
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ 0
+        sage: type(zer.expr(c_xy))
+        <class 'sympy.core.numbers.Zero'>
+        sage: zer is M.zero_scalar_field()
+        True
+
+    Action of scalar fields on manifold's points::
+
+        sage: N = M.point((0,0), chart=c_uv) # the North pole
+        sage: S = M.point((0,0), chart=c_xy) # the South pole
+        sage: E = M.point((1,0), chart=c_xy) # a point at the equator
+        sage: f(N)
+        0
+        sage: f(S)
+        1
+        sage: f(E)
+        1/2
+        sage: h(E)
+        H(1, 0)
+        sage: c(E)
+        a
+        sage: zer(E)
+        0
+
+    A scalar field can be compared to another scalar field::
+
+        sage: f == g
+        False
+
+    ...to a symbolic expression::
+
+        sage: f == x*y
+        False
+        sage: g == x*y
+        True
+        sage: c == a
+        True
+
+    ...to a number::
+
+        sage: f == 2
+        False
+        sage: zer == 0
+        True
+
+    ...to anything else::
+
+        sage: f == M
+        False
+
+    Standard mathematical functions are implemented::
+
+        sage: sqrt(f)
+        Scalar field sqrt(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: sqrt(f).display()
+        sqrt(f): M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/sqrt(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ sqrt(u**2 + v**2)/sqrt(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: tan(f)
+        Scalar field tan(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: tan(f).display()
+        tan(f): M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ tan(1/(x**2 + y**2 + 1))
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ tan((u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1))
+
+    .. RUBRIC:: Arithmetics of scalar fields with SymPy
+
+    Scalar fields on `M` (resp. `U`) belong to the algebra `C^0(M)`
+    (resp. `C^0(U)`)::
+
+        sage: f.parent()
+        Algebra of scalar fields on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: f.parent() is M.scalar_field_algebra()
+        True
+        sage: g.parent()
+        Algebra of scalar fields on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional
+         topological manifold M
+        sage: g.parent() is U.scalar_field_algebra()
+        True
+
+    Consequently, scalar fields can be added::
+
+        sage: s = f + c ; s
+        Scalar field f+c on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f+c: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ (a*x**2 + a*y**2 + a + 1)/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (a*u**2 + a*v**2 + a + u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+
+    and subtracted::
+
+        sage: s = f - c ; s
+        Scalar field f-c on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f-c: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ (-a*x**2 - a*y**2 - a + 1)/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (-a*u**2 - a*v**2 - a + u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+
+    Some tests::
+
+        sage: f + zer == f
+        True
+        sage: f - f == zer
+        True
+        sage: f + (-f) == zer
+        True
+        sage: (f+c)-f == c
+        True
+        sage: (f-c)+c == f
+        True
+
+    We may add a number (interpreted as a constant scalar field) to a scalar
+    field::
+
+        sage: s = f + 1 ; s
+        Scalar field f+1 on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f+1: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ (x**2 + y**2 + 2)/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (2*u**2 + 2*v**2 + 1)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+        sage: (f+1)-1 == f
+        True
+
+    The number can represented by a symbolic variable::
+
+        sage: s = a + f ; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s == c + f
+        True
+
+    However if the symbolic variable is a chart coordinate, the addition
+    is performed only on the chart domain::
+
+        sage: s = f + x; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ (x**3 + x*y**2 + x + 1)/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ (u**4 + u**3 + 2*u**2*v**2 + u*v**2 + u + v**4)/(u**4 + 2*u**2*v**2 + u**2 + v**4 + v**2)
+        sage: s = f + u; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        M → ℝ
+        on W: (x, y) ↦ (x**3 + x**2 + x*y**2 + x + y**2)/(x**4 + 2*x**2*y**2 + x**2 + y**4 + y**2)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u**3 + u**2 + u*v**2 + u + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+
+    The addition of two scalar fields with different domains is possible if
+    the domain of one of them is a subset of the domain of the other; the
+    domain of the result is then this subset::
+
+        sage: f.domain()
+        2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: g.domain()
+        Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s = f + g ; s
+        Scalar field f+g on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.domain()
+        Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f+g: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ (x**3*y + x*y**3 + x*y + 1)/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ (u**6 + 3*u**4*v**2 + u**3*v + 3*u**2*v**4 + u*v**3 + u*v + v**6)/(u**6 + 3*u**4*v**2 + u**4 + 3*u**2*v**4 + 2*u**2*v**2 + v**6 + v**4)
+
+    The operation actually performed is `f|_U + g`::
+
+        sage: s == f.restrict(U) + g
+        True
+
+    Since the algebra `C^0(M)` is a vector space over `\RR`, scalar fields
+    can be multiplied by a number, either an explicit one::
+
+        sage: s = 2*f ; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 2/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ 2*(u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+
+    or a symbolic one::
+
+        sage: s = a*f ; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ a/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ a*(u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+
+    However, if the symbolic variable is a chart coordinate, the
+    multiplication is performed only in the corresponding chart::
+
+        sage: s = x*f; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ x/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+        sage: s = u*f; s
+        Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        M → ℝ
+        on W: (x, y) ↦ x/(x**4 + 2*x**2*y**2 + x**2 + y**4 + y**2)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ u*(u**2 + v**2)/(u**2 + v**2 + 1)
+
+    Some tests::
+
+        sage: 0*f == 0
+        True
+        sage: 0*f == zer
+        True
+        sage: 1*f == f
+        True
+        sage: (-2)*f == - f - f
+        True
+
+    The ring multiplication of the algebras `C^0(M)` and `C^0(U)`
+    is the pointwise multiplication of functions::
+
+        sage: s = f*f ; s
+        Scalar field f*f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f*f: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/(x**4 + 2*x**2*y**2 + 2*x**2 + y**4 + 2*y**2 + 1)
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u**4 + 2*u**2*v**2 + v**4)/(u**4 + 2*u**2*v**2 + 2*u**2 + v**4 + 2*v**2 + 1)
+
+        sage: s = g*h ; s
+        Scalar field g*h on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        g*h: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ x*y*H(x, y)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u*v*H(u/(u**2 + v**2), v/(u**2 + v**2))/(u**4 + 2*u**2*v**2 + v**4)
+
+    Thanks to the coercion `C^0(M) \to C^0(U)` mentioned above,
+    it is possible to multiply a scalar field defined on `M` by a
+    scalar field defined on `U`, the result being a scalar field
+    defined on `U`::
+
+        sage: f.domain(), g.domain()
+        (2-dimensional topological manifold M,
+         Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological manifold M)
+        sage: s = f*g ; s
+        Scalar field f*g on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f*g: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ x*y/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u*v/(u**4 + 2*u**2*v**2 + u**2 + v**4 + v**2)
+
+        sage: s == f.restrict(U)*g
+        True
+
+    Scalar fields can be divided (pointwise division)::
+
+        sage: s = f/c ; s
+        Scalar field f/c on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f/c: M → ℝ
+        on U: (x, y) ↦ 1/(a*(x**2 + y**2 + 1))
+        on V: (u, v) ↦ (u**2 + v**2)/(a*(u**2 + v**2 + 1))
+        sage: s = g/h ; s
+        Scalar field g/h on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        g/h: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ x*y/H(x, y)
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u*v/((u**4 + 2*u**2*v**2 + v**4)*H(u/(u**2 + v**2), v/(u**2 + v**2)))
+
+        sage: s = f/g ; s
+        Scalar field f/g on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        f/g: U → ℝ
+           (x, y) ↦ 1/(x*y*(x**2 + y**2 + 1))
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ (u**6 + 3*u**4*v**2 + 3*u**2*v**4 + v**6)/(u*v*(u**2 + v**2 + 1))
+        sage: s == f.restrict(U)/g
+        True
+
+    For scalar fields defined on a single chart domain, we may perform some
+    arithmetics with symbolic expressions involving the chart coordinates::
+
+        sage: s = g + x^2 - y ; s
+        Scalar field on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        U → ℝ
+        (x, y) ↦ x**2 + x*y - y
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ (-u**2*v + u**2 + u*v - v**3)/(u**4 + 2*u**2*v**2 + v**4)
+
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: s = g*x ; s
+        Scalar field on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        U → ℝ
+        (x, y) ↦ x**2*y
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u**2*v/(u**6 + 3*u**4*v**2 + 3*u**2*v**4 + v**6)
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: s = g/x ; s
+        Scalar field on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        U → ℝ
+        (x, y) ↦ y
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ v/(u**2 + v**2)
+        sage: s = x/g ; s
+        Scalar field on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+         manifold M
+        sage: s.display()
+        U → ℝ
+        (x, y) ↦ 1/y
+        on W: (u, v) ↦ u**2/v + v
+
+    The test suite is passed::
+
+        sage: TestSuite(f).run()
+        sage: TestSuite(zer).run()
+    """
+
+    _name: Optional[str]
+
+    def __init__(self, parent, coord_expression=None, chart=None, name=None,
+                 latex_name=None):
+        r"""
+        Construct a scalar field.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f') ; f
+            Scalar field f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: from sage.manifolds.scalarfield import ScalarField
+            sage: isinstance(f, ScalarField)
+            True
+            sage: f.parent()
+            Algebra of scalar fields on the 2-dimensional topological
+             manifold M
+            sage: TestSuite(f).run()
+        """
+        super().__init__(parent)  # both super classes have same signature
+        domain = parent._domain
+        self._domain = domain
+        self._manifold = domain.manifold()
+        self._is_zero = False
+        # a priori, may be changed below or via
+        # method __bool__()
+
+        self._name = name
+        if latex_name is None:
+            self._latex_name = self._name
+        else:
+            self._latex_name = latex_name
+        self._express = {}
+        # dict of coordinate expressions (ChartFunction
+        # instances) with charts as keys
+
+        if coord_expression is not None:
+            if isinstance(coord_expression, dict):
+                for chart, expression in coord_expression.items():
+                    if isinstance(expression, ChartFunction):
+                        self._express[chart] = expression
+                    else:
+                        self._express[chart] = chart.function(expression)
+            elif isinstance(coord_expression, ChartFunction):
+                self._express[coord_expression.chart()] = coord_expression
+            else:
+                if chart is None:
+                    chart = self._domain.default_chart()
+                if chart == 'all':
+                    # coord_expression is the same in all charts (constant
+                    # scalar field)
+                    for ch in self._domain.atlas():
+                        self._express[ch] = ch.function(coord_expression)
+                else:
+                    self._express[chart] = chart.function(coord_expression)
+        self._init_derived()   # initialization of derived quantities
+
+    # ### Required methods for an algebra element (beside arithmetic) ###
+
+    def __bool__(self):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is nonzero and ``False`` otherwise.
+
+        This method is called by :meth:`~sage.structure.element.Element.is_zero()`.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Tests on a 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x*y)
+            sage: f.is_zero()
+            False
+            sage: f.set_expr(0)
+            sage: f.is_zero()
+            True
+            sage: g = M.scalar_field(0)
+            sage: g.is_zero()
+            True
+            sage: M.zero_scalar_field().is_zero()
+            True
+        """
+        if self._is_zero:
+            return False
+        if not self._express:
+            # undefined scalar field
+            return True
+        for funct in self._express.values():
+            if not funct.is_zero():
+                self._is_zero = False
+                return True
+        self._is_zero = True
+        return False
+
+    def is_trivial_zero(self):
+        r"""
+        Check if ``self`` is trivially equal to zero without any
+        simplification.
+
+        This method is supposed to be fast as compared with
+        ``self.is_zero()`` or ``self == 0`` and is intended to be
+        used in library code where trying to obtain a mathematically
+        correct result by applying potentially expensive rewrite rules
+        is not desirable.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: 0})
+            sage: f.is_trivial_zero()
+            True
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(0)
+            sage: f.is_trivial_zero()
+            True
+            sage: M.zero_scalar_field().is_trivial_zero()
+            True
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y})
+            sage: f.is_trivial_zero()
+            False
+
+        Scalar field defined by means of two charts::
+
+            sage: U1 = M.open_subset('U1'); X1.<x1,y1> = U1.chart()
+            sage: U2 = M.open_subset('U2'); X2.<x2,y2> = U2.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X1: 0, X2: 0})
+            sage: f.is_trivial_zero()
+            True
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X1: 0, X2: 1})
+            sage: f.is_trivial_zero()
+            False
+
+        No simplification is attempted, so that ``False`` is returned for
+        non-trivial cases::
+
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: cos(x)^2 + sin(x)^2 - 1})
+            sage: f.is_trivial_zero()
+            False
+
+        On the contrary, the method
+        :meth:`~sage.structure.element.Element.is_zero` and the direct
+        comparison to zero involve some simplification algorithms and
+        return ``True``::
+
+            sage: f.is_zero()
+            True
+            sage: f == 0
+            True
+        """
+        if self._is_zero:
+            return True
+        return all(func.is_trivial_zero() for func in self._express.values())
+
+    def is_trivial_one(self):
+        r"""
+        Check if ``self`` is trivially equal to one without any
+        simplification.
+
+        This method is supposed to be fast as compared with
+        ``self == 1`` and is intended to be used in library code where
+        trying to obtain a mathematically correct result by applying
+        potentially expensive rewrite rules is not desirable.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: 1})
+            sage: f.is_trivial_one()
+            True
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(1)
+            sage: f.is_trivial_one()
+            True
+            sage: M.one_scalar_field().is_trivial_one()
+            True
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y})
+            sage: f.is_trivial_one()
+            False
+
+        Scalar field defined by means of two charts::
+
+            sage: U1 = M.open_subset('U1'); X1.<x1,y1> = U1.chart()
+            sage: U2 = M.open_subset('U2'); X2.<x2,y2> = U2.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X1: 1, X2: 1})
+            sage: f.is_trivial_one()
+            True
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X1: 0, X2: 1})
+            sage: f.is_trivial_one()
+            False
+
+        No simplification is attempted, so that ``False`` is returned for
+        non-trivial cases::
+
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: cos(x)^2 + sin(x)^2})
+            sage: f.is_trivial_one()
+            False
+
+        On the contrary, the method
+        :meth:`~sage.structure.element.Element.is_zero` and the direct
+        comparison to one involve some simplification algorithms and
+        return ``True``::
+
+            sage: (f - 1).is_zero()
+            True
+            sage: f == 1
+            True
+        """
+        return all(func.is_trivial_one() for func in self._express.values())
+
+    # TODO: Remove this method as soon as issue #28629 is solved?
+    def is_unit(self):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` iff ``self`` is not trivially zero in at least one of
+        the given expressions since most scalar fields are invertible and a
+        complete computation would take too much time.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='top')
+            sage: one = M.scalar_field_algebra().one()
+            sage: one.is_unit()
+            True
+            sage: zero = M.scalar_field_algebra().zero()
+            sage: zero.is_unit()
+            False
+        """
+        if self._is_zero:
+            return False
+        return not any(func.is_trivial_zero()
+                       for func in self._express.values())
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Comparison (equality) operator.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a scalar field (or something else)
+
+        OUTPUT: ``True`` if ``self`` is equal to ``other``, ``False`` otherwise
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y})
+            sage: f == 1
+            False
+            sage: f == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            False
+            sage: g = M.scalar_field({X: x+y})
+            sage: f == g
+            True
+            sage: h = M.scalar_field({X: 1})
+            sage: h == M.one_scalar_field()
+            True
+            sage: h == 1
+            True
+        """
+        from sage.manifolds.differentiable.mixed_form import MixedForm
+
+        if other is self:
+            return True
+        if isinstance(other, MixedForm):
+            # use comparison of MixedForm:
+            return other == self
+        if not isinstance(other, ScalarField):
+            # We try a conversion of other to a scalar field, except if
+            # other is None (since this would generate an undefined scalar
+            # field)
+            if other is None:
+                return False
+            try:
+                other = self.parent()(other)  # conversion to a scalar field
+            except Exception:
+                return False
+        if other._domain != self._domain:
+            return False
+        if other.is_zero():
+            return self.is_zero()
+        com_charts = self.common_charts(other)
+        if com_charts is None:
+            raise ValueError("no common chart for the comparison")
+        for chart in com_charts:
+            if not (self._express[chart] == other._express[chart]):
+                return False
+        return True
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Non-equality operator.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a scalar field
+
+        OUTPUT: ``True`` if ``self`` differs from ``other``, ``False`` otherwise
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y})
+            sage: f != 1
+            True
+            sage: f != M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+            sage: g = M.scalar_field({X: x+y})
+            sage: f != g
+            False
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    # ## End of required methods for an algebra element (beside arithmetic) ##
+
+    def _init_derived(self):
+        r"""
+        Initialize the derived quantities.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y})
+            sage: f._init_derived()
+        """
+        self._restrictions = {}
+        # dict. of restrictions of ``self`` on subsets
+        # of self._domain, with the subsets as keys
+
+    def _del_derived(self):
+        r"""
+        Delete the derived quantities.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y})
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U', coord_def={X: x>0})
+            sage: f.restrict(U)
+            Scalar field on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+             manifold M
+            sage: f._restrictions
+            {Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological manifold M:
+             Scalar field on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological
+             manifold M}
+            sage: f._del_derived()
+            sage: f._restrictions  # restrictions are derived quantities
+            {}
+        """
+        self._restrictions.clear()
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        r"""
+        String representation of the object.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y})
+            sage: f._repr_()
+            'Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M'
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f')
+            sage: f._repr_()
+            'Scalar field f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M'
+            sage: f
+            Scalar field f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        """
+        description = "Scalar field"
+        if self._name is not None:
+            description += " " + self._name
+        description += " on the {}".format(self._domain)
+        return description
+
+    def _latex_(self):
+        r"""
+        LaTeX representation of the object.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y})
+            sage: f._latex_()
+            '\\text{Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M}'
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f')
+            sage: f._latex_()
+            'f'
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f', latex_name=r'\Phi')
+            sage: f._latex_()
+            '\\Phi'
+            sage: latex(f)
+            \Phi
+        """
+        if self._latex_name is None:
+            return r'\text{' + str(self) + r'}'
+        return self._latex_name
+
+    def set_name(self, name=None, latex_name=None):
+        r"""
+        Set (or change) the text name and LaTeX name of the scalar field.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``name`` -- (string; default: ``None``) name given to the scalar
+          field
+        - ``latex_name`` -- (string; default: ``None``) LaTeX symbol to denote
+          the scalar field; if ``None`` while ``name`` is provided, the LaTeX
+          symbol is set to ``name``
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y})
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}); f
+            Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: f.set_name('f'); f
+            Scalar field f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(f)
+            f
+            sage: f.set_name('f', latex_name=r'\Phi'); f
+            Scalar field f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(f)
+            \Phi
+        """
+        if self.is_immutable():
+            raise ValueError("the name of an immutable element "
+                             "cannot be changed")
+        if name is not None:
+            self._name = name
+            if latex_name is None:
+                self._latex_name = self._name
+        if latex_name is not None:
+            self._latex_name = latex_name
+        for rst in self._restrictions.values():
+            rst.set_name(name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+
+    def domain(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the open subset on which the scalar field is defined.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - instance of class
+          :class:`~sage.manifolds.manifold.TopologicalManifold`
+          representing the manifold's open subset on which the
+          scalar field is defined
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x+2*y)
+            sage: f.domain()
+            2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U', coord_def={c_xy: x<0})
+            sage: g = f.restrict(U)
+            sage: g.domain()
+            Open subset U of the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+        """
+        return self._domain
+
+    def codomain(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the codomain of the scalar field.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x+2*y)
+            sage: f.codomain()
+            Real Field with 53 bits of precision
+        """
+        return self._domain.base_field()
+
+    def copy(self, name=None, latex_name=None):
+        r"""
+        Return an exact copy of the scalar field.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``name`` -- (default: ``None``) name given to the copy
+        - ``latex_name`` -- (default: ``None``) LaTeX symbol to denote the
+          copy; if none is provided, the LaTeX symbol is set to ``name``
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Copy on a 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x*y^2)
+            sage: g = f.copy()
+            sage: type(g)
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.scalarfield_algebra.ScalarFieldAlgebra_with_category.element_class'>
+            sage: g.expr()
+            x*y^2
+            sage: g == f
+            True
+            sage: g is f
+            False
+        """
+        result = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, funct in self._express.items():
+            result._express[chart] = funct.copy()
+        result._is_zero = self._is_zero
+        return result
+
+    def copy_from(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Make ``self`` a copy of ``other``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- other scalar field, in the same module as ``self``
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            While the derived quantities are not copied, the name is kept.
+
+        .. WARNING::
+
+            All previous defined expressions and restrictions will be deleted!
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x*y^2, name='f')
+            sage: f.display()
+            f: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ x*y^2
+            sage: g = M.scalar_field(name='g')
+            sage: g.copy_from(f)
+            sage: g.display()
+            g: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ x*y^2
+            sage: f == g
+            True
+
+        While the original scalar field is modified, the copy is not::
+
+            sage: f.set_expr(x-y)
+            sage: f.display()
+            f: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ x - y
+            sage: g.display()
+            g: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ x*y^2
+            sage: f == g
+            False
+        """
+        if self.is_immutable():
+            raise ValueError("the expressions of an immutable element "
+                             "cannot be changed")
+        if other not in self.parent():
+            raise TypeError("the original must be an element of "
+                            f"{self.parent()}")
+        self._del_derived()
+        for chart, funct in other._express.items():
+            self._express[chart] = funct.copy()
+        self._is_zero = other._is_zero
+
+    def coord_function(self, chart=None, from_chart=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the function of the coordinates representing the scalar field
+        in a given chart.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``chart`` -- (default: ``None``) chart with respect to which the
+          coordinate expression is to be returned; if ``None``, the
+          default chart of the scalar field's domain will be used
+        - ``from_chart`` -- (default: ``None``) chart from which the
+          required expression is computed if it is not known already in the
+          chart ``chart``; if ``None``, a chart is picked in the known
+          expressions
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - instance of :class:`~sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunction`
+          representing the coordinate function of the scalar field in the
+          given chart
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Coordinate function on a 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x*y^2)
+            sage: f.coord_function()
+            x*y^2
+            sage: f.coord_function(c_xy)  # equivalent form (since c_xy is the default chart)
+            x*y^2
+            sage: type(f.coord_function())
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+
+        Expression via a change of coordinates::
+
+            sage: c_uv.<u,v> = M.chart()
+            sage: c_uv.transition_map(c_xy, [u+v, u-v])
+            Change of coordinates from Chart (M, (u, v)) to Chart (M, (x, y))
+            sage: f._express # at this stage, f is expressed only in terms of (x,y) coordinates
+            {Chart (M, (x, y)): x*y^2}
+            sage: f.coord_function(c_uv) # forces the computation of the expression of f in terms of (u,v) coordinates
+            u^3 - u^2*v - u*v^2 + v^3
+            sage: f.coord_function(c_uv) == (u+v)*(u-v)^2  # check
+            True
+            sage: f._express  # random (dict. output); f has now 2 coordinate expressions:
+            {Chart (M, (x, y)): x*y^2, Chart (M, (u, v)): u^3 - u^2*v - u*v^2 + v^3}
+
+        Usage in a physical context (simple Lorentz transformation - boost in
+        ``x`` direction, with relative velocity ``v`` between ``o1``
+        and ``o2`` frames)::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: o1.<t,x> = M.chart()
+            sage: o2.<T,X> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x^2 - t^2)
+            sage: f.coord_function(o1)
+            -t^2 + x^2
+            sage: v = var('v'); gam = 1/sqrt(1-v^2)
+            sage: o2.transition_map(o1, [gam*(T - v*X), gam*(X - v*T)])
+            Change of coordinates from Chart (M, (T, X)) to Chart (M, (t, x))
+            sage: f.coord_function(o2)
+            -T^2 + X^2
+        """
+        if chart is None:
+            chart = self._domain._def_chart
+        else:
+            if chart not in self._domain._atlas:
+                raise ValueError("the {} is not a chart ".format(chart) +
+                                 "defined on the {}".format(self._domain))
+        if chart not in self._express:
+            # Check whether chart corresponds to a subchart of a chart
+            # where the expression of self is known:
+            for known_chart in self._express:
+                if chart in known_chart._subcharts:
+                    new_expr = self._express[known_chart].expr()
+                    self._express[chart] = chart.function(new_expr)
+                    return self._express[chart]
+            # If this point is reached, the expression must be computed
+            # from that in the chart from_chart, by means of a
+            # change-of-coordinates formula:
+            if from_chart is None:
+                # from_chart in searched among the charts of known expressions
+                # and subcharts of them
+                known_express = self._express.copy()
+                found = False
+                for kchart in known_express:
+                    for skchart in kchart._subcharts:
+                        if (chart, skchart) in self._domain._coord_changes:
+                            from_chart = skchart
+                            found = True
+                            if skchart not in self._express:
+                                self._express[skchart] = skchart.function(
+                                    self._express[kchart].expr())
+                            break
+                    if found:
+                        break
+                if not found:
+                    raise ValueError("no starting chart could be found to " +
+                                     "compute the expression in the {}".format(chart))
+            change = self._domain._coord_changes[(chart, from_chart)]
+            # old coordinates expressed in terms of the new ones:
+            coords = [change._transf._functions[i].expr()
+                      for i in range(self._manifold.dim())]
+            new_expr = self._express[from_chart](*coords)
+            self._express[chart] = chart.function(new_expr)
+            self._del_derived()
+        return self._express[chart]
+
+    def expr(self, chart=None, from_chart=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the coordinate expression of the scalar field in a given
+        chart.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``chart`` -- (default: ``None``) chart with respect to which the
+          coordinate expression is required; if ``None``, the default
+          chart of the scalar field's domain will be used
+        - ``from_chart`` -- (default: ``None``) chart from which the
+          required expression is computed if it is not known already in the
+          chart ``chart``; if ``None``, a chart is picked in ``self._express``
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the coordinate expression of the scalar field in the given chart,
+          either as a Sage's symbolic expression or as a SymPy object,
+          depending on the symbolic calculus method used on the chart
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Expression of a scalar field on a 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x*y^2)
+            sage: f.expr()
+            x*y^2
+            sage: f.expr(c_xy)  # equivalent form (since c_xy is the default chart)
+            x*y^2
+
+        Expression via a change of coordinates::
+
+            sage: c_uv.<u,v> = M.chart()
+            sage: c_uv.transition_map(c_xy, [u+v, u-v])
+            Change of coordinates from Chart (M, (u, v)) to Chart (M, (x, y))
+            sage: f._express # at this stage, f is expressed only in terms of (x,y) coordinates
+            {Chart (M, (x, y)): x*y^2}
+            sage: f.expr(c_uv) # forces the computation of the expression of f in terms of (u,v) coordinates
+            u^3 - u^2*v - u*v^2 + v^3
+            sage: bool( f.expr(c_uv) == (u+v)*(u-v)^2 ) # check
+            True
+            sage: f._express  # random (dict. output); f has now 2 coordinate expressions:
+            {Chart (M, (x, y)): x*y^2, Chart (M, (u, v)): u^3 - u^2*v - u*v^2 + v^3}
+
+        Note that the object returned by ``expr()`` depends on the symbolic
+        backend used for coordinate computations::
+
+            sage: type(f.expr())
+            <class 'sage.symbolic.expression.Expression'>
+            sage: M.set_calculus_method('sympy')
+            sage: type(f.expr())
+            <class 'sympy.core.mul.Mul'>
+            sage: f.expr()  # note the SymPy exponent notation
+            x*y**2
+        """
+        return self.coord_function(chart, from_chart).expr()
+
+    def set_expr(self, coord_expression, chart=None):
+        r"""
+        Set the coordinate expression of the scalar field.
+
+        The expressions with respect to other charts are deleted, in order to
+        avoid any inconsistency. To keep them, use :meth:`add_expr` instead.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``coord_expression`` -- coordinate expression of the scalar field
+        - ``chart`` -- (default: ``None``) chart in which ``coord_expression``
+          is defined; if ``None``, the default chart of the scalar field's
+          domain is assumed
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Setting scalar field expressions on a 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x^2 + 2*x*y +1)
+            sage: f._express
+            {Chart (M, (x, y)): x^2 + 2*x*y + 1}
+            sage: f.set_expr(3*y)
+            sage: f._express  # the (x,y) expression has been changed:
+            {Chart (M, (x, y)): 3*y}
+            sage: c_uv.<u,v> = M.chart()
+            sage: f.set_expr(cos(u)-sin(v), c_uv)
+            sage: f._express # the (x,y) expression has been lost:
+            {Chart (M, (u, v)): cos(u) - sin(v)}
+            sage: f.set_expr(3*y)
+            sage: f._express # the (u,v) expression has been lost:
+            {Chart (M, (x, y)): 3*y}
+
+        Since zero and one are special elements, their expressions cannot be
+        changed::
+
+            sage: z = M.zero_scalar_field()
+            sage: z.set_expr(3*y)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: the expressions of an immutable element cannot be
+             changed
+            sage: one = M.one_scalar_field()
+            sage: one.set_expr(3*y)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: the expressions of an immutable element cannot be
+             changed
+        """
+        if self.is_immutable():
+            raise ValueError("the expressions of an immutable element "
+                             "cannot be changed")
+        if chart is None:
+            chart = self._domain._def_chart
+        self._express.clear()
+        self._express[chart] = chart.function(coord_expression)
+        self._is_zero = False  # a priori
+        self._del_derived()
+
+    def add_expr(self, coord_expression, chart=None):
+        r"""
+        Add some coordinate expression to the scalar field.
+
+        The previous expressions with respect to other charts are kept. To
+        clear them, use :meth:`set_expr` instead.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``coord_expression`` -- coordinate expression of the scalar field
+        - ``chart`` -- (default: ``None``) chart in which ``coord_expression``
+          is defined; if ``None``, the default chart of the scalar field's
+          domain is assumed
+
+        .. WARNING::
+
+            If the scalar field has already expressions in other charts, it
+            is the user's responsibility to make sure that the expression
+            to be added is consistent with them.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Adding scalar field expressions on a 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x^2 + 2*x*y +1)
+            sage: f._express
+            {Chart (M, (x, y)): x^2 + 2*x*y + 1}
+            sage: f.add_expr(3*y)
+            sage: f._express  # the (x,y) expression has been changed:
+            {Chart (M, (x, y)): 3*y}
+            sage: c_uv.<u,v> = M.chart()
+            sage: f.add_expr(cos(u)-sin(v), c_uv)
+            sage: f._express # random (dict. output); f has now 2 expressions:
+            {Chart (M, (x, y)): 3*y, Chart (M, (u, v)): cos(u) - sin(v)}
+
+        Since zero and one are special elements, their expressions cannot be
+        changed::
+
+            sage: z = M.zero_scalar_field()
+            sage: z.add_expr(cos(u)-sin(v), c_uv)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: the expressions of an immutable element cannot be
+             changed
+            sage: one = M.one_scalar_field()
+            sage: one.add_expr(cos(u)-sin(v), c_uv)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: the expressions of an immutable element cannot be
+             changed
+        """
+        if self.is_immutable():
+            raise ValueError("the expressions of an immutable element "
+                             "cannot be changed")
+        if chart is None:
+            chart = self._domain._def_chart
+        self._express[chart] = chart.function(coord_expression)
+        self._is_zero = False  # a priori
+        self._del_derived()
+
+    def add_expr_by_continuation(self, chart, subdomain):
+        r"""
+        Set coordinate expression in a chart by continuation of the
+        coordinate expression in a subchart.
+
+        The continuation is performed by demanding that the coordinate
+        expression is identical to that in the restriction of the chart to
+        a given subdomain.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``chart`` -- coordinate chart `(U,(x^i))` in which the expression of
+          the scalar field is to set
+        - ``subdomain`` -- open subset `V\subset U` in which the expression
+          in terms of the restriction of the coordinate chart `(U,(x^i))` to
+          `V` is already known or can be evaluated by a change of coordinates.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Scalar field on the sphere `S^2`::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'S^2', structure='topological')
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U') ; V = M.open_subset('V') # the complement of resp. N pole and S pole
+            sage: M.declare_union(U,V)   # S^2 is the union of U and V
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = U.chart() ; c_uv.<u,v> = V.chart() # stereographic coordinates
+            sage: xy_to_uv = c_xy.transition_map(c_uv, (x/(x^2+y^2), y/(x^2+y^2)),
+            ....:                intersection_name='W', restrictions1= x^2+y^2!=0,
+            ....:                restrictions2= u^2+v^2!=0)
+            sage: uv_to_xy = xy_to_uv.inverse()
+            sage: W =  U.intersection(V)  # S^2 minus the two poles
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(atan(x^2+y^2), chart=c_xy, name='f')
+
+        The scalar field has been defined only on the domain covered by the
+        chart ``c_xy``, i.e. `U`::
+
+            sage: f.display()
+            f: S^2 → ℝ
+            on U: (x, y) ↦ arctan(x^2 + y^2)
+            on W: (u, v) ↦ arctan(1/(u^2 + v^2))
+
+        We note that on `W = U \cap V`, the expression of `f` in terms of
+        coordinates `(u,v)` can be deduced from that in the coordinates
+        `(x,y)` thanks to the transition map between the two charts::
+
+            sage: f.display(c_uv.restrict(W))
+            f: S^2 → ℝ
+            on W: (u, v) ↦ arctan(1/(u^2 + v^2))
+
+        We use this fact to extend the definition of `f` to the open
+        subset `V`, covered by the chart ``c_uv``::
+
+            sage: f.add_expr_by_continuation(c_uv, W)
+
+        Then, `f` is known on the whole sphere::
+
+            sage: f.display()
+            f: S^2 → ℝ
+            on U: (x, y) ↦ arctan(x^2 + y^2)
+            on V: (u, v) ↦ arctan(1/(u^2 + v^2))
+        """
+        if self.is_immutable():
+            raise ValueError("the expressions of an immutable element "
+                             "cannot be changed")
+        if not chart.domain().is_subset(self._domain):
+            raise ValueError("the chart is not defined on a subset of " +
+                             "the scalar field domain")
+        schart = chart.restrict(subdomain)
+        self._express[chart] = chart.function(self.expr(schart))
+        self._is_zero = False  # a priori
+        self._del_derived()
+
+    def set_restriction(self, rst):
+        r"""
+        Define a restriction of ``self`` to some subdomain.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``rst`` -- :class:`ScalarField` defined on a subdomain of
+          the domain of ``self``
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M') # the 2-dimensional sphere S^2
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U') # complement of the North pole
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = U.chart() # stereographic coordinates from the North pole
+            sage: V = M.open_subset('V') # complement of the South pole
+            sage: c_uv.<u,v> = V.chart() # stereographic coordinates from the South pole
+            sage: M.declare_union(U,V)   # S^2 is the union of U and V
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(name='f')
+            sage: g = U.scalar_field(x^2+y)
+            sage: f.set_restriction(g)
+            sage: f.display()
+            f: M → ℝ
+            on U: (x, y) ↦ x^2 + y
+            sage: f.restrict(U) == g
+            True
+        """
+        if self.is_immutable():
+            raise ValueError("the expressions of an immutable element "
+                             "cannot be changed")
+        if not isinstance(rst, ScalarField):
+            raise TypeError("the argument must be a scalar field")
+        if not rst._domain.is_subset(self._domain):
+            raise ValueError("the domain of the declared restriction is not " +
+                             "a subset of the field's domain")
+        self._restrictions[rst._domain] = rst.copy(name=self._name,
+                                                   latex_name=self._latex_name)
+        for chart, expr in rst._express.items():
+            intersection = chart.domain().intersection(rst._domain)
+            self._express[chart.restrict(intersection)] = expr
+        self._is_zero = False  # a priori
+
+    def display(self, chart: Optional[Chart] = None) -> FormattedExpansion:
+        r"""
+        Display the expression of the scalar field in a given chart.
+
+        Without any argument, this function displays all known, distinct
+        expressions.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``chart`` -- (default: ``None``) chart with respect to which
+          the coordinate expression is to be displayed; if ``None``, the
+          display is performed in all the greatest charts in which the
+          coordinate expression is known
+
+        The output is either text-formatted (console mode) or LaTeX-formatted
+        (notebook mode).
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Various displays::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(sqrt(x+1), name='f')
+            sage: f.display()
+            f: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ sqrt(x + 1)
+            sage: latex(f.display())
+            \begin{array}{llcl} f:& M & \longrightarrow & \mathbb{R} \\ & \left(x, y\right) & \longmapsto & \sqrt{x + 1} \end{array}
+            sage: g = M.scalar_field(function('G')(x, y), name='g')
+            sage: g.display()
+            g: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ G(x, y)
+            sage: latex(g.display())
+            \begin{array}{llcl} g:& M & \longrightarrow & \mathbb{R} \\ & \left(x, y\right) & \longmapsto & G\left(x, y\right) \end{array}
+
+        A shortcut of ``display()`` is ``disp()``::
+
+            sage: f.disp()
+            f: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ sqrt(x + 1)
+
+        In case the scalar field is piecewise-defined, the ``display()``
+        command still outputs all expressions. Each expression displayed
+        corresponds to the chart on the greatest domain where this particular
+        expression is known::
+
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U')
+            sage: f.set_expr(y^2, c_xy.restrict(U))
+            sage: f.display()
+            f: M → ℝ
+            on U: (x, y) ↦ y^2
+            sage: latex(f.display())
+            \begin{array}{llcl} f:& M & \longrightarrow & \mathbb{R} \\ \text{on}\ U : & \left(x, y\right) & \longmapsto & y^{2} \end{array}
+        """
+        from sage.misc.latex import latex
+        from sage.tensor.modules.format_utilities import FormattedExpansion
+        from sage.typeset.unicode_characters import (
+            unicode_mapsto,
+            unicode_mathbbC,
+            unicode_mathbbR,
+            unicode_to,
+        )
+
+        def _display_expression(self, chart, result):
+            r"""
+            Helper function for :meth:`display`.
+            """
+            try:
+                # get coordinate expression
+                expression = self.coord_function(chart)
+            except (TypeError, ValueError):
+                pass
+            # if that succeeds, proceed:
+            coords = chart[:]
+            if len(coords) == 1:
+                coords = coords[0]
+            if chart.domain() == self._domain:
+                if self._name is not None:
+                    result._txt += "   "
+                result._latex += " & "
+            else:
+                result._txt += "on " + chart.domain()._name + ": "
+                result._latex += r"\text{on}\ " + latex(chart.domain()) \
+                                 + r": & "
+            result._txt += repr(coords) + " " + unicode_mapsto + " " \
+                + repr(expression) + "\n"
+            result._latex += latex(coords) + r"& \longmapsto & " \
+                + latex(expression) + r"\\"
+
+        # Name of the base field:
+        field = self._domain.base_field()
+        field_type = self._domain.base_field_type()
+        if field_type == 'real':
+            field_name = unicode_mathbbR
+            field_latex_name = r'\mathbb{R}'
+        elif field_type == 'complex':
+            field_name = unicode_mathbbC
+            field_latex_name = r'\mathbb{C}'
+        else:
+            field_name = str(field)
+            field_latex_name = latex(field)
+
+        result = FormattedExpansion()
+        if self._name is None:
+            symbol = ""
+        else:
+            symbol = self._name + ": "
+        result._txt = symbol + self._domain._name + " " + unicode_to + " " \
+            + field_name + "\n"
+        if self._latex_name is None:
+            symbol = ""
+        else:
+            symbol = self._latex_name + ":"
+        result._latex = r"\begin{array}{llcl} " + symbol + r"&" + \
+                        latex(self._domain) + r"& \longrightarrow & " + \
+                        field_latex_name + r" \\"
+        if chart is None:
+            for ch in self._domain._top_charts:
+                ###
+                # Get the greatest domain of top chart restrictions where the
+                # expression is known:
+                max_dom = None
+                for sch in ch._subcharts:
+                    if max_dom is None:
+                        try:
+                            self.coord_function(sch)
+                            max_dom = sch.domain()
+                        except (TypeError, ValueError):
+                            pass
+                    elif max_dom.is_subset(sch.domain()):
+                        try:
+                            self.coord_function(sch)
+                            max_dom = sch.domain()
+                        except (TypeError, ValueError):
+                            pass
+                if max_dom is not None:
+                    _display_expression(self, ch.restrict(max_dom), result)
+        else:
+            _display_expression(self, chart, result)
+        result._txt = result._txt[:-1]
+        result._latex = result._latex[:-2] + r"\end{array}"
+        return result
+
+    disp = display
+
+    def restrict(self, subdomain):
+        r"""
+        Restriction of the scalar field to an open subset of its domain of
+        definition.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``subdomain`` -- an open subset of the scalar field's domain
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - instance of :class:`ScalarField` representing the restriction of
+          the scalar field to ``subdomain``
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Restriction of a scalar field defined on `\RR^2` to the
+        unit open disc::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()  # Cartesian coordinates
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U', coord_def={X: x^2+y^2 < 1}) # U unit open disc
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(cos(x*y), name='f')
+            sage: f_U = f.restrict(U) ; f_U
+            Scalar field f on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional
+             topological manifold M
+            sage: f_U.display()
+            f: U → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ cos(x*y)
+            sage: f.parent()
+            Algebra of scalar fields on the 2-dimensional topological
+             manifold M
+            sage: f_U.parent()
+            Algebra of scalar fields on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional
+             topological manifold M
+
+        The restriction to the whole domain is the identity::
+
+            sage: f.restrict(M) is f
+            True
+            sage: f_U.restrict(U) is f_U
+            True
+
+        Restriction of the zero scalar field::
+
+            sage: M.zero_scalar_field().restrict(U)
+            Scalar field zero on the Open subset U of the 2-dimensional
+             topological manifold M
+            sage: M.zero_scalar_field().restrict(U) is U.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+        """
+        if subdomain == self._domain:
+            return self
+        if subdomain not in self._restrictions:
+            if not subdomain.is_subset(self._domain):
+                raise ValueError("the specified domain is not a subset of " +
+                                 "the domain of definition of the scalar field")
+            # Special case of the zero scalar field:
+            if self._is_zero:
+                return subdomain._zero_scalar_field
+            # First one tries to get the restriction from a tighter domain:
+            for dom, rst in self._restrictions.items():
+                if subdomain.is_subset(dom):
+                    self._restrictions[subdomain] = rst.restrict(subdomain)
+                    break
+            else:
+                # If this fails, the restriction must be created from scratch:
+                sexpress = {}
+                for chart, funct in self._express.items():
+                    for schart in subdomain.atlas():
+                        if schart in chart._subcharts:
+                            sexpress[schart] = funct.expr()
+                resu = type(self)(subdomain.scalar_field_algebra(),
+                                  coord_expression=sexpress, name=self._name,
+                                  latex_name=self._latex_name)
+                if self.is_immutable():
+                    resu.set_immutable()  # restriction must be immutable, too
+                self._restrictions[subdomain] = resu
+        return self._restrictions[subdomain]
+
+    def common_charts(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Find common charts for the expressions of the scalar field and
+        ``other``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a scalar field
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - list of common charts; if no common chart is found, ``None`` is
+          returned (instead of an empty list)
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Search for common charts on a 2-dimensional manifold with 2
+        overlapping domains::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = U.chart()
+            sage: V = M.open_subset('V')
+            sage: c_uv.<u,v> = V.chart()
+            sage: M.declare_union(U,V)   # M is the union of U and V
+            sage: f = U.scalar_field(x^2)
+            sage: g = M.scalar_field(x+y)
+            sage: f.common_charts(g)
+            [Chart (U, (x, y))]
+            sage: g.add_expr(u, c_uv)
+            sage: f._express
+            {Chart (U, (x, y)): x^2}
+            sage: g._express  # random (dictionary output)
+            {Chart (U, (x, y)): x + y, Chart (V, (u, v)): u}
+            sage: f.common_charts(g)
+            [Chart (U, (x, y))]
+
+        Common charts found as subcharts: the subcharts are introduced via
+        a transition map between charts c_xy and c_uv on the intersecting
+        subdomain `W = U\cap V`::
+
+            sage: trans = c_xy.transition_map(c_uv, (x+y, x-y), 'W', x<0, u+v<0)
+            sage: M.atlas()
+            [Chart (U, (x, y)), Chart (V, (u, v)), Chart (W, (x, y)),
+             Chart (W, (u, v))]
+            sage: c_xy_W = M.atlas()[2]
+            sage: c_uv_W = M.atlas()[3]
+            sage: trans.inverse()
+            Change of coordinates from Chart (W, (u, v)) to Chart (W, (x, y))
+            sage: f.common_charts(g)
+            [Chart (U, (x, y))]
+            sage: f.expr(c_xy_W)
+            x^2
+            sage: f._express  # random (dictionary output)
+            {Chart (U, (x, y)): x^2, Chart (W, (x, y)): x^2}
+            sage: g._express  # random (dictionary output)
+            {Chart (U, (x, y)): x + y, Chart (V, (u, v)): u}
+            sage: g.common_charts(f)  # c_xy_W is not returned because it is subchart of 'xy'
+            [Chart (U, (x, y))]
+            sage: f.expr(c_uv_W)
+            1/4*u^2 + 1/2*u*v + 1/4*v^2
+            sage: f._express  # random (dictionary output)
+            {Chart (U, (x, y)): x^2, Chart (W, (x, y)): x^2,
+             Chart (W, (u, v)): 1/4*u^2 + 1/2*u*v + 1/4*v^2}
+            sage: g._express  # random (dictionary output)
+            {Chart (U, (x, y)): x + y, Chart (V, (u, v)): u}
+            sage: f.common_charts(g)
+            [Chart (U, (x, y)), Chart (W, (u, v))]
+            sage: # the expressions have been updated on the subcharts
+            sage: g._express #  random (dictionary output)
+            {Chart (U, (x, y)): x + y, Chart (V, (u, v)): u,
+             Chart (W, (u, v)): u}
+
+        Common charts found by computing some coordinate changes::
+
+            sage: W = U.intersection(V)
+            sage: f = W.scalar_field(x^2, c_xy_W)
+            sage: g = W.scalar_field(u+1, c_uv_W)
+            sage: f._express
+            {Chart (W, (x, y)): x^2}
+            sage: g._express
+            {Chart (W, (u, v)): u + 1}
+            sage: f.common_charts(g)
+            [Chart (W, (x, y)), Chart (W, (u, v))]
+            sage: f._express # random (dictionary output)
+            {Chart (W, (u, v)): 1/4*u^2 + 1/2*u*v + 1/4*v^2,
+             Chart (W, (x, y)): x^2}
+            sage: g._express # random (dictionary output)
+            {Chart (W, (u, v)): u + 1, Chart (W, (x, y)): x + y + 1}
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Check that :issue:`28072` has been fixed::
+
+            sage: c_ab.<a,b> = W.chart()
+            sage: xy_to_ab = c_xy_W.transition_map(c_ab, (3*y, x-y))
+            sage: h = W.scalar_field(a+b, chart=c_ab)
+            sage: f.common_charts(h)
+            [Chart (W, (x, y))]
+            sage: h.expr(c_xy_W)
+            x + 2*y
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, ScalarField):
+            raise TypeError("the second argument must be a scalar field")
+        coord_changes = self._manifold._coord_changes
+        resu = []
+        #
+        # 1/ Search for common charts among the existing expressions, i.e.
+        #    without performing any expression transformation.
+        #    -------------------------------------------------------------
+        for chart1 in self._express:
+            if chart1 in other._express:
+                resu.append(chart1)
+        # Search for a subchart:
+        known_expr1 = self._express.copy()
+        known_expr2 = other._express.copy()
+        for chart1 in known_expr1:
+            if chart1 not in resu:
+                for chart2 in known_expr2:
+                    if chart2 not in resu:
+                        if chart2 in chart1._subcharts:
+                            self.expr(chart2)
+                            resu.append(chart2)
+                        if chart1 in chart2._subcharts:
+                            other.expr(chart1)
+                            resu.append(chart1)
+        #
+        # 2/ Search for common charts via one expression transformation
+        #    ----------------------------------------------------------
+        for chart1 in known_expr1:
+            if chart1 not in resu:
+                for chart2 in known_expr2:
+                    if chart2 not in resu:
+                        if (chart1, chart2) in coord_changes:
+                            other.coord_function(chart1, from_chart=chart2)
+                            resu.append(chart1)
+                        if (chart2, chart1) in coord_changes:
+                            self.coord_function(chart2, from_chart=chart1)
+                            resu.append(chart2)
+        if not resu:
+            return None
+        else:
+            return resu
+
+    def __call__(self, p, chart=None):
+        r"""
+        Compute the value of the scalar field at a given point.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``p`` -- point in the scalar field's domain
+        - ``chart`` -- (default: ``None``) chart in which the coordinates
+          of ``p`` are to be considered; if ``None``, a chart in which
+          both ``p``'s coordinates and the expression of the scalar field
+          are known is searched, starting from the default chart
+          of ``self._domain``
+
+        OUTPUT: value at ``p``
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f')
+            sage: p = M((2,-5), name='p'); p
+            Point p on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: f.__call__(p)
+            -3
+            sage: f(p)
+            -3
+            sage: M.zero_scalar_field()(p)
+            0
+            sage: M.one_scalar_field()(p)
+            1
+
+        Example with a change of chart::
+
+            sage: Y.<u,v> = M.chart()
+            sage: X_to_Y = X.transition_map(Y, [x+y, x-y])
+            sage: Y_to_X = X_to_Y.inverse()
+            sage: g = M.scalar_field({Y: u*v}, name='g')
+            sage: g(p)
+            -21
+            sage: p.coord(Y)
+            (-3, 7)
+        """
+        # ! # it should be "if p not in self_domain:" instead, but this test is
+        # skipped for efficiency
+        if p not in self._manifold:
+            raise ValueError("the {} ".format(p) + "does not belong " +
+                             "to the {}".format(self._manifold))
+        if self._is_zero:
+            return 0
+        if chart is None:
+            # A common chart is searched:
+            def_chart = self._domain._def_chart
+            if def_chart in p._coordinates and def_chart in self._express:
+                chart = def_chart
+            else:
+                for chart_p in p._coordinates:
+                    if chart_p in self._express:
+                        chart = chart_p
+                        break
+        if chart is None:
+            # A change of coordinates is attempted for p:
+            for chart_s in self._express:
+                try:
+                    p.coord(chart_s)
+                    chart = chart_s
+                    break
+                except ValueError:
+                    pass
+            else:
+                # A change of coordinates is attempted on the scalar field
+                # expressions:
+                for chart_p in p._coordinates:
+                    try:
+                        self.coord_function(chart_p)
+                        chart = chart_p
+                        break
+                    except (TypeError, ValueError):
+                        pass
+        if chart is None:
+            raise ValueError("no common chart has been found to evaluate " +
+                             "the action of {} on the {}".format(self, p))
+        return self._express[chart](*(p._coordinates[chart]))
+
+    def preimage(self, codomain_subset, name=None, latex_name=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the preimage of ``codomain_subset``.
+
+        An alias is :meth:`pullback`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``codomain_subset`` -- an instance of
+          :class:`~sage.sets.real_set.RealSet`
+        - ``name`` -- string; name (symbol) given to the subset
+        - ``latex_name`` -- string (default: ``None``); LaTeX symbol to
+          denote the subset; if none are provided, it is set to ``name``
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - either a :class:`~sage.manifolds.manifold.TopologicalManifold` or
+          a :class:`~sage.manifolds.subsets.pullback.ManifoldSubsetPullback`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f')
+            sage: L = f.pullback(RealSet.point(1)); latex(L)
+            f^{-1}(\{1\})
+            sage: M((-1, 1)) in L
+            False
+            sage: M((0, 1)) in L
+            True
+
+            sage: M.zero_scalar_field().preimage(RealSet.point(0)) is M
+            True
+        """
+        if self.is_trivial_zero() and 0 in codomain_subset:
+            return self.domain()
+        from sage.manifolds.subsets.pullback import ManifoldSubsetPullback
+        return ManifoldSubsetPullback(self, codomain_subset,
+                                      name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+
+    pullback = preimage
+
+    def __pos__(self):
+        r"""
+        Unary plus operator.
+
+        OUTPUT: an exact copy of the scalar field
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f')
+            sage: g = f.__pos__(); g
+            Scalar field +f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: g == f
+            True
+        """
+        result = type(self)(self.parent())
+        for chart in self._express:
+            result._express[chart] = + self._express[chart]
+        if self._name is not None:
+            result._name = '+' + self._name
+        if self._latex_name is not None:
+            result._latex_name = '+' + self._latex_name
+        return result
+
+    def __neg__(self):
+        r"""
+        Unary minus operator.
+
+        OUTPUT: the negative of the scalar field
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f')
+            sage: g = f.__neg__(); g
+            Scalar field -f on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: g.display()
+            -f: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ -x - y
+            sage: g.__neg__() == f
+            True
+        """
+        result = type(self)(self.parent())
+        for chart in self._express:
+            result._express[chart] = - self._express[chart]
+        if self._name is not None:
+            result._name = '-' + self._name
+        if self._latex_name is not None:
+            result._latex_name = '-' + self._latex_name
+        return result
+
+    # ###  CommutativeAlgebraElement arithmetic operators ###
+
+    def _add_(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Scalar field addition.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a scalar field (in the same algebra as ``self``)
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the scalar field resulting from the addition of ``self`` and
+          ``other``
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f')
+            sage: g = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='g')
+            sage: s = f._add_(g); s
+            Scalar field f+g on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: s.display()
+            f+g: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ (x + 1)*y + x
+            sage: s == f+g
+            True
+            sage: f._add_(M.zero_scalar_field()) == f
+            True
+        """
+        # Trivial cases:
+        if self.is_trivial_zero():
+            return other
+        if other.is_trivial_zero():
+            return self
+        # Generic case:
+        com_charts = self.common_charts(other)
+        if com_charts is None:
+            raise ValueError("no common chart for the addition")
+        result = type(self)(self.parent())
+        for chart in com_charts:
+            # ChartFunction addition:
+            result._express[chart] = self._express[chart] + other._express[chart]
+        if self._name is not None and other._name is not None:
+            result._name = self._name + '+' + other._name
+        if self._latex_name is not None and other._latex_name is not None:
+            result._latex_name = self._latex_name + '+' + other._latex_name
+        return result
+
+    def _sub_(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Scalar field subtraction.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a scalar field (in the same algebra as ``self``)
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the scalar field resulting from the subtraction of ``other`` from
+          ``self``
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f')
+            sage: g = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='g')
+            sage: s = f._sub_(g); s
+            Scalar field f-g on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: s.display()
+            f-g: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ -(x - 1)*y + x
+            sage: s == f-g
+            True
+            sage: f._sub_(M.zero_scalar_field()) == f
+            True
+        """
+        # Trivial cases:
+        if self.is_trivial_zero():
+            return -other
+        if other.is_trivial_zero():
+            return self
+        if self is other:
+            return self.parent().zero()
+        # Generic case:
+        com_charts = self.common_charts(other)
+        if com_charts is None:
+            raise ValueError("no common chart for the subtraction")
+        result = type(self)(self.parent())
+        for chart in com_charts:
+            # ChartFunction subtraction:
+            result._express[chart] = self._express[chart] - other._express[chart]
+        if self._name is not None and other._name is not None:
+            result._name = self._name + '-' + other._name
+        if self._latex_name is not None and other._latex_name is not None:
+            result._latex_name = self._latex_name + '-' + other._latex_name
+        return result
+
+    def _mul_(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Scalar field multiplication.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a scalar field (in the same algebra as ``self``)
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the scalar field resulting from the multiplication of ``self`` by
+          ``other``
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f')
+            sage: g = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='g')
+            sage: s = f._mul_(g); s
+            Scalar field f*g on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: s.display()
+            f*g: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ x^2*y + x*y^2
+            sage: s == f*g
+            True
+            sage: f._mul_(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+            sage: f._mul_(M.one_scalar_field()) == f
+            True
+        """
+        # Trivial cases:
+        if self.is_trivial_zero() or other.is_trivial_zero():
+            return self._domain.zero_scalar_field()
+        if self.is_trivial_one():
+            return other
+        if other.is_trivial_one():
+            return self
+        # Generic case:
+        from sage.tensor.modules.format_utilities import (
+            format_mul_latex,
+            format_mul_txt,
+        )
+        com_charts = self.common_charts(other)
+        if com_charts is None:
+            raise ValueError("no common chart for the multiplication")
+        result = type(self)(self.parent())
+        for chart in com_charts:
+            # ChartFunction multiplication:
+            result._express[chart] = self._express[chart] * other._express[chart]
+        result._name = format_mul_txt(self._name, '*', other._name)
+        result._latex_name = format_mul_latex(self._latex_name, r' \cdot ',
+                                              other._latex_name)
+        return result
+
+    def _div_(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Scalar field division.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a scalar field (in the same algebra as self)
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the scalar field resulting from the division of ``self`` by
+          ``other``
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f')
+            sage: g = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='g')
+            sage: s = f._div_(g); s
+            Scalar field f/g on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: s.display()
+            f/g: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ (x + y)/(x*y)
+            sage: s == f/g
+            True
+            sage: f._div_(M.zero_scalar_field())
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ZeroDivisionError: division of a scalar field by zero
+        """
+        from sage.tensor.modules.format_utilities import (
+            format_mul_latex,
+            format_mul_txt,
+        )
+        # Trivial cases:
+        if other.is_trivial_zero():
+            raise ZeroDivisionError("division of a scalar field by zero")
+        if self.is_trivial_zero():
+            return self._domain.zero_scalar_field()
+        # Generic case:
+        com_charts = self.common_charts(other)
+        if com_charts is None:
+            raise ValueError("no common chart for the division")
+        result = type(self)(self.parent())
+        for chart in com_charts:
+            # ChartFunction division:
+            result._express[chart] = self._express[chart] / other._express[chart]
+        result._name = format_mul_txt(self._name, '/', other._name)
+        result._latex_name = format_mul_latex(self._latex_name, '/',
+                                              other._latex_name)
+        return result
+
+    def _lmul_(self, number):
+        r"""
+        Scalar multiplication operator: return ``number * self`` or
+        ``self * number``.
+
+        This differs from ``_mul_(self, other)`` by the fact that ``number``
+        is not assumed to be a scalar field defined on the same domain as
+        ``self``, contrary to ``other`` in ``_mul_(self, other)``. In
+        practice, ``number`` is an element of the field on which the
+        scalar field algebra is defined.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``number`` -- an element of the ring on which the scalar field
+          algebra is defined; this should be an element of the topological
+          field on which the manifold is constructed (possibly represented
+          by a symbolic expression)
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field ``number * self``
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f')
+            sage: s = f._lmul_(2); s
+            Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: s.display()
+            M → ℝ
+            (x, y) ↦ 2*x + 2*y
+            sage: s == 2 * f
+            True
+            sage: s == f * 2
+            True
+            sage: f._lmul_(pi).display()
+            M → ℝ
+            (x, y) ↦ pi*(x + y)
+            sage: f._lmul_(pi) == pi*f
+            True
+            sage: f._lmul_(0) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+            sage: f._lmul_(1) == f
+            True
+        """
+        # Trivial cases:
+        try:
+            if number.is_trivial_zero():
+                return self.parent().zero()
+            if (number - 1).is_trivial_zero():
+                return self
+        except AttributeError:
+            # in case base ring is not SR:
+            if number == 0:
+                return self.parent().zero()
+            if number == 1:
+                return self
+        # Generic case:
+        result = type(self)(self.parent())
+        if isinstance(number, Expression):
+            var = number.variables()  # possible symbolic variables in number
+            if var:
+                # There are symbolic variables in number
+                # Are any of them a chart coordinate ?
+                chart_var = False
+                for chart in self._express:
+                    if any(s in chart[:] for s in var):
+                        chart_var = True
+                        break
+                if chart_var:
+                    # Some symbolic variables in number are chart coordinates
+                    for chart, expr in self._express.items():
+                        # The multiplication is performed only if
+                        # either
+                        # (i) all the symbolic variables in number are
+                        # coordinates of this chart
+                        # or (ii) no symbolic variable in number belongs to a
+                        # different chart
+                        chart_coords = chart[:]
+                        var_not_in_chart = [s for s in var
+                                            if s not in chart_coords]
+                        any_in_other_chart = False
+                        if var_not_in_chart:
+                            for other_chart in self._domain.atlas():
+                                other_chart_coords = other_chart[:]
+                                for s in var_not_in_chart:
+                                    if s in other_chart_coords:
+                                        any_in_other_chart = True
+                                        break
+                                if any_in_other_chart:
+                                    break
+                        if not any_in_other_chart:
+                            result._express[chart] = number * expr
+                    return result
+        # General case: the multiplication is performed on all charts:
+        for chart, expr in self._express.items():
+            result._express[chart] = number * expr
+        return result
+
+    # ###  End of CommutativeAlgebraElement arithmetic operators ###
+
+    def _function_name(self, func, func_latex, parentheses=True):
+        r"""
+        Helper function to set the symbol of a function applied to the
+        scalar field.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: f._function_name("cos", r"\cos")
+            ('cos(f)', '\\cos\\left(\\Phi\\right)')
+            sage: f._function_name("sqrt", r"\sqrt", parentheses=False)
+            ('sqrt(f)', '\\sqrt{\\Phi}')
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y})  # no name given to f
+            sage: f._function_name("cos", r"\cos")
+            (None, None)
+        """
+        if self._name is None:
+            name = None
+        else:
+            name = func + "(" + self._name + ")"
+        if self._latex_name is None:
+            latex_name = None
+        elif parentheses:
+            latex_name = func_latex + r"\left(" + self._latex_name + r"\right)"
+        else:
+            latex_name = func_latex + r"{" + self._latex_name + r"}"
+        return name, latex_name
+
+    def exp(self):
+        r"""
+        Exponential of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field `\exp f`, where `f` is the current scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = exp(f) ; g
+            Scalar field exp(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: g.display()
+            exp(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ e^(x + y)
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \exp\left(\Phi\right)
+
+        Automatic simplifications occur::
+
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: 2*ln(1+x^2)}, name='f')
+            sage: exp(f).display()
+            exp(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ x^4 + 2*x^2 + 1
+
+        The inverse function is :meth:`log`::
+
+            sage: log(exp(f)) == f
+            True
+
+        Some tests::
+
+            sage: exp(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.constant_scalar_field(1)
+            True
+            sage: exp(M.constant_scalar_field(1)) == M.constant_scalar_field(e)
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("exp", r"\exp")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.exp()
+        return resu
+
+    def log(self):
+        r"""
+        Natural logarithm of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field `\ln f`, where `f` is the current scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = log(f) ; g
+            Scalar field ln(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: g.display()
+            ln(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ log(x + y)
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \ln\left(\Phi\right)
+
+        The inverse function is :meth:`exp`::
+
+            sage: exp(log(f)) == f
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("ln", r"\ln")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.log()
+        return resu
+
+    def __pow__(self, exponent):
+        r"""
+        The scalar field to a given power.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``exponent`` -- the exponent
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the scalar field `f^a`, where `f` is the current scalar field and
+          `a` the exponent
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x+y}, name='f', latex_name=r'\Phi')
+            sage: g = f.__pow__(pi) ; g
+            Scalar field f^pi on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            {\Phi}^{ \pi }
+            sage: g.display()
+            f^pi: M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ (x + y)^pi
+
+        The global function ``pow`` can be used::
+
+            sage: pow(f, pi) == f.__pow__(pi)
+            True
+
+        as well as the exponent notation::
+
+            sage: f^pi == f.__pow__(pi)
+            True
+
+        Some checks::
+
+            sage: pow(f, 2) == f*f
+            True
+            sage: pow(pow(f, 1/2), 2) == f
+            True
+        """
+        from sage.misc.latex import latex
+        if self._name is None:
+            name = None
+        else:
+            name = self._name + "^{}".format(exponent)
+        if self._latex_name is None:
+            latex_name = None
+        else:
+            latex_name = r"{" + self._latex_name + r"}^{" + \
+                         latex(exponent) + r"}"
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.__pow__(exponent)
+        return resu
+
+    def sqrt(self):
+        r"""
+        Square root of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field `\sqrt f`, where `f` is the current scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: 1+x^2+y^2}, name='f',
+            ....:                    latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = sqrt(f) ; g
+            Scalar field sqrt(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \sqrt{\Phi}
+            sage: g.display()
+            sqrt(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ sqrt(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+
+        Some tests::
+
+            sage: g^2 == f
+            True
+            sage: sqrt(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("sqrt", r"\sqrt",
+                                               parentheses=False)
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.sqrt()
+        return resu
+
+    def cos(self):
+        r"""
+        Cosine of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field `\cos f`, where `f` is the current scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = cos(f) ; g
+            Scalar field cos(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \cos\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            cos(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ cos(x*y)
+
+        Some tests::
+
+            sage: cos(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.constant_scalar_field(1)
+            True
+            sage: cos(M.constant_scalar_field(pi/2)) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("cos", r"\cos")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.cos()
+        return resu
+
+    def sin(self):
+        r"""
+        Sine of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field `\sin f`, where `f` is the current scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = sin(f) ; g
+            Scalar field sin(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \sin\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            sin(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ sin(x*y)
+
+        Some tests::
+
+            sage: sin(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+            sage: sin(M.constant_scalar_field(pi/2)) == M.constant_scalar_field(1)
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("sin", r"\sin")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.sin()
+        return resu
+
+    def tan(self):
+        r"""
+        Tangent of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field `\tan f`, where `f` is the current scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = tan(f) ; g
+            Scalar field tan(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \tan\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            tan(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ sin(x*y)/cos(x*y)
+
+        Some tests::
+
+            sage: tan(f) == sin(f) / cos(f)
+            True
+            sage: tan(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+            sage: tan(M.constant_scalar_field(pi/4)) == M.constant_scalar_field(1)
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("tan", r"\tan")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.tan()
+        return resu
+
+    def arccos(self):
+        r"""
+        Arc cosine of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field `\arccos f`, where `f` is the current scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = arccos(f) ; g
+            Scalar field arccos(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \arccos\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            arccos(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ arccos(x*y)
+
+        The notation ``acos`` can be used as well::
+
+            sage: acos(f)
+            Scalar field arccos(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: acos(f) == g
+            True
+
+        Some tests::
+
+            sage: cos(g) == f
+            True
+            sage: arccos(M.constant_scalar_field(1)) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+            sage: arccos(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.constant_scalar_field(pi/2)
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("arccos", r"\arccos")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.arccos()
+        return resu
+
+    def arcsin(self):
+        r"""
+        Arc sine of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field `\arcsin f`, where `f` is the current scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = arcsin(f) ; g
+            Scalar field arcsin(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \arcsin\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            arcsin(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ arcsin(x*y)
+
+        The notation ``asin`` can be used as well::
+
+            sage: asin(f)
+            Scalar field arcsin(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: asin(f) == g
+            True
+
+        Some tests::
+
+            sage: sin(g) == f
+            True
+            sage: arcsin(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+            sage: arcsin(M.constant_scalar_field(1)) == M.constant_scalar_field(pi/2)
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("arcsin", r"\arcsin")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.arcsin()
+        return resu
+
+    def arctan(self):
+        r"""
+        Arc tangent of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field `\arctan f`, where `f` is the current scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = arctan(f) ; g
+            Scalar field arctan(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \arctan\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            arctan(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ arctan(x*y)
+
+        The notation ``atan`` can be used as well::
+
+            sage: atan(f)
+            Scalar field arctan(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: atan(f) == g
+            True
+
+        Some tests::
+
+            sage: tan(g) == f
+            True
+            sage: arctan(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+            sage: arctan(M.constant_scalar_field(1)) == M.constant_scalar_field(pi/4)
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("arctan", r"\arctan")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.arctan()
+        return resu
+
+    def cosh(self):
+        r"""
+        Hyperbolic cosine of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field `\cosh f`, where `f` is the current scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = cosh(f) ; g
+            Scalar field cosh(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \cosh\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            cosh(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ cosh(x*y)
+
+        Some test::
+
+            sage: cosh(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.constant_scalar_field(1)
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("cosh", r"\cosh")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.cosh()
+        return resu
+
+    def sinh(self):
+        r"""
+        Hyperbolic sine of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field `\sinh f`, where `f` is the current scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = sinh(f) ; g
+            Scalar field sinh(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \sinh\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            sinh(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ sinh(x*y)
+
+        Some test::
+
+            sage: sinh(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("sinh", r"\sinh")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.sinh()
+        return resu
+
+    def tanh(self):
+        r"""
+        Hyperbolic tangent of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT: the scalar field `\tanh f`, where `f` is the current scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = tanh(f) ; g
+            Scalar field tanh(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \tanh\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            tanh(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ sinh(x*y)/cosh(x*y)
+
+        Some tests::
+
+            sage: tanh(f) == sinh(f) / cosh(f)
+            True
+            sage: tanh(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("tanh", r"\tanh")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.tanh()
+        return resu
+
+    def arccosh(self):
+        r"""
+        Inverse hyperbolic cosine of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the scalar field `\mathrm{arccosh}\, f`, where `f` is the current
+          scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = arccosh(f) ; g
+            Scalar field arccosh(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \,\mathrm{arccosh}\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            arccosh(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ arccosh(x*y)
+
+        The notation ``acosh`` can be used as well::
+
+            sage: acosh(f)
+            Scalar field arccosh(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: acosh(f) == g
+            True
+
+        Some tests::
+
+            sage: cosh(g) == f
+            True
+            sage: arccosh(M.constant_scalar_field(1)) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("arccosh", r"\,\mathrm{arccosh}")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.arccosh()
+        return resu
+
+    def arcsinh(self):
+        r"""
+        Inverse hyperbolic sine of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the scalar field `\mathrm{arcsinh}\, f`, where `f` is the current
+          scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = arcsinh(f) ; g
+            Scalar field arcsinh(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \,\mathrm{arcsinh}\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            arcsinh(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ arcsinh(x*y)
+
+        The notation ``asinh`` can be used as well::
+
+            sage: asinh(f)
+            Scalar field arcsinh(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: asinh(f) == g
+            True
+
+        Some tests::
+
+            sage: sinh(g) == f
+            True
+            sage: arcsinh(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("arcsinh", r"\,\mathrm{arcsinh}")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.arcsinh()
+        return resu
+
+    def arctanh(self):
+        r"""
+        Inverse hyperbolic tangent of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the scalar field `\mathrm{arctanh}\, f`, where `f` is the current
+          scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = arctanh(f) ; g
+            Scalar field arctanh(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \,\mathrm{arctanh}\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            arctanh(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ arctanh(x*y)
+
+        The notation ``atanh`` can be used as well::
+
+            sage: atanh(f)
+            Scalar field arctanh(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: atanh(f) == g
+            True
+
+        Some tests::
+
+            sage: tanh(g) == f
+            True
+            sage: arctanh(M.zero_scalar_field()) == M.zero_scalar_field()
+            True
+            sage: arctanh(M.constant_scalar_field(1/2)) == M.constant_scalar_field(log(3)/2)
+            True
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("arctanh", r"\,\mathrm{arctanh}")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.arctanh()
+        return resu
+
+    def __abs__(self):
+        r"""
+        Absolute value of the scalar field.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the scalar field `\mathrm{Abs}\, f`, where `f` is the current
+          scalar field
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field({X: x*y}, name='f', latex_name=r"\Phi")
+            sage: g = abs(f) ; g
+            Scalar field abs(f) on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: latex(g)
+            \,\mathrm{abs}\left(\Phi\right)
+            sage: g.display()
+            abs(f): M → ℝ
+               (x, y) ↦ abs(x)*abs(y)
+        """
+        name, latex_name = self._function_name("abs", r"\,\mathrm{abs}")
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent(), name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+        for chart, func in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[chart] = func.abs()
+        return resu
+
+    def set_calc_order(self, symbol, order, truncate=False):
+        r"""
+        Trigger a power series expansion with respect to a small parameter in
+        computations involving the scalar field.
+
+        This property is propagated by usual operations. The internal
+        representation must be ``SR`` for this to take effect.
+
+        If the small parameter is `\epsilon` and `f` is ``self``, the
+        power series expansion to order `n` is
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            f = f_0 + \epsilon f_1 + \epsilon^2 f_2 + \cdots + \epsilon^n f_n
+                + O(\epsilon^{n+1}),
+
+        where `f_0, f_1, \ldots, f_n` are `n+1` scalar fields that do not
+        depend upon `\epsilon`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``symbol`` -- symbolic variable (the "small parameter" `\epsilon`)
+          with respect to which the coordinate expressions of ``self`` in
+          various charts are expanded in power series (around the zero value of
+          this variable)
+        - ``order`` -- integer; the order `n` of the expansion, defined as the
+          degree of the polynomial representing the truncated power series in
+          ``symbol``
+
+          .. WARNING::
+
+             The order of the big `O` in the power series expansion is `n+1`,
+             where `n` is ``order``.
+
+        - ``truncate`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); determines whether the
+          coordinate expressions of ``self`` are replaced by their expansions
+          to the given order
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: t = var('t')  # the small parameter
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(exp(-t*x))
+            sage: f.expr()
+            e^(-t*x)
+            sage: f.set_calc_order(t, 2, truncate=True)
+            sage: f.expr()
+            1/2*t^2*x^2 - t*x + 1
+        """
+        for expr in self._express.values():
+            expr._expansion_symbol = symbol
+            expr._order = order
+            if truncate:
+                expr.simplify()
+        self._del_derived()
+
+    def set_immutable(self):
+        r"""
+        Set ``self`` and all restrictions of ``self`` immutable.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: U = M.open_subset('U', coord_def={X: x^2+y^2<1})  # disk
+            sage: V = M.open_subset('U', coord_def={X: x>0})  # half plane
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x^2, name='f')
+            sage: fU = f.restrict(U)
+            sage: f.set_immutable()
+            sage: fU.is_immutable()
+            True
+            sage: f.restrict(V).is_immutable()
+            True
+        """
+        for rst in self._restrictions.values():
+            rst.set_immutable()
+        for func in self._express.values():
+            func.set_immutable()
+        super().set_immutable()
+
+    @cached_method
+    def __hash__(self):
+        r"""
+        Hash function.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = M.scalar_field(x^2, name='f')
+            sage: f.set_immutable()
+            sage: g = M.scalar_field(x^2, name='g')
+            sage: g.set_immutable()
+
+        Check whether equality implies equality of hash::
+
+            sage: f == g
+            True
+            sage: hash(f) == hash(g)
+            True
+
+        Let us check that ``f`` can be used as a dictionary key::
+
+            sage: {f: 1}[f]
+            1
+        """
+        if self.is_mutable():
+            raise ValueError('element must be immutable in order to be '
+                             'hashable')
+        return hash((type(self).__name__, self._domain))