passagemath-symbolics 10.8.1a1__cp311-cp311-macosx_13_0_arm64.whl

sage/manifolds/chart_func.py

@@ -0,0 +1,3416 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-symbolics
+r"""
+Chart Functions
+
+In the context of a topological manifold `M` over a topological field
+`K`, a *chart function* is a function from a chart codomain
+to `K`.
+In other words, a chart function is a `K`-valued function of the coordinates
+associated to some chart. The internal coordinate expressions of chart
+functions and calculus on them are taken in charge by different calculus
+methods, at the choice of the user:
+
+- Sage's default symbolic engine (Pynac + Maxima), implemented via the
+  Symbolic Ring (``SR``)
+- SymPy engine, denoted ``sympy`` hereafter
+
+See :class:`~sage.manifolds.calculus_method.CalculusMethod` for details.
+
+AUTHORS:
+
+- Marco Mancini (2017) : initial version
+- Eric Gourgoulhon (2015) : for a previous class implementing only SR
+  calculus (CoordFunctionSymb)
+- Florentin Jaffredo (2018) : series expansion with respect to a given
+  parameter
+"""
+
+# ****************************************************************************
+#  Copyright (C) 2017 Marco Mancini <marco.mancini@obspm.fr>
+#  Copyright (C) 2018 Florentin Jaffredo <florentin.jaffredo@polytechnique.edu>
+#
+#  Distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL)
+#  as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of
+#  the License, or (at your option) any later version.
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# ****************************************************************************
+from typing import Self
+
+from sage.categories.commutative_algebras import CommutativeAlgebras
+from sage.manifolds.utilities import ExpressionNice
+from sage.misc.cachefunc import cached_method
+from sage.structure.element import AlgebraElement, ModuleElementWithMutability
+from sage.structure.mutability import Mutability
+from sage.structure.parent import Parent
+from sage.structure.sage_object import SageObject
+from sage.structure.unique_representation import UniqueRepresentation
+from sage.symbolic.ring import SR
+
+try:
+    import sympy
+except ImportError:
+    pass
+
+
+class ChartFunction(AlgebraElement, ModuleElementWithMutability):
+    r"""
+    Function of coordinates of a given chart.
+
+    If `(U, \varphi)` is a chart on a topological manifold `M` of
+    dimension `n` over a topological field `K`,  a *chart function*
+    associated to `(U, \varphi)` is a map
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        \begin{array}{llcl}
+        f:& V \subset K^n & \longrightarrow & K \\
+          & (x^1, \ldots, x^n) & \longmapsto & f(x^1, \ldots, x^n),
+        \end{array}
+
+    where `V` is the codomain of `\varphi`. In other words, `f` is a
+    `K`-valued function of the coordinates associated to the chart
+    `(U, \varphi)`.
+
+    The chart function `f` can be represented by expressions pertaining to
+    different calculus methods; the currently implemented ones are
+
+    - ``SR`` (Sage's Symbolic Ring)
+    - ``SymPy``
+
+    See :meth:`~sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunction.expr` for details.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``parent`` -- the algebra of chart functions on the chart
+      `(U, \varphi)`
+
+    - ``expression`` -- (default: ``None``) a symbolic expression representing
+      `f(x^1, \ldots, x^n)`, where `(x^1, \ldots, x^n)` are the
+      coordinates of the chart `(U, \varphi)`
+
+    - ``calc_method`` -- string (default: ``None``); the calculus method with
+      respect to which the internal expression of ``self`` must be initialized
+      from ``expression``. One of
+
+      - ``'SR'``: Sage's default symbolic engine (Symbolic Ring)
+      - ``'sympy'``: SymPy
+      - ``None``: the chart current calculus method is assumed
+
+    - ``expansion_symbol`` -- (default: ``None``) symbolic variable (the "small
+      parameter") with respect to which the coordinate expression is expanded
+      in power series (around the zero value of this variable)
+
+    - ``order`` -- integer (default: ``None``); the order of the expansion
+      if ``expansion_symbol`` is not ``None``; the *order* is defined as the
+      degree of the polynomial representing the truncated power series in
+      ``expansion_symbol``
+
+      .. WARNING::
+
+         The value of ``order`` is `n-1`, where `n` is the order of the
+         big `O` in the power series expansion
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    A symbolic chart function on a 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+        sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+        sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+        sage: f = X.function(x^2+3*y+1)
+        sage: type(f)
+        <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+        sage: f.display()
+        (x, y) ↦ x^2 + 3*y + 1
+        sage: f(x,y)
+        x^2 + 3*y + 1
+
+    The symbolic expression is returned when asking for the direct display of
+    the function::
+
+        sage: f
+        x^2 + 3*y + 1
+        sage: latex(f)
+        x^{2} + 3 \, y + 1
+
+    A similar output is obtained by means of the method :meth:`expr`::
+
+        sage: f.expr()
+        x^2 + 3*y + 1
+
+    The expression returned by :meth:`expr` is by default a Sage symbolic
+    expression::
+
+        sage: type(f.expr())
+        <class 'sage.symbolic.expression.Expression'>
+
+    A SymPy expression can also be asked for::
+
+        sage: f.expr('sympy')
+        x**2 + 3*y + 1
+        sage: type(f.expr('sympy'))
+        <class 'sympy.core.add.Add'>
+
+    The value of the function at specified coordinates is obtained by means
+    of the standard parentheses notation::
+
+        sage: f(2,-1)
+        2
+        sage: var('a b')
+        (a, b)
+        sage: f(a,b)
+        a^2 + 3*b + 1
+
+    An unspecified chart function::
+
+        sage: g = X.function(function('G')(x, y))
+        sage: g
+        G(x, y)
+        sage: g.display()
+        (x, y) ↦ G(x, y)
+        sage: g.expr()
+        G(x, y)
+        sage: g(2,3)
+        G(2, 3)
+
+    Coordinate functions can be compared to other values::
+
+        sage: f = X.function(x^2+3*y+1)
+        sage: f == 2
+        False
+        sage: f == x^2 + 3*y + 1
+        True
+        sage: g = X.function(x*y)
+        sage: f == g
+        False
+        sage: h = X.function(x^2+3*y+1)
+        sage: f == h
+        True
+
+    A coercion by means of the restriction is implemented::
+
+        sage: D = M.open_subset('D')
+        sage: X_D = X.restrict(D, x^2+y^2<1)  # open disk
+        sage: c = X_D.function(x^2)
+        sage: c + f
+        2*x^2 + 3*y + 1
+
+    Expansion to a given order with respect to a small parameter::
+
+        sage: t = var('t')  # the small parameter
+        sage: f = X.function(cos(t)*x*y, expansion_symbol=t, order=2)
+
+    The expansion is triggered by the call to :meth:`simplify`::
+
+        sage: f
+        x*y*cos(t)
+        sage: f.simplify()
+        -1/2*t^2*x*y + x*y
+
+    .. RUBRIC:: Differences between ``ChartFunction`` and callable
+      symbolic expressions
+
+    Callable symbolic expressions are defined directly from symbolic
+    expressions of the coordinates::
+
+        sage: f0(x,y) = x^2 + 3*y + 1
+        sage: type(f0)
+        <class 'sage.symbolic.expression.Expression'>
+        sage: f0
+        (x, y) |--> x^2 + 3*y + 1
+        sage: f0(x,y)
+        x^2 + 3*y + 1
+
+    To get an output similar to that of ``f0`` for a chart function, we must
+    use the method :meth:`display`::
+
+        sage: f = X.function(x^2+3*y+1)
+        sage: f
+        x^2 + 3*y + 1
+        sage: f.display()
+        (x, y) ↦ x^2 + 3*y + 1
+        sage: f(x,y)
+        x^2 + 3*y + 1
+
+    More importantly, instances of :class:`ChartFunction` differ from
+    callable symbolic expression by the automatic simplifications in all
+    operations. For instance, adding the two callable symbolic expressions::
+
+        sage: f0(x,y,z) = cos(x)^2 ; g0(x,y,z) = sin(x)^2
+
+    results in::
+
+        sage: f0 + g0
+        (x, y, z) |--> cos(x)^2 + sin(x)^2
+
+    To get `1`, one has to call
+    :meth:`~sage.symbolic.expression.Expression.simplify_trig`::
+
+        sage: (f0 + g0).simplify_trig()
+        (x, y, z) |--> 1
+
+    On the contrary, the sum of the corresponding :class:`ChartFunction`
+    instances is automatically simplified (see
+    :func:`~sage.manifolds.utilities.simplify_chain_real` and
+    :func:`~sage.manifolds.utilities.simplify_chain_generic` for details)::
+
+        sage: f = X.function(cos(x)^2) ; g = X.function(sin(x)^2)
+        sage: f + g
+        1
+
+    Another difference regards the display of partial derivatives:
+    for callable symbolic functions, it involves ``diff``::
+
+        sage: g = function('g')(x, y)
+        sage: f0(x,y) = diff(g, x) + diff(g, y)
+        sage: f0
+        (x, y) |--> diff(g(x, y), x) + diff(g(x, y), y)
+
+    while for chart functions, the display is more "textbook" like::
+
+        sage: f = X.function(diff(g, x) + diff(g, y))
+        sage: f
+        d(g)/dx + d(g)/dy
+
+    The difference is even more dramatic on LaTeX outputs::
+
+        sage: latex(f0)
+        \left( x, y \right) \ {\mapsto} \ \frac{\partial}{\partial x}g\left(x, y\right) + \frac{\partial}{\partial y}g\left(x, y\right)
+        sage: latex(f)
+        \frac{\partial\,g}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial\,g}{\partial y}
+
+    Note that this regards only the display of coordinate functions:
+    internally, the ``diff`` notation is still used, as we can check by asking
+    for the symbolic expression stored in ``f``::
+
+        sage: f.expr()
+        diff(g(x, y), x) + diff(g(x, y), y)
+
+    One can switch to Pynac notation by changing the options::
+
+        sage: Manifold.options.textbook_output=False
+        sage: latex(f)
+        \frac{\partial}{\partial x}g\left(x, y\right) + \frac{\partial}{\partial y}g\left(x, y\right)
+        sage: Manifold.options._reset()
+        sage: latex(f)
+        \frac{\partial\,g}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial\,g}{\partial y}
+
+    Another difference between :class:`ChartFunction` and
+    callable symbolic expression is the possibility to switch off the display
+    of the arguments of unspecified functions. Consider for instance::
+
+        sage: f = X.function(function('u')(x, y) * function('v')(x, y))
+        sage: f
+        u(x, y)*v(x, y)
+        sage: f0(x,y) = function('u')(x, y) * function('v')(x, y)
+        sage: f0
+        (x, y) |--> u(x, y)*v(x, y)
+
+    If there is a clear understanding that `u` and `v` are functions of
+    `(x,y)`, the explicit mention of the latter can be cumbersome in lengthy
+    tensor expressions. We can switch it off by::
+
+        sage: Manifold.options.omit_function_arguments=True
+        sage: f
+        u*v
+
+    Note that neither the callable symbolic expression ``f0`` nor the internal
+    expression of ``f`` is affected by the above command::
+
+        sage: f0
+        (x, y) |--> u(x, y)*v(x, y)
+        sage: f.expr()
+        u(x, y)*v(x, y)
+
+    We revert to the default behavior by::
+
+        sage: Manifold.options._reset()
+        sage: f
+        u(x, y)*v(x, y)
+
+    .. automethod:: __call__
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        parent,
+        expression=None,
+        calc_method=None,
+        expansion_symbol=None,
+        order=None,
+    ):
+        r"""
+        Initialize ``self``.
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Chart function on a real manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x^3+y); f
+            x^3 + y
+            sage: type(f)
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+            sage: TestSuite(f).run()
+
+        Using SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x^3+y)
+            sage: f
+            x**3 + y
+            sage: TestSuite(f).run()
+
+        Chart function on a complex manifold::
+
+            sage: N = Manifold(2, 'N', structure='topological', field='complex')
+            sage: Y.<z,w> = N.chart()
+            sage: g = Y.function(i*z + 2*w); g
+            2*w + I*z
+            sage: TestSuite(g).run()
+        """
+        ModuleElementWithMutability.__init__(self, parent)
+        self._chart = parent._chart
+        self._nc = len(self._chart[:])
+        self._express = {}
+        # set the calculation method managing
+        self._calc_method = self._chart._calc_method
+        if expression is not None:
+            if calc_method is None:
+                calc_method = self._calc_method._current
+            self._express[calc_method] = self._calc_method._tranf[calc_method](
+                expression
+            )
+        # Derived quantities:
+        self._der = None  # list of partial derivatives (to be set by diff()
+        # and unset by del_derived())
+        self._expansion_symbol = expansion_symbol
+        self._order = order
+
+    def _simplify(self, expr):
+        """
+        Simplify the expression `expr` using `self._calc_method.simplify`.
+
+        If needed, truncate the expression to the predefined order in the
+        power series with respect to a small parameter.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``expr`` -- expression to simplify
+
+        OUTPUT: simplified expression
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: fc = c_xy.function(x+2*y^3)
+            sage: fc._simplify(x+x)
+            2*x
+        """
+        res = self._calc_method.simplify(expr)
+        if self._expansion_symbol is not None and self._calc_method._current == 'SR':
+            res = res.series(self._expansion_symbol, self._order + 1).truncate()
+        return res
+
+    def chart(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the chart with respect to which ``self`` is defined.
+
+        OUTPUT: a :class:`~sage.manifolds.chart.Chart`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(1+x+y^2)
+            sage: f.chart()
+            Chart (M, (x, y))
+            sage: f.chart() is X
+            True
+        """
+        return self._chart
+
+    def scalar_field(self, name=None, latex_name=None):
+        r"""
+        Construct the scalar field that has ``self`` as coordinate expression.
+
+        The domain of the scalar field is the open subset covered by the
+        chart on which ``self`` is defined.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``name`` -- (default: ``None``) name given to the scalar field
+
+        - ``latex_name`` -- (default: ``None``) LaTeX symbol to denote the
+          scalar field; if ``None``, the LaTeX symbol is set to ``name``
+
+        OUTPUT: a :class:`~sage.manifolds.scalarfield.ScalarField`
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Construction of a scalar field on a 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: c_xy.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: fc = c_xy.function(x+2*y^3)
+            sage: f = fc.scalar_field() ; f
+            Scalar field on the 2-dimensional topological manifold M
+            sage: f.display()
+            M → ℝ
+            (x, y) ↦ 2*y^3 + x
+            sage: f.coord_function(c_xy) is fc
+            True
+        """
+        alg = self._chart.domain().scalar_field_algebra()
+        return alg.element_class(
+            alg, coord_expression={self._chart: self}, name=name, latex_name=latex_name
+        )
+
+    def expr(self, method=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the symbolic expression of ``self`` in terms of the chart
+        coordinates, as an object of a specified calculus method.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``method`` -- string (default: ``None``); the calculus method which
+          the returned expression belongs to. One of
+
+          - ``'SR'``: Sage's default symbolic engine (Symbolic Ring)
+          - ``'sympy'``: SymPy
+          - ``None``: the chart current calculus method is assumed
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - a :class:`Sage symbolic expression <sage.symbolic.expression.Expression>`
+          if ``method`` is ``'SR'``
+        - a SymPy object if ``method`` is ``'sympy'``
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Chart function on a 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x^2+y)
+            sage: f.expr()
+            x^2 + y
+            sage: type(f.expr())
+            <class 'sage.symbolic.expression.Expression'>
+
+        Asking for the SymPy expression::
+
+            sage: f.expr('sympy')
+            x**2 + y
+            sage: type(f.expr('sympy'))
+            <class 'sympy.core.add.Add'>
+
+        The default corresponds to the current calculus method, here the one
+        based on the Symbolic Ring ``SR``::
+
+            sage: f.expr() is f.expr('SR')
+            True
+
+        If we change the current calculus method on chart ``X``, we change the
+        default::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f.expr()
+            x**2 + y
+            sage: f.expr() is f.expr('sympy')
+            True
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('SR')  # revert back to SR
+
+        Internally, the expressions corresponding to various calculus methods
+        are stored in the dictionary ``_express``::
+
+            sage: for method in sorted(f._express):
+            ....:     print("'{}': {}".format(method, f._express[method]))
+            ....:
+            'SR': x^2 + y
+            'sympy': x**2 + y
+
+        The method :meth:`expr` is useful for accessing to all the
+        symbolic expression functionalities in Sage; for instance::
+
+            sage: var('a')
+            a
+            sage: f = X.function(a*x*y); f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ a*x*y
+            sage: f.expr()
+            a*x*y
+            sage: f.expr().subs(a=2)
+            2*x*y
+
+        Note that for substituting the value of a coordinate, the function
+        call can be used as well::
+
+            sage: f(x,3)
+            3*a*x
+            sage: bool( f(x,3) == f.expr().subs(y=3) )
+            True
+        """
+        if method is None:
+            method = self._calc_method._current
+        if method in self._express:
+            return self._express[method]
+        else:
+            for vv in self._express.values():
+                try:
+                    self._express[method] = self._calc_method._tranf[method](vv)
+                    return self._express[method]
+                except (KeyError, ValueError):
+                    pass
+            raise ValueError("no expression found for converting to {}".format(method))
+
+    def set_expr(self, calc_method, expression):
+        r"""
+        Add an expression in a particular calculus method  ``self``.
+        Some control is done to verify the consistency between the
+        different representations of the same expression.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``calc_method`` -- calculus method
+
+        - ``expression`` -- symbolic expression
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(1+x^2)
+            sage: f._repr_()
+            'x^2 + 1'
+            sage: f.set_expr('sympy','x**2+1')
+            sage: f  # indirect doctest
+            x^2 + 1
+
+            sage: g = X.function(1+x^3)
+            sage: g._repr_()
+            'x^3 + 1'
+            sage: g.set_expr('sympy','x**2+y')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: Expressions are not equal
+        """
+        if self.is_immutable():
+            raise ValueError(
+                "the expressions of an immutable element cannot be changed"
+            )
+        for vv in self._express.values():
+            if not bool(
+                self._calc_method._tranf[calc_method](expression)
+                == self._calc_method._tranf[calc_method](vv)
+            ):
+                raise ValueError("Expressions are not equal")
+        self._express[calc_method] = expression
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        r"""
+        String representation of ``self``.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(1+x*y)
+            sage: f._repr_()
+            'x*y + 1'
+            sage: repr(f)  # indirect doctest
+            'x*y + 1'
+            sage: f  # indirect doctest
+            x*y + 1
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR' and self._chart.manifold().options.textbook_output:
+            return str(ExpressionNice(self.expr(curr)))
+        else:
+            return str(self.expr(curr))
+
+    def _latex_(self):
+        r"""
+        LaTeX representation of ``self``.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(cos(x*y/2))
+            sage: f._latex_()
+            \cos\left(\frac{1}{2} \, x y\right)
+            sage: latex(f)  # indirect doctest
+            \cos\left(\frac{1}{2} \, x y\right)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR' and self._chart.manifold().options.textbook_output:
+            out_expr = ExpressionNice(self._express[curr])
+        else:
+            out_expr = self._express[curr]
+        return self._calc_method._latex_dict[curr](out_expr)
+
+    def display(self):
+        r"""
+        Display ``self`` in arrow notation.
+        For display the standard ``SR`` representation is used.
+
+        The output is either text-formatted (console mode) or
+        LaTeX-formatted (notebook mode).
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Coordinate function on a 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(cos(x*y/2))
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ cos(1/2*x*y)
+            sage: latex(f.display())
+            \left(x, y\right) \mapsto \cos\left(\frac{1}{2} \, x y\right)
+
+        A shortcut is ``disp()``::
+
+            sage: f.disp()
+            (x, y) ↦ cos(1/2*x*y)
+
+        Display of the zero function::
+
+            sage: X.zero_function().display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 0
+        """
+        from sage.tensor.modules.format_utilities import FormattedExpansion
+        from sage.typeset.unicode_characters import unicode_mapsto
+
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        expr = self.expr(curr)
+        if curr == 'SR' and self._chart.manifold().options.textbook_output:
+            expr = ExpressionNice(expr)
+        latex_func = self._calc_method._latex_dict[curr]
+        resu_txt = str(self._chart[:]) + ' ' + unicode_mapsto + ' ' + str(expr)
+        resu_latex = latex_func(self._chart[:]) + r' \mapsto ' + latex_func(expr)
+        return FormattedExpansion(resu_txt, resu_latex)
+
+    disp = display
+
+    def __call__(self, *coords, **options):
+        r"""
+        Compute the value of the function at specified coordinates.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``*coords`` -- list of coordinates `(x^1, \ldots, x^n)`,
+          where the function `f` is to be evaluated
+        - ``**options`` -- allows to pass ``simplify=False`` to disable the
+          call of the simplification chain on the result
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - the value `f(x^1, \ldots, x^n)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(sin(x*y))
+            sage: f.__call__(-2, 3)
+            -sin(6)
+            sage: f(-2, 3)
+            -sin(6)
+            sage: var('a b')
+            (a, b)
+            sage: f.__call__(a, b)
+            sin(a*b)
+            sage: f(a,b)
+            sin(a*b)
+            sage: f.__call__(pi, 1)
+            0
+            sage: f.__call__(pi, 1/2)
+            1
+
+        With SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f(-2,3)
+            -sin(6)
+            sage: type(f(-2,3))
+            <class 'sympy.core.mul.Mul'>
+            sage: f(a,b)
+            sin(a*b)
+            sage: type(f(a,b))
+            sin
+            sage: type(f(pi,1))
+            <class 'sympy.core.numbers.Zero'>
+            sage: f(pi, 1/2)
+            1
+            sage: type(f(pi, 1/2))
+            <class 'sympy.core.numbers.One'>
+        """
+        if len(coords) != self._nc:
+            raise ValueError("bad number of coordinates")
+        calc = self._calc_method
+        curr = calc._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            xx = self._chart._xx
+            co = [calc._tranf['SR'](c) for c in coords]
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            xx = [x._sympy_() for x in self._chart._xx]
+            co = [calc._tranf['sympy'](c) for c in coords]
+        substitutions = dict(zip(xx, co))
+        resu = self.expr(curr).subs(substitutions)
+        if 'simplify' in options:
+            if options['simplify']:
+                return calc.simplify(resu, method=curr)
+            else:
+                return resu
+        else:
+            return calc.simplify(resu, method=curr)
+
+    def __bool__(self):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is nonzero and ``False`` otherwise.
+
+        This method is called by :meth:`~sage.structure.element.Element.is_zero()`.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Coordinate functions associated to a 2-dimensional chart::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x^2+3*y+1)
+            sage: bool(f)
+            True
+            sage: f.is_zero()
+            False
+            sage: f == 0
+            False
+            sage: g = X.function(0)
+            sage: bool(g)
+            False
+            sage: g.is_zero()
+            True
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: g.is_zero()
+            True
+            sage: g == 0
+            True
+            sage: X.zero_function().is_zero()
+            True
+            sage: X.zero_function() == 0
+            True
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr(curr).is_zero()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = self.expr(curr).is_zero
+        return not val
+
+    def is_trivial_zero(self):
+        r"""
+        Check if ``self`` is trivially equal to zero without any
+        simplification.
+
+        This method is supposed to be fast as compared with
+        ``self.is_zero()`` or ``self == 0`` and is intended to be
+        used in library code where trying to obtain a mathematically
+        correct result by applying potentially expensive rewrite rules
+        is not desirable.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(0)
+            sage: f.is_trivial_zero()
+            True
+            sage: f = X.function(float(0.0))
+            sage: f.is_trivial_zero()
+            True
+            sage: f = X.function(x-x)
+            sage: f.is_trivial_zero()
+            True
+            sage: X.zero_function().is_trivial_zero()
+            True
+
+        No simplification is attempted, so that ``False`` is returned for
+        non-trivial cases::
+
+            sage: f = X.function(cos(x)^2 + sin(x)^2 - 1)
+            sage: f.is_trivial_zero()
+            False
+
+        On the contrary, the method
+        :meth:`~sage.structure.element.Element.is_zero` and the direct
+        comparison to zero involve some simplification algorithms and
+        return ``True``::
+
+            sage: f.is_zero()
+            True
+            sage: f == 0
+            True
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        return self._calc_method.is_trivial_zero(self.expr(curr))
+
+    def is_trivial_one(self):
+        r"""
+        Check if ``self`` is trivially equal to one without any
+        simplification.
+
+        This method is supposed to be fast as compared with
+        ``self == 1`` and is intended to be used in library code where
+        trying to obtain a mathematically correct result by applying
+        potentially expensive rewrite rules is not desirable.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(1)
+            sage: f.is_trivial_one()
+            True
+            sage: f = X.function(float(1.0))
+            sage: f.is_trivial_one()
+            True
+            sage: f = X.function(x-x+1)
+            sage: f.is_trivial_one()
+            True
+            sage: X.one_function().is_trivial_one()
+            True
+
+        No simplification is attempted, so that ``False`` is returned for
+        non-trivial cases::
+
+            sage: f = X.function(cos(x)^2 + sin(x)^2)
+            sage: f.is_trivial_one()
+            False
+
+        On the contrary, the method
+        :meth:`~sage.structure.element.Element.is_zero` and the direct
+        comparison to one involve some simplification algorithms and
+        return ``True``::
+
+            sage: (f - 1).is_zero()
+            True
+            sage: f == 1
+            True
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        return self._calc_method.is_trivial_zero(self.expr(curr) - SR.one())
+
+    # TODO: Remove this method as soon as issue #28629 is solved?
+    def is_unit(self):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` iff ``self`` is not trivially zero since most chart
+        functions are invertible and an actual computation would take too much
+        time.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x^2+3*y+1)
+            sage: f.is_unit()
+            True
+            sage: zero = X.function(0)
+            sage: zero.is_unit()
+            False
+        """
+        return not self.is_trivial_zero()
+
+    def copy(self):
+        r"""
+        Return an exact copy of the object.
+
+        OUTPUT: a :class:`ChartFunctionSymb`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y^2)
+            sage: g = f.copy(); g
+            y^2 + x
+
+        By construction, ``g`` is identical to ``f``::
+
+            sage: type(g) == type(f)
+            True
+            sage: g == f
+            True
+
+        but it is not the same object::
+
+            sage: g is f
+            False
+        """
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent())
+        for kk, vv in self._express.items():
+            resu._express[kk] = vv
+        resu._expansion_symbol = self._expansion_symbol
+        resu._order = self._order
+        return resu
+
+    def derivative(self, coord):
+        r"""
+        Partial derivative with respect to a coordinate.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``coord`` -- either the coordinate `x^i` with respect
+          to which the derivative of the chart function `f` is to be
+          taken, or the index `i` labelling this coordinate (with the
+          index convention defined on the chart domain via the parameter
+          ``start_index``)
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - a :class:`ChartFunction` representing the partial
+          derivative `\frac{\partial f}{\partial x^i}`
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Partial derivatives of a 2-dimensional chart function::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart(calc_method='SR')
+            sage: f = X.function(x^2+3*y+1); f
+            x^2 + 3*y + 1
+            sage: f.derivative(x)
+            2*x
+            sage: f.derivative(y)
+            3
+
+        An alias is ``diff``::
+
+            sage: f.diff(x)
+            2*x
+
+        Each partial derivative is itself a chart function::
+
+            sage: type(f.diff(x))
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+
+        The same result is returned by the function ``diff``::
+
+            sage: diff(f, x)
+            2*x
+
+        An index can be used instead of the coordinate symbol::
+
+            sage: f.diff(0)
+            2*x
+            sage: diff(f, 1)
+            3
+
+        The index range depends on the convention used on the chart's domain::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x^2+3*y+1)
+            sage: f.diff(0)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: coordinate index out of range
+            sage: f.diff(1)
+            2*x
+            sage: f.diff(2)
+            3
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart(calc_method='sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x^2+3*y+1); f
+            x**2 + 3*y + 1
+            sage: f.diff(x)
+            2*x
+            sage: f.diff(y)
+            3
+        """
+        from sage.calculus.functional import diff
+        from sage.rings.integer import Integer
+
+        if self._der is None:
+            # the list of partial derivatives has to be updated
+            curr = self._calc_method._current
+            if curr == 'SR':
+                self._der = [
+                    type(self)(
+                        self.parent(),
+                        self._simplify(diff(self.expr(), xx)),
+                        expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+                        order=self._order,
+                    )
+                    for xx in self._chart[:]
+                ]
+            elif curr == 'sympy':
+                self._der = [
+                    type(self)(
+                        self.parent(),
+                        self._simplify(sympy.diff(self.expr(), xx._sympy_())),
+                    )
+                    for xx in self._chart[:]
+                ]
+        if isinstance(coord, (int, Integer)):
+            # NB: for efficiency, we access directly to the "private" attributes
+            # of other classes. A more conventional OOP writing would be
+            # coordsi = coord - self._chart.domain().start_index()
+            coordsi = coord - self._chart.domain()._sindex
+            if coordsi < 0 or coordsi >= self._nc:
+                raise ValueError("coordinate index out of range")
+            return self._der[coordsi]
+        else:
+            return self._der[self._chart[:].index(coord)]
+
+    diff = derivative
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Comparison (equality) operator.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a :class:`ChartFunction` or a value
+
+        OUTPUT: ``True`` if ``self`` is equal to ``other``,  or ``False`` otherwise
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Coordinate functions associated to a 2-dimensional chart::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y^2)
+            sage: g = X.function(x+y^2)
+            sage: f == g
+            True
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y^2)
+            sage: g = X.function(x+y**2,'sympy')
+            sage: f._express; g._express
+            {'SR': y^2 + x}
+            {'sympy': x + y**2}
+            sage: f == g
+            True
+            sage: f == 1
+            False
+            sage: h = X.function(1)
+            sage: h == 1
+            True
+            sage: h == f
+            False
+            sage: h == 0
+            False
+            sage: X.function(0) == 0
+            True
+            sage: X.zero_function() == 0
+            True
+        """
+        if other is self:
+            return True
+        if isinstance(other, ChartFunction):
+            if other.parent() != self.parent():
+                return False
+            else:
+                if self._calc_method._current in self._express:
+                    method = self._calc_method._current
+                else:
+                    method = list(self._express)[0]  # pick a random method
+                # other.expr(method)
+                if method == 'sympy':
+                    return bool(
+                        sympy.simplify(other.expr(method) - self.expr(method)) == 0
+                    )
+                return bool(other.expr(method) == self.expr(method))
+        else:
+            return bool(self.expr(self._calc_method._current) == other)
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Inequality operator.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a :class:`ChartFunction`
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - ``True`` if ``self`` is different from ``other``, ``False``
+          otherwise
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x-y)
+            sage: f != X.function(x*y)
+            True
+            sage: f != X.function(x)
+            True
+            sage: f != X.function(x-y)
+            False
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    def __neg__(self):
+        r"""
+        Unary minus operator.
+
+        OUTPUT: the opposite of ``self``
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Coordinate functions associated to a 2-dimensional chart::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart(calc_method='sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y^2)
+            sage: g = -f; g
+            -x - y**2
+            sage: type(g)
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+            sage: -g == f
+            True
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        resu = type(self)(self.parent())
+        resu._express[curr] = self._simplify(-self.expr())
+        resu._order = self._order
+        resu._expansion_symbol = self._expansion_symbol
+        return resu
+
+    def __invert__(self):
+        r"""
+        Inverse operator.
+
+        If `f` denotes the current chart function and `K` the topological
+        field over which the manifold is defined, the *inverse* of `f` is the
+        chart function `1/f`, where `1` of the multiplicative identity
+        of `K`.
+
+        OUTPUT: the inverse of ``self``
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Coordinate functions associated to a 2-dimensional chart::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(1+x^2+y^2)
+            sage: g = f.__invert__(); g
+            1/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+            sage: type(g)
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+            sage: g == ~f
+            True
+            sage: g.__invert__() == f
+            True
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart(calc_method='sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(1+x^2+y^2)
+            sage: g = f.__invert__(); g
+            1/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+            sage: type(g)
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+            sage: g == ~f
+            True
+            sage: g.__invert__() == f
+            True
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            return type(self)(
+                self.parent(),
+                calc_method='SR',
+                expression=self._simplify(SR.one() / self.expr()),
+            )
+            # NB: self._express.__invert__() would return 1/self._express
+            # (cf. the code of __invert__ in src/sage/symbolic/expression.pyx)
+            # Here we prefer SR(1)/self._express
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            calc_method=curr,
+            expression=self._simplify(1 / self.expr()),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def _add_(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Addition operator.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a :class:`ChartFunction` or a value
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function resulting from the addition of ``self``
+          and ``other``
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart(calc_method='SR')
+
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y^2)
+            sage: g = X.function(x+1)
+            sage: s = f + g; s.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ y^2 + 2*x + 1
+            sage: type(s)
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+            sage: (f + 0).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ y^2 + x
+            sage: (f + X.zero_function()).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ y^2 + x
+            sage: (f + 1).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ y^2 + x + 1
+            sage: (f + pi).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ pi + y^2 + x
+            sage: (f + x).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ y^2 + 2*x
+            sage: (f + -f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 0
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y^2)
+            sage: g = X.function(x+1)
+            sage: s = f + g; s.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 2*x + y**2 + 1
+            sage: (f + 0).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x + y**2
+            sage: (f + X.zero_function()).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x + y**2
+            sage: (f + 1).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x + y**2 + 1
+            sage: (f + pi).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x + y**2 + pi
+            sage: (f + x).display()
+             (x, y) ↦ 2*x + y**2
+            sage: (f + -f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 0
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if other._expansion_symbol is not None:
+            res = other._simplify(self.expr() + other.expr())
+        else:
+            res = self._simplify(self.expr() + other.expr())
+        if curr == 'SR' and res.is_trivial_zero():
+            # NB: "if res == 0" would be too expensive (cf. #22859)
+            return self.parent().zero()
+        if other._expansion_symbol is not None:
+            return type(self)(
+                self.parent(),
+                res,
+                expansion_symbol=other._expansion_symbol,
+                order=other._order,
+            )
+        else:
+            return type(self)(
+                self.parent(),
+                res,
+                expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+                order=self._order,
+            )
+
+    def _sub_(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Subtraction operator.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a :class:`ChartFunction` or a value
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function resulting from the subtraction of ``other``
+          from ``self``
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y^2)
+            sage: g = X.function(x+1)
+            sage: s = f - g; s.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ y^2 - 1
+            sage: type(s)
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+            sage: (f - 0).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ y^2 + x
+            sage: (f - X.zero_function()).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ y^2 + x
+            sage: (f - 1).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ y^2 + x - 1
+            sage: (f - x).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ y^2
+            sage: (f - pi).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ -pi + y^2 + x
+            sage: (f - f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 0
+            sage: (f - g) == -(g - f)
+            True
+
+        Tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: h = X.function(2*(x+y^2))
+            sage: s = h - f
+            sage: s.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x + y**2
+            sage: s.expr()
+            x + y**2
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if other._expansion_symbol is not None:
+            res = other._simplify(self.expr() - other.expr())
+        else:
+            res = self._simplify(self.expr() - other.expr())
+        if curr == 'SR' and res.is_trivial_zero():
+            # NB: "if res == 0" would be too expensive (cf. #22859)
+            return self.parent().zero()
+        if other._expansion_symbol is not None:
+            return type(self)(
+                self.parent(),
+                res,
+                expansion_symbol=other._expansion_symbol,
+                order=other._order,
+            )
+        else:
+            return type(self)(
+                self.parent(),
+                res,
+                expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+                order=self._order,
+            )
+
+    def _mul_(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Multiplication operator.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a :class:`ChartFunction` or a value
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function resulting from the multiplication of ``self``
+          by ``other``
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: g = X.function(x-y)
+            sage: s = f._mul_(g); s.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x^2 - y^2
+            sage: type(s)
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+            sage: (f * 0).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 0
+            sage: (f * X.zero_function()).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 0
+            sage: (f * (1/f)).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 1
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: g = X.function(x-y)
+            sage: s = f._mul_(g); s.expr()
+            x**2 - y**2
+            sage: (f * 0).expr()
+            0
+            sage: (f * X.zero_function()).expr()
+            0
+            sage: (f * (1/f)).expr()
+            1
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if other._expansion_symbol is not None:
+            res = other._simplify(self.expr() * other.expr())
+        else:
+            res = self._simplify(self.expr() * other.expr())
+        if curr == 'SR' and res.is_trivial_zero():
+            # NB: "if res == 0" would be too expensive (cf. #22859)
+            return self.parent().zero()
+        if other._expansion_symbol is not None:
+            return type(self)(
+                self.parent(),
+                res,
+                expansion_symbol=other._expansion_symbol,
+                order=other._order,
+            )
+        else:
+            return type(self)(
+                self.parent(),
+                res,
+                expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+                order=self._order,
+            )
+
+    def _rmul_(self, other):
+        """
+        Return ``other * self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: one = X.function_ring().one()
+            sage: 2 * one
+            2
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: (f * pi).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ pi*(x + y)
+            sage: (x * f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ (x + y)*x
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: (f * pi).expr()
+            pi*(x + y)
+            sage: (x * f).expr()
+            x*(x + y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        try:
+            other = self._calc_method._tranf[curr](other)
+        except (TypeError, ValueError):
+            return
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            other * self.expr(),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def _lmul_(self, other):
+        """
+        Return ``self * other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: one = X.function_ring().one()
+            sage: one * 2
+            2
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: (f * 2).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 2*x + 2*y
+            sage: (f * pi).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ pi*(x + y)
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: (f * 2).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 2*x + 2*y
+            sage: (f * pi).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ pi*(x + y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        try:
+            other = self._calc_method._tranf[curr](other)
+        except (TypeError, ValueError):
+            return
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self.expr() * other,
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def _div_(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Division operator.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a :class:`ChartFunction` or a value
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function resulting from the division of ``self``
+          by ``other``
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: g = X.function(1+x^2+y^2)
+            sage: s = f._div_(g); s.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ (x + y)/(x^2 + y^2 + 1)
+            sage: type(s)
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+            sage: f / X.zero_function()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ZeroDivisionError: division of a chart function by zero
+            sage: (f / 1).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x + y
+            sage: (f / 2).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 1/2*x + 1/2*y
+            sage: (f / pi).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ (x + y)/pi
+            sage: (f / (1+x^2)).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ (x + y)/(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: (f / (1+x^2)).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ (x + y)/(x^2 + 1)
+            sage: (f / g) == ~(g / f)
+            True
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: g = X.function(1+x**2+y**2)
+            sage: s = f._div_(g); s.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ (x + y)/(x**2 + y**2 + 1)
+            sage: (f / g) == ~(g / f)
+            True
+        """
+        if other.is_zero():
+            raise ZeroDivisionError("division of a chart function by zero")
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        res = self._simplify(self.expr() / other.expr())
+        if curr == 'SR' and res.is_trivial_zero():
+            # NB: "if res == 0" would be too expensive (cf. #22859)
+            return self.parent().zero()
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            res,
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def exp(self):
+        r"""
+        Exponential of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\exp(f)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: f.exp()
+            e^(x + y)
+            sage: exp(f) # equivalent to f.exp()
+            e^(x + y)
+            sage: exp(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ e^(x + y)
+            sage: exp(X.zero_function())
+            1
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: f.exp()
+            exp(x + y)
+            sage: exp(f) # equivalent to f.exp()
+            exp(x + y)
+            sage: exp(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ exp(x + y)
+            sage: exp(X.zero_function())
+            1
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().exp()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.exp(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def log(self, base=None):
+        r"""
+        Logarithm of ``self``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``base`` -- (default: ``None``) base of the logarithm; if ``None``,
+          the natural logarithm (i.e. logarithm to base `e`) is returned
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\log_a(f)`, where `f` is the current chart
+          function and `a` is the base
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: f.log()
+            log(x + y)
+            sage: log(f) # equivalent to f.log()
+            log(x + y)
+            sage: log(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ log(x + y)
+            sage: f.log(2)
+            log(x + y)/log(2)
+            sage: log(f, 2)
+            log(x + y)/log(2)
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: f.log()
+            log(x + y)
+            sage: log(f) # equivalent to f.log()
+            log(x + y)
+            sage: log(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ log(x + y)
+            sage: f.log(2)
+            log(x + y)/log(2)
+            sage: log(f, 2)
+            log(x + y)/log(2)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().log(base)
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = (
+                sympy.log(self.expr()) if base is None else sympy.log(self.expr(), base)
+            )
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def __pow__(self, exponent):
+        r"""
+        Power of ``self``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``exponent`` -- the exponent
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `f^a`, where `f` is the current chart
+          function and `a` is the exponent
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: f.__pow__(3)
+            x^3 + 3*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + y^3
+            sage: f^3  # equivalent to f.__pow__(3)
+            x^3 + 3*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + y^3
+            sage: f.__pow__(3).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x^3 + 3*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + y^3
+            sage: pow(f,3).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x^3 + 3*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + y^3
+            sage: (f^3).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x^3 + 3*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + y^3
+            sage: pow(X.zero_function(), 3).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 0
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: f.__pow__(3)
+            x**3 + 3*x**2*y + 3*x*y**2 + y**3
+            sage: f^3  # equivalent to f.__pow__(3)
+            x**3 + 3*x**2*y + 3*x*y**2 + y**3
+            sage: f.__pow__(3).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x**3 + 3*x**2*y + 3*x*y**2 + y**3
+            sage: pow(f,3).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x**3 + 3*x**2*y + 3*x*y**2 + y**3
+            sage: (f^3).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x**3 + 3*x**2*y + 3*x*y**2 + y**3
+            sage: pow(X.zero_function(), 3).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 0
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = pow(self.expr(), exponent)
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = self.expr() ** exponent
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def sqrt(self):
+        r"""
+        Square root of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\sqrt{f}`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x+y)
+            sage: f.sqrt()
+            sqrt(x + y)
+            sage: sqrt(f)  # equivalent to f.sqrt()
+            sqrt(x + y)
+            sage: sqrt(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ sqrt(x + y)
+            sage: sqrt(X.zero_function()).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 0
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().sqrt()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.sqrt(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def cos(self):
+        r"""
+        Cosine of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\cos(f)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.cos()
+            cos(x*y)
+            sage: cos(f)  # equivalent to f.cos()
+            cos(x*y)
+            sage: cos(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ cos(x*y)
+            sage: cos(X.zero_function()).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 1
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f.cos()
+            cos(x*y)
+            sage: cos(f)  # equivalent to f.cos()
+            cos(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().cos()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.cos(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def sin(self):
+        r"""
+        Sine of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\sin(f)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.sin()
+            sin(x*y)
+            sage: sin(f)  # equivalent to f.sin()
+            sin(x*y)
+            sage: sin(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ sin(x*y)
+            sage: sin(X.zero_function()) == X.zero_function()
+            True
+            sage: f = X.function(2-cos(x)^2+y)
+            sage: g = X.function(-sin(x)^2+y)
+            sage: (f+g).simplify()
+            2*y + 1
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.sin()
+            sin(x*y)
+            sage: sin(f)  # equivalent to f.sin()
+            sin(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().sin()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.sin(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def tan(self):
+        r"""
+        Tangent of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\tan(f)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.tan()
+            sin(x*y)/cos(x*y)
+            sage: tan(f)  # equivalent to f.tan()
+            sin(x*y)/cos(x*y)
+            sage: tan(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ sin(x*y)/cos(x*y)
+            sage: tan(X.zero_function()) == X.zero_function()
+            True
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: M.set_calculus_method('sympy')
+            sage: g = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: g.tan()
+            tan(x*y)
+            sage: tan(g)  # equivalent to g.tan()
+            tan(x*y)
+            sage: tan(g).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ tan(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().tan()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.tan(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def arccos(self):
+        r"""
+        Arc cosine of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\arccos(f)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.arccos()
+            arccos(x*y)
+            sage: arccos(f)  # equivalent to f.arccos()
+            arccos(x*y)
+            sage: acos(f)  # equivalent to f.arccos()
+            arccos(x*y)
+            sage: arccos(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ arccos(x*y)
+            sage: arccos(X.zero_function()).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 1/2*pi
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: M.set_calculus_method('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.arccos()
+            acos(x*y)
+            sage: arccos(f)  # equivalent to f.arccos()
+            acos(x*y)
+            sage: acos(f)  # equivalent to f.arccos()
+            acos(x*y)
+            sage: arccos(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ acos(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().arccos()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.acos(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def arcsin(self):
+        r"""
+        Arc sine of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\arcsin(f)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.arcsin()
+            arcsin(x*y)
+            sage: arcsin(f)  # equivalent to f.arcsin()
+            arcsin(x*y)
+            sage: asin(f)  # equivalent to f.arcsin()
+            arcsin(x*y)
+            sage: arcsin(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ arcsin(x*y)
+            sage: arcsin(X.zero_function()) == X.zero_function()
+            True
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f.arcsin()
+            asin(x*y)
+            sage: arcsin(f)  # equivalent to f.arcsin()
+            asin(x*y)
+            sage: asin(f)  # equivalent to f.arcsin()
+            asin(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().arcsin()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.asin(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def arctan(self):
+        r"""
+        Arc tangent of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\arctan(f)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.arctan()
+            arctan(x*y)
+            sage: arctan(f)  # equivalent to f.arctan()
+            arctan(x*y)
+            sage: atan(f)  # equivalent to f.arctan()
+            arctan(x*y)
+            sage: arctan(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ arctan(x*y)
+            sage: arctan(X.zero_function()) == X.zero_function()
+            True
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f.arctan()
+            atan(x*y)
+            sage: arctan(f)  # equivalent to f.arctan()
+            atan(x*y)
+            sage: atan(f)  # equivalent to f.arctan()
+            atan(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().arctan()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.atan(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def cosh(self):
+        r"""
+        Hyperbolic cosine of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\cosh(f)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.cosh()
+            cosh(x*y)
+            sage: cosh(f)  # equivalent to f.cosh()
+            cosh(x*y)
+            sage: cosh(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ cosh(x*y)
+            sage: cosh(X.zero_function()).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 1
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f.cosh()
+            cosh(x*y)
+            sage: cosh(f)  # equivalent to f.cosh()
+            cosh(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().cosh()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.cosh(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def sinh(self):
+        r"""
+        Hyperbolic sine of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\sinh(f)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.sinh()
+            sinh(x*y)
+            sage: sinh(f)  # equivalent to f.sinh()
+            sinh(x*y)
+            sage: sinh(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ sinh(x*y)
+            sage: sinh(X.zero_function()) == X.zero_function()
+            True
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f.sinh()
+            sinh(x*y)
+            sage: sinh(f)  # equivalent to f.sinh()
+            sinh(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().sinh()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.sinh(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def tanh(self):
+        r"""
+        Hyperbolic tangent of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\tanh(f)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.tanh()
+            sinh(x*y)/cosh(x*y)
+            sage: tanh(f)  # equivalent to f.tanh()
+            sinh(x*y)/cosh(x*y)
+            sage: tanh(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ sinh(x*y)/cosh(x*y)
+            sage: tanh(X.zero_function()) == X.zero_function()
+            True
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f.tanh()
+            tanh(x*y)
+            sage: tanh(f)  # equivalent to f.tanh()
+            tanh(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().tanh()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.tanh(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def arccosh(self):
+        r"""
+        Inverse hyperbolic cosine of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\mathrm{arccosh}(f)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.arccosh()
+            arccosh(x*y)
+            sage: arccosh(f)  # equivalent to f.arccosh()
+            arccosh(x*y)
+            sage: acosh(f)  # equivalent to f.arccosh()
+            arccosh(x*y)
+            sage: arccosh(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ arccosh(x*y)
+            sage: arccosh(X.function(1)) == X.zero_function()
+            True
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f.arccosh()
+            acosh(x*y)
+            sage: arccosh(f)  # equivalent to f.arccosh()
+            acosh(x*y)
+            sage: acosh(f)  # equivalent to f.arccosh()
+            acosh(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().arccosh()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.acosh(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def arcsinh(self):
+        r"""
+        Inverse hyperbolic sine of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\mathrm{arcsinh}(f)`, where `f` is the current
+          chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.arcsinh()
+            arcsinh(x*y)
+            sage: arcsinh(f)  # equivalent to f.arcsinh()
+            arcsinh(x*y)
+            sage: asinh(f)  # equivalent to f.arcsinh()
+            arcsinh(x*y)
+            sage: arcsinh(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ arcsinh(x*y)
+            sage: arcsinh(X.zero_function()) == X.zero_function()
+            True
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f.arcsinh()
+            asinh(x*y)
+            sage: arcsinh(f)  # equivalent to f.arcsinh()
+            asinh(x*y)
+            sage: asinh(f)  # equivalent to f.arcsinh()
+            asinh(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().arcsinh()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.asinh(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def arctanh(self):
+        r"""
+        Inverse hyperbolic tangent of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\mathrm{arctanh}(f)`, where `f` is the
+          current chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.arctanh()
+            arctanh(x*y)
+            sage: arctanh(f)  # equivalent to f.arctanh()
+            arctanh(x*y)
+            sage: atanh(f)  # equivalent to f.arctanh()
+            arctanh(x*y)
+            sage: arctanh(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ arctanh(x*y)
+            sage: arctanh(X.zero_function()) == X.zero_function()
+            True
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f.arctanh()
+            atanh(x*y)
+            sage: arctanh(f)  # equivalent to f.arctanh()
+            atanh(x*y)
+            sage: atanh(f)  # equivalent to f.arctanh()
+            atanh(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().arctanh()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = sympy.atanh(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def __abs__(self):
+        r"""
+        Absolute value of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - chart function `\mathrm{abs}(f)`, where `f` is the
+          current chart function
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x*y)
+            sage: f.abs()
+            abs(x)*abs(y)
+            sage: abs(f)  # equivalent to f.abs()
+            abs(x)*abs(y)
+            sage: abs(f).display()
+            (x, y) ↦ abs(x)*abs(y)
+            sage: abs(X.zero_function()) == X.zero_function()
+            True
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f.abs()
+            Abs(x*y)
+            sage: abs(f)  # equivalent to f.abs()
+            Abs(x*y)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'SR':
+            val = self.expr().abs()
+        elif curr == 'sympy':
+            val = abs(self.expr())
+        return type(self)(
+            self.parent(),
+            self._simplify(val),
+            expansion_symbol=self._expansion_symbol,
+            order=self._order,
+        )
+
+    def _del_derived(self):
+        r"""
+        Delete the derived quantities.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(cos(x*y))
+            sage: f._der
+            sage: f.diff(x)
+            -y*sin(x*y)
+            sage: f._der
+            [-y*sin(x*y), -x*sin(x*y)]
+            sage: f._del_derived()
+            sage: f._der
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(cos(x*y))
+            sage: f._der
+            sage: f.diff(x)
+            -y*sin(x*y)
+            sage: f._der
+            [-y*sin(x*y), -x*sin(x*y)]
+            sage: type(f._der[0]._express['sympy'])
+            <class 'sympy.core.mul.Mul'>
+            sage: f._del_derived()
+            sage: f._der
+        """
+        self._der = None  # reset of the partial derivatives
+
+    def simplify(self) -> Self:
+        r"""
+        Simplify the coordinate expression of ``self``.
+
+        For details about the employed chain of simplifications for the ``SR``
+        calculus method, see
+        :func:`~sage.manifolds.utilities.simplify_chain_real` for chart
+        functions on real manifolds and
+        :func:`~sage.manifolds.utilities.simplify_chain_generic` for the
+        generic case.
+
+        If ``self`` has been defined with the small parameter
+        ``expansion_symbol`` and some truncation order, the coordinate
+        expression of ``self`` will be expanded in power series of that
+        parameter and truncated to the given order.
+
+        OUTPUT: ``self`` with its coordinate expression simplified
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Simplification of a chart function on a 2-dimensional manifold::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(cos(x)^2 + sin(x)^2 + sqrt(x^2))
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ cos(x)^2 + sin(x)^2 + abs(x)
+            sage: f.simplify()
+            abs(x) + 1
+
+        The method ``simplify()`` has changed the expression of ``f``::
+
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ abs(x) + 1
+
+        Another example::
+
+            sage: f = X.function((x^2-1)/(x+1)); f
+            (x^2 - 1)/(x + 1)
+            sage: f.simplify()
+            x - 1
+
+        Examples taking into account the declared range of a coordinate::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart('x:(1,+oo) y')
+            sage: f = X.function(sqrt(x^2-2*x+1)); f
+            sqrt(x^2 - 2*x + 1)
+            sage: f.simplify()
+            x - 1
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: forget()  # to clear the previous assumption on x
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart('x:(-oo,0) y')
+            sage: f = X.function(sqrt(x^2-2*x+1)); f
+            sqrt(x^2 - 2*x + 1)
+            sage: f.simplify()
+            -x + 1
+
+        The same tests with SymPy::
+
+            sage: forget()  # to clear the previous assumption on x
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart(calc_method='sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(cos(x)^2 + sin(x)^2 + sqrt(x^2)); f
+            sin(x)**2 + cos(x)**2 + Abs(x)
+            sage: f.simplify()
+            Abs(x) + 1
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: f = X.function((x^2-1)/(x+1)); f
+            (x**2 - 1)/(x + 1)
+            sage: f.simplify()
+            x - 1
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart('x:(1,+oo) y', calc_method='sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(sqrt(x^2-2*x+1)); f
+            sqrt(x**2 - 2*x + 1)
+            sage: f.simplify()
+            x - 1
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: forget()  # to clear the previous assumption on x
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart('x:(-oo,0) y', calc_method='sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(sqrt(x^2-2*x+1)); f
+            sqrt(x**2 - 2*x + 1)
+            sage: f.simplify()
+            1 - x
+
+        Power series expansion with respect to a small parameter `t` (at
+        the moment, this is implemented only for the ``SR`` calculus backend,
+        hence the first line below)::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('SR')
+            sage: t = var('t')
+            sage: f = X.function(exp(t*x), expansion_symbol=t, order=3)
+
+        At this stage, `f` is not expanded in power series::
+
+            sage: f
+            e^(t*x)
+
+        Invoking ``simplify()`` triggers the expansion to the given order::
+
+            sage: f.simplify()
+            1/6*t^3*x^3 + 1/2*t^2*x^2 + t*x + 1
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 1/6*t^3*x^3 + 1/2*t^2*x^2 + t*x + 1
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        self._express[curr] = self._simplify(self.expr(curr))
+        self._del_derived()
+        return self
+
+    def factor(self) -> Self:
+        r"""
+        Factorize the coordinate expression of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT: ``self`` with its expression factorized
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Factorization of a 2-dimensional chart function::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x^2 + 2*x*y + y^2)
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x^2 + 2*x*y + y^2
+            sage: f.factor()
+            (x + y)^2
+
+        The method ``factor()`` has changed the expression of ``f``::
+
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ (x + y)^2
+
+        The same test with SymPy ::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: g = X.function(x^2 + 2*x*y + y^2)
+            sage: g.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x**2 + 2*x*y + y**2
+            sage: g.factor()
+            (x + y)**2
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        self._express[curr] = self.expr().factor()
+        self._del_derived()
+        return self
+
+    def expand(self) -> Self:
+        r"""
+        Expand the coordinate expression of ``self``.
+
+        OUTPUT: ``self`` with its expression expanded
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Expanding a 2-dimensional chart function::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function((x - y)^2)
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ (x - y)^2
+            sage: f.expand()
+            x^2 - 2*x*y + y^2
+
+        The method ``expand()`` has changed the expression of ``f``::
+
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x^2 - 2*x*y + y^2
+
+        The same test with SymPy ::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: g = X.function((x - y)^2)
+            sage: g.expand()
+            x**2 - 2*x*y + y**2
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        self._express[curr] = self.expr().expand()
+        self._del_derived()
+        return self
+
+    def collect(self, s) -> Self:
+        r"""
+        Collect the coefficients of `s` in the expression of ``self``
+        into a group.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``s`` -- the symbol whose coefficients will be collected
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` with the coefficients of ``s`` grouped in
+          its expression
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Action on a 2-dimensional chart function::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x^2*y + x*y + (x*y)^2)
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x^2*y^2 + x^2*y + x*y
+            sage: f.collect(y)
+            x^2*y^2 + (x^2 + x)*y
+
+        The method ``collect()`` has changed the expression of ``f``::
+
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x^2*y^2 + (x^2 + x)*y
+
+        The same test with SymPy ::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: f = X.function(x^2*y + x*y + (x*y)^2)
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x**2*y**2 + x**2*y + x*y
+            sage: f.collect(y)
+            x**2*y**2 + y*(x**2 + x)
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        self._express[curr] = self.expr().collect(s)
+        self._del_derived()
+        return self
+
+    def collect_common_factors(self) -> Self:
+        r"""
+        Collect common factors in the expression of ``self``.
+
+        This method does not perform a full factorization but only looks
+        for factors which are already explicitly present.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` with the common factors collected in
+          its expression
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Action on a 2-dimensional chart function::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.function(x/(x^2*y + x*y))
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x/(x^2*y + x*y)
+            sage: f.collect_common_factors()
+            1/((x + 1)*y)
+
+        The method ``collect_common_factors()`` has changed the expression
+        of ``f``::
+
+            sage: f.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ 1/((x + 1)*y)
+
+        The same test with SymPy::
+
+            sage: X.calculus_method().set('sympy')
+            sage: g = X.function(x/(x^2*y + x*y))
+            sage: g.display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x/(x**2*y + x*y)
+            sage: g.collect_common_factors()
+            1/(y*(x + 1))
+        """
+        curr = self._calc_method._current
+        if curr == 'sympy':
+            self._express[curr] = self.expr().simplify()
+        else:
+            self._express[curr] = self.expr().collect_common_factors()
+        self._del_derived()
+        return self
+
+
+class ChartFunctionRing(Parent, UniqueRepresentation):
+    """
+    Ring of all chart functions on a chart.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``chart`` -- a coordinate chart, as an instance of class
+      :class:`~sage.manifolds.chart.Chart`
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    The ring of all chart functions w.r.t. to a chart::
+
+        sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+        sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+        sage: FR = X.function_ring(); FR
+        Ring of chart functions on Chart (M, (x, y))
+        sage: type(FR)
+        <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category'>
+        sage: FR.category()
+        Category of commutative algebras over Symbolic Ring
+
+    Coercions by means of restrictions are implemented::
+
+        sage: FR_X = X.function_ring()
+        sage: D = M.open_subset('D')
+        sage: X_D = X.restrict(D, x^2+y^2<1)  # open disk
+        sage: FR_X_D = X_D.function_ring()
+        sage: FR_X_D.has_coerce_map_from(FR_X)
+        True
+
+    But only if the charts are compatible::
+
+        sage: Y.<t,z> = D.chart()
+        sage: FR_Y = Y.function_ring()
+        sage: FR_Y.has_coerce_map_from(FR_X)
+        False
+    """
+
+    Element = ChartFunction
+
+    def __init__(self, chart):
+        """
+        Initialize ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: FR = X.function_ring()
+            sage: TestSuite(FR).run()
+        """
+        self._chart = chart
+        Parent.__init__(self, base=SR, category=CommutativeAlgebras(SR))
+
+    def _element_constructor_(self, expression, calc_method=None):
+        r"""
+        Construct a chart function.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``expression`` -- Expression
+        - ``calc_method`` -- Calculation method (default: ``None``)
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: FR = X.function_ring()
+            sage: f = FR._element_constructor_(sin(x*y))
+            sage: f
+            sin(x*y)
+            sage: f.parent() is FR
+            True
+            sage: D = M.open_subset('D')
+            sage: X_D = X.restrict(D, x^2+y^2<1)
+            sage: FR_D = X_D.function_ring()
+            sage: FR_D(f)
+            sin(x*y)
+        """
+        if isinstance(expression, ChartFunction):
+            if self._chart in expression._chart._subcharts:
+                expression = expression.expr(method=calc_method)
+        return self.element_class(self, expression, calc_method=calc_method)
+
+    def _coerce_map_from_(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Determine whether coercion to ``self`` exists from ``other``.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: FR = X.function_ring()
+            sage: FR.has_coerce_map_from(RR)
+            True
+            sage: D = M.open_subset('D')
+            sage: X_D = X.restrict(D, x^2+y^2<1)
+            sage: FR_D = X_D.function_ring()
+            sage: FR_D.has_coerce_map_from(FR)
+            True
+        """
+        if SR.has_coerce_map_from(other):
+            return True
+        if isinstance(other, ChartFunctionRing):
+            if self._chart in other._chart._subcharts:
+                return True
+        return False
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a string representation of ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: X.function_ring()
+            Ring of chart functions on Chart (M, (x, y))
+        """
+        return "Ring of chart functions on {}".format(self._chart)
+
+    def is_integral_domain(self, proof=True):
+        """
+        Return ``False`` as ``self`` is not an integral domain.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: FR = X.function_ring()
+            sage: FR.is_integral_domain()
+            False
+            sage: FR.is_field()
+            False
+        """
+        return False
+
+    @cached_method
+    def zero(self):
+        """
+        Return the constant function `0` in ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: FR = X.function_ring()
+            sage: FR.zero()
+            0
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.padics
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological', field=Qp(5))
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: X.function_ring().zero()
+            0
+        """
+        if self._chart.manifold().base_field_type() in ['real', 'complex']:
+            elt = SR.zero()
+        else:
+            elt = self._chart.manifold().base_field().zero()
+        res = self.element_class(self, elt)
+        res.set_immutable()
+        return res
+
+    @cached_method
+    def one(self):
+        """
+        Return the constant function `1` in ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: FR = X.function_ring()
+            sage: FR.one()
+            1
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.padics
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological', field=Qp(5))
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: X.function_ring().one()
+            1 + O(5^20)
+        """
+        if self._chart.manifold().base_field_type() in ['real', 'complex']:
+            elt = SR.one()
+        else:
+            elt = self._chart.manifold().base_field().one()
+        res = self.element_class(self, elt)
+        res.set_immutable()
+        return res
+
+    is_field = is_integral_domain
+
+
+class MultiCoordFunction(SageObject, Mutability):
+    r"""
+    Coordinate function to some Cartesian power of the base field.
+
+    If `n` and `m` are two positive integers and `(U, \varphi)` is a chart on
+    a topological manifold `M` of dimension `n` over a topological field `K`,
+    a *multi-coordinate function* associated to `(U, \varphi)` is a map
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        \begin{array}{llcl}
+        f:& V \subset K^n & \longrightarrow & K^m \\
+          & (x^1, \ldots, x^n) & \longmapsto & (f_1(x^1, \ldots, x^n),
+            \ldots, f_m(x^1, \ldots, x^n)),
+        \end{array}
+
+    where `V` is the codomain of `\varphi`. In other words, `f` is a
+    `K^m`-valued function of the coordinates associated to the chart
+    `(U, \varphi)`. Each component `f_i` (`1 \leq i \leq m`) is a coordinate
+    function and is therefore stored as a
+    :class:`~sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunction`.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``chart`` -- the chart `(U, \varphi)`
+    - ``expressions`` -- list (or tuple) of length `m` of elements to
+      construct the coordinate functions `f_i` (`1 \leq i \leq m`); for
+      symbolic coordinate functions, this must be symbolic expressions
+      involving the chart coordinates, while for numerical coordinate
+      functions, this must be data file names
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    A function `f: V \subset \RR^2 \longrightarrow \RR^3`::
+
+        sage: forget()  # to clear the previous assumption on x
+        sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+        sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+        sage: f = X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, cos(x)*exp(y)); f
+        Coordinate functions (x - y, x*y, cos(x)*e^y) on the Chart (M, (x, y))
+        sage: type(f)
+        <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.MultiCoordFunction'>
+        sage: f(x,y)
+        (x - y, x*y, cos(x)*e^y)
+        sage: latex(f)
+        \left(x - y, x y, \cos\left(x\right) e^{y}\right)
+
+    Each real-valued function `f_i` (`1 \leq i \leq m`) composing `f` can
+    be accessed via the square-bracket operator, by providing `i-1` as an
+    argument::
+
+        sage: f[0]
+        x - y
+        sage: f[1]
+        x*y
+        sage: f[2]
+        cos(x)*e^y
+
+    We can give a more verbose explanation of each function::
+
+        sage: f[0].display()
+        (x, y) ↦ x - y
+
+    Each ``f[i-1]`` is an instance of
+    :class:`~sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunction`::
+
+        sage: isinstance(f[0], sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunction)
+        True
+
+    A class :class:`MultiCoordFunction` can represent a
+    real-valued function (case `m = 1`), although one should
+    rather employ the class :class:`~sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunction`
+    for this purpose::
+
+        sage: g = X.multifunction(x*y^2)
+        sage: g(x,y)
+        (x*y^2,)
+
+    Evaluating the functions at specified coordinates::
+
+        sage: f(1,2)
+        (-1, 2, cos(1)*e^2)
+        sage: var('a b')
+        (a, b)
+        sage: f(a,b)
+        (a - b, a*b, cos(a)*e^b)
+        sage: g(1,2)
+        (4,)
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, chart, expressions):
+        r"""
+        Initialize ``self``.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x+y+z, x*y*z); f
+            Coordinate functions (x + y + z, x*y*z) on the Chart (M, (x, y, z))
+            sage: type(f)
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.MultiCoordFunction'>
+            sage: TestSuite(f).run()
+        """
+        self._chart = chart
+        self._nc = len(self._chart._xx)  # number of coordinates
+        self._nf = len(expressions)  # number of functions
+        self._functions = tuple(chart.function(express) for express in expressions)
+        Mutability.__init__(self)
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        r"""
+        String representation of ``self``.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, cos(x)*exp(y))
+            sage: f._repr_()
+            'Coordinate functions (x - y, x*y, cos(x)*e^y) on the Chart (M, (x, y))'
+            sage: f
+            Coordinate functions (x - y, x*y, cos(x)*e^y) on the Chart (M, (x, y))
+        """
+        return "Coordinate functions {} on the {}".format(self._functions, self._chart)
+
+    def _latex_(self):
+        r"""
+        LaTeX representation of the object.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, cos(x)*exp(y))
+            sage: f._latex_()
+            \left(x - y, x y, \cos\left(x\right) e^{y}\right)
+            sage: latex(f)
+            \left(x - y, x y, \cos\left(x\right) e^{y}\right)
+        """
+        from sage.misc.latex import latex
+
+        return latex(self._functions)
+
+    def expr(self, method=None):
+        r"""
+        Return a tuple of data, the item no. `i` being sufficient to
+        reconstruct the coordinate function no. `i`.
+
+        In other words, if ``f`` is a multi-coordinate function, then
+        ``f.chart().multifunction(*(f.expr()))`` results in a
+        multi-coordinate function identical to ``f``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``method`` -- string (default: ``None``); the calculus method which
+          the returned expressions belong to. One of
+
+          - ``'SR'``: Sage's default symbolic engine (Symbolic Ring)
+          - ``'sympy'``: SymPy
+          - ``None``: the chart current calculus method is assumed
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - a tuple of the symbolic expressions of the chart functions
+          composing ``self``
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, cos(x)*exp(y))
+            sage: f.expr()
+            (x - y, x*y, cos(x)*e^y)
+            sage: type(f.expr()[0])
+            <class 'sage.symbolic.expression.Expression'>
+
+        A SymPy output::
+
+            sage: f.expr('sympy')
+            (x - y, x*y, exp(y)*cos(x))
+            sage: type(f.expr('sympy')[0])
+            <class 'sympy.core.add.Add'>
+
+        One shall always have::
+
+            sage: f.chart().multifunction(*(f.expr())) == f
+            True
+        """
+        return tuple(func.expr(method=method) for func in self._functions)
+
+    def chart(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the chart with respect to which ``self`` is defined.
+
+        OUTPUT: a :class:`~sage.manifolds.chart.Chart`
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, cos(x)*exp(y))
+            sage: f.chart()
+            Chart (M, (x, y))
+            sage: f.chart() is X
+            True
+        """
+        return self._chart
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Comparison (equality) operator.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a :class:`MultiCoordFunction`
+
+        OUTPUT: ``True`` if ``self`` is equal to ``other``, ``False`` otherwise
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, cos(x*y))
+            sage: f == X.multifunction(x-y, x*y)
+            False
+            sage: f == X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, 2)
+            False
+            sage: f == X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, cos(y*x))
+            True
+            sage: Y.<u,v> = M.chart()
+            sage: f == Y.multifunction(u-v, u*v, cos(u*v))
+            False
+        """
+        if other is self:
+            return True
+        if not isinstance(other, MultiCoordFunction):
+            return False
+        if other._chart != self._chart:
+            return False
+        if other._nf != self._nf:
+            return False
+        return all(other._functions[i] == self._functions[i] for i in range(self._nf))
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Inequality operator.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a :class:`MultiCoordFunction`
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - ``True`` if ``self`` is different from ``other``, ``False``
+          otherwise
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, cos(x*y))
+            sage: f != X.multifunction(x-y, x*y)
+            True
+            sage: f != X.multifunction(x, y, 2)
+            True
+            sage: f != X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, cos(x*y))
+            False
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    def __getitem__(self, index):
+        r"""
+        Return a specified function of the set represented by ``self``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``index`` -- index `i` of the function (`0 \leq i \leq m-1`)
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        -- a :class:`ChartFunction` representing the function
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, cos(x*y))
+            sage: f.__getitem__(0)
+            x - y
+            sage: f.__getitem__(1)
+            x*y
+            sage: f.__getitem__(2)
+            cos(x*y)
+            sage: f[0], f[1], f[2]
+            (x - y, x*y, cos(x*y))
+        """
+        return self._functions[index]
+
+    def __call__(self, *coords, **options):
+        r"""
+        Compute the values of the functions at specified coordinates.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``*coords`` -- list of coordinates where the functions are
+          to be evaluated
+        - ``**options`` -- allows to pass some options, e.g.,
+          ``simplify=False`` to disable simplification for symbolic
+          coordinate functions
+
+        OUTPUT: tuple containing the values of the `m` functions
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, cos(x*y))
+            sage: f.__call__(2,3)
+            (-1, 6, cos(6))
+            sage: f(2,3)
+            (-1, 6, cos(6))
+            sage: f.__call__(x,y)
+            (x - y, x*y, cos(x*y))
+        """
+        return tuple(func(*coords, **options) for func in self._functions)
+
+    @cached_method
+    def jacobian(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the Jacobian matrix of the system of coordinate functions.
+
+        ``jacobian()`` is a 2-dimensional array of size `m \times n`,
+        where `m` is the number of functions and `n` the number of
+        coordinates, the generic element being
+        `J_{ij} = \frac{\partial f_i}{\partial x^j}` with `1 \leq i \leq m`
+        (row index) and `1 \leq j \leq n` (column index).
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - Jacobian matrix as a 2-dimensional array ``J`` of
+          coordinate functions with ``J[i-1][j-1]`` being
+          `J_{ij} = \frac{\partial f_i}{\partial x^j}`
+          for `1 \leq i \leq m` and `1 \leq j \leq n`
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Jacobian of a set of 3 functions of 2 coordinates::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, y^3*cos(x))
+            sage: f.jacobian()
+            [           1           -1]
+            [           y            x]
+            [ -y^3*sin(x) 3*y^2*cos(x)]
+
+        Each element of the result is a
+        :class:`chart function <ChartFunction>`::
+
+            sage: type(f.jacobian()[2,0])
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+            sage: f.jacobian()[2,0].display()
+            (x, y) ↦ -y^3*sin(x)
+
+        Test of the computation::
+
+            sage: [[f.jacobian()[i,j] == f[i].diff(j) for j in range(2)] for i in range(3)]
+            [[True, True], [True, True], [True, True]]
+
+        Test with ``start_index = 1``::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological', start_index=1)
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x-y, x*y, y^3*cos(x))
+            sage: f.jacobian()
+            [           1           -1]
+            [           y            x]
+            [ -y^3*sin(x) 3*y^2*cos(x)]
+            sage: [[f.jacobian()[i,j] == f[i].diff(j+1) for j in range(2)]  # note the j+1
+            ....:                                         for i in range(3)]
+            [[True, True], [True, True], [True, True]]
+        """
+        from sage.matrix.constructor import matrix
+
+        mat = matrix(
+            [[func.diff(coord) for coord in self._chart[:]] for func in self._functions]
+        )
+        mat.set_immutable()
+        return mat
+
+    @cached_method
+    def jacobian_det(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the Jacobian determinant of the system of functions.
+
+        The number `m` of coordinate functions must equal the number `n`
+        of coordinates.
+
+        OUTPUT: a :class:`ChartFunction` representing the determinant
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Jacobian determinant of a set of 2 functions of 2 coordinates::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(2, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x-y, x*y)
+            sage: f.jacobian_det()
+            x + y
+
+        The output of :meth:`jacobian_det` is an instance of
+        :class:`ChartFunction` and can therefore be called on specific
+        values of the coordinates, e.g. `(x,y) = (1,2)`::
+
+            sage: type(f.jacobian_det())
+            <class 'sage.manifolds.chart_func.ChartFunctionRing_with_category.element_class'>
+            sage: f.jacobian_det().display()
+            (x, y) ↦ x + y
+            sage: f.jacobian_det()(1,2)
+            3
+
+        The result is cached::
+
+            sage: f.jacobian_det() is f.jacobian_det()
+            True
+
+        We verify the determinant of the Jacobian::
+
+            sage: f.jacobian_det() == det(matrix([[f[i].diff(j).expr() for j in range(2)]
+            ....:                                 for i in range(2)]))
+            True
+
+        An example using SymPy::
+
+            sage: M.set_calculus_method('sympy')
+            sage: g = X.multifunction(x*y^3, e^x)
+            sage: g.jacobian_det()
+            -3*x*y**2*exp(x)
+            sage: type(g.jacobian_det().expr())
+            <class 'sympy.core.mul.Mul'>
+
+        Jacobian determinant of a set of 3 functions of 3 coordinates::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x*y+z^2, z^2*x+y^2*z, (x*y*z)^3)
+            sage: f.jacobian_det().display()
+            (x, y, z) ↦ 6*x^3*y^5*z^3 - 3*x^4*y^3*z^4 - 12*x^2*y^4*z^5 + 6*x^3*y^2*z^6
+
+        We verify the determinant of the Jacobian::
+
+            sage: f.jacobian_det() == det(matrix([[f[i].diff(j).expr() for j in range(3)]
+            ....:                                 for i in range(3)]))
+            True
+        """
+        from sage.matrix.constructor import matrix
+
+        if self._nf != self._nc:
+            raise ValueError("the Jacobian matrix is not a square matrix")
+        mat = self.jacobian()
+        # TODO: do the computation without the 'SR' enforcement
+        mat_expr = matrix(
+            [
+                [mat[i, j].expr(method='SR') for i in range(self._nc)]
+                for j in range(self._nc)
+            ]
+        )
+        det = mat_expr.det()  # the unsimplified determinant
+        func = self._functions[0]
+        return type(func)(
+            func.parent(),
+            func._calc_method.simplify(det, method='SR'),
+            calc_method=self._chart._calc_method._current,
+        )
+
+    def set_immutable(self):
+        r"""
+        Set ``self`` and all chart functions of ``self`` immutable.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Declare a coordinate function immutable::
+
+            sage: M = Manifold(3, 'M', structure='topological')
+            sage: X.<x,y,z> = M.chart()
+            sage: f = X.multifunction(x+y+z, x*y*z)
+            sage: f.is_immutable()
+            False
+            sage: f.set_immutable()
+            sage: f.is_immutable()
+            True
+
+        The chart functions are now immutable, too::
+
+            sage: f[0].parent()
+            Ring of chart functions on Chart (M, (x, y, z))
+            sage: f[0].is_immutable()
+            True
+        """
+        for func in self._functions:
+            func.set_immutable()
+        Mutability.set_immutable(self)