studium 0.10.1

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/the_c_programming_language

@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === The C programming language
+#
+# Everything about the C programming language will be stored here.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- In C: um über <one>printf()</one> einen <three>Pointer</three> auszugeben verwenden wir was genau? <one>%p</one>. []
+- In C: wie können wir mittels <one>printf()</one> eine <three>Zeichenkette</three> ausgeben? Mittels <one>"%s"</one>. []
+- In C: would the following syntax be valid? <one>*pointer = 5;</one>? A: Yes.
+- In C: what is meant with a <one>nullpointer</one> and how may the syntax for this be used? This is, for example, <one>int *pointer = NULL;</one>
+- In C: nenne ein Beispiel für eine <one>Mehrfachzuweisung</one>. A: <one>a = b = c = d = 0;</one> []
+- In C: was gibt <one>a = 5; b = 7; a < b</one> zurück? <one>1</one>, somit <two>wahr</two>. 0 würde falsch bedeuten. []
+- In C: we can set variables to use <one>register</one>, such as in "register int x". When should we use register variables? The register should only <one>be used for variables that require quick access</one>, such as <one>counters</one>.
+- Sind <one>Präprozessorkonstanten</one> Konstanten in C? Nein. []
+- In C: if we have an integer variable called <one>a</one> and a double variable called <two>b</two>, and we then use <three>int sum = a+b</three> - what would the variable <three>sum</three> then hold? It would hold <one>a double</one>. []
+- Name <one>two pre-defined constants</one> that are used in C. A: (1) <one>__FILE__</one> (2) <one>__LINE__</one> []
+- In C: what is <one>the default storage class for all local variables</one>? <two>auto</two>, as in, "int mount" being the same as <one>auto int month</one>.
+- In C: um einen <one>long</one> Wert auszugeben, variable <two>foo</two>, mittels <three>printf()</three>, verwenden wir ... ? <one>printf("%ld\n", foo);</one>
+- In C: how to define <one>an Array of characters</one>, called <two>foobar</two> for 10 elements? <one>char foobar[10];</one>
+- In C: nenne zwei besondere Operatoren, die bei Strukturen (also <one>structs</one>) verwendet werden mögen. A: (1) Der <one>Punktoperator</one> <two>.</two> (2) Der <one>Pfeiloperator</one> <two>-></two> []
+- In C: nenne drei qualifiers für den Typ <one>int</one>. A: (1) <one>short</one> (2) <one>long</one> (3) <one>unsigned</one>
+- In C: die <one>Datentypen einer Struktur</one> heißen ... ? <one>Members</one>. []
+- In C können wir <one>a</one>/<one>b</one> und "a%b" verwenden. Was ist der Unterschied? (1) <one>a</one>/<one>b</one>: <two>Division ohne Rest</two> (2) <one>a%b</one>: <two>Divisionsrest</two>
+- In C: how can the length of the string <one>foobar</one> be determined? Use <one>strlen(foobar);</one>. []
+- In C: can <one>structures</one> be nested? Yes. []
+- In C haben alle Operatoren etwas gemein - was ist dies? Sie <one>haben immer einen Rückgabewert</one>. []
+- In C: can the <one>main() function</one> be void rather than int? Yes. []
+- Wieviele Schritte hat ein Algorithmus? <one>Endlich viele Schritte</one>. []
+- In C: can we <one>define a function within a struct</one>? No.
+- In C: der <one>Platzhalter für Strings</one> in <two>printf()</two> ist ... ? <one>%s</one>.
+- In C: zeige wie wir einen String anlegen, genannt <one>foobar</one>. A: <one>char foobar[] = "Hello World";</one>
+- In C: <one>how many arithmetic operators</one> can be used on <two>pointers</two>? <one>Four</one>: <two>++</two>, <two>--</two>, <two>+</two>, and <two>-</two>. []
+- In C: zeige ein Beispiel für einen <one>Cast-Operator</one>. A: <one>(double)</one> []
+- In C: wie deklarieren wir <one>"\n"</one> als eine gut benannte Konstante? Mittels: <one>const char NEWLINE = '\n';</one>.
+- In C: werden <one>Arrays</one> als <three>call by value</three> oder als <three>call by reference</three> übergeben? Als <one>call by reference</one>. []
+- In C, a <one>storage class</one> defines the scope - the visibility - and the life-time of variables and/or functions within a given C Program. These storage classes <three>precede</three> the type that they modify. There are four different storage classes available in C. Name them in the correct alphabetical order. A: (A,E,R,S) (1) "auto" (2) "extern (3) <one>register</one> (4) <one>static</one>
+- What is <one>C's basic philosophy</one>? <one>Programmers know what they are doing</one>. []
+- In C: die Konstante <one>EOF</one> ist in welcher header Datei definiert? In <one>stdio.h</one>. []
+- Name the four basic data types in C. A: (1) <one>char</one> (2) <one>double</one> (3) <one>float</one> (4) <one>int</one> []
+- In the programming language C there are which two different ways to <one>define floating point numbers</one>? (1) via <one>float</one> (2) via <one>double</one> []
+- Does C have <one>__FILE__</one>? Yes. []
+- In C: show syntax for <one>a function pointer</one> to an int. A: <one>void (*foo)(int);</one>
+- In C: which pointer can point to anyone or anything? <one>void* pointers</one>.
+- In C: if we wish to put a variable into another file and then load/make use of this, how is this to be done? We will use the keyword <one>extern</one>, such as in: <one>extern int a;</one>
+- In C: ist dies erlaubte Syntax? <one>int _foo = 5;</one>? A: Ja. []
+- In C: es gibt <one>signed long int</one> sowie <one>unsigned long int</one>. Wie kann man sich das einfach merken? Das Wort <one>signed</one> respektive <one>unsigned</one> bezieht sich auf das <two>-</two> Symbol. Mit anderen Worten: signed long int bezieht sich auf die minimale Zahl <one>-2147483648</one>, wohingegen sich unsigned long int als minimale Zahl <one>0</one> hat. []
+- If we see <one>3.14159</one> in C, how do we call this? This is a <one>floating-point literal</one>.
+- What is the most important function in a C program? <one>main()</one>.
+- Wo werden in einem C Programm typischerweise <one>globale Variablen</one> definiert? Meistens zu Beginn, <two>vor</two> der Funktion <one>main()</one>.
+- In C: darf der Operator <one>&</one> vor dem Variablennamen in scanf() weggelassen werden wenn es sich um eine <three>Zeichenketten</three> handelt? Ja. Beispiel: <one>scanf("%s", text);</one> []
+- Was meinen wir, in C, mit einer "Deklaration"? Dies ist <one>das Anlegen einer Variable</one>.
+- A <one>pointer</one> in C points to ... ? The <one>memory location</one> of another variable.
+- If we have a minimal function in C such as <one>dummy() {}</one>, what is its return type? <one>int</one>. []
+- In C: name a general operator that begins with the letter <one>B</one>. A: The <one>Bitwise Operator</one>. []
+- What is meant with this: <one>warning: implicit declaration of function</one>, in C code? This means that a function is used for which the compiler has not yet seen a declaration, aka <one>a prototype</one>.
+- In C: the name <one>malloc</one> stands for ... ? <one>Memory allocation</one>. []
+- Was ist typischerweise <one>die erste, nicht-Kommentar Zeile in einem C Programm</one>? <one>#include <stdio.h></one> []
+- In C, we can not apply the unary <one>&</one> operator to <two>register</two> variables, such as "register int foobar". Why not? Because <one>register-variables do not have a memory location</one>. They are stored in the register rather than in RAM. []
+- In C: if we wish to <one>read and store into a double</one>, say the <three>variable x</three>, which code-component could be used for this? <one>scanf("%lf", &x);</one> []
+- May any function in C be called recursively? Yes. []
+- In C: gegeben sei <one>call by value</one> sowie <one>call by reference</one>. Welche der beiden ändert Daten auch außerhalb der Funktion? Nur die <one>call by reference</one> Variante. []
+- In C: wenn wir einen <one>int</one> beziehungsweise ein <one>double</one> einlesen möchten, welchen Platzhalter verwenden wir hierbei jeweils für <two>scanf()</two>? (1) <one>int</one>:    <two>"%d"</two> (2) <one>double</one>: <two>"%f"</two> []
+- In general, in the C programming language: what is meant with <one>unsigned integers</one>? These are whole numbers which can only be positive. []
+- In C: is the following syntax valid? <one>int x = 22;</one>? A: Yes. []
+- In C: what does the symbol <one>&</one> do? It <one>yields the address of an object.</one> []
+- Ist folgende Syntax gültig, in C? <one>printf("char: %d\n", sizeof(char));</one>? A: Ja. []
+- In C: <one>getchar</one> ist eigentlich eine Kurzform von ... ? <one>scanf("%c", &zeichen)</one>
+- Was sollten wir machen wenn wir, in C, den Fehler <one>implicit declaration of function strncmp</one> erhalten? A: Füge <one>#include <string.h></one> hinzu. []
+- In C: bei <one>printf()</one>, der Platzhalter eines <three>unsigned int</three> lautet ... ? <one>%u</one>.
+- Nenne eine <one>trigonometrische Funktionen</one> in der Programmiersprache C, aus dem Modul Math. A: <one>sin</one>. []
+- Benenne in der Programmiersprache C ein konkretes Beispiel für die <one>Deklaration und Initialisierung</one> in einer Zeile. A: <one>int x = 0;</one> []
+- Was meinen wir, in C, mit <one>Type Casting</one>? Wenn vor der Ausführung beide Variablen auf denselben Datentyp gebracht werden.
+- In der Programmiersprache C: <one>#include <header></one>, schaut nach welchem Verzeichnis zuerst? In /<one>usr</one>/<one>include</one>/. []
+- In C: wie lesen wir Werte über die Tastatur ein? Mit Hilfe der Funktion <one>scanf()</one>. []
+- In der Programmiersprache C: wann wird der Preprocessor gestartet, wenn wir ein .c Programm kompilieren möchten? <one>Bevor</one> der source code kompiliert wird.
+- Welche Funktion wird in der C Programmiersprache verwendet um den Absolutbetrag einer Zahl anzugeben? <one>fabs()</one>; genauer <two>double fabs(double x);</two>. URL: https://www.techonthenet.com/c_language/standard_library_functions/math_h/fabs.php []
+- In Ruby können wir eine Iteration zum nächsten Element skippen, mittels <one>next</one>. Wie geht das entsprechende Konstrukt hierzu in C? <one>continue;</one>. []
+- In C: how to initialize an Array with values? <one>int array[5] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };</one>
+- In C: <one>malloc()</one> is defined in which header? In <one><stdlib.h></one>.
+- In C: when we wish to use <one>printf()</one>, and we have an integer variable called x, which format specifier are we to use? "%d", as in: <one>printf("value of area: %d", i);</one> []
+- In C: wo befinden sich die Funktionen <one>isalpha(c)</one> sowie <one>isalnum(c)</one>? Im <one>ctype.h</one> header.
+- In C: what does <one>printf()</one> itself return? The <one>number of characters printed</one>.
+- In C: rechtsbündige Formatierung einer <one>int</one> Variablen über printf() geht über ... ? <one>%*d</one>.
+- In C: which value is used for <one>true</one> and <one>false</one>? (1) <two>true</two>  is <one>1</one> (2) <two>false</two> is <one>0</one> []
+- In C: which header defines constants such as <one>SIGABRT</one>, <one>SIGKILL</one> or <one>SIGINT</one>? <one>signal.h</one>. []
+- In C: was meinen wir mit einer lokalen Variable? Dies ist eine Variable, die innerhalb einer Funktion definiert wurde.
+- Sind in der Programmiersprache C <one>Deklaration und Initialisierung</one> einer Variable auch in einer Zeile möglich? Ja, zum Beispiel <one>int x = 0;</one>. []
+- In C können wir <one>call-by-reference über pointer</one> realisieren. Dabei müssen wir auch die Symbole * sowie & verwenden. Wo jeweils? * verwendet man zum Beispiel bei <one>void foobar(int* y) {</one>, während man beim Aufruf dann & verwendet, wie eben in <two>foobar(&x);</two>.
+- In C: for using printf() with <one>sizeof(int)</one>, what format identifier should be used? <one>"%zu"</one>, such as in <two>printf("%zu\n", sizeof(int));</two>
+- In C: der Platzhalter bei <three>scanf()</three> für <one>int</one> ist ... ? <one>%d</one>. []
+- In C: kann mehr als eine <one>main()</one> Funktion existieren? Nein.
+- In C: ist <one>double x[3] = {1,2,3};</one> valide Syntax? Ja. []
+- In C: how do we call a number that looks like <one>0213</one>? This is an <one>octal number</one>. []
+- In C: wie lesen wir einzelne Zeichen ein? Via <one>getchar()</one>. []
+- Give a specific example in C for a <one>rvalue</one>. A: <one>10 = 20;</one> - this would be an invalid statement, and would generate a compile-time error.
+- In C: when using <one>scanf()</one>, which two characters do we typically have to use? <one>%</one> and then <one>&</one> such as in <two>scanf("%d",&x)</two>. []
+- Nenne ein keyword in C das mit dem Buchstaben <one>g</one> beginnt. A: <one>goto</one>. []
+- In C: nenne ein allgemeines Beispiel für <one>Include Guard</one>. A: <one>#ifndef NAME; #define NAME</one> []
+- In C: wir können eine Variable definieren, wie zum Beispiel über <one>int var;</one>. Zeige wie ein Pointer auf diese Variable, genannt ptr, dargestellt wird. A: <one>int* ptr = &var;</one> 
+- Erfordert <one>C99</one> <two>int main() {</two>? Ja; früher ging es auch ohne <one>int</one>. []
+- In C: would this code print out the text <one>Foobar</one>? <one>if (0) { printf("Foobar"); }</one>? No. []
+- On linux, any program that uses the <one>read() function</one> must include which header? <one>unistd.h</one>
+- In C: die Funktionen der <three>math standard library</three> sind <one>int</one> oder <one>double</one>? <one>double</one>. []
+- Is "\t" a <one>valid character literal</one> in the programming language C? Yes. []
+- Ist C eine <one>imperative Programmiersprache</one>? Ja. []
+- In C: how can we do <one>commandline-comparisons</one>, syntax-wise? Via <one>if (!strcmp(argv[1], "--autotest")) {</one>.
+- In C: ein besserer Begriff für <one>statische Arrays</one> wäre ... ? <one>Fixed-length Arrays</one>.
+- Beim <one>Testen</one> möchten wir was finden? <one>Fehler</one>. []
+- In C: for the <one>printf()</one> function, what does <three>%6d</three> mean? Print as <one>a decimal number</one>; at the least 6 characters wide.
+- In C: für <one>Gleitkommazahlen</one> sollten wir welchen Datentyp verwenden? <one>double</one>. []
+- In C: wie geht eine <one>Endlosschleife</one>? <one>while (1) {</one>
+- In C: wie beenden wir eine <one>#if</one> Anweisung? Mittels <one>#endif</one>. []
+- Nenne ein konkretes Beispiel, das den Unterschied zwischen dem <one>C89-Standard</one> und dem <one>C99-Standard</one> betont. A: <one>main() {}</one> versus <one>int main() {}</one>
+- In C: ist folgende Syntax valid? <one>#include<stdio.h></one>? A: Ja. []
+- In C: was ist quasi die Umkehrung der <one>Präprozessoranweisung</one> <three>#ifdef</three>? <one>#ifndef</one>.
+- In C: what is the use case for the keyword <one>static</one>? The <one>static</one> modifier instructs the compiler to keep a local variable in existence during the life-time of the program, rather than creating and destroying it each time it comes into and goes out of scope. This thus allows us to use local variables between function calls. Example: "static int count = 5; /* global variable */"
+- Ab wann können wir sagen das eine Funktion <one>rekursiv</one> ist? Wenn sie sich selber aufruft. []
+- In C: how to define the two boolean values <one>true</one> and <one>false</one>? <one>typedef enum {true, false} bool;</one>
+- In C: how to read in, as <three>user input</three>, an integer variable named <one>x</one>? <one>scanf("%d", &x);</one>
+- In C: how to exit from a <one>for-loop</one> early? Via <one>break;</one> []
+- In C: how to display an <one>error</one>? <one>fprintf(stderr, "error here");</one>
+- Was meinen wir mit einem <one>atomaren Berechnungsschritt</one>? Dies ist einer der nicht in kleinere Teilanweisungen zerlegt werden können.
+- In C: how do we call a number that looks like <one>0x4b</one>? This is a <one>hexadecimal number</one>. []
+- In C: was bedeutet die Rückgabe von 0? Das <one>kein Fehler aufgetreten ist</one>.
+- In C: nach der <one>Deklaration</one> einer neuen Variable sollte sofort was erfolgen? Die <one>Initialisierung</one> dieser Variablen. Beispiel: <two>int x = 0;</two>
+- In C: is <one>float mark[5];</one> a valid Array? Yes it is. []
+- How to output a value of a float, in C? 'printf("%.2f", float_goes_in_here);'
+- Name 3 ways how to round in the C programming language. A: (1) round (2) floor (3) ceil

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/the_cellcycle

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === THE_CELLCYCLE
+#
+# Cellcycle tag. Cellc tag. Cell cycle tag.
+# Alles über den Zellzyklus kommt hier rein.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Warum der Name <one>Cycline</one>? Da sich die Menge an Cyclinen während des Zellzyklus verändert.
+- Wer hat die <one>Cycline</one> entdeckt? <one>Tim Hunt</one>. URL: https://history.archives.mbl.edu/exploring/exhibits/cyclins-mbl/narrative/tim-hunt-and-his-discovery-cyclin
+- Consider that we would like to inhibit the <one>eukaryotic nuclear DNA replication</one>. Name a substance from a fungus that can block the cell cycle at an early S phase. A: <one>Aphidicolin</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidicolin 
+- The <one>retinoblastoma-protein pRB</one> is normally inactivated in which phase of the cell cycle? During the <one>G1-phase</one>.
+- Was benutzen wir allgemein um die <one>S-Phase</one> nachzuweisen? <one>BrdU</one> (<two>Bromodesoxyuridin</two>) sowie <one>monoklonale Antikörper</one>.
+- Wenn wir die <one>S-Phase</one> nachweisen möchten: welches modifizierte Nukleotid mögen wir hier verwenden? <one>BrdU</one>: <two>Bromodeoxyuridine</two>.
+- Wenn wir die G1 und G2 Phasen des Zellzyklus miteinander vergleichen: welche davon ist (maximal betrachtet) länger? Die G1-Phase. Die G2-Phase dauert nur zwischen 2-4 Stunden; die G1-Phase hingegen zwischen 2-20 Stunden.
+- How do we call the end-part of mitosis? <one>Mitotic exit</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitotic_exit
+- Welche Entscheidung trifft die Zelle am <one>Restriktionspunkt</one>? Ob sie einen erneuten Zellzyklus durchlaufen soll oder in eine Ruhephase eintritt.
+- Zum Nachweis der <one>S-Phase</one> beötigt man oft welches <two>modifizierte Nukleotid</two>? <one>BrdU</one>: <mediumseagreen>Bromodeoxyuridin</mediumseagreen>
+- Do cells return to the previous cell-cycle-stage once they start "<u>anaphase</u>"? No, never. It is <one>an irreversible decision</one>.
+- In welcher <one>Zellzyklus-Phase</one> wird das eukaryote Protein "Geminin" produziert? In der <one>S-Phase</one>.
+- The <one>karyotype</one> shows which phase of the cell cycle? <one>Mitosis</one>.
+- The process of mitotic spindle reorganization and central spindle formation is caused by the decline of ... which CDK activity during anaphase? <one>CDK1 aktivity</one>.
+- Rapamycin treatment arrests cells in which phase of the cell cycle? In the <one>G1 phase</one>.
+- p15 hat welchen Effekt auf den Zellzyklus einer Zelle? p15 hemmt den Zellzyklus einer Zelle. Es ist ein Tumor-Suppressorgen. URL: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02885957
+- P15 beeinflusst den Zellzyklus normalerweise wie? P15 hemmt normalerweise den Zellzyklus. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDKN2B
+- Die <violet>Interphase</violet> besteht aus welchen Phasen? (1) <one>G1-Phase</one> (2) <one>S-Phase</one> (3) <one>G2-Phase</one>
+- A. W. für "Wachstumsfaktoren", die den Zellzyklus fördern. A: "<ud>Mitogene</ud>".
+- Genes that encode elements of the "signal transduction pathways" are typically ... ? Proto-oncogenes. URL: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00690421
+- Die Genomverdopplung einer durchschnittlichen Säugetierzelle beträgt ... ? 8 Stunden.
+- Im Zuge des Zellzyklus, wo findet man "Replication Factors" vor allem? Oft in Präparationen der Kern-Matrix.
+- E2F stimuliert die Transkription von welchem Cyclin? "Cyclin E".
+- Welche Rolle spielt die "E2F-Familie" im Zellzyklus? Beim G1/S-Übergang ist E2F sehr wichtig.
+- Nenne die beiden "CDK-I Familien" (cdk-Inhibitoren). A: (1) "INK4-Familie" (2) "CIP/KIP-Familie"
+- Welcher Komplex (cdk-Komplex) kontrolliert die Mitose? CDK1 + Cyclin B.
+- Wie werden Cycline abgebaut? Über den "ubiquitinabhängigen Weg".
+- Das menschliche Genom hat n CDK-Gene? 4; und zwar CDK1, CDK2, CDK4, CDK6.
+- Cyclin D wacht über welchen checkpoint? Den "G1/S-Restriktionspunkt".
+- Wo genau kann p53 den Zellzyklus aufhalten? In der späten G1-Phase.
+- Give an example for a "mitotic cyclin". A: Cyclin B.
+- Die Effektorkinase CDK1 ist mit welchem Cyclin assoziiert? Cyclin D.
+- Welche CDK startet die Mitose? CDK1.
+- The "Cycline-E-CDK2 complex" forms between which two stages of the cell cycle? G1/S.
+- Cyclin A und Cyclin B have what characteristic area at their amino terminus? They have "destruction boxes".
+- CENP-F ist typisch für welche Zellzyklus-phase? G2 (und auch die Prophase).
+- Why was the term "cyclin" chosen? Because the concentration of this "regulatory protein" rises and falls in a predictable pattern, with each cell cycle.
+- What name has been given to the stage of the cell cycle where each chromosome is composed of two chromatids? G2.
+- Nenne die "Phasen der Mitose". A: (1) Prophase (2) Prometaphase (3) Metaphase (4) Anaphase (5) Telophase
+- Which protein induces the assembly o the mitotic spindle? The protein kinase M-Cdk.
+- APC/C, wofür steht das 2. C? Für "cyclosome".
+- The activation of which complex triggers the "metaphase to anaphase transition"? The APC, the "anaphase promoting complex".
+- Name a dye that is used for "cell cycle analysis". A: Propoidium-Iodide.
+- Effect of caffeine on cell cycle? Caffeine overrides the cell cycle checkpoint control and creates MUGs ("Mitosis with unreplicated genomes").
+- The START phase in yeast occurs when exactly in the cell cycle? Near the end of the G1 phase.
+- Name 2 roles of the cyclin protein in vertebrate cells. A: (1) activate its Gdk partner (2) direct it to specific target proteins
+- Vertebrate cells have n Cdks? 4.
+- Die Mitose wurd durch den MPF-Faktor eingeleitet. Dieser Faktor besteht aus welchen 2 Komponenten? (1) Cyclin B (2) CDK 1
+- Wodurch ist die G2-Phase gekennzeichnet? 3 Punkte nennen. A: DNA-Kontrollmechanismen, Reparatur oder Apoptose.
+- CyclinB/CDK1 kann welches Histon phosphorylieren? Histon H1.
+- Nenne einen berühmten CDK-Inhibitor. A: p21
+- Das Rb-Protein inaktiviert (durch Bindung) normalerweise welchen Transkriptionsfaktor? E2F.
+- Mit welcher CDK ("cyclin-abhängiger Proteinkinase") interagiert Cyclin D? Mit CDK4.
+- Nenne das wichtigste G1 Cyclin. A: Cyclin D.
+- How can the RB proteins control the G1/S checkpoint? It binds to EGF and keeps it inactive.
+- The spindle-assembly checkpoint delays the onset of which stage? It delays the onset of the Anaphase.
+- Es gibt den G1/S Checkpoint im Zellzyklus. Wann wird dieser Checkpoint aktiv? Gegen Ende von G1.
+- Wenn das zelluläre Rb Protein phosphoryliert ist, was passiert dann mit dieser Zelle? Normalerweise inhibiert Rb den Transkriptionsfaktor E2F. Durch die Phosphorylierung kann es dies jedoch nicht mehr tun, und somit kann E2F aktiv werden. Die Zelle wird dadurch wieder im Zellzyklus aktiv.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/the_european_union

@@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === The EU Tag
+#
+# Inkludiert Fragen über die EU.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- What is <one>the main purpose of the EMU</one> (<two>Economic and Monetary Union</two>)? Its main purpose is to help bring stability and sustainable economic growth to Europe.
+- Ist der Europarat ("Council of Europe") ein Organ der EU? Nein.
+- Wer aller ist ein "EU Unionsbürger"? Unionsbürger ist, wer die Staatsangehörigkeit eines EU Mitgliedstaats besitzt.
+- Nenne zwei "Grundfreiheiten des EU-Binnenmarktes". A: (1) "Arbeitnehmerfreizügigkeit" (2) "Niederlassungsfreiheit"
+- Welche 3 Mitglieder hat das "institutional triangle" der EU? (1) Europäische Kommission (2) Rat der Europäischen Union (3) Europäisches Parlament
+- Nenne eine "ausschließliche Zuständigkeit" der EU. A: Die "Zollunion".
+- Wann wurde der "Vertrag von Lissabon" beschlosen? Im Jahr "2007".
+- Österreich ist praktisch zeitgleich mit welchen zwei anderen europäischen Ländern der EU beigetreten? (1) "Finnland" (2) "Schweden"
+- Welche 3 Institutionen teilen sich die Rechtsetzungsgewalt in der EU? (1) die Europäische Kommission (2) das Europäische Parlament (3) der "Rat der Europäischen Union"
+- The "European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control", the ECDC, resides in which city? It resides in "Stockholm".
+- Which is the only body in the EU that has the "right of initiative"? The EU Commission, which makes it the motor of "European Union law".
+- The "EU judicial system" consists of 2 levels. Name the higher level. A: The "Court of Justice" (Europäischer Gerichtshof).
+- How many people live in the EU? 503 million people.
+- What are the four main political parties of the EU? (1) European Peoples Party (2) Socialists and Democrats S&D (3) Alliance of Liberals ALDE (4) The Greens European Greens-EFA
+- The Roman Empire, in the year 117 AD, had how many people? 70 million people were living in the Roman Empire.
+- Macedonia wants to join the EU. How many people live in Macedonia? 2 million people.
+- What are "the four freedoms" in the EU Single Market? (1) people (2) goods (3) services (4) money - all four of these can move around freely
+- The EU has a "qualified majority vote". How many people in the EU are meant with that? At the least 65% of the population of the EU.
+- The EU Single Market has which 4 important "aspects", that can "move around freely"? (1) people (2) goods (3) services (4) money
+- In 1993, the Copenhagen criteria for further enlargement of the EU was established. Name the three major points for a candidate state who wants to join. A: (1) The candidate must have "stable institutions guaranteeing democracy", such as the rule of law, human rights and respect for minorities. (2) It must have a "functioning market economy". (3) It take on board all the "acquis" and support the various aims of the European Union.
+- "Agricultural productivity" in the EU has dramatically gone up. While in the 1960s, 40% of the population worked in farming, it is now only ... %? 3%.
+- The nominal GDP per capita of Romania for 2015 n % of the average of the EU? 30%.
+- Austria pays n billion Euro per year to the EU? 2.8 billion Euro.
+- Define the key tasks of the European Central Bank. A: Implement the monetary policy for the Eurozone.
+- In Europe, the EEC (the European Economic Community) was renamed to ... ? The "European Community" (EC).
+- Name 3 structural problems of the EU. A: (1) high taxes (2) aging society (3) excessive bureaucracies
+- What were the 3 "major imperial powers" in the nineteenth century? (1) England (2) France (3) Spain
+- Name 3 major weakness of the EU. A: (1) lack of financial coordination among the member states at the EU level (2) high immigration, but "lack of common asylum policy" (3) lack of a "common foreign policy", e. g. Syria
+- The ECB, the "European Central Bank", was established in what year? In 1998.
+- Which task does the European Ombudsman have? His position is to "bring the EU closer to its citizens".
+- Name 3 strengths of the European Union. A: (1) largest economic region in the world (2) the best education system in the world (3) sustainable development
+- Warum gibt es seit einigen Jahren in der EU ein verstärktes Interesse an "biologischen Schädlingsbekämpfungsmitteln"? Da die Pflanzenschutzmittelverordnungen immer restriktiver werden.
+- The EU "common agricultural policy" (CAP), originally had which 4 original goals? (1) achieve a fair standard of living for the farming community (2) stabilise the markets (3) supply the consumers at reasonable prices (4) modernise farming infrastructure
+- How much of the EU budget goes into research, via the "Research Policy"? About 5% of the EU budget. This is hoped to "increase competition".
+- Name 3 EU solidarity policies. A: (1) Regional Aid (2) CAP: Common Agricultural Policy (3) CFP: Common Fisheries Policy
+- Name three important "European Union Agencies". A: (1) EMEA: European Medicines Agency (2) EFSA: European Food Safety Authority (3) EASA: European Aviation Safety Agency
+- The two biggest political parties in the European Parliament are ... A: (1) EPP (2) S&D
+- Wofür steht die Abkürzung "Europol"? European Police Office.
+- Name 3 "Maastricht Criteria". A: (1) deficit of state budget limited to 3% (2) national debt limited to 60% of GDP (3) "sanctions" for deviation up to 0,2% of GDP; this would be 700 million EUR for Austria 
+- How do we call the criteria for a country joining the Eurozone? Maastricht Criteria.
+- In the EU, what means the acronym "GMES"? Global Monitoring for "environmental security".
+- What is the "annual budget of the European Union", at the least during the period from 2014-2020? 137 billion Euro.
+- Name 2 EU symbols. A: (1) The "European flag" (2) The "European anthem"
+- How much percent of its "primary energy does the EU currently, in 2017 at the least, import? About 54%.
+- The "EU single market" allows any person of an EU country to work in any area in the European Union. But is there any limitation here? Yes. Activities covered by the prerogative of public authorities, such as "the armed forces", are exempt from this.
+- The "EU ETS" what does the ETS stand for? This is the "Emissions Trading System" in the EU.
+- Community research activities in the EU, give 3 examples for these. A: (1) Euratom (2) GEOSS aks "Global Earth Observation System" (3) GMES aka "Global Monitoring for Environmental Security"
+- How much percent of the fish stocks in EU waters are currently overfished? 80%.
+- The EU transfers funds from rich to poorer countries. How many Euros per year? About 30 billion Euros per year.
+- The 3 core elements of the EU Lisbon Agenda aiming at sustainable development are. A: (1) Economic Growth (2) Social Equilibrium (3) Environmental Quality
+- The EU has a "EU budget". How much percentage of it comes from direct contribution of its member states? About 70% of the EU budget comes from the member states directly.
+- The "Eurozone" has how many member states, in 2017? 18.
+- Name two major societal challenges that the EU wishes to address via its Innovation Policies. A: (1) climate change (2) sustainable transport
+- When was "Euratom" founded? In 1957. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Atomic_Energy_Community
+- What is the "unit price" for a single "Eurofighter Typhoon", in Euro? About 90 million Euro.
+- What means "EU acquis"? When a candidate joins the EU, it means "taking the EU as you find it". Candidate countries have to accept the acquis before they can join the EU.
+- How many members does the European Commission have, in 2017? 28 - one for each member state.
+- In the EU, what means the "SET Plan"? A "Strategic Energy Technology" Plan. URL: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/technology-and-innovation/strategic-energy-technology-plan
+- What is the primary objective of the ECB? To "keep inflation low".
+- Give some kind of fancy abbreviation for "The European Anti-Fraud Office". A: OLAF.
+- How many "member states" does the EU have? 28 in the year 2017; soon 27 without the UK.
+- As of 2017, how many members does the EU have? 28 (EU-28), but soon 27, without the UK. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union
+- Name the candidates for membership in the EU in the year 2017. A: (1) Macedonia (2) Montenegro (3) Turkey
+- Total membership in the EP ("European Parliament"), as number, in 2017? 751.
+- How does the EU govern the "Council Presidency"? It is executed by each Member State, which will rotate every six months.
+- Allgemein formuliert, wer leitet den europäischen Rat? Der "Ratspräsident".
+- What does the DOHA-Agenda mandate? That Europe and the USA are pushed to "open their markets for agricultural products".
+- What is the "Highest-level policy-making body" in the European Union? The European Council.
+- What is the body in the EU that "represents the citizens" and that exercises political supervision over EU activities? The European Parliament (EP).
+- What is the "European Banking Union", essentially? This is an "European supervision system for banks".
+- In 2013, which country joined the EU? Croatia.
+- In the Budet of the European Union, what was the biggest expenditure from between 2007 and 2013? Sustainable Growth.
+- Wann wurde das "Schengen Agreement" verabschiedet? 1985.
+- Is the UK part of "The Schengen Area"? No.
+- When did Greece join the "European Community"? In 1981.
+- In 2017, who was the "president of the European Parliament"? Antonio Tajani. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_European_Parliament
+- How many years need to pass before the EU Parliament can be elected again? 5 years.
+- When did the "first enlargement of the EU" happen? In 1973, from six to nine members.
+- The "EU slogan for the future" says that ... ? The key to the future is "innovation".
+- What means "ECSC" (which was created in the year 1950)? European coal and Steel Community.
+- What is the "Schumann Day", when is it? 9th May. It is the "official holiday of the EU".
+- Warum ist "Robert Schuman" historisch wichtig? 1950 hat er eine historische Erklärung für die Neukonstruktion Europas verkündet, beginnend mit der Montanunion.
+- Wie oft tritt der "europäische Rat" zusammen? Alle sechs Monate, also "halbjährlich", für einige Tage.
+- What is the highest court of the European Union? The "European Court of Justice" (ECJ) is the highest court.
+- What is the primary objective of the ECB? Is to "keep inflation low".
+- In der EU bei den 3 Pillars, wie unterscheiden sich die Wahlmöglichkeiten? Pillar 1 and Pillar 3 must take its decision by a "qualified majority", Pillar 2 unanimously.
+- Wofür steht "EAD" (bei EU)? Europäischer Auswärtiger Dienst.
+- What are the 3 main legislative acts of the EU? (1) Regulations (2) Directives (3) Decisions
+- Name three items of the Lisbon Treaty. A: (1) Possibility of a member state to "leave the Union" (2) Creation of a European prosecution attorney (3) A legally binding Charter of Fundamental Rights guaranteeing the freedoms and rights of European citizens.
+- The overall GDP in EUR is about ... billion Euros? It is about 12.500 billion Euros.
+- What are the "three pillars", its main three policy areas, of the EU? (1) The Community domain (2) The common foreign and security policy (3) The police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters
+- There are three pillars in the EU. Which one is the weakest and why? The second pillar is the weakest one, as it can be veto-blocked by any single country.
+- What is the "official motto of the European Union"? United in Diversity.
+- Name 5 parties of the European Parliament. A: (1) Social Democrats (2) Green / Regionalists (3) Liberal / Centrists (ALDE) (4) Christian Democrats (Conservatives) (5) Conservatives only (ECR)
+- Was ist die Aufgabe des "European Ombudsman"? Seine Rolle ist die Untersuchung von Beschwerden (complaints) gegen EU Institutionen und Einrichtungen.
+- The EU fined Intel for 1.06 Billion Euros, for abuse of dominant market position. When did this fine happen? May 2009.
+- Name 4 goals for the EU energy policy. A: (1) increase competition (2) encourage investment (3) diversify energy resources (4) establish a new treaty framework
+- Was heisst "ECOFIN"? Council of Economic and Finance Ministers. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_and_Financial_Affairs_Council
+- 1957, with the Treaties of Rome, two new institutions were created. Which ones? Euroatom and the EEC ("European Economic Community").
+- Wieviel kostet jeden EU Bürger die europäische Union im Jahr? 270 Euro pro Jahr.
+- Name an operation from "Eunavfor". A: Atalanta.
+- How do we call the meetings of the European council with the President of the European Council and the President of the European Commission? EU summits.
+- What Treaty created the EU, and when? The Maastricht Treaty, 1993.
+- Which charter was created in the Treaty of Lisboa 2007? The Charter of Fundamental Rights.
+- What does the EU Acquis include? All the EU treaties, laws, declarations and resolutions and international agreements on EU affairs.
+- Which were the six founding countries of the EU? Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, BeNeLux (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg).
+- Name 3 mission of Europe in the 21th century. A: (1) provide peace and prosperity (2) promote sustainable development (3) overcome the divisions of the continent
+- Which 2 courts can we find in the EU judicial system? (1) The Court of First Instance (2) Court of Justice
+- What is the EU RAPEX? This is the EU rapid alert system ("rapid exchange service"). It facilitates rapid exchange of information between Member States and the Commission on measures taken to prevent the marketing of products posing a serious risk to health and safety of consumers (except for food, pharmaceutical and medical devices, which are covered elsewhere).
+- How many people live in the EU? 500 Million People.
+- What is the motto of the EU? "United in Diversity".
+- In the EU, economy, what means the acronym "CDS"? Credit default swap. 
+- When was the "ECTS system" introduced? 1989, mostly as a pilot project as part of ERASMUS.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/the_interferon_system

@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === The Interferon system
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Welche Zellen bilden <one>Gamma-Interferon</one>? Aktivierte T-Zellen und <one>natürliche Killerzellen</one>.
+- Das <one>Interferon-Beta Enhanceosom</one> zieht mindestens zwei Komplexe heran. Welche? A: Den "Swi-SNF remodeling complex" sowie die <one>GCN5 Histon Acetyl-Transferase</one>
+- How is <one>Interferon synthesis</one> induced? It is induced in response to the <one>presence of double-stranded RNA</one>.
+- <one>Which cytokine</one>, an interferon, is NOT produced by viral infection? <one>IFN-Gamma</one>.
+- Welches Interferon wird zur Behandlung von septischer Granulomatose eingesetzt? <cadetblue>IFN-Gamma</cadetblue>. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18991804
+- Interferon Gamma is secreted by which cells? By "Th1 T-cells".
+- Interferon Gamma activates which cells? <orange>Macrophages</orange>.
+- <orange>Interferon alpha</orange> and <orange>interferon beta</orange> will lead to the production of which type of proteins? Antiviral intracellular proteins.
+- Plasmacytoid dendritic cells also secrete large amounts of ... which Interferon type? "Type I interferons".
+- Humans have at the least how many members of "type I interferons"? At the least 5 (e. g. IFN-Alpha, IFN-Beta and so forth).
+- Why the name "Interferon"? Because it "interferes with viral replication".
+- Wieviele Subtypen von "Alpha-Interferon" sind bekannt? 16.
+- How many major groups of Interferon exist? 3 - "alpha", "beta" and "gamma".
+- Which Interferon is produced last during a viral infection? "IFN-Gamma".
+- Name 4 side-effects of antiviral therapy through interferon. A: (1) fever (2) tiredness (3) muscle pains (4) sickness
+- The Interferon receptor is coupled to ...? Janus family tyrosine kinases.
+- Wann wurde Interferon entdeckt? 1957.
+- Wie viele Interferongruppen existieren? 3.
+- When is the human Beta-Interferon gene transcribed? When a viral infection occurs.
+- In welchen Zellen wird vor allem "Beta-Interferon" gebildet? In Fibroblasten.
+- What can you say about the structure of Interferon I and Interferon II? IFN 1 is a monomer, IFN 2 is a homodimer.
+- Name an "interferon-inducible protein". A: "Mx". URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3973384/
+- Mice that lack the gene for "Mx" show what phenomenon? They are "highly susceptible to infection with the influenza virus".
+- Which TLR induces the synthesis of IFN-Alpha and IFN-Beta? "TLR-3". URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TLR3
+- The "Interferon receptor" is coupled to ... ? A "Janus-family kinase".
+- Name a very "short-named protein" that is induced by Interferon. A: "Mx". URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MX1
+- Give another name for the "interferon-producing cells". A: "Plasmacytoid dendritic cells". URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmacytoid_dendritic_cell
+- Name a serine-threonine kinase that is activated by "IFN-alpha" and "IFN-beta". A: The "PKR kinase".

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/the_microbiome

@@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === The Microbiome
+#
+# This file collects exam-relevant information about the human
+# microbiome.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Give an example as to why we may conclude that colonization occurs <one>post-birth</one> in humans. A: The <one>early meconium harbors no detectable bacteria</one>. This is a very strong indicator.
+- Name one significantly increased species in the <one>Parkinson's disease</one>. A: <one>Akkermansia muciniphila</one>.
+- The small lectin-like protein <one>ZG16</one> aggregates bacteria and by that works together with the inner colon mucus layer to maintain bacteria at a safe distance from the epithelial cell surface. What does ZG stand for, here? <one>Zymogen granulae protein</one>.
+- Name something that can be considered key to mucosal barrier protection and homeostasis. A: <one>Anti-flagellin antibodies</one>.
+- The <one>microbiome</one> may produce <lime>SCFAs</lime>, through <one>microbial fermentation</one>. What is meant with this abbreviation? This refers to <one>short-chain fatty acids</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-chain_fatty_acid
+- What are <one>macrobiota</one>? For example, commensals or parasites, <one>helminths</one>, <one>mites</one>.
+- <one>Chronic ethanol consumption</one> in alcoholics results in alterations to the microbiota. We can see a decrease in <lightseagreen>Bacteroidetes</lightseagreen> and an increase in ... which bacterium? <one>Proteobacteria</one>.
+- GAL ist <one>3-O-β-D-galactose</one>. GAL kann in das Cytoplasma aufgenommen werden über <lightseagreen>MFS Proteine</lightseagreen>. Wofür steht hier die Abkürzung MFS? <one>Major facilitator superfamily</one>.
+- <one>Segmented filamentous bacteria</one>, at the least in the mouse gut area, can be broadly divided into which two parts, when we look at such a bacterium? (1) <one>undifferentiated filament</one> (2) <one>differentiating  filament</one>
+- What is meant with the term <one>pathobiont</one>? A pathobiont is a microbe that colonizes a healthy host, and which can contribute to or <one>elicite disease</one> under certain conditions, such as in a genetically susceptible host.
+- <lightseagreen>SFB colonization</lightseagreen> (<one>Segmented Filamentous Bacterium</one>) confers protection from infection by ..., for example ? <one>Citrobacter rodentium</one>.
+- <one>Segmented filamentous bacteria</one> tend to have ... what kind of offspring? <one>Intracellular offspring</one>, which are eventually released at one end.
+- Does <one>Immunoglobulin A</one> regulate the composition of the microbiota? Yes.
+- <one>SCFAs</one> serve as energy sources for epithelial cells and also support barrier function via ... factors. A: <one>Hypoxia-inducible factors</one>.
+- The <one>human gut is a bioreactor</one> with a microbiota that typically encompasses hundreds or thousands of bacterial taxa, which predominantly belong to ... which two phyla? (1) <one>Bacteroidetes</one> (2) <one>Firmicutes</one>
+- Are <one>environmental microbes</one> part of the <lightseagreen>holobiont</lightseagreen>? No.
+- <one>Activation of PRRs</one>, such as TLRs and the NOD-like receptors NOD1 and NOD2, is directly coupled to the production of ... ? <one>Antimicrobial peptides</one>.
+- Name three different <one>diseases</one> in which an altered microbiota may play a role in. A: (1) <one>Obesity</one> (2) Type 1 and 2 diabetes (3) <one>Cancer</one>
+- Is <one>obesity</one> associated with reduced diversity of the gut microbiota? Yes.
+- <one>Intestinal epithelial cells</one> of germ-free mice have a low level of methylation on the gene that encodes ... ? The <one>lipopolysaccharide sensor</one> <springgreen>TLR4</springgreen>.
+- Is <one>spore-forming</one> a viable strategy in regards to the human gut microbiota? Yes.
+- In the gut, <one>sulfur amino acids</one> (methionine, cystine, cysteine, and taurine) are fermented or respired to ... ? <one>H2S</one>.
+- Why can it be said, in general, that <one>alcoholics</one> face a greater risk for bacterial infections? Because the <one>intestinal permeability is increased</one> in at the least a subset of alcoholics, thus increasing the risk for bacterial translocation.
+- The <one>gut microbiota</one> carries a large diversity of (multimodular) so-called <lightseagreen>CAZymes</lightseagreen>. What is this abbreviation? This is <one>carbohydrate-active enzymes</one>.
+- In the mucus layer of the human gut, we can see a complex mixture of proteins, dominated by heavily .... <one>mucin glycoproteins</one>, that are modified how? They are <one>heavily O-glycosylated</one>.
+- Is the <one>enterotype</one> a useful predictor of disease development in the human gut? <one>No</one>.
+- Andere Bezeichnung für den Begriff <one>Holobiont</one>? <one>Superorganismus</one>.
+- Does <one>the skin microbiota</one> utilize nutrients from sweat? Yes; it can collect <one>proteins</one> and <one>lipids</one> from sweat.
+- <one>Ecological niches</one> in the gut are defined by ... ? The <one>available nutrients</one>.
+- Name a substance that is produced in the human gut that is not an enzyme, but still <one>may destabilize the mucin structure</one>. A: <one>Sulfide</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfide
+- Does a <one>gut-microbiome-brain axis</one> exist? Sort of; mental diseases, such as <one>depression</one>, may be associated with the gut microbiota.
+- In regards to the human microbiome: one major question is what the <one>core</one> is. What is meant with the <one>core</one> in this regard? This refers to the question as to whether there is a subset of the community that is <one>shared among most humans</one>.
+- In regards to <one>non-pathogenic microorganisms in the human gut</one>: can they normally harm the human host, despite being localized and non-pathogenic? Yes - for example, <one>via the metabolites they produce</one>.
+- In a healthy human subject, which is <one>the most abundant genus in the gut</one>? <one>Bacteroides</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroides
+- In regards to the human microbiome: what is meant with the term <one>dysbiosis</one>? Dysbiosis refers to an ill-defined state of the intestinal microbial community, which is usually associated with <one>numerous human diseases</one>.
+- <one>Acetogenic anaerobes</one> versus <one>non-acetogenic anaerobes</one>: who of these two comprise most of the microbiota? The <one>non-acetogenic anaerobes</one>.
+- <one>Germ-free mice</one> versus <one>conventional mice</one>: who of these two live longer? <one>Germ-free mice</one>.
+- Essentially, the <one>Toll-like receptors</one> and the <one>nucleotide-binding oligomerization receptors</one> constitute ... what kind of system? A <one>surveillance system</one>.
+- <one>Bilophila wadsworthia</one> ferments and respires ... which substance in the human gut? A: <one>Taurine</one>.
+- The <one>small lectin-like protein ZG16</one> is very important for the human gut. What happens if there is no Zg16? More bacteria will, ultimately, <one>penetrate through the gut epithelium into the human host</one>.
+- The microbiome is <one>context-dependent</one>. Give an example that demonstrates this statement. A: The <springgreen>gut microbiome</springgreen> of <one>a healthy pregnant woman</one> in the third trimester resembles the microbiome of <one>a metabolic syndrome patient</one>.
+- Some <one>Helicobacter pylori strains</one> express a protein called ..., which is injected directly into the cytoplasm of host cells and modulates b-catenin to drive gastric cancer. A: <one>CagA</one>.
+- <one>Mucin glycans</one> are sampled by dendritic cells and promote tolerance, by down-regulating what? <one>NF-kB</one>.
+- <one>Enterotoxigenic B. fragilis</one>, which is enriched in some human colorectal cancers, can stimulate E-cadherin cleavage via <lime>Btf</lime>, leading to ... activation. A: <one>B-catenin activation</one>.
+- What is meant with the term <one>vertical microbiome transmission</one>? This refers to the transmission of the microbiome from the mother at <one>birth</one> to the baby/newborn.
+- In regards to the microbiome: what does the abbreviation <one>SFB</one> stand for? <one>Segmented Filamentous Bacterium</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segmented_filamentous_bacteria
+- The <one>vaginal microflora</one> consist mostly of ... which bacteria group? <one>Lactobacillus species</one>.
+- How will <one>a dietary iron limitation</one> change the butyrate and propionate formation in the human gut? It will <one>decrease the production</one>; under this condition, lactobacilli and proteobacteria are favoured.
+- Are <one>SCFAs</one> important for epithelial human cells? Yes - they serve as <one>energy sources</one> for <mediumseagreen>epithelial cells</mediumseagreen>.
+- The gut microbiome may influence more complex factors such as obesity. How many people were obese in 2014, viewed globally? About <one>600 million people</one>.
+- <one>Bacteroides fragilis</one> boosts the production of IL-10 by Treg cells of the colon via ... from the bacterium's capsule. A: <one>Polysaccharide A</one>.
+- Can <one>bile acids</one> inhibit some microbes in the gut? Yes; but some microbes can modify bile acids - or even use them as substrates.
+- What is the primary job of ZG16 (Zymogen granulae, a lectin-like protein) in the human gut? ZG16 is important for a safe normal host-bacteria symbiosis. It does not kill commensal bacteria, but limits bacterial translocation into the human host.
+- The mucus layer in the human gut is often attacked by sulfide, from the gut bacteria. But how is this sulfide produced? It is <one>produced by amino acid fermentation</one>.
+- If you were to name but one method that has helped the microbiome research the most, which one would that may? Most likely <one>the sequencing techniques</one>, in particular the reduction in sequencing costs experienced over the past years/decade.
+- Do germ-free mice lacking a microbiota have <one>reduced adiposity</one>? Yes.
+- Can the gut microbiome synthesize <one>serotonin</one>? Yes - some species of gut bacteria are capable of doing so.
+- Name <one>a small lectin-like protein</one> that can aggregate bacteria in the human gut, and by that works together with the inner colon mucus layer to maintain bacteria at a safe distance from the epithelial cell surface. A: <one>ZG16</one>.
+- <one>Faecalibacterium prausnitzii</one> promotes the accumulation of IL-10-expressing T cells. It is underrepresented in people with ... ? <one>Inflammatory bowel disease</one>.
+- How does the human microbiome change in regards to diversity, as the individual <one>ages</one>? The <one>diversity will decrease</one>.
+- Does <one>enrichment of a microbe at a tumor site</one> mean that this microbe is directly associated in the disease? No.
+- Gut bacteria can modulate the lifespan in at the least one species. Name that species. A: Gut bacteria can modulate the longevity in <one>C. elegans</one>.
+- Does the <one>human milk</one> influence the infant's perinatal gut microbiome? Yes. Milk increases the diversity and functionality of the infant's perinatal gut microbiome in general.
+- Name a technique which can be used for <one>functional microbiome analysis</one>. A: <one>Stable isotope probing</one>.
+- From the point of view of the microbiome: give another term for the expression <one>Man & Microbes</one>. A: <one>The human holobiont</one>.
+- Do <one>protists</one> belong to the human microbiota? Yes.
+- Name a way how we can <one>deplete</one> the murine gut microbiota. A: We could use <one>an antibiotic cocktail</one>.
+- The gut is also called <one>our second brain</one>. Give a better, more scientific name for this part of the gut. A: The <one>enteric nervous system</one> (<royalblue>ENS</royalblue>). URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system
+- Can the <one>microbiota</one> regulate the trafficking of myeloid cells in the gut? Yes.
+- In regards to the beneficial microbiota: what does the <one>Insurance hypothesis</one> postulate? It postulates that <springgreen>high biodiversity</springgreen> insures the ecosystem against decreases in their functionality, due to <one>high resilience</one>.
+- Is the human gut microbiota <one>highly variable</one> within a single subject? Yes.
+- Can <one>human epithelial cells</one> make use of <lightseagreen>SCFAs</lightseagreen> in order to gain energy? Yes.
+- Name a bacterium from the human gut that <one>reduces anxiety</one> in a vagus nerve-dependent manner. A: <one>Lactobacillus rhamnosus</one>.
+- The <one>Sushi-eating</one> gut bacteria gained new functions ... how? Through <one>Lateral Gene Transfer</one> (<royalblue>LGT</royalblue>).
+- The <one>enteric nervous system</one> (<lightseagreen>ENS</lightseagreen>) (<peru>gut brain</peru>) also produces some neurotransmitters, in particular 95% of the body's ... ? <one>Serotonin</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotonin
+- The human gut may include different Enterotypes. The <one>Prevotella</one> may show an inverse abundance compared to the ... ? <one>Bacteroides</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevotella
+- The human microbiome (metagenome) can be studied through <one>shotgun sequencing</one>. Name one big advantage of this approach. A: Because it is frequently difficult to culture communities of bacteria in the laboratory, sequencing technologies can be used that avoid the requirement to culture every bacterium; which avoids the problem of <one>some bacteria not being culturable in the laboratory</one> due to a variety of reasons.
+- Name one significantly decreased bacterial species in the <one>Parkinson's disease</one>. A: <one>Prevotella copri</one>.
+- The main afferent pathway from the abdominal cavity to the brain, as <one>a nerve</one>, is called ... ? The <one>Vagus nerve</one>.
+- High-affinity <one>secretory IgA</one> response depends on Th17 cells expressing ROR. What does ROR stand for? <one>RAR-related orphan receptor</one>.
+- The <one>skin microbiota</one> educates ... ? The innate and adaptive arms of the <one>cutaneous immune system</one>.
+- The human gut is like a network of co-occurring microorganisms centered around one <one>indicator taxon</one>. Give another name for the <one>indicator taxon</one>. A: <one>Driver taxon</one>.
+- The <one>human microbiome</one> contains about how many different species? This ecosystem has <one>more than 1000 different species</one>.
+- <one>Archaea</one> are present in the human gut. The dominant group are ... ? The <one>methanogens</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanogen
+- Is the <one>gut microbiota</one> stable over time in healthy individuals? Yes.
+- Name a <one>dysbiosis-related diseases</one>, related to the human microbiome. A: The <one>inflammatory bowel disease</one> (<royalblue>IBD</royalblue> - an umbrella term used to describe disorders that involve chronic inflammation of the digestive tract, in humans). URL: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/inflammatory-bowel-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20353315
+- Do <one>rhematoid arthritis patients</one> show altered gut microbiomes? Yes.
+- In an <one>aging individual</one>, in its gut microbiome, there is a general loss of Firmicutes and an increase in B ... ? <one>Bacteroidetes</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroidetes
+- In the microbiome research, the <one>Anna Karenina Principle</one> (AKP) is important. What does this principle state? All happy families are all alike; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.
+- The <one>skin microbiota</one> of a healthy human adult is affected by environmental perturbations. Does it <lightseagreen>remain stable over time</lightseagreen>? Yes.
+- Is the <one>placenta</one> a barrier in regards to microbes? Yes.
+- In regards to the microbiome: what is meant with the slogan <one>strong fences make good neighbors</one>? This refers to the important role of the <one>secreted mucus layer</one>.
+- Why is a <one>compromised mucus layer</one> a problem? Because it <one>may promote inflammation and infection</one>.
+- A <one>compromised mucus layer</one> may promote which two cellular events? (1) <one>inflammation</one> (2) <one>infection</one>
+- Name <one>three general beneficial microbiota functions</one>. A: (1) The microbiota <one>helps break down the food</one> that is taken in (2) The microbiota produces important metabolites for our body, such as <one>vitamins</one> (3) The microbiota <one>help protect us against infections</one>
+- <one>IgA</one> can be secreted into the human gut. Aside from in general binding to epitopes there, which functionality is in particular very important here, in the gut? IgA can bind to flagellin of bacteria; it is thus an <one>anti-flagellin</one> strategy used to <mediumseagreen>combat the motility of bacteria</mediumseagreen>.
+- Mice displaying autism-like behaviors have a significantly altered microbiome. Treatment with <one>Bacteroides</one> ... was able to restore the intestinal permeability defects in a mouse model of Autism spectrum disorder. A: <one>Bacteroides fragilis</one>.
+- Is <one>Western nutrition</one> associated with reduced microbial diversity and functions? Yes.
+- Colonization of the human microbiome <one>begins</one> at ... ? At <one>birth</one>.
+- Do we know of any human gut microbe that can produce the neurotransmitter <one>tryptamine</one>? Yes. Tryptamine can, in these cases, be produced through decarboxylation of tryptophan.
+- <one>Mucin glycans</one> in the human gut are sampled by which cells? By the <one>dendritic cells</one>.
+- Does a <one>healthy microbiome</one> exist? No.
+- Can the gut bacteria modulate longevity in <one>C. elegans</one>? Yes.
+- Does <one>vertical microbiome transmission</one> occur during birth, e. g. transmission from the mother to the newborn child? Yes.
+- During delivery of a baby, newborns are exposed to <one>vaginal microbes</one> such as ... ? <one>Lactobacillus</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactobacillus
+- What are <one>MAMPs</one>? <one>Microbial-associated molecular patterns</one>, such as lipopolysaccharide or flagellin.
+- You are what ... eat. A: <one>your microbes</one> eat.
+- Can we reduce the pathology associated with an increased neuroinflammation such as in <one>Parkinson's disease</one>, through antibiotic treatment? Yes, we can, curiously enough.
+- Can we find <one>Archaea</one> in the human gut? Yes.
+- How do we call the microbiota formed by <one>viruses</one>? This is the <one>virome</one>.
+- The <lightseagreen>gut microbiome</lightseagreen> includes the <one>enteric nervous system</one> (ENS). How many neurons can we find there? About <one>500 million neurons</one>.
+- In regards to the human microbiome: give another name for the term <one>self-regeneration</one>. A: The <one>resilience phenomenon</one>.
+- Give a prominent example of a bacterial species in the human microbiota that is associated with intestinal inflammation, beginning with the letter <one>B</one>. A: <one>Bilophila wadsworthia</one>.
+- The <one>insurance hypothesis</one> states that biodiversity insures ecosystems against decreases in ... ? <one>their functionality</one>. 
+- In general: do typical gut microbes <one>outcompete</one> foreign species that have already colonized the gut? Yes.
+- Does the Microbiome include <one>viruses</one>? Yes.
+- The microbiota found in the human gut can include <one>up to about n different bacterial species</one>, per individual? About <one>400 individual species</one>.
+- Give an example for a <one>pathobiont</one>. A: <one>Helicobacter hepaticus</one>.
+- The <one>enteric nervous system</one> (ENS) produces how many different neurotransmitters? About <one>40</one>.
+- In <one>Freter's nutrient niche model</one> species a abundance is determined by ... how many limiting nutrients? By <one>a single limiting nutrient</one> (<royalblue>n1</royalblue>).
+- Does the development of myeloid-cells change when there is an absence of microbiota? Yes - the <one>myelod-cell development is reduced in the absence of microbiota</one>, leading to a delayed clearance of infections.
+- RS is considered to be <one>a prebiotic</one> that confers health benefits. What does RS stand for here? <one>Resistant starch</one>.
+- Does the human microbiome change in <one>diversity</one> in an aging individual? Yes; it will <one>decrease</one> in general as the individual gets older.
+- Can the <one>microbiome</one> influence the <lightseagreen>blood-brain barrier</lightseagreen> integrity? Yes.
+- Name two common <one>neonatal gut microbes</one> (species). A: (1) <one>Lactobacillus</one> (2) <one>Staphylococcus</one>
+- A <one>dysbiosis</one> in the human gut is bad, but which form of dysbiosis is even worse? A <one>resilient form of dysbiosis</one> is even worse.
+- Can <one>host-associated microbes</one> be acquired from the environment? Yes, most certainly so.
+- Do the <one>mucin glycans</one> in the human gut <lightseagreen>promote tolerance</lightseagreen>? Yes, through the <one>dendritic cells</one> there.
+- Is the human gut an <one>eutrophic enviroment</one>? Yes, of course.
+- Can <one>flagellated bacteria</one> penetrate the large intestinal mucous barrier? Yes.
+- Are <lime>viruses</lime> included in the microbiota? <one>Yes</one>.
+- Say that someone claims that depression may be related to the gut. Why is this a difficult topic? Because this is <one>often studied through animal models</one>, in particular the mouse, which may not necessarily reflect the situation in humans.
+- Name three <one>different skin microenvironments</one>. A: (1) <one>sebaceous or oily</one> (2) <one>moist</one> (3) <one>dry</one>
+- Name two ways how <one>the core gut microbiota</one> can be influenced, in their taxa-composition. A: (1) influenced by <one>major diet shifts</one> (2) influenced by <one>antibiotics</one>
+- Regulatory peptides such as <one>g...</one> influence the control of food intake and regulation of energy balance. A: <one>Ghrelin</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghrelin
+- In regards to the human microbiome: <one>Pathobionts</one> may promote ... which adverse state? They may <one>promote intestinal inflammation</one>.
+- The human gut contains <one>Enterotypes</one> (bacteria). The three big ones start with the letter B, P, F, respectively. Name these. A: (1) Enterotype 1 (B): <one>Bacteroides</one> (2) Enterotype 2 (P): <one>Prevotella</one> (inverse abundance to Bacteroides) (3) Enterotype 3 (F): <one>Firmicutes</one>
+- Which <one>bacteria group</one> has a strong capacity for inducing the accumulation of Treg cells in the colon? <one>Clostridia</one>.
+- In regards to the microbiome: what is meant with the term <one>transcriptional reprogramming</one>? This refers to a bacterial colonization that can lead to <one>a massive change in host gene expression</one>.
+- What is the <one>Hologenome</one>? This refers to <one>the complete genetic content of the host genome, its organelles' genomes, and its microbiome</one>.
+- Which bacteria group in the human gut may be associated with <one>major depressive disorders</one>? <one>Bacteroides</one>.
+- Name a <one>human gut microbe</one> that can produce the neurotransmitter tryptamine. A: <one>Clostridium sporogenes</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium_sporogenes
+- What is meant with the term <one>onco-microbes</one>? This refers to <one>microbial contribution to cancer</one>.
+- Say that a human is deficient in IgA. They may have more bacteria from taxa with which detrimental effect? They may have more bacteria with potentially <one>inflammatory properties</one>.
+- <one>Mucosal IgA</one> is secreted across the epithelium by binding to ... which receptor? The <one>polymeric immunoglobulin receptor</one>.
+- If we delete innate immune receptors in the intestinal epithelial cells, what may be the ultimate effect of this? This will lead to breaches in the epithelial barrier, thus <one>predisposing tissue to inflammation</one>.
+- What is a <one>Holobiont</one>? A Holobiont is a unit of biological organization composed of <one>a host</one> and <one>its microbiota</one>.
+- Some commensal bacteria and pathogens may degrade the mucus layer in the human gut. They may then make use of <one>proteases</one>, but also which other group of enzymes that may degrade the mucus? The <one>glycoside hydrolases</one>.
+- In the <one>mucus layer</one> of the human gut: which <lightseagreen>glycoproteins</lightseagreen> dominate there, in general? <one>O-glycosylated mucin glycoproteins</one>.
+- Give an example for <one>environmental stress</one> in regards to the human microbiome. A: <one>Smoking</one>.
+- The microbiome of babies born via <one>C-section</one> is dominated by ... what kind of bacteria? Skin bacteria such as <one>Staphylococcus</one> or <one>Corynebacterium</one>.
+- What is meant with the term <one>a personalized microbiome</one>, essentially? That any two random people have very few microbial species in common, in their microbiome.
+- What is meant with the term <one>Microbiota</one>? This refers to <one>the microbial community</one> in or on a host - including bacteria, archaea, protists, and fungi.
+- ... are descriptors of the human gut microbiota landscape. A: <one>Enterotypes</one>.
+- What is meant with the term <one>fundamental niche</one>? This refers to the resources a species is theoretically capable of using.
+- What do we mean with the term <one>gnotobiotic animals</one>? This refers to animals that are <one>born in aseptic conditions</one>.