warp-lang 1.7.0__py3-none-manylinux_2_34_aarch64.whl

warp/sim/integrator_xpbd.py

@@ -0,0 +1,3292 @@
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2022 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+# http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+
+import warp as wp
+
+from .integrator import Integrator
+from .model import (
+    JOINT_MODE_FORCE,
+    JOINT_MODE_TARGET_POSITION,
+    JOINT_MODE_TARGET_VELOCITY,
+    PARTICLE_FLAG_ACTIVE,
+    Control,
+    Model,
+    ModelShapeMaterials,
+    State,
+)
+from .utils import vec_abs, vec_leaky_max, vec_leaky_min, vec_max, vec_min, velocity_at_point
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def solve_particle_ground_contacts(
+    particle_x: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_v: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    invmass: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    particle_radius: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    particle_flags: wp.array(dtype=wp.uint32),
+    ke: float,
+    kd: float,
+    kf: float,
+    mu: float,
+    ground: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    dt: float,
+    relaxation: float,
+    delta: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    if (particle_flags[tid] & PARTICLE_FLAG_ACTIVE) == 0:
+        return
+
+    wi = invmass[tid]
+    if wi == 0.0:
+        return
+
+    x = particle_x[tid]
+    v = particle_v[tid]
+
+    n = wp.vec3(ground[0], ground[1], ground[2])
+    c = wp.min(wp.dot(n, x) + ground[3] - particle_radius[tid], 0.0)
+
+    if c > 0.0:
+        return
+
+    # normal
+    lambda_n = c
+    delta_n = n * lambda_n
+
+    # friction
+    vn = wp.dot(n, v)
+    vt = v - n * vn
+
+    lambda_f = wp.max(mu * lambda_n, 0.0 - wp.length(vt) * dt)
+    delta_f = wp.normalize(vt) * lambda_f
+
+    wp.atomic_add(delta, tid, (delta_f - delta_n) * relaxation)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def apply_particle_shape_restitution(
+    particle_x_new: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_v_new: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_x_old: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_v_old: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_invmass: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    particle_radius: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    particle_flags: wp.array(dtype=wp.uint32),
+    body_q: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    body_qd: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+    body_com: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    body_m_inv: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    body_I_inv: wp.array(dtype=wp.mat33),
+    shape_body: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    shape_materials: ModelShapeMaterials,
+    particle_ka: float,
+    restitution: float,
+    contact_count: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    contact_particle: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    contact_shape: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    contact_body_pos: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_body_vel: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_normal: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_max: int,
+    dt: float,
+    relaxation: float,
+    particle_v_out: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    count = min(contact_max, contact_count[0])
+    if tid >= count:
+        return
+
+    shape_index = contact_shape[tid]
+    body_index = shape_body[shape_index]
+    particle_index = contact_particle[tid]
+
+    if (particle_flags[particle_index] & PARTICLE_FLAG_ACTIVE) == 0:
+        return
+
+    # x_new = particle_x_new[particle_index]
+    v_new = particle_v_new[particle_index]
+    px = particle_x_old[particle_index]
+    v_old = particle_v_old[particle_index]
+
+    X_wb = wp.transform_identity()
+    # X_com = wp.vec3()
+
+    if body_index >= 0:
+        X_wb = body_q[body_index]
+        # X_com = body_com[body_index]
+
+    # body position in world space
+    bx = wp.transform_point(X_wb, contact_body_pos[tid])
+    # r = bx - wp.transform_point(X_wb, X_com)
+
+    n = contact_normal[tid]
+    c = wp.dot(n, px - bx) - particle_radius[particle_index]
+
+    if c > particle_ka:
+        return
+
+    rel_vel_old = wp.dot(n, v_old)
+    rel_vel_new = wp.dot(n, v_new)
+
+    if rel_vel_old < 0.0:
+        # dv = -n * wp.max(-rel_vel_new + wp.max(-restitution * rel_vel_old, 0.0), 0.0)
+        dv = n * (-rel_vel_new + wp.max(-restitution * rel_vel_old, 0.0))
+
+        # compute inverse masses
+        # w1 = particle_invmass[particle_index]
+        # w2 = 0.0
+        # if body_index >= 0:
+        #     angular = wp.cross(r, n)
+        #     q = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wb)
+        #     rot_angular = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q, angular)
+        #     I_inv = body_I_inv[body_index]
+        #     w2 = body_m_inv[body_index] + wp.dot(rot_angular, I_inv * rot_angular)
+        # denom = w1 + w2
+        # if denom == 0.0:
+        #     return
+
+        wp.atomic_add(particle_v_out, tid, dv)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def apply_particle_ground_restitution(
+    particle_x_new: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_v_new: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_x_old: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_v_old: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_invmass: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    particle_radius: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    particle_flags: wp.array(dtype=wp.uint32),
+    particle_ka: float,
+    restitution: float,
+    ground: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    dt: float,
+    relaxation: float,
+    particle_v_out: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    if (particle_flags[tid] & PARTICLE_FLAG_ACTIVE) == 0:
+        return
+
+    wi = particle_invmass[tid]
+    if wi == 0.0:
+        return
+
+    x = particle_x_old[tid]
+    v_old = particle_v_old[tid]
+    v_new = particle_v_new[tid]
+
+    n = wp.vec3(ground[0], ground[1], ground[2])
+    c = wp.dot(n, x) + ground[3] - particle_radius[tid]
+
+    if c > particle_ka:
+        return
+
+    vn = wp.dot(n, v_old)
+    vn_new = wp.dot(n, v_new)
+
+    if vn < 0.0:
+        dv = n * (-vn_new + wp.max(-restitution * vn, 0.0))
+        wp.atomic_add(particle_v_out, tid, dv)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def solve_particle_shape_contacts(
+    particle_x: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_v: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_invmass: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    particle_radius: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    particle_flags: wp.array(dtype=wp.uint32),
+    body_q: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    body_qd: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+    body_com: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    body_m_inv: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    body_I_inv: wp.array(dtype=wp.mat33),
+    shape_body: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    shape_materials: ModelShapeMaterials,
+    particle_mu: float,
+    particle_ka: float,
+    contact_count: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    contact_particle: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    contact_shape: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    contact_body_pos: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_body_vel: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_normal: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_max: int,
+    dt: float,
+    relaxation: float,
+    # outputs
+    delta: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    body_delta: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    count = min(contact_max, contact_count[0])
+    if tid >= count:
+        return
+
+    shape_index = contact_shape[tid]
+    body_index = shape_body[shape_index]
+    particle_index = contact_particle[tid]
+
+    if (particle_flags[particle_index] & PARTICLE_FLAG_ACTIVE) == 0:
+        return
+
+    px = particle_x[particle_index]
+    pv = particle_v[particle_index]
+
+    X_wb = wp.transform_identity()
+    X_com = wp.vec3()
+
+    if body_index >= 0:
+        X_wb = body_q[body_index]
+        X_com = body_com[body_index]
+
+    # body position in world space
+    bx = wp.transform_point(X_wb, contact_body_pos[tid])
+    r = bx - wp.transform_point(X_wb, X_com)
+
+    n = contact_normal[tid]
+    c = wp.dot(n, px - bx) - particle_radius[particle_index]
+
+    if c > particle_ka:
+        return
+
+    # take average material properties of shape and particle parameters
+    mu = 0.5 * (particle_mu + shape_materials.mu[shape_index])
+
+    # body velocity
+    body_v_s = wp.spatial_vector()
+    if body_index >= 0:
+        body_v_s = body_qd[body_index]
+
+    body_w = wp.spatial_top(body_v_s)
+    body_v = wp.spatial_bottom(body_v_s)
+
+    # compute the body velocity at the particle position
+    bv = body_v + wp.cross(body_w, r) + wp.transform_vector(X_wb, contact_body_vel[tid])
+
+    # relative velocity
+    v = pv - bv
+
+    # normal
+    lambda_n = c
+    delta_n = n * lambda_n
+
+    # friction
+    vn = wp.dot(n, v)
+    vt = v - n * vn
+
+    # compute inverse masses
+    w1 = particle_invmass[particle_index]
+    w2 = 0.0
+    if body_index >= 0:
+        angular = wp.cross(r, n)
+        q = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wb)
+        rot_angular = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q, angular)
+        I_inv = body_I_inv[body_index]
+        w2 = body_m_inv[body_index] + wp.dot(rot_angular, I_inv * rot_angular)
+    denom = w1 + w2
+    if denom == 0.0:
+        return
+
+    lambda_f = wp.max(mu * lambda_n, -wp.length(vt) * dt)
+    delta_f = wp.normalize(vt) * lambda_f
+    delta_total = (delta_f - delta_n) / denom * relaxation
+
+    wp.atomic_add(delta, particle_index, w1 * delta_total)
+
+    if body_index >= 0:
+        delta_t = wp.cross(r, delta_total)
+        wp.atomic_sub(body_delta, body_index, wp.spatial_vector(delta_t, delta_total))
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def solve_particle_particle_contacts(
+    grid: wp.uint64,
+    particle_x: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_v: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_invmass: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    particle_radius: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    particle_flags: wp.array(dtype=wp.uint32),
+    k_mu: float,
+    k_cohesion: float,
+    max_radius: float,
+    dt: float,
+    relaxation: float,
+    # outputs
+    deltas: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    # order threads by cell
+    i = wp.hash_grid_point_id(grid, tid)
+    if i == -1:
+        # hash grid has not been built yet
+        return
+    if (particle_flags[i] & PARTICLE_FLAG_ACTIVE) == 0:
+        return
+
+    x = particle_x[i]
+    v = particle_v[i]
+    radius = particle_radius[i]
+    w1 = particle_invmass[i]
+
+    # particle contact
+    query = wp.hash_grid_query(grid, x, radius + max_radius + k_cohesion)
+    index = int(0)
+
+    delta = wp.vec3(0.0)
+
+    while wp.hash_grid_query_next(query, index):
+        if (particle_flags[index] & PARTICLE_FLAG_ACTIVE) != 0 and index != i:
+            # compute distance to point
+            n = x - particle_x[index]
+            d = wp.length(n)
+            err = d - radius - particle_radius[index]
+
+            # compute inverse masses
+            w2 = particle_invmass[index]
+            denom = w1 + w2
+
+            if err <= k_cohesion and denom > 0.0:
+                n = n / d
+                vrel = v - particle_v[index]
+
+                # normal
+                lambda_n = err
+                delta_n = n * lambda_n
+
+                # friction
+                vn = wp.dot(n, vrel)
+                vt = v - n * vn
+
+                lambda_f = wp.max(k_mu * lambda_n, -wp.length(vt) * dt)
+                delta_f = wp.normalize(vt) * lambda_f
+                delta += (delta_f - delta_n) / denom
+
+    wp.atomic_add(deltas, i, delta * w1 * relaxation)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def solve_springs(
+    x: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    v: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    invmass: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    spring_indices: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    spring_rest_lengths: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    spring_stiffness: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    spring_damping: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    dt: float,
+    lambdas: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    delta: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    i = spring_indices[tid * 2 + 0]
+    j = spring_indices[tid * 2 + 1]
+
+    ke = spring_stiffness[tid]
+    kd = spring_damping[tid]
+    rest = spring_rest_lengths[tid]
+
+    xi = x[i]
+    xj = x[j]
+
+    vi = v[i]
+    vj = v[j]
+
+    xij = xi - xj
+    vij = vi - vj
+
+    l = wp.length(xij)
+
+    if l == 0.0:
+        return
+
+    n = xij / l
+
+    c = l - rest
+    grad_c_xi = n
+    grad_c_xj = -1.0 * n
+
+    wi = invmass[i]
+    wj = invmass[j]
+
+    denom = wi + wj
+
+    # Note strict inequality for damping -- 0 damping is ok
+    if denom <= 0.0 or ke <= 0.0 or kd < 0.0:
+        return
+
+    alpha = 1.0 / (ke * dt * dt)
+    gamma = kd / (ke * dt)
+
+    grad_c_dot_v = dt * wp.dot(grad_c_xi, vij)  # Note: dt because from the paper we want x_i - x^n, not v...
+    dlambda = -1.0 * (c + alpha * lambdas[tid] + gamma * grad_c_dot_v) / ((1.0 + gamma) * denom + alpha)
+
+    dxi = wi * dlambda * grad_c_xi
+    dxj = wj * dlambda * grad_c_xj
+
+    lambdas[tid] = lambdas[tid] + dlambda
+
+    wp.atomic_add(delta, i, dxi)
+    wp.atomic_add(delta, j, dxj)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def bending_constraint(
+    x: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    v: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    invmass: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    indices: wp.array2d(dtype=int),
+    rest: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    bending_properties: wp.array2d(dtype=float),
+    dt: float,
+    lambdas: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    delta: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    eps = 1.0e-6
+
+    ke = bending_properties[tid, 0]
+    kd = bending_properties[tid, 1]
+
+    i = indices[tid, 0]
+    j = indices[tid, 1]
+    k = indices[tid, 2]
+    l = indices[tid, 3]
+
+    if i == -1 or j == -1 or k == -1 or l == -1:
+        return
+
+    rest_angle = rest[tid]
+
+    x1 = x[i]
+    x2 = x[j]
+    x3 = x[k]
+    x4 = x[l]
+
+    v1 = v[i]
+    v2 = v[j]
+    v3 = v[k]
+    v4 = v[l]
+
+    w1 = invmass[i]
+    w2 = invmass[j]
+    w3 = invmass[k]
+    w4 = invmass[l]
+
+    n1 = wp.cross(x3 - x1, x4 - x1)  # normal to face 1
+    n2 = wp.cross(x4 - x2, x3 - x2)  # normal to face 2
+
+    n1_length = wp.length(n1)
+    n2_length = wp.length(n2)
+
+    if n1_length < eps or n2_length < eps:
+        return
+
+    n1 /= n1_length
+    n2 /= n2_length
+
+    cos_theta = wp.dot(n1, n2)
+
+    e = x4 - x3
+    e_hat = wp.normalize(e)
+    e_length = wp.length(e)
+
+    derivative_flip = wp.sign(wp.dot(wp.cross(n1, n2), e))
+    derivative_flip *= -1.0
+    angle = wp.acos(cos_theta)
+
+    grad_x1 = n1 * e_length * derivative_flip
+    grad_x2 = n2 * e_length * derivative_flip
+    grad_x3 = (n1 * wp.dot(x1 - x4, e_hat) + n2 * wp.dot(x2 - x4, e_hat)) * derivative_flip
+    grad_x4 = (n1 * wp.dot(x3 - x1, e_hat) + n2 * wp.dot(x3 - x2, e_hat)) * derivative_flip
+    c = angle - rest_angle
+    denominator = (
+        w1 * wp.length_sq(grad_x1)
+        + w2 * wp.length_sq(grad_x2)
+        + w3 * wp.length_sq(grad_x3)
+        + w4 * wp.length_sq(grad_x4)
+    )
+
+    # Note strict inequality for damping -- 0 damping is ok
+    if denominator <= 0.0 or ke <= 0.0 or kd < 0.0:
+        return
+
+    alpha = 1.0 / (ke * dt * dt)
+    gamma = kd / (ke * dt)
+
+    grad_dot_v = dt * (wp.dot(grad_x1, v1) + wp.dot(grad_x2, v2) + wp.dot(grad_x3, v3) + wp.dot(grad_x4, v4))
+
+    dlambda = -1.0 * (c + alpha * lambdas[tid] + gamma * grad_dot_v) / ((1.0 + gamma) * denominator + alpha)
+
+    delta0 = w1 * dlambda * grad_x1
+    delta1 = w2 * dlambda * grad_x2
+    delta2 = w3 * dlambda * grad_x3
+    delta3 = w4 * dlambda * grad_x4
+
+    lambdas[tid] = lambdas[tid] + dlambda
+
+    wp.atomic_add(delta, i, delta0)
+    wp.atomic_add(delta, j, delta1)
+    wp.atomic_add(delta, k, delta2)
+    wp.atomic_add(delta, l, delta3)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def solve_tetrahedra(
+    x: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    v: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    inv_mass: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    indices: wp.array(dtype=int, ndim=2),
+    rest_matrix: wp.array(dtype=wp.mat33),
+    activation: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    materials: wp.array(dtype=float, ndim=2),
+    dt: float,
+    relaxation: float,
+    delta: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    i = indices[tid, 0]
+    j = indices[tid, 1]
+    k = indices[tid, 2]
+    l = indices[tid, 3]
+
+    # act = activation[tid]
+
+    # k_mu = materials[tid, 0]
+    # k_lambda = materials[tid, 1]
+    # k_damp = materials[tid, 2]
+
+    x0 = x[i]
+    x1 = x[j]
+    x2 = x[k]
+    x3 = x[l]
+
+    # v0 = v[i]
+    # v1 = v[j]
+    # v2 = v[k]
+    # v3 = v[l]
+
+    w0 = inv_mass[i]
+    w1 = inv_mass[j]
+    w2 = inv_mass[k]
+    w3 = inv_mass[l]
+
+    x10 = x1 - x0
+    x20 = x2 - x0
+    x30 = x3 - x0
+
+    Ds = wp.matrix_from_cols(x10, x20, x30)
+    Dm = rest_matrix[tid]
+    inv_QT = wp.transpose(Dm)
+
+    inv_rest_volume = wp.determinant(Dm) * 6.0
+
+    # F = Xs*Xm^-1
+    F = Ds * Dm
+
+    f1 = wp.vec3(F[0, 0], F[1, 0], F[2, 0])
+    f2 = wp.vec3(F[0, 1], F[1, 1], F[2, 1])
+    f3 = wp.vec3(F[0, 2], F[1, 2], F[2, 2])
+
+    tr = wp.dot(f1, f1) + wp.dot(f2, f2) + wp.dot(f3, f3)
+
+    C = float(0.0)
+    dC = wp.mat33(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+    compliance = float(0.0)
+
+    stretching_compliance = relaxation
+    volume_compliance = relaxation
+
+    num_terms = 2
+    for term in range(0, num_terms):
+        if term == 0:
+            # deviatoric, stable
+            C = tr - 3.0
+            dC = F * 2.0
+            compliance = stretching_compliance
+        elif term == 1:
+            # volume conservation
+            C = wp.determinant(F) - 1.0
+            dC = wp.matrix_from_cols(wp.cross(f2, f3), wp.cross(f3, f1), wp.cross(f1, f2))
+            compliance = volume_compliance
+
+        if C != 0.0:
+            dP = dC * inv_QT
+            grad1 = wp.vec3(dP[0][0], dP[1][0], dP[2][0])
+            grad2 = wp.vec3(dP[0][1], dP[1][1], dP[2][1])
+            grad3 = wp.vec3(dP[0][2], dP[1][2], dP[2][2])
+            grad0 = -grad1 - grad2 - grad3
+
+            w = (
+                wp.dot(grad0, grad0) * w0
+                + wp.dot(grad1, grad1) * w1
+                + wp.dot(grad2, grad2) * w2
+                + wp.dot(grad3, grad3) * w3
+            )
+
+            if w > 0.0:
+                alpha = compliance / dt / dt
+                if inv_rest_volume > 0.0:
+                    alpha *= inv_rest_volume
+                dlambda = -C / (w + alpha)
+
+                wp.atomic_add(delta, i, w0 * dlambda * grad0)
+                wp.atomic_add(delta, j, w1 * dlambda * grad1)
+                wp.atomic_add(delta, k, w2 * dlambda * grad2)
+                wp.atomic_add(delta, l, w3 * dlambda * grad3)
+                # wp.atomic_add(particle.num_corr, id0, 1)
+                # wp.atomic_add(particle.num_corr, id1, 1)
+                # wp.atomic_add(particle.num_corr, id2, 1)
+                # wp.atomic_add(particle.num_corr, id3, 1)
+
+    # C_Spherical
+    # r_s = wp.sqrt(wp.dot(f1, f1) + wp.dot(f2, f2) + wp.dot(f3, f3))
+    # r_s_inv = 1.0/r_s
+    # C = r_s - wp.sqrt(3.0)
+    # dCdx = F*wp.transpose(Dm)*r_s_inv
+    # alpha = 1.0
+
+    # C_D
+    # r_s = wp.sqrt(wp.dot(f1, f1) + wp.dot(f2, f2) + wp.dot(f3, f3))
+    # C = r_s*r_s - 3.0
+    # dCdx = F*wp.transpose(Dm)*2.0
+    # alpha = 1.0
+
+    # grad1 = wp.vec3(dCdx[0, 0], dCdx[1, 0], dCdx[2, 0])
+    # grad2 = wp.vec3(dCdx[0, 1], dCdx[1, 1], dCdx[2, 1])
+    # grad3 = wp.vec3(dCdx[0, 2], dCdx[1, 2], dCdx[2, 2])
+    # grad0 = (grad1 + grad2 + grad3) * (0.0 - 1.0)
+
+    # denom = (
+    #     wp.dot(grad0, grad0) * w0 + wp.dot(grad1, grad1) * w1 + wp.dot(grad2, grad2) * w2 + wp.dot(grad3, grad3) * w3
+    # )
+    # multiplier = C / (denom + 1.0 / (k_mu * dt * dt * rest_volume))
+
+    # delta0 = grad0 * multiplier
+    # delta1 = grad1 * multiplier
+    # delta2 = grad2 * multiplier
+    # delta3 = grad3 * multiplier
+
+    # # hydrostatic part
+    # J = wp.determinant(F)
+
+    # C_vol = J - alpha
+    # # dCdx = wp.matrix_from_cols(wp.cross(f2, f3), wp.cross(f3, f1), wp.cross(f1, f2))*wp.transpose(Dm)
+
+    # # grad1 = wp.vec3(dCdx[0,0], dCdx[1,0], dCdx[2,0])
+    # # grad2 = wp.vec3(dCdx[0,1], dCdx[1,1], dCdx[2,1])
+    # # grad3 = wp.vec3(dCdx[0,2], dCdx[1,2], dCdx[2,2])
+    # # grad0 = (grad1 + grad2 + grad3)*(0.0 - 1.0)
+
+    # s = inv_rest_volume / 6.0
+    # grad1 = wp.cross(x20, x30) * s
+    # grad2 = wp.cross(x30, x10) * s
+    # grad3 = wp.cross(x10, x20) * s
+    # grad0 = -(grad1 + grad2 + grad3)
+
+    # denom = (
+    #     wp.dot(grad0, grad0) * w0 + wp.dot(grad1, grad1) * w1 + wp.dot(grad2, grad2) * w2 + wp.dot(grad3, grad3) * w3
+    # )
+    # multiplier = C_vol / (denom + 1.0 / (k_lambda * dt * dt * rest_volume))
+
+    # delta0 += grad0 * multiplier
+    # delta1 += grad1 * multiplier
+    # delta2 += grad2 * multiplier
+    # delta3 += grad3 * multiplier
+
+    # # # apply forces
+    # # wp.atomic_sub(delta, i, delta0 * w0 * relaxation)
+    # # wp.atomic_sub(delta, j, delta1 * w1 * relaxation)
+    # # wp.atomic_sub(delta, k, delta2 * w2 * relaxation)
+    # # wp.atomic_sub(delta, l, delta3 * w3 * relaxation)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def solve_tetrahedra2(
+    x: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    v: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    inv_mass: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    indices: wp.array(dtype=int, ndim=2),
+    pose: wp.array(dtype=wp.mat33),
+    activation: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    materials: wp.array(dtype=float, ndim=2),
+    dt: float,
+    relaxation: float,
+    delta: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    i = indices[tid, 0]
+    j = indices[tid, 1]
+    k = indices[tid, 2]
+    l = indices[tid, 3]
+
+    # act = activation[tid]
+
+    k_mu = materials[tid, 0]
+    k_lambda = materials[tid, 1]
+    # k_damp = materials[tid, 2]
+
+    x0 = x[i]
+    x1 = x[j]
+    x2 = x[k]
+    x3 = x[l]
+
+    # v0 = v[i]
+    # v1 = v[j]
+    # v2 = v[k]
+    # v3 = v[l]
+
+    w0 = inv_mass[i]
+    w1 = inv_mass[j]
+    w2 = inv_mass[k]
+    w3 = inv_mass[l]
+
+    x10 = x1 - x0
+    x20 = x2 - x0
+    x30 = x3 - x0
+
+    Ds = wp.matrix_from_cols(x10, x20, x30)
+    Dm = pose[tid]
+
+    inv_rest_volume = wp.determinant(Dm) * 6.0
+    rest_volume = 1.0 / inv_rest_volume
+
+    # F = Xs*Xm^-1
+    F = Ds * Dm
+
+    f1 = wp.vec3(F[0, 0], F[1, 0], F[2, 0])
+    f2 = wp.vec3(F[0, 1], F[1, 1], F[2, 1])
+    f3 = wp.vec3(F[0, 2], F[1, 2], F[2, 2])
+
+    # C_sqrt
+    # tr = wp.dot(f1, f1) + wp.dot(f2, f2) + wp.dot(f3, f3)
+    # r_s = wp.sqrt(abs(tr - 3.0))
+    # C = r_s
+
+    # if (r_s == 0.0):
+    #     return
+
+    # if (tr < 3.0):
+    #     r_s = 0.0 - r_s
+
+    # dCdx = F*wp.transpose(Dm)*(1.0/r_s)
+    # alpha = 1.0 + k_mu / k_lambda
+
+    # C_Neo
+    r_s = wp.sqrt(wp.dot(f1, f1) + wp.dot(f2, f2) + wp.dot(f3, f3))
+    if r_s == 0.0:
+        return
+    # tr = wp.dot(f1, f1) + wp.dot(f2, f2) + wp.dot(f3, f3)
+    # if (tr < 3.0):
+    #     r_s = -r_s
+    r_s_inv = 1.0 / r_s
+    C = r_s
+    dCdx = F * wp.transpose(Dm) * r_s_inv
+    alpha = 1.0 + k_mu / k_lambda
+
+    # C_Spherical
+    # r_s = wp.sqrt(wp.dot(f1, f1) + wp.dot(f2, f2) + wp.dot(f3, f3))
+    # r_s_inv = 1.0/r_s
+    # C = r_s - wp.sqrt(3.0)
+    # dCdx = F*wp.transpose(Dm)*r_s_inv
+    # alpha = 1.0
+
+    # C_D
+    # r_s = wp.sqrt(wp.dot(f1, f1) + wp.dot(f2, f2) + wp.dot(f3, f3))
+    # C = r_s*r_s - 3.0
+    # dCdx = F*wp.transpose(Dm)*2.0
+    # alpha = 1.0
+
+    grad1 = wp.vec3(dCdx[0, 0], dCdx[1, 0], dCdx[2, 0])
+    grad2 = wp.vec3(dCdx[0, 1], dCdx[1, 1], dCdx[2, 1])
+    grad3 = wp.vec3(dCdx[0, 2], dCdx[1, 2], dCdx[2, 2])
+    grad0 = (grad1 + grad2 + grad3) * (0.0 - 1.0)
+
+    denom = (
+        wp.dot(grad0, grad0) * w0 + wp.dot(grad1, grad1) * w1 + wp.dot(grad2, grad2) * w2 + wp.dot(grad3, grad3) * w3
+    )
+    multiplier = C / (denom + 1.0 / (k_mu * dt * dt * rest_volume))
+
+    delta0 = grad0 * multiplier
+    delta1 = grad1 * multiplier
+    delta2 = grad2 * multiplier
+    delta3 = grad3 * multiplier
+
+    # hydrostatic part
+    J = wp.determinant(F)
+
+    C_vol = J - alpha
+    # dCdx = wp.matrix_from_cols(wp.cross(f2, f3), wp.cross(f3, f1), wp.cross(f1, f2))*wp.transpose(Dm)
+
+    # grad1 = wp.vec3(dCdx[0,0], dCdx[1,0], dCdx[2,0])
+    # grad2 = wp.vec3(dCdx[0,1], dCdx[1,1], dCdx[2,1])
+    # grad3 = wp.vec3(dCdx[0,2], dCdx[1,2], dCdx[2,2])
+    # grad0 = (grad1 + grad2 + grad3)*(0.0 - 1.0)
+
+    s = inv_rest_volume / 6.0
+    grad1 = wp.cross(x20, x30) * s
+    grad2 = wp.cross(x30, x10) * s
+    grad3 = wp.cross(x10, x20) * s
+    grad0 = -(grad1 + grad2 + grad3)
+
+    denom = (
+        wp.dot(grad0, grad0) * w0 + wp.dot(grad1, grad1) * w1 + wp.dot(grad2, grad2) * w2 + wp.dot(grad3, grad3) * w3
+    )
+    multiplier = C_vol / (denom + 1.0 / (k_lambda * dt * dt * rest_volume))
+
+    delta0 += grad0 * multiplier
+    delta1 += grad1 * multiplier
+    delta2 += grad2 * multiplier
+    delta3 += grad3 * multiplier
+
+    # apply forces
+    wp.atomic_sub(delta, i, delta0 * w0 * relaxation)
+    wp.atomic_sub(delta, j, delta1 * w1 * relaxation)
+    wp.atomic_sub(delta, k, delta2 * w2 * relaxation)
+    wp.atomic_sub(delta, l, delta3 * w3 * relaxation)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def apply_particle_deltas(
+    x_orig: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    x_pred: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    particle_flags: wp.array(dtype=wp.uint32),
+    delta: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    dt: float,
+    v_max: float,
+    x_out: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    v_out: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    if (particle_flags[tid] & PARTICLE_FLAG_ACTIVE) == 0:
+        return
+
+    x0 = x_orig[tid]
+    xp = x_pred[tid]
+
+    # constraint deltas
+    d = delta[tid]
+
+    x_new = xp + d
+    v_new = (x_new - x0) / dt
+
+    # enforce velocity limit to prevent instability
+    v_new_mag = wp.length(v_new)
+    if v_new_mag > v_max:
+        v_new *= v_max / v_new_mag
+
+    x_out[tid] = x_new
+    v_out[tid] = v_new
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def apply_body_deltas(
+    q_in: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    qd_in: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+    body_com: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    body_I: wp.array(dtype=wp.mat33),
+    body_inv_m: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    body_inv_I: wp.array(dtype=wp.mat33),
+    deltas: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+    constraint_inv_weights: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    dt: float,
+    # outputs
+    q_out: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    qd_out: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    inv_m = body_inv_m[tid]
+    if inv_m == 0.0:
+        q_out[tid] = q_in[tid]
+        qd_out[tid] = qd_in[tid]
+        return
+    inv_I = body_inv_I[tid]
+
+    tf = q_in[tid]
+    delta = deltas[tid]
+
+    p0 = wp.transform_get_translation(tf)
+    q0 = wp.transform_get_rotation(tf)
+
+    weight = 1.0
+    if constraint_inv_weights:
+        inv_weight = constraint_inv_weights[tid]
+        if inv_weight > 0.0:
+            weight = 1.0 / inv_weight
+
+    dp = wp.spatial_bottom(delta) * (inv_m * weight)
+    dq = wp.spatial_top(delta) * weight
+    dq = wp.quat_rotate(q0, inv_I * wp.quat_rotate_inv(q0, dq))
+
+    # update orientation
+    q1 = q0 + 0.5 * wp.quat(dq * dt, 0.0) * q0
+    q1 = wp.normalize(q1)
+
+    # update position
+    com = body_com[tid]
+    x_com = p0 + wp.quat_rotate(q0, com)
+    p1 = x_com + dp * dt
+    p1 -= wp.quat_rotate(q1, com)
+
+    q_out[tid] = wp.transform(p1, q1)
+
+    v0 = wp.spatial_bottom(qd_in[tid])
+    w0 = wp.spatial_top(qd_in[tid])
+
+    # update linear and angular velocity
+    v1 = v0 + dp
+    # angular part (compute in body frame)
+    wb = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q0, w0 + dq)
+    tb = -wp.cross(wb, body_I[tid] * wb)  # coriolis forces
+    w1 = wp.quat_rotate(q0, wb + inv_I * tb * dt)
+
+    # XXX this improves gradient stability
+    if wp.length(v1) < 1e-4:
+        v1 = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    if wp.length(w1) < 1e-4:
+        w1 = wp.vec3(0.0)
+
+    qd_out[tid] = wp.spatial_vector(w1, v1)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def apply_body_delta_velocities(
+    deltas: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+    qd_out: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    wp.atomic_add(qd_out, tid, deltas[tid])
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def apply_joint_actions(
+    body_q: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    body_com: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    joint_type: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_parent: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_child: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_X_p: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    joint_X_c: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    joint_axis_start: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_axis_dim: wp.array(dtype=int, ndim=2),
+    joint_axis: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    joint_axis_mode: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_act: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    body_f: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    type = joint_type[tid]
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_FIXED:
+        return
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_FREE:
+        return
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_DISTANCE:
+        return
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_BALL:
+        return
+
+    # rigid body indices of the child and parent
+    id_c = joint_child[tid]
+    id_p = joint_parent[tid]
+
+    X_pj = joint_X_p[tid]
+    # X_cj = joint_X_c[tid]
+
+    X_wp = X_pj
+    pose_p = X_pj
+    com_p = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    # parent transform and moment arm
+    if id_p >= 0:
+        pose_p = body_q[id_p]
+        X_wp = pose_p * X_wp
+        com_p = body_com[id_p]
+    r_p = wp.transform_get_translation(X_wp) - wp.transform_point(pose_p, com_p)
+
+    # child transform and moment arm
+    pose_c = body_q[id_c]
+    X_wc = pose_c
+    com_c = body_com[id_c]
+    r_c = wp.transform_get_translation(X_wc) - wp.transform_point(pose_c, com_c)
+
+    # # local joint rotations
+    # q_p = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wp)
+    # q_c = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wc)
+
+    # joint properties (for 1D joints)
+    axis_start = joint_axis_start[tid]
+    lin_axis_count = joint_axis_dim[tid, 0]
+    ang_axis_count = joint_axis_dim[tid, 1]
+
+    # total force/torque on the parent
+    t_total = wp.vec3()
+    f_total = wp.vec3()
+
+    # handle angular constraints
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_REVOLUTE:
+        mode = joint_axis_mode[axis_start]
+        if mode == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+            axis = joint_axis[axis_start]
+            act = joint_act[axis_start]
+            a_p = wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis)
+            t_total += act * a_p
+    elif type == wp.sim.JOINT_PRISMATIC:
+        mode = joint_axis_mode[axis_start]
+        if mode == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+            axis = joint_axis[axis_start]
+            act = joint_act[axis_start]
+            a_p = wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis)
+            f_total += act * a_p
+    elif type == wp.sim.JOINT_COMPOUND:
+        # q_off = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_cj)
+        # q_pc = wp.quat_inverse(q_off)*wp.quat_inverse(q_p)*q_c*q_off
+        # # decompose to a compound rotation each axis
+        # angles = quat_decompose(q_pc)
+
+        # # reconstruct rotation axes
+        # axis_0 = wp.vec3(1.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+        # q_0 = wp.quat_from_axis_angle(axis_0, angles[0])
+
+        # axis_1 = wp.quat_rotate(q_0, wp.vec3(0.0, 1.0, 0.0))
+        # q_1 = wp.quat_from_axis_angle(axis_1, angles[1])
+
+        # axis_2 = wp.quat_rotate(q_1*q_0, wp.vec3(0.0, 0.0, 1.0))
+
+        # q_w = q_p*q_off
+        # t_total += joint_act[qd_start+0] * wp.quat_rotate(q_w, axis_0)
+        # t_total += joint_act[qd_start+1] * wp.quat_rotate(q_w, axis_1)
+        # t_total += joint_act[qd_start+2] * wp.quat_rotate(q_w, axis_2)
+
+        if joint_axis_mode[axis_start + 0] == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+            axis_0 = joint_axis[axis_start + 0]
+            t_total += joint_act[axis_start + 0] * wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis_0)
+        if joint_axis_mode[axis_start + 1] == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+            axis_1 = joint_axis[axis_start + 1]
+            t_total += joint_act[axis_start + 1] * wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis_1)
+        if joint_axis_mode[axis_start + 2] == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+            axis_2 = joint_axis[axis_start + 2]
+            t_total += joint_act[axis_start + 2] * wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis_2)
+
+    elif type == wp.sim.JOINT_UNIVERSAL:
+        # q_off = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_cj)
+        # q_pc = wp.quat_inverse(q_off)*wp.quat_inverse(q_p)*q_c*q_off
+
+        # # decompose to a compound rotation each axis
+        # angles = quat_decompose(q_pc)
+
+        # # reconstruct rotation axes
+        # axis_0 = wp.vec3(1.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+        # q_0 = wp.quat_from_axis_angle(axis_0, angles[0])
+
+        # axis_1 = wp.quat_rotate(q_0, wp.vec3(0.0, 1.0, 0.0))
+        # q_1 = wp.quat_from_axis_angle(axis_1, angles[1])
+
+        # axis_2 = wp.quat_rotate(q_1*q_0, wp.vec3(0.0, 0.0, 1.0))
+
+        # q_w = q_p*q_off
+
+        # free axes
+        # t_total += joint_act[qd_start+0] * wp.quat_rotate(q_w, axis_0)
+        # t_total += joint_act[qd_start+1] * wp.quat_rotate(q_w, axis_1)
+
+        if joint_axis_mode[axis_start + 0] == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+            axis_0 = joint_axis[axis_start + 0]
+            t_total += joint_act[axis_start + 0] * wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis_0)
+        if joint_axis_mode[axis_start + 1] == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+            axis_1 = joint_axis[axis_start + 1]
+            t_total += joint_act[axis_start + 1] * wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis_1)
+
+    elif type == wp.sim.JOINT_D6:
+        # unroll for loop to ensure joint actions remain differentiable
+        # (since differentiating through a dynamic for loop that updates a local variable is not supported)
+
+        if lin_axis_count > 0:
+            if joint_axis_mode[axis_start + 0] == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+                axis = joint_axis[axis_start + 0]
+                act = joint_act[axis_start + 0]
+                a_p = wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis)
+                f_total += act * a_p
+        if lin_axis_count > 1:
+            if joint_axis_mode[axis_start + 1] == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+                axis = joint_axis[axis_start + 1]
+                act = joint_act[axis_start + 1]
+                a_p = wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis)
+                f_total += act * a_p
+        if lin_axis_count > 2:
+            if joint_axis_mode[axis_start + 2] == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+                axis = joint_axis[axis_start + 2]
+                act = joint_act[axis_start + 2]
+                a_p = wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis)
+                f_total += act * a_p
+
+        if ang_axis_count > 0:
+            if joint_axis_mode[axis_start + lin_axis_count + 0] == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+                axis = joint_axis[axis_start + lin_axis_count + 0]
+                act = joint_act[axis_start + lin_axis_count + 0]
+                a_p = wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis)
+                t_total += act * a_p
+        if ang_axis_count > 1:
+            if joint_axis_mode[axis_start + lin_axis_count + 1] == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+                axis = joint_axis[axis_start + lin_axis_count + 1]
+                act = joint_act[axis_start + lin_axis_count + 1]
+                a_p = wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis)
+                t_total += act * a_p
+        if ang_axis_count > 2:
+            if joint_axis_mode[axis_start + lin_axis_count + 2] == wp.sim.JOINT_MODE_FORCE:
+                axis = joint_axis[axis_start + lin_axis_count + 2]
+                act = joint_act[axis_start + lin_axis_count + 2]
+                a_p = wp.transform_vector(X_wp, axis)
+                t_total += act * a_p
+
+    else:
+        print("joint type not handled in apply_joint_actions")
+
+    # write forces
+    if id_p >= 0:
+        wp.atomic_sub(body_f, id_p, wp.spatial_vector(t_total + wp.cross(r_p, f_total), f_total))
+    wp.atomic_add(body_f, id_c, wp.spatial_vector(t_total + wp.cross(r_c, f_total), f_total))
+
+
+@wp.func
+def update_joint_axis_mode(mode: wp.int32, axis: wp.vec3, input_axis_mode: wp.vec3i):
+    # update the 3D axis mode flags given the axis vector and mode of this axis
+    mode_x = wp.max(wp.int32(wp.nonzero(axis[0])) * mode, input_axis_mode[0])
+    mode_y = wp.max(wp.int32(wp.nonzero(axis[1])) * mode, input_axis_mode[1])
+    mode_z = wp.max(wp.int32(wp.nonzero(axis[2])) * mode, input_axis_mode[2])
+    return wp.vec3i(mode_x, mode_y, mode_z)
+
+
+@wp.func
+def update_joint_axis_limits(axis: wp.vec3, limit_lower: float, limit_upper: float, input_limits: wp.spatial_vector):
+    # update the 3D linear/angular limits (spatial_vector [lower, upper]) given the axis vector and limits
+    lo_temp = axis * limit_lower
+    up_temp = axis * limit_upper
+    lo = vec_min(lo_temp, up_temp)
+    up = vec_max(lo_temp, up_temp)
+    input_lower = wp.spatial_top(input_limits)
+    input_upper = wp.spatial_bottom(input_limits)
+    lower = vec_min(input_lower, lo)
+    upper = vec_max(input_upper, up)
+    return wp.spatial_vector(lower, upper)
+
+
+@wp.func
+def update_joint_axis_target_ke_kd(
+    axis: wp.vec3, target: float, target_ke: float, target_kd: float, input_target_ke_kd: wp.mat33
+):
+    # update the 3D linear/angular target, target_ke, and target_kd (mat33 [target, ke, kd]) given the axis vector and target, target_ke, target_kd
+    axis_target = input_target_ke_kd[0]
+    axis_ke = input_target_ke_kd[1]
+    axis_kd = input_target_ke_kd[2]
+    stiffness = axis * target_ke
+    axis_target += stiffness * target  # weighted target (to be normalized later by sum of target_ke)
+    axis_ke += vec_abs(stiffness)
+    axis_kd += vec_abs(axis * target_kd)
+    return wp.mat33(
+        axis_target[0],
+        axis_target[1],
+        axis_target[2],
+        axis_ke[0],
+        axis_ke[1],
+        axis_ke[2],
+        axis_kd[0],
+        axis_kd[1],
+        axis_kd[2],
+    )
+
+
+@wp.func
+def compute_linear_correction_3d(
+    dx: wp.vec3,
+    r1: wp.vec3,
+    r2: wp.vec3,
+    tf1: wp.transform,
+    tf2: wp.transform,
+    m_inv1: float,
+    m_inv2: float,
+    I_inv1: wp.mat33,
+    I_inv2: wp.mat33,
+    lambda_in: float,
+    compliance: float,
+    damping: float,
+    dt: float,
+) -> float:
+    c = wp.length(dx)
+    if c == 0.0:
+        # print("c == 0.0 in positional correction")
+        return 0.0
+
+    n = wp.normalize(dx)
+
+    q1 = wp.transform_get_rotation(tf1)
+    q2 = wp.transform_get_rotation(tf2)
+
+    # Eq. 2-3 (make sure to project into the frame of the body)
+    r1xn = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q1, wp.cross(r1, n))
+    r2xn = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q2, wp.cross(r2, n))
+
+    w1 = m_inv1 + wp.dot(r1xn, I_inv1 * r1xn)
+    w2 = m_inv2 + wp.dot(r2xn, I_inv2 * r2xn)
+    w = w1 + w2
+    if w == 0.0:
+        return 0.0
+    alpha = compliance
+    gamma = compliance * damping
+
+    # Eq. 4-5
+    d_lambda = -c - alpha * lambda_in
+    # TODO consider damping for velocity correction?
+    # delta_lambda = -(err + alpha * lambda_in + gamma * derr)
+    if w + alpha > 0.0:
+        d_lambda /= w * (dt + gamma) + alpha / dt
+
+    return d_lambda
+
+
+@wp.func
+def compute_angular_correction_3d(
+    corr: wp.vec3,
+    q1: wp.quat,
+    q2: wp.quat,
+    m_inv1: float,
+    m_inv2: float,
+    I_inv1: wp.mat33,
+    I_inv2: wp.mat33,
+    alpha_tilde: float,
+    # lambda_prev: float,
+    relaxation: float,
+    dt: float,
+):
+    # compute and apply the correction impulse for an angular constraint
+    theta = wp.length(corr)
+    if theta == 0.0:
+        return 0.0
+
+    n = wp.normalize(corr)
+
+    # project variables to body rest frame as they are in local matrix
+    n1 = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q1, n)
+    n2 = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q2, n)
+
+    # Eq. 11-12
+    w1 = wp.dot(n1, I_inv1 * n1)
+    w2 = wp.dot(n2, I_inv2 * n2)
+    w = w1 + w2
+    if w == 0.0:
+        return 0.0
+
+    # Eq. 13-14
+    lambda_prev = 0.0
+    d_lambda = (-theta - alpha_tilde * lambda_prev) / (w * dt + alpha_tilde / dt)
+    # TODO consider lambda_prev?
+    # p = d_lambda * n * relaxation
+
+    # Eq. 15-16
+    return d_lambda
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def solve_simple_body_joints(
+    body_q: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    body_qd: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+    body_com: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    body_inv_m: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    body_inv_I: wp.array(dtype=wp.mat33),
+    joint_type: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_enabled: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_parent: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_child: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_X_p: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    joint_X_c: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    joint_limit_lower: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    joint_limit_upper: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    joint_axis_start: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_axis_dim: wp.array(dtype=int, ndim=2),
+    joint_axis_mode: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_axis: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    joint_target: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    joint_target_ke: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    joint_target_kd: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    joint_linear_compliance: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    joint_angular_compliance: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    angular_relaxation: float,
+    linear_relaxation: float,
+    dt: float,
+    deltas: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    type = joint_type[tid]
+
+    if joint_enabled[tid] == 0:
+        return
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_FREE:
+        return
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_COMPOUND:
+        return
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_UNIVERSAL:
+        return
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_DISTANCE:
+        return
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_D6:
+        return
+
+    # rigid body indices of the child and parent
+    id_c = joint_child[tid]
+    id_p = joint_parent[tid]
+
+    X_pj = joint_X_p[tid]
+    X_cj = joint_X_c[tid]
+
+    X_wp = X_pj
+    m_inv_p = 0.0
+    I_inv_p = wp.mat33(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+    pose_p = X_pj
+    com_p = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    # parent transform and moment arm
+    if id_p >= 0:
+        pose_p = body_q[id_p]
+        X_wp = pose_p * X_wp
+        com_p = body_com[id_p]
+        m_inv_p = body_inv_m[id_p]
+        I_inv_p = body_inv_I[id_p]
+    r_p = wp.transform_get_translation(X_wp) - wp.transform_point(pose_p, com_p)
+
+    # child transform and moment arm
+    pose_c = body_q[id_c]
+    X_wc = pose_c * X_cj
+    com_c = body_com[id_c]
+    m_inv_c = body_inv_m[id_c]
+    I_inv_c = body_inv_I[id_c]
+    r_c = wp.transform_get_translation(X_wc) - wp.transform_point(pose_c, com_c)
+
+    if m_inv_p == 0.0 and m_inv_c == 0.0:
+        # connection between two immovable bodies
+        return
+
+    # accumulate constraint deltas
+    lin_delta_p = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    ang_delta_p = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    lin_delta_c = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    ang_delta_c = wp.vec3(0.0)
+
+    # rel_pose = wp.transform_inverse(X_wp) * X_wc
+    # rel_p = wp.transform_get_translation(rel_pose)
+
+    # joint connection points
+    # x_p = wp.transform_get_translation(X_wp)
+    x_c = wp.transform_get_translation(X_wc)
+
+    # linear_compliance = joint_linear_compliance[tid]
+    angular_compliance = joint_angular_compliance[tid]
+    damping = 0.0
+
+    axis_start = joint_axis_start[tid]
+    # mode = joint_axis_mode[axis_start]
+
+    # local joint rotations
+    q_p = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wp)
+    q_c = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wc)
+    inertial_q_p = wp.transform_get_rotation(pose_p)
+    inertial_q_c = wp.transform_get_rotation(pose_c)
+
+    # joint properties (for 1D joints)
+    axis = joint_axis[axis_start]
+
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_FIXED:
+        limit_lower = 0.0
+        limit_upper = 0.0
+    else:
+        limit_lower = joint_limit_lower[axis_start]
+        limit_upper = joint_limit_upper[axis_start]
+
+    # linear_alpha_tilde = linear_compliance / dt / dt
+    angular_alpha_tilde = angular_compliance / dt / dt
+
+    # prevent division by zero
+    # linear_alpha_tilde = wp.max(linear_alpha_tilde, 1e-6)
+    # angular_alpha_tilde = wp.max(angular_alpha_tilde, 1e-6)
+
+    # accumulate constraint deltas
+    lin_delta_p = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    ang_delta_p = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    lin_delta_c = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    ang_delta_c = wp.vec3(0.0)
+
+    # handle angular constraints
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_REVOLUTE:
+        # align joint axes
+        a_p = wp.quat_rotate(q_p, axis)
+        a_c = wp.quat_rotate(q_c, axis)
+        # Eq. 20
+        corr = wp.cross(a_p, a_c)
+        ncorr = wp.normalize(corr)
+
+        angular_relaxation = 0.2
+        # angular_correction(
+        #     corr, inertial_q_p, inertial_q_c, m_inv_p, m_inv_c, I_inv_p, I_inv_c,
+        #     angular_alpha_tilde, angular_relaxation, deltas, id_p, id_c)
+        lambda_n = compute_angular_correction_3d(
+            corr, inertial_q_p, inertial_q_c, m_inv_p, m_inv_c, I_inv_p, I_inv_c, angular_alpha_tilde, damping, dt
+        )
+        lambda_n *= angular_relaxation
+        ang_delta_p -= lambda_n * ncorr
+        ang_delta_c += lambda_n * ncorr
+
+        # limit joint angles (Alg. 3)
+        pi = 3.14159265359
+        two_pi = 2.0 * pi
+        if limit_lower > -two_pi or limit_upper < two_pi:
+            # find a perpendicular vector to joint axis
+            a = axis
+            # https://math.stackexchange.com/a/3582461
+            g = wp.sign(a[2])
+            h = a[2] + g
+            b = wp.vec3(g - a[0] * a[0] / h, -a[0] * a[1] / h, -a[0])
+            c = wp.normalize(wp.cross(a, b))
+            # b = c  # TODO verify
+
+            # joint axis
+            n = wp.quat_rotate(q_p, a)
+            # the axes n1 and n2 are aligned with the two bodies
+            n1 = wp.quat_rotate(q_p, b)
+            n2 = wp.quat_rotate(q_c, b)
+
+            phi = wp.asin(wp.dot(wp.cross(n1, n2), n))
+            # print("phi")
+            # print(phi)
+            if wp.dot(n1, n2) < 0.0:
+                phi = pi - phi
+            if phi > pi:
+                phi -= two_pi
+            if phi < -pi:
+                phi += two_pi
+            if phi < limit_lower or phi > limit_upper:
+                phi = wp.clamp(phi, limit_lower, limit_upper)
+                # print("clamped phi")
+                # print(phi)
+                # rot = wp.quat(phi, n[0], n[1], n[2])
+                # rot = wp.quat(n, phi)
+                rot = wp.quat_from_axis_angle(n, phi)
+                n1 = wp.quat_rotate(rot, n1)
+                corr = wp.cross(n1, n2)
+                # print("corr")
+                # print(corr)
+                # TODO expose
+                # angular_alpha_tilde = 0.0001 / dt / dt
+                # angular_relaxation = 0.5
+                # TODO fix this constraint
+                # angular_correction(
+                #     corr, inertial_q_p, inertial_q_c, m_inv_p, m_inv_c, I_inv_p, I_inv_c,
+                #     angular_alpha_tilde, angular_relaxation, deltas, id_p, id_c)
+                lambda_n = compute_angular_correction_3d(
+                    corr,
+                    inertial_q_p,
+                    inertial_q_c,
+                    m_inv_p,
+                    m_inv_c,
+                    I_inv_p,
+                    I_inv_c,
+                    angular_alpha_tilde,
+                    damping,
+                    dt,
+                )
+                lambda_n *= angular_relaxation
+                ncorr = wp.normalize(corr)
+                ang_delta_p -= lambda_n * ncorr
+                ang_delta_c += lambda_n * ncorr
+
+        # handle joint targets
+        target_ke = joint_target_ke[axis_start]
+        # target_kd = joint_target_kd[axis_start]
+        target = joint_target[axis_start]
+        if target_ke > 0.0:
+            # find a perpendicular vector to joint axis
+            a = axis
+            # https://math.stackexchange.com/a/3582461
+            g = wp.sign(a[2])
+            h = a[2] + g
+            b = wp.vec3(g - a[0] * a[0] / h, -a[0] * a[1] / h, -a[0])
+            c = wp.normalize(wp.cross(a, b))
+            b = c
+
+            q = wp.quat_from_axis_angle(a_p, target)
+            b_target = wp.quat_rotate(q, wp.quat_rotate(q_p, b))
+            b2 = wp.quat_rotate(q_c, b)
+            # Eq. 21
+            d_target = wp.cross(b_target, b2)
+
+            target_compliance = 1.0 / target_ke  # / dt / dt
+            # angular_correction(
+            #     d_target, inertial_q_p, inertial_q_c, m_inv_p, m_inv_c, I_inv_p, I_inv_c,
+            #     target_compliance, angular_relaxation, deltas, id_p, id_c)
+            lambda_n = compute_angular_correction_3d(
+                d_target, inertial_q_p, inertial_q_c, m_inv_p, m_inv_c, I_inv_p, I_inv_c, target_compliance, damping, dt
+            )
+            lambda_n *= angular_relaxation
+            ncorr = wp.normalize(d_target)
+            # TODO fix
+            ang_delta_p -= lambda_n * ncorr
+            ang_delta_c += lambda_n * ncorr
+
+    if (type == wp.sim.JOINT_FIXED) or (type == wp.sim.JOINT_PRISMATIC):
+        # align the mutual orientations of the two bodies
+        # Eq. 18-19
+        q = q_p * wp.quat_inverse(q_c)
+        corr = -2.0 * wp.vec3(q[0], q[1], q[2])
+        # angular_correction(
+        #     -corr, inertial_q_p, inertial_q_c, m_inv_p, m_inv_c, I_inv_p, I_inv_c,
+        #     angular_alpha_tilde, angular_relaxation, deltas, id_p, id_c)
+        lambda_n = compute_angular_correction_3d(
+            corr, inertial_q_p, inertial_q_c, m_inv_p, m_inv_c, I_inv_p, I_inv_c, angular_alpha_tilde, damping, dt
+        )
+        lambda_n *= angular_relaxation
+        ncorr = wp.normalize(corr)
+        ang_delta_p -= lambda_n * ncorr
+        ang_delta_c += lambda_n * ncorr
+
+    # handle positional constraints
+
+    # joint connection points
+    x_p = wp.transform_get_translation(X_wp)
+    x_c = wp.transform_get_translation(X_wc)
+
+    # compute error between the joint attachment points on both bodies
+    # delta x is the difference of point r_2 minus point r_1 (Fig. 3)
+    dx = x_c - x_p
+
+    # rotate the error vector into the joint frame
+    q_dx = q_p
+    # q_dx = q_c
+    # q_dx = wp.transform_get_rotation(pose_p)
+    dx = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q_dx, dx)
+
+    lower_pos_limits = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    upper_pos_limits = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_PRISMATIC:
+        lower_pos_limits = axis * limit_lower
+        upper_pos_limits = axis * limit_upper
+
+    # compute linear constraint violations
+    corr = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    zero = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    corr -= vec_leaky_min(zero, upper_pos_limits - dx)
+    corr -= vec_leaky_max(zero, lower_pos_limits - dx)
+
+    # if (type == wp.sim.JOINT_PRISMATIC):
+    #     if mode == JOINT_MODE_TARGET_POSITION:
+    #         target = wp.clamp(target, limit_lower, limit_upper)
+    #         if target_ke > 0.0:
+    #             err = dx - target * axis
+    #             compliance = 1.0 / target_ke
+    #         damping = axis_damping[dim]
+    #     elif mode == JOINT_MODE_TARGET_VELOCITY:
+    #         if target_ke > 0.0:
+    #             err = (derr - target) * dt
+    #             compliance = 1.0 / target_ke
+    #         damping = axis_damping[dim]
+
+    # rotate correction vector into world frame
+    corr = wp.quat_rotate(q_dx, corr)
+
+    lambda_in = 0.0
+    linear_alpha = joint_linear_compliance[tid]
+    lambda_n = compute_linear_correction_3d(
+        corr, r_p, r_c, pose_p, pose_c, m_inv_p, m_inv_c, I_inv_p, I_inv_c, lambda_in, linear_alpha, damping, dt
+    )
+    lambda_n *= linear_relaxation
+    n = wp.normalize(corr)
+
+    lin_delta_p -= n * lambda_n
+    lin_delta_c += n * lambda_n
+    ang_delta_p -= wp.cross(r_p, n) * lambda_n
+    ang_delta_c += wp.cross(r_c, n) * lambda_n
+
+    if id_p >= 0:
+        wp.atomic_add(deltas, id_p, wp.spatial_vector(ang_delta_p, lin_delta_p))
+    if id_c >= 0:
+        wp.atomic_add(deltas, id_c, wp.spatial_vector(ang_delta_c, lin_delta_c))
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def solve_body_joints(
+    body_q: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    body_qd: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+    body_com: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    body_inv_m: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    body_inv_I: wp.array(dtype=wp.mat33),
+    joint_type: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_enabled: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_parent: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_child: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_X_p: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    joint_X_c: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    joint_limit_lower: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    joint_limit_upper: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    joint_axis_start: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_axis_dim: wp.array(dtype=int, ndim=2),
+    joint_axis_mode: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    joint_axis: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    joint_act: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    joint_target_ke: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    joint_target_kd: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    joint_linear_compliance: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    joint_angular_compliance: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    angular_relaxation: float,
+    linear_relaxation: float,
+    dt: float,
+    deltas: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+    type = joint_type[tid]
+
+    if joint_enabled[tid] == 0:
+        return
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_FREE:
+        return
+    # if type == wp.sim.JOINT_FIXED:
+    #     return
+    # if type == wp.sim.JOINT_REVOLUTE:
+    #     return
+    # if type == wp.sim.JOINT_PRISMATIC:
+    #     return
+    # if type == wp.sim.JOINT_BALL:
+    #     return
+
+    # rigid body indices of the child and parent
+    id_c = joint_child[tid]
+    id_p = joint_parent[tid]
+
+    X_pj = joint_X_p[tid]
+    X_cj = joint_X_c[tid]
+
+    X_wp = X_pj
+    m_inv_p = 0.0
+    I_inv_p = wp.mat33(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+    pose_p = X_pj
+    com_p = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    vel_p = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    omega_p = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    # parent transform and moment arm
+    if id_p >= 0:
+        pose_p = body_q[id_p]
+        X_wp = pose_p * X_wp
+        com_p = body_com[id_p]
+        m_inv_p = body_inv_m[id_p]
+        I_inv_p = body_inv_I[id_p]
+        vel_p = wp.spatial_bottom(body_qd[id_p])
+        omega_p = wp.spatial_top(body_qd[id_p])
+
+    # child transform and moment arm
+    pose_c = body_q[id_c]
+    X_wc = pose_c * X_cj
+    com_c = body_com[id_c]
+    m_inv_c = body_inv_m[id_c]
+    I_inv_c = body_inv_I[id_c]
+    vel_c = wp.spatial_bottom(body_qd[id_c])
+    omega_c = wp.spatial_top(body_qd[id_c])
+
+    if m_inv_p == 0.0 and m_inv_c == 0.0:
+        # connection between two immovable bodies
+        return
+
+    # accumulate constraint deltas
+    lin_delta_p = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    ang_delta_p = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    lin_delta_c = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    ang_delta_c = wp.vec3(0.0)
+
+    rel_pose = wp.transform_inverse(X_wp) * X_wc
+    rel_p = wp.transform_get_translation(rel_pose)
+
+    # joint connection points
+    # x_p = wp.transform_get_translation(X_wp)
+    x_c = wp.transform_get_translation(X_wc)
+
+    linear_compliance = joint_linear_compliance[tid]
+    angular_compliance = joint_angular_compliance[tid]
+
+    axis_start = joint_axis_start[tid]
+    lin_axis_count = joint_axis_dim[tid, 0]
+    ang_axis_count = joint_axis_dim[tid, 1]
+
+    world_com_p = wp.transform_point(pose_p, com_p)
+    world_com_c = wp.transform_point(pose_c, com_c)
+
+    # handle positional constraints
+    if type == wp.sim.JOINT_DISTANCE:
+        r_p = wp.transform_get_translation(X_wp) - world_com_p
+        r_c = wp.transform_get_translation(X_wc) - world_com_c
+        lower = joint_limit_lower[axis_start]
+        upper = joint_limit_upper[axis_start]
+        if lower < 0.0 and upper < 0.0:
+            # no limits
+            return
+        d = wp.length(rel_p)
+        err = 0.0
+        if lower >= 0.0 and d < lower:
+            err = d - lower
+            # use a more descriptive direction vector for the constraint
+            # in case the joint parent and child anchors are very close
+            rel_p = err * wp.normalize(world_com_c - world_com_p)
+        elif upper >= 0.0 and d > upper:
+            err = d - upper
+
+        if wp.abs(err) > 1e-9:
+            # compute gradients
+            linear_c = rel_p
+            linear_p = -linear_c
+            r_c = x_c - world_com_c
+            angular_p = -wp.cross(r_p, linear_c)
+            angular_c = wp.cross(r_c, linear_c)
+            # constraint time derivative
+            derr = (
+                wp.dot(linear_p, vel_p)
+                + wp.dot(linear_c, vel_c)
+                + wp.dot(angular_p, omega_p)
+                + wp.dot(angular_c, omega_c)
+            )
+            lambda_in = 0.0
+            compliance = linear_compliance
+            ke = joint_target_ke[axis_start]
+            if ke > 0.0:
+                compliance = 1.0 / ke
+            damping = joint_target_kd[axis_start]
+            d_lambda = compute_positional_correction(
+                err,
+                derr,
+                pose_p,
+                pose_c,
+                m_inv_p,
+                m_inv_c,
+                I_inv_p,
+                I_inv_c,
+                linear_p,
+                linear_c,
+                angular_p,
+                angular_c,
+                lambda_in,
+                compliance,
+                damping,
+                dt,
+            )
+
+            lin_delta_p += linear_p * (d_lambda * linear_relaxation)
+            ang_delta_p += angular_p * (d_lambda * angular_relaxation)
+            lin_delta_c += linear_c * (d_lambda * linear_relaxation)
+            ang_delta_c += angular_c * (d_lambda * angular_relaxation)
+
+    else:
+        # compute joint target, stiffness, damping
+        ke_sum = float(0.0)
+        axis_limits = wp.spatial_vector(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+        axis_mode = wp.vec3i(0, 0, 0)
+        axis_target_ke_kd = wp.mat33(0.0)
+        # avoid a for loop here since local variables would need to be modified which is not yet differentiable
+        if lin_axis_count > 0:
+            axis = joint_axis[axis_start]
+            lo_temp = axis * joint_limit_lower[axis_start]
+            up_temp = axis * joint_limit_upper[axis_start]
+            axis_limits = wp.spatial_vector(vec_min(lo_temp, up_temp), vec_max(lo_temp, up_temp))
+            mode = joint_axis_mode[axis_start]
+            if mode != JOINT_MODE_FORCE:  # position or velocity target
+                ke = joint_target_ke[axis_start]
+                kd = joint_target_kd[axis_start]
+                target = joint_act[axis_start]
+                axis_mode = update_joint_axis_mode(mode, axis, axis_mode)
+                axis_target_ke_kd = update_joint_axis_target_ke_kd(axis, target, ke, kd, axis_target_ke_kd)
+                ke_sum += ke
+        if lin_axis_count > 1:
+            axis_idx = axis_start + 1
+            axis = joint_axis[axis_idx]
+            lower = joint_limit_lower[axis_idx]
+            upper = joint_limit_upper[axis_idx]
+            axis_limits = update_joint_axis_limits(axis, lower, upper, axis_limits)
+            mode = joint_axis_mode[axis_idx]
+            if mode != JOINT_MODE_FORCE:  # position or velocity target
+                ke = joint_target_ke[axis_idx]
+                kd = joint_target_kd[axis_idx]
+                target = joint_act[axis_idx]
+                axis_mode = update_joint_axis_mode(mode, axis, axis_mode)
+                axis_target_ke_kd = update_joint_axis_target_ke_kd(axis, target, ke, kd, axis_target_ke_kd)
+                ke_sum += ke
+        if lin_axis_count > 2:
+            axis_idx = axis_start + 2
+            axis = joint_axis[axis_idx]
+            lower = joint_limit_lower[axis_idx]
+            upper = joint_limit_upper[axis_idx]
+            axis_limits = update_joint_axis_limits(axis, lower, upper, axis_limits)
+            mode = joint_axis_mode[axis_idx]
+            if mode != JOINT_MODE_FORCE:  # position or velocity target
+                ke = joint_target_ke[axis_idx]
+                kd = joint_target_kd[axis_idx]
+                target = joint_act[axis_idx]
+                axis_mode = update_joint_axis_mode(mode, axis, axis_mode)
+                axis_target_ke_kd = update_joint_axis_target_ke_kd(axis, target, ke, kd, axis_target_ke_kd)
+                ke_sum += ke
+
+        axis_target = axis_target_ke_kd[0]
+        axis_stiffness = axis_target_ke_kd[1]
+        axis_damping = axis_target_ke_kd[2]
+        if ke_sum > 0.0:
+            axis_target /= ke_sum
+        axis_limits_lower = wp.spatial_top(axis_limits)
+        axis_limits_upper = wp.spatial_bottom(axis_limits)
+
+        frame_p = wp.quat_to_matrix(wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wp))
+        # note that x_c appearing in both is correct
+        r_p = x_c - world_com_p
+        r_c = x_c - wp.transform_point(pose_c, com_c)
+
+        # for loop will be unrolled, so we can modify local variables
+        for dim in range(3):
+            e = rel_p[dim]
+            mode = axis_mode[dim]
+
+            # compute gradients
+            linear_c = wp.vec3(frame_p[0, dim], frame_p[1, dim], frame_p[2, dim])
+            linear_p = -linear_c
+            angular_p = -wp.cross(r_p, linear_c)
+            angular_c = wp.cross(r_c, linear_c)
+            # constraint time derivative
+            derr = (
+                wp.dot(linear_p, vel_p)
+                + wp.dot(linear_c, vel_c)
+                + wp.dot(angular_p, omega_p)
+                + wp.dot(angular_c, omega_c)
+            )
+
+            err = 0.0
+            compliance = linear_compliance
+            damping = 0.0
+            # consider joint limits irrespective of axis mode
+            lower = axis_limits_lower[dim]
+            upper = axis_limits_upper[dim]
+            if e < lower:
+                err = e - lower
+            elif e > upper:
+                err = e - upper
+            else:
+                target = axis_target[dim]
+                if mode == JOINT_MODE_TARGET_POSITION:
+                    target = wp.clamp(target, lower, upper)
+                    if axis_stiffness[dim] > 0.0:
+                        err = e - target
+                        compliance = 1.0 / axis_stiffness[dim]
+                    damping = axis_damping[dim]
+                elif mode == JOINT_MODE_TARGET_VELOCITY:
+                    if axis_stiffness[dim] > 0.0:
+                        err = (derr - target) * dt
+                        compliance = 1.0 / axis_stiffness[dim]
+                    damping = axis_damping[dim]
+                    derr = 0.0
+
+            if wp.abs(err) > 1e-9:
+                lambda_in = 0.0
+                d_lambda = compute_positional_correction(
+                    err,
+                    derr,
+                    pose_p,
+                    pose_c,
+                    m_inv_p,
+                    m_inv_c,
+                    I_inv_p,
+                    I_inv_c,
+                    linear_p,
+                    linear_c,
+                    angular_p,
+                    angular_c,
+                    lambda_in,
+                    compliance,
+                    damping,
+                    dt,
+                )
+
+                lin_delta_p += linear_p * (d_lambda * linear_relaxation)
+                ang_delta_p += angular_p * (d_lambda * angular_relaxation)
+                lin_delta_c += linear_c * (d_lambda * linear_relaxation)
+                ang_delta_c += angular_c * (d_lambda * angular_relaxation)
+
+    if (
+        type == wp.sim.JOINT_FIXED
+        or type == wp.sim.JOINT_PRISMATIC
+        or type == wp.sim.JOINT_REVOLUTE
+        or type == wp.sim.JOINT_UNIVERSAL
+        or type == wp.sim.JOINT_COMPOUND
+        or type == wp.sim.JOINT_D6
+    ):
+        # handle angular constraints
+
+        # local joint rotations
+        q_p = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wp)
+        q_c = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wc)
+
+        # make quats lie in same hemisphere
+        if wp.dot(q_p, q_c) < 0.0:
+            q_c *= -1.0
+
+        rel_q = wp.quat_inverse(q_p) * q_c
+
+        qtwist = wp.normalize(wp.quat(rel_q[0], 0.0, 0.0, rel_q[3]))
+        qswing = rel_q * wp.quat_inverse(qtwist)
+
+        # decompose to a compound rotation each axis
+        s = wp.sqrt(rel_q[0] * rel_q[0] + rel_q[3] * rel_q[3])
+        invs = 1.0 / s
+        invscube = invs * invs * invs
+
+        # handle axis-angle joints
+
+        # rescale twist from quaternion space to angular
+        err_0 = 2.0 * wp.asin(wp.clamp(qtwist[0], -1.0, 1.0))
+        err_1 = qswing[1]
+        err_2 = qswing[2]
+        # analytic gradients of swing-twist decomposition
+        grad_0 = wp.quat(invs - rel_q[0] * rel_q[0] * invscube, 0.0, 0.0, -(rel_q[3] * rel_q[0]) * invscube)
+        grad_1 = wp.quat(
+            -rel_q[3] * (rel_q[3] * rel_q[2] + rel_q[0] * rel_q[1]) * invscube,
+            rel_q[3] * invs,
+            -rel_q[0] * invs,
+            rel_q[0] * (rel_q[3] * rel_q[2] + rel_q[0] * rel_q[1]) * invscube,
+        )
+        grad_2 = wp.quat(
+            rel_q[3] * (rel_q[3] * rel_q[1] - rel_q[0] * rel_q[2]) * invscube,
+            rel_q[0] * invs,
+            rel_q[3] * invs,
+            rel_q[0] * (rel_q[2] * rel_q[0] - rel_q[3] * rel_q[1]) * invscube,
+        )
+        grad_0 *= 2.0 / wp.abs(qtwist[3])
+        # grad_0 *= 2.0 / wp.sqrt(1.0-qtwist[0]*qtwist[0])	# derivative of asin(x) = 1/sqrt(1-x^2)
+
+        # rescale swing
+        swing_sq = qswing[3] * qswing[3]
+        # if swing axis magnitude close to zero vector, just treat in quaternion space
+        angularEps = 1.0e-4
+        if swing_sq + angularEps < 1.0:
+            d = wp.sqrt(1.0 - qswing[3] * qswing[3])
+            theta = 2.0 * wp.acos(wp.clamp(qswing[3], -1.0, 1.0))
+            scale = theta / d
+
+            err_1 *= scale
+            err_2 *= scale
+
+            grad_1 *= scale
+            grad_2 *= scale
+
+        errs = wp.vec3(err_0, err_1, err_2)
+        grad_x = wp.vec3(grad_0[0], grad_1[0], grad_2[0])
+        grad_y = wp.vec3(grad_0[1], grad_1[1], grad_2[1])
+        grad_z = wp.vec3(grad_0[2], grad_1[2], grad_2[2])
+        grad_w = wp.vec3(grad_0[3], grad_1[3], grad_2[3])
+
+        # compute joint target, stiffness, damping
+        ke_sum = float(0.0)
+        axis_limits = wp.spatial_vector(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+        axis_mode = wp.vec3i(0, 0, 0)
+        axis_target_ke_kd = wp.mat33(0.0)
+        # avoid a for loop here since local variables would need to be modified which is not yet differentiable
+        if ang_axis_count > 0:
+            axis_idx = axis_start + lin_axis_count
+            axis = joint_axis[axis_idx]
+            lo_temp = axis * joint_limit_lower[axis_idx]
+            up_temp = axis * joint_limit_upper[axis_idx]
+            axis_limits = wp.spatial_vector(vec_min(lo_temp, up_temp), vec_max(lo_temp, up_temp))
+            mode = joint_axis_mode[axis_idx]
+            if mode != JOINT_MODE_FORCE:  # position or velocity target
+                ke = joint_target_ke[axis_idx]
+                kd = joint_target_kd[axis_idx]
+                target = joint_act[axis_idx]
+                axis_mode = update_joint_axis_mode(mode, axis, axis_mode)
+                axis_target_ke_kd = update_joint_axis_target_ke_kd(axis, target, ke, kd, axis_target_ke_kd)
+                ke_sum += ke
+        if ang_axis_count > 1:
+            axis_idx = axis_start + lin_axis_count + 1
+            axis = joint_axis[axis_idx]
+            lower = joint_limit_lower[axis_idx]
+            upper = joint_limit_upper[axis_idx]
+            axis_limits = update_joint_axis_limits(axis, lower, upper, axis_limits)
+            mode = joint_axis_mode[axis_idx]
+            if mode != JOINT_MODE_FORCE:  # position or velocity target
+                ke = joint_target_ke[axis_idx]
+                kd = joint_target_kd[axis_idx]
+                target = joint_act[axis_idx]
+                axis_mode = update_joint_axis_mode(mode, axis, axis_mode)
+                axis_target_ke_kd = update_joint_axis_target_ke_kd(axis, target, ke, kd, axis_target_ke_kd)
+                ke_sum += ke
+        if ang_axis_count > 2:
+            axis_idx = axis_start + lin_axis_count + 2
+            axis = joint_axis[axis_idx]
+            lower = joint_limit_lower[axis_idx]
+            upper = joint_limit_upper[axis_idx]
+            axis_limits = update_joint_axis_limits(axis, lower, upper, axis_limits)
+            mode = joint_axis_mode[axis_idx]
+            if mode != JOINT_MODE_FORCE:  # position or velocity target
+                ke = joint_target_ke[axis_idx]
+                kd = joint_target_kd[axis_idx]
+                target = joint_act[axis_idx]
+                axis_mode = update_joint_axis_mode(mode, axis, axis_mode)
+                axis_target_ke_kd = update_joint_axis_target_ke_kd(axis, target, ke, kd, axis_target_ke_kd)
+                ke_sum += ke
+
+        axis_target = axis_target_ke_kd[0]
+        axis_stiffness = axis_target_ke_kd[1]
+        axis_damping = axis_target_ke_kd[2]
+        if ke_sum > 0.0:
+            axis_target /= ke_sum
+        axis_limits_lower = wp.spatial_top(axis_limits)
+        axis_limits_upper = wp.spatial_bottom(axis_limits)
+
+        # if type == wp.sim.JOINT_D6:
+        #     wp.printf("axis_target: %f %f %f\t axis_stiffness: %f %f %f\t axis_damping: %f %f %f\t axis_limits_lower: %f %f %f \t axis_limits_upper: %f %f %f\n",
+        #               axis_target[0], axis_target[1], axis_target[2],
+        #               axis_stiffness[0], axis_stiffness[1], axis_stiffness[2],
+        #               axis_damping[0], axis_damping[1], axis_damping[2],
+        #               axis_limits_lower[0], axis_limits_lower[1], axis_limits_lower[2],
+        #               axis_limits_upper[0], axis_limits_upper[1], axis_limits_upper[2])
+        #     # wp.printf("wp.sqrt(1.0-qtwist[0]*qtwist[0]) = %f\n", wp.sqrt(1.0-qtwist[0]*qtwist[0]))
+
+        for dim in range(3):
+            e = errs[dim]
+            mode = axis_mode[dim]
+
+            # analytic gradients of swing-twist decomposition
+            grad = wp.quat(grad_x[dim], grad_y[dim], grad_z[dim], grad_w[dim])
+
+            quat_c = 0.5 * q_p * grad * wp.quat_inverse(q_c)
+            angular_c = wp.vec3(quat_c[0], quat_c[1], quat_c[2])
+            angular_p = -angular_c
+            # time derivative of the constraint
+            derr = wp.dot(angular_p, omega_p) + wp.dot(angular_c, omega_c)
+
+            err = 0.0
+            compliance = angular_compliance
+            damping = 0.0
+
+            # consider joint limits irrespective of mode
+            lower = axis_limits_lower[dim]
+            upper = axis_limits_upper[dim]
+            if e < lower:
+                err = e - lower
+            elif e > upper:
+                err = e - upper
+            else:
+                target = axis_target[dim]
+                if mode == JOINT_MODE_TARGET_POSITION:
+                    target = wp.clamp(target, lower, upper)
+                    if axis_stiffness[dim] > 0.0:
+                        err = e - target
+                        compliance = 1.0 / axis_stiffness[dim]
+                    damping = axis_damping[dim]
+                elif mode == JOINT_MODE_TARGET_VELOCITY:
+                    if axis_stiffness[dim] > 0.0:
+                        err = (derr - target) * dt
+                        compliance = 1.0 / axis_stiffness[dim]
+                    damping = axis_damping[dim]
+                    derr = 0.0
+
+            d_lambda = (
+                compute_angular_correction(
+                    err, derr, pose_p, pose_c, I_inv_p, I_inv_c, angular_p, angular_c, 0.0, compliance, damping, dt
+                )
+                * angular_relaxation
+            )
+
+            # update deltas
+            ang_delta_p += angular_p * d_lambda
+            ang_delta_c += angular_c * d_lambda
+
+    if id_p >= 0:
+        wp.atomic_add(deltas, id_p, wp.spatial_vector(ang_delta_p, lin_delta_p))
+    if id_c >= 0:
+        wp.atomic_add(deltas, id_c, wp.spatial_vector(ang_delta_c, lin_delta_c))
+
+
+@wp.func
+def compute_contact_constraint_delta(
+    err: float,
+    tf_a: wp.transform,
+    tf_b: wp.transform,
+    m_inv_a: float,
+    m_inv_b: float,
+    I_inv_a: wp.mat33,
+    I_inv_b: wp.mat33,
+    linear_a: wp.vec3,
+    linear_b: wp.vec3,
+    angular_a: wp.vec3,
+    angular_b: wp.vec3,
+    relaxation: float,
+    dt: float,
+) -> float:
+    denom = 0.0
+    denom += wp.length_sq(linear_a) * m_inv_a
+    denom += wp.length_sq(linear_b) * m_inv_b
+
+    q1 = wp.transform_get_rotation(tf_a)
+    q2 = wp.transform_get_rotation(tf_b)
+
+    # Eq. 2-3 (make sure to project into the frame of the body)
+    rot_angular_a = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q1, angular_a)
+    rot_angular_b = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q2, angular_b)
+
+    denom += wp.dot(rot_angular_a, I_inv_a * rot_angular_a)
+    denom += wp.dot(rot_angular_b, I_inv_b * rot_angular_b)
+
+    delta_lambda = -err
+    if denom > 0.0:
+        delta_lambda /= dt * denom
+
+    return delta_lambda * relaxation
+
+
+@wp.func
+def compute_positional_correction(
+    err: float,
+    derr: float,
+    tf_a: wp.transform,
+    tf_b: wp.transform,
+    m_inv_a: float,
+    m_inv_b: float,
+    I_inv_a: wp.mat33,
+    I_inv_b: wp.mat33,
+    linear_a: wp.vec3,
+    linear_b: wp.vec3,
+    angular_a: wp.vec3,
+    angular_b: wp.vec3,
+    lambda_in: float,
+    compliance: float,
+    damping: float,
+    dt: float,
+) -> float:
+    denom = 0.0
+    denom += wp.length_sq(linear_a) * m_inv_a
+    denom += wp.length_sq(linear_b) * m_inv_b
+
+    q1 = wp.transform_get_rotation(tf_a)
+    q2 = wp.transform_get_rotation(tf_b)
+
+    # Eq. 2-3 (make sure to project into the frame of the body)
+    rot_angular_a = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q1, angular_a)
+    rot_angular_b = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q2, angular_b)
+
+    denom += wp.dot(rot_angular_a, I_inv_a * rot_angular_a)
+    denom += wp.dot(rot_angular_b, I_inv_b * rot_angular_b)
+
+    alpha = compliance
+    gamma = compliance * damping
+
+    delta_lambda = -(err + alpha * lambda_in + gamma * derr)
+    if denom + alpha > 0.0:
+        delta_lambda /= (dt + gamma) * denom + alpha / dt
+
+    return delta_lambda
+
+
+@wp.func
+def compute_angular_correction(
+    err: float,
+    derr: float,
+    tf_a: wp.transform,
+    tf_b: wp.transform,
+    I_inv_a: wp.mat33,
+    I_inv_b: wp.mat33,
+    angular_a: wp.vec3,
+    angular_b: wp.vec3,
+    lambda_in: float,
+    compliance: float,
+    damping: float,
+    dt: float,
+) -> float:
+    denom = 0.0
+
+    q1 = wp.transform_get_rotation(tf_a)
+    q2 = wp.transform_get_rotation(tf_b)
+
+    # Eq. 2-3 (make sure to project into the frame of the body)
+    rot_angular_a = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q1, angular_a)
+    rot_angular_b = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q2, angular_b)
+
+    denom += wp.dot(rot_angular_a, I_inv_a * rot_angular_a)
+    denom += wp.dot(rot_angular_b, I_inv_b * rot_angular_b)
+
+    alpha = compliance
+    gamma = compliance * damping
+
+    delta_lambda = -(err + alpha * lambda_in + gamma * derr)
+    if denom + alpha > 0.0:
+        delta_lambda /= (dt + gamma) * denom + alpha / dt
+
+    return delta_lambda
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def solve_body_contact_positions(
+    body_q: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    body_qd: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+    body_com: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    body_m_inv: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    body_I_inv: wp.array(dtype=wp.mat33),
+    shape_body: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    contact_count: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    contact_point0: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_point1: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_offset0: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_offset1: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_normal: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_thickness: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    contact_shape0: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    contact_shape1: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    shape_materials: ModelShapeMaterials,
+    relaxation: float,
+    dt: float,
+    contact_torsional_friction: float,
+    contact_rolling_friction: float,
+    # outputs
+    deltas: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+    contact_inv_weight: wp.array(dtype=float),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    count = contact_count[0]
+    if tid >= count:
+        return
+
+    shape_a = contact_shape0[tid]
+    shape_b = contact_shape1[tid]
+    if shape_a == shape_b:
+        return
+    body_a = -1
+    if shape_a >= 0:
+        body_a = shape_body[shape_a]
+    body_b = -1
+    if shape_b >= 0:
+        body_b = shape_body[shape_b]
+    if body_a == body_b:
+        return
+
+    # find body to world transform
+    X_wb_a = wp.transform_identity()
+    X_wb_b = wp.transform_identity()
+    if body_a >= 0:
+        X_wb_a = body_q[body_a]
+    if body_b >= 0:
+        X_wb_b = body_q[body_b]
+
+    # compute body position in world space
+    bx_a = wp.transform_point(X_wb_a, contact_point0[tid])
+    bx_b = wp.transform_point(X_wb_b, contact_point1[tid])
+
+    thickness = contact_thickness[tid]
+    n = -contact_normal[tid]
+    d = wp.dot(n, bx_b - bx_a) - thickness
+
+    if d >= 0.0:
+        return
+
+    m_inv_a = 0.0
+    m_inv_b = 0.0
+    I_inv_a = wp.mat33(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+    I_inv_b = wp.mat33(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+    # center of mass in body frame
+    com_a = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    com_b = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    # body to world transform
+    X_wb_a = wp.transform_identity()
+    X_wb_b = wp.transform_identity()
+    # angular velocities
+    omega_a = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    omega_b = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    # contact offset in body frame
+    offset_a = contact_offset0[tid]
+    offset_b = contact_offset1[tid]
+
+    if body_a >= 0:
+        X_wb_a = body_q[body_a]
+        com_a = body_com[body_a]
+        m_inv_a = body_m_inv[body_a]
+        I_inv_a = body_I_inv[body_a]
+        omega_a = wp.spatial_top(body_qd[body_a])
+
+    if body_b >= 0:
+        X_wb_b = body_q[body_b]
+        com_b = body_com[body_b]
+        m_inv_b = body_m_inv[body_b]
+        I_inv_b = body_I_inv[body_b]
+        omega_b = wp.spatial_top(body_qd[body_b])
+
+    # use average contact material properties
+    mat_nonzero = 0
+    mu = 0.0
+    if shape_a >= 0:
+        mat_nonzero += 1
+        mu += shape_materials.mu[shape_a]
+    if shape_b >= 0:
+        mat_nonzero += 1
+        mu += shape_materials.mu[shape_b]
+    if mat_nonzero > 0:
+        mu /= float(mat_nonzero)
+
+    r_a = bx_a - wp.transform_point(X_wb_a, com_a)
+    r_b = bx_b - wp.transform_point(X_wb_b, com_b)
+
+    angular_a = -wp.cross(r_a, n)
+    angular_b = wp.cross(r_b, n)
+
+    if contact_inv_weight:
+        if body_a >= 0:
+            wp.atomic_add(contact_inv_weight, body_a, 1.0)
+        if body_b >= 0:
+            wp.atomic_add(contact_inv_weight, body_b, 1.0)
+
+    lambda_n = compute_contact_constraint_delta(
+        d, X_wb_a, X_wb_b, m_inv_a, m_inv_b, I_inv_a, I_inv_b, -n, n, angular_a, angular_b, relaxation, dt
+    )
+
+    lin_delta_a = -n * lambda_n
+    lin_delta_b = n * lambda_n
+    ang_delta_a = angular_a * lambda_n
+    ang_delta_b = angular_b * lambda_n
+
+    # linear friction
+    if mu > 0.0:
+        # add on displacement from surface offsets, this ensures we include any rotational effects due to thickness from feature
+        # need to use the current rotation to account for friction due to angular effects (e.g.: slipping contact)
+        bx_a += wp.transform_vector(X_wb_a, offset_a)
+        bx_b += wp.transform_vector(X_wb_b, offset_b)
+
+        # update delta
+        delta = bx_b - bx_a
+        friction_delta = delta - wp.dot(n, delta) * n
+
+        perp = wp.normalize(friction_delta)
+
+        r_a = bx_a - wp.transform_point(X_wb_a, com_a)
+        r_b = bx_b - wp.transform_point(X_wb_b, com_b)
+
+        angular_a = -wp.cross(r_a, perp)
+        angular_b = wp.cross(r_b, perp)
+
+        err = wp.length(friction_delta)
+
+        if err > 0.0:
+            lambda_fr = compute_contact_constraint_delta(
+                err, X_wb_a, X_wb_b, m_inv_a, m_inv_b, I_inv_a, I_inv_b, -perp, perp, angular_a, angular_b, 1.0, dt
+            )
+
+            # limit friction based on incremental normal force, good approximation to limiting on total force
+            lambda_fr = wp.max(lambda_fr, -lambda_n * mu)
+
+            lin_delta_a -= perp * lambda_fr
+            lin_delta_b += perp * lambda_fr
+
+            ang_delta_a += angular_a * lambda_fr
+            ang_delta_b += angular_b * lambda_fr
+
+    torsional_friction = mu * contact_torsional_friction
+
+    delta_omega = omega_b - omega_a
+
+    if torsional_friction > 0.0:
+        err = wp.dot(delta_omega, n) * dt
+
+        if wp.abs(err) > 0.0:
+            lin = wp.vec3(0.0)
+            lambda_torsion = compute_contact_constraint_delta(
+                err, X_wb_a, X_wb_b, m_inv_a, m_inv_b, I_inv_a, I_inv_b, lin, lin, -n, n, 1.0, dt
+            )
+
+            lambda_torsion = wp.clamp(lambda_torsion, -lambda_n * torsional_friction, lambda_n * torsional_friction)
+
+            ang_delta_a -= n * lambda_torsion
+            ang_delta_b += n * lambda_torsion
+
+    rolling_friction = mu * contact_rolling_friction
+    if rolling_friction > 0.0:
+        delta_omega -= wp.dot(n, delta_omega) * n
+        err = wp.length(delta_omega) * dt
+        if err > 0.0:
+            lin = wp.vec3(0.0)
+            roll_n = wp.normalize(delta_omega)
+            lambda_roll = compute_contact_constraint_delta(
+                err, X_wb_a, X_wb_b, m_inv_a, m_inv_b, I_inv_a, I_inv_b, lin, lin, -roll_n, roll_n, 1.0, dt
+            )
+
+            lambda_roll = wp.max(lambda_roll, -lambda_n * rolling_friction)
+
+            ang_delta_a -= roll_n * lambda_roll
+            ang_delta_b += roll_n * lambda_roll
+
+    if body_a >= 0:
+        wp.atomic_add(deltas, body_a, wp.spatial_vector(ang_delta_a, lin_delta_a))
+    if body_b >= 0:
+        wp.atomic_add(deltas, body_b, wp.spatial_vector(ang_delta_b, lin_delta_b))
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def update_body_velocities(
+    poses: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    poses_prev: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    body_com: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    dt: float,
+    qd_out: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    pose = poses[tid]
+    pose_prev = poses_prev[tid]
+
+    x = wp.transform_get_translation(pose)
+    x_prev = wp.transform_get_translation(pose_prev)
+
+    q = wp.transform_get_rotation(pose)
+    q_prev = wp.transform_get_rotation(pose_prev)
+
+    # Update body velocities according to Alg. 2
+    # XXX we consider the body COM as the origin of the body frame
+    x_com = x + wp.quat_rotate(q, body_com[tid])
+    x_com_prev = x_prev + wp.quat_rotate(q_prev, body_com[tid])
+
+    # XXX consider the velocity of the COM
+    v = (x_com - x_com_prev) / dt
+    dq = q * wp.quat_inverse(q_prev)
+
+    omega = 2.0 / dt * wp.vec3(dq[0], dq[1], dq[2])
+    if dq[3] < 0.0:
+        omega = -omega
+
+    qd_out[tid] = wp.spatial_vector(omega, v)
+
+
+@wp.kernel
+def apply_rigid_restitution(
+    body_q: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    body_qd: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+    body_q_prev: wp.array(dtype=wp.transform),
+    body_qd_prev: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+    body_com: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    body_m_inv: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    body_I_inv: wp.array(dtype=wp.mat33),
+    shape_body: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    contact_count: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    contact_normal: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_shape0: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    contact_shape1: wp.array(dtype=int),
+    shape_materials: ModelShapeMaterials,
+    contact_point0: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_point1: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_offset0: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_offset1: wp.array(dtype=wp.vec3),
+    contact_thickness: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    contact_inv_weight: wp.array(dtype=float),
+    gravity: wp.vec3,
+    dt: float,
+    # outputs
+    deltas: wp.array(dtype=wp.spatial_vector),
+):
+    tid = wp.tid()
+
+    count = contact_count[0]
+    if tid >= count:
+        return
+    shape_a = contact_shape0[tid]
+    shape_b = contact_shape1[tid]
+    if shape_a == shape_b:
+        return
+    body_a = -1
+    body_b = -1
+
+    # use average contact material properties
+    mat_nonzero = 0
+    restitution = 0.0
+    if shape_a >= 0:
+        mat_nonzero += 1
+        restitution += shape_materials.restitution[shape_a]
+        body_a = shape_body[shape_a]
+    if shape_b >= 0:
+        mat_nonzero += 1
+        restitution += shape_materials.restitution[shape_b]
+        body_b = shape_body[shape_b]
+    if mat_nonzero > 0:
+        restitution /= float(mat_nonzero)
+    if body_a == body_b:
+        return
+
+    m_inv_a = 0.0
+    m_inv_b = 0.0
+    I_inv_a = wp.mat33(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+    I_inv_b = wp.mat33(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0)
+    # body to world transform
+    X_wb_a_prev = wp.transform_identity()
+    X_wb_b_prev = wp.transform_identity()
+    # center of mass in body frame
+    com_a = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    com_b = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    # previous velocity at contact points
+    v_a = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    v_b = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    # new velocity at contact points
+    v_a_new = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    v_b_new = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    # inverse mass used to compute the impulse
+    inv_mass = 0.0
+
+    if body_a >= 0:
+        X_wb_a_prev = body_q_prev[body_a]
+        # X_wb_a = body_q[body_a]
+        m_inv_a = body_m_inv[body_a]
+        I_inv_a = body_I_inv[body_a]
+        com_a = body_com[body_a]
+
+    if body_b >= 0:
+        X_wb_b_prev = body_q_prev[body_b]
+        # X_wb_b = body_q[body_b]
+        m_inv_b = body_m_inv[body_b]
+        I_inv_b = body_I_inv[body_b]
+        com_b = body_com[body_b]
+
+    # compute body position in world space
+    bx_a = wp.transform_point(X_wb_a_prev, contact_point0[tid] + contact_offset0[tid])
+    bx_b = wp.transform_point(X_wb_b_prev, contact_point1[tid] + contact_offset1[tid])
+
+    thickness = contact_thickness[tid]
+    n = contact_normal[tid]
+    d = -wp.dot(n, bx_b - bx_a) - thickness
+    if d >= 0.0:
+        return
+
+    r_a = bx_a - wp.transform_point(X_wb_a_prev, com_a)
+    r_b = bx_b - wp.transform_point(X_wb_b_prev, com_b)
+
+    rxn_a = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    rxn_b = wp.vec3(0.0)
+    if body_a >= 0:
+        v_a = velocity_at_point(body_qd_prev[body_a], r_a) + gravity * dt
+        v_a_new = velocity_at_point(body_qd[body_a], r_a)
+        q_a = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wb_a_prev)
+        rxn_a = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q_a, wp.cross(r_a, n))
+        # Eq. 2
+        inv_mass_a = m_inv_a + wp.dot(rxn_a, I_inv_a * rxn_a)
+        # if contact_inv_weight:
+        #     if contact_inv_weight[body_a] > 0.0:
+        #         inv_mass_a *= contact_inv_weight[body_a]
+        inv_mass += inv_mass_a
+    if body_b >= 0:
+        v_b = velocity_at_point(body_qd_prev[body_b], r_b) + gravity * dt
+        v_b_new = velocity_at_point(body_qd[body_b], r_b)
+        q_b = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wb_b_prev)
+        rxn_b = wp.quat_rotate_inv(q_b, wp.cross(r_b, n))
+        # Eq. 3
+        inv_mass_b = m_inv_b + wp.dot(rxn_b, I_inv_b * rxn_b)
+        # if contact_inv_weight:
+        #     if contact_inv_weight[body_b] > 0.0:
+        #         inv_mass_b *= contact_inv_weight[body_b]
+        inv_mass += inv_mass_b
+
+    if inv_mass == 0.0:
+        return
+
+    # Eq. 29
+    rel_vel_old = wp.dot(n, v_a - v_b)
+    rel_vel_new = wp.dot(n, v_a_new - v_b_new)
+
+    if rel_vel_old >= 0.0:
+        return
+
+    # Eq. 34
+    dv = (-rel_vel_new - restitution * rel_vel_old) / inv_mass
+
+    # Eq. 33
+    if body_a >= 0:
+        dv_a = dv
+        # if contact_inv_weight:
+        #     if contact_inv_weight[body_a] > 0.0:
+        #         dv_a *= contact_inv_weight[body_a]
+        q_a = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wb_a_prev)
+        dq = wp.quat_rotate(q_a, I_inv_a * rxn_a * dv_a)
+        wp.atomic_add(deltas, body_a, wp.spatial_vector(dq, n * m_inv_a * dv_a))
+
+    if body_b >= 0:
+        dv_b = -dv
+        # if contact_inv_weight:
+        #     if contact_inv_weight[body_b] > 0.0:
+        #         dv_b *= contact_inv_weight[body_b]
+        q_b = wp.transform_get_rotation(X_wb_b_prev)
+        dq = wp.quat_rotate(q_b, I_inv_b * rxn_b * dv_b)
+        wp.atomic_add(deltas, body_b, wp.spatial_vector(dq, n * m_inv_b * dv_b))
+
+
+class XPBDIntegrator(Integrator):
+    """An implicit integrator using eXtended Position-Based Dynamics (XPBD) for rigid and soft body simulation.
+
+    References:
+        - Miles Macklin, Matthias Müller, and Nuttapong Chentanez. 2016. XPBD: position-based simulation of compliant constrained dynamics. In Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Motion in Games (MIG '16). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 49-54. https://doi.org/10.1145/2994258.2994272
+        - Matthias Müller, Miles Macklin, Nuttapong Chentanez, Stefan Jeschke, and Tae-Yong Kim. 2020. Detailed rigid body simulation with extended position based dynamics. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH/Eurographics Symposium on Computer Animation (SCA '20). Eurographics Association, Goslar, DEU, Article 10, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1111/cgf.14105
+
+    After constructing :class:`Model`, :class:`State`, and :class:`Control` (optional) objects, this time-integrator
+    may be used to advance the simulation state forward in time.
+
+    Example
+    -------
+
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        integrator = wp.XPBDIntegrator()
+
+        # simulation loop
+        for i in range(100):
+            state = integrator.simulate(model, state_in, state_out, dt, control)
+
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        iterations=2,
+        soft_body_relaxation=0.9,
+        soft_contact_relaxation=0.9,
+        joint_linear_relaxation=0.7,
+        joint_angular_relaxation=0.4,
+        rigid_contact_relaxation=0.8,
+        rigid_contact_con_weighting=True,
+        angular_damping=0.0,
+        enable_restitution=False,
+    ):
+        self.iterations = iterations
+
+        self.soft_body_relaxation = soft_body_relaxation
+        self.soft_contact_relaxation = soft_contact_relaxation
+
+        self.joint_linear_relaxation = joint_linear_relaxation
+        self.joint_angular_relaxation = joint_angular_relaxation
+
+        self.rigid_contact_relaxation = rigid_contact_relaxation
+        self.rigid_contact_con_weighting = rigid_contact_con_weighting
+
+        self.angular_damping = angular_damping
+
+        self.enable_restitution = enable_restitution
+
+        self.compute_body_velocity_from_position_delta = False
+
+        # helper variables to track constraint resolution vars
+        self._particle_delta_counter = 0
+        self._body_delta_counter = 0
+
+    def apply_particle_deltas(
+        self,
+        model: Model,
+        state_in: State,
+        state_out: State,
+        particle_deltas: wp.array,
+        dt: float,
+    ):
+        if state_in.requires_grad:
+            particle_q = state_out.particle_q
+            # allocate new particle arrays so gradients can be tracked correctly without overwriting
+            new_particle_q = wp.empty_like(state_out.particle_q)
+            new_particle_qd = wp.empty_like(state_out.particle_qd)
+            self._particle_delta_counter += 1
+        else:
+            if self._particle_delta_counter == 0:
+                particle_q = state_out.particle_q
+                new_particle_q = state_in.particle_q
+                new_particle_qd = state_in.particle_qd
+            else:
+                particle_q = state_in.particle_q
+                new_particle_q = state_out.particle_q
+                new_particle_qd = state_out.particle_qd
+            self._particle_delta_counter = 1 - self._particle_delta_counter
+
+        wp.launch(
+            kernel=apply_particle_deltas,
+            dim=model.particle_count,
+            inputs=[
+                self.particle_q_init,
+                particle_q,
+                model.particle_flags,
+                particle_deltas,
+                dt,
+                model.particle_max_velocity,
+            ],
+            outputs=[new_particle_q, new_particle_qd],
+            device=model.device,
+        )
+
+        if state_in.requires_grad:
+            state_out.particle_q = new_particle_q
+            state_out.particle_qd = new_particle_qd
+
+        return new_particle_q, new_particle_qd
+
+    def apply_body_deltas(
+        self,
+        model: Model,
+        state_in: State,
+        state_out: State,
+        body_deltas: wp.array,
+        dt: float,
+        rigid_contact_inv_weight: wp.array = None,
+    ):
+        with wp.ScopedTimer("apply_body_deltas", False):
+            if state_in.requires_grad:
+                body_q = state_out.body_q
+                body_qd = state_out.body_qd
+                new_body_q = wp.clone(body_q)
+                new_body_qd = wp.clone(body_qd)
+                self._body_delta_counter += 1
+            else:
+                if self._body_delta_counter == 0:
+                    body_q = state_out.body_q
+                    body_qd = state_out.body_qd
+                    new_body_q = state_in.body_q
+                    new_body_qd = state_in.body_qd
+                else:
+                    body_q = state_in.body_q
+                    body_qd = state_in.body_qd
+                    new_body_q = state_out.body_q
+                    new_body_qd = state_out.body_qd
+                self._body_delta_counter = 1 - self._body_delta_counter
+
+            wp.launch(
+                kernel=apply_body_deltas,
+                dim=model.body_count,
+                inputs=[
+                    body_q,
+                    body_qd,
+                    model.body_com,
+                    model.body_inertia,
+                    model.body_inv_mass,
+                    model.body_inv_inertia,
+                    body_deltas,
+                    rigid_contact_inv_weight,
+                    dt,
+                ],
+                outputs=[
+                    new_body_q,
+                    new_body_qd,
+                ],
+                device=model.device,
+            )
+
+            if state_in.requires_grad:
+                state_out.body_q = new_body_q
+                state_out.body_qd = new_body_qd
+
+        return new_body_q, new_body_qd
+
+    def simulate(self, model: Model, state_in: State, state_out: State, dt: float, control: Control = None):
+        requires_grad = state_in.requires_grad
+        self._particle_delta_counter = 0
+        self._body_delta_counter = 0
+
+        particle_q = None
+        particle_qd = None
+        particle_deltas = None
+
+        body_q = None
+        body_qd = None
+        body_deltas = None
+
+        rigid_contact_inv_weight = None
+
+        if model.rigid_contact_max > 0:
+            if self.rigid_contact_con_weighting:
+                rigid_contact_inv_weight = wp.zeros_like(model.rigid_contact_thickness)
+            rigid_contact_inv_weight_init = None
+
+        if control is None:
+            control = model.control(clone_variables=False)
+
+        with wp.ScopedTimer("simulate", False):
+            if model.particle_count:
+                particle_q = state_out.particle_q
+                particle_qd = state_out.particle_qd
+
+                self.particle_q_init = wp.clone(state_in.particle_q)
+                if self.enable_restitution:
+                    self.particle_qd_init = wp.clone(state_in.particle_qd)
+                particle_deltas = wp.empty_like(state_out.particle_qd)
+
+                self.integrate_particles(model, state_in, state_out, dt)
+
+            if model.body_count:
+                body_q = state_out.body_q
+                body_qd = state_out.body_qd
+
+                if self.compute_body_velocity_from_position_delta or self.enable_restitution:
+                    body_q_init = wp.clone(state_in.body_q)
+                    body_qd_init = wp.clone(state_in.body_qd)
+
+                body_deltas = wp.empty_like(state_out.body_qd)
+
+                if model.joint_count:
+                    wp.launch(
+                        kernel=apply_joint_actions,
+                        dim=model.joint_count,
+                        inputs=[
+                            state_in.body_q,
+                            model.body_com,
+                            model.joint_type,
+                            model.joint_parent,
+                            model.joint_child,
+                            model.joint_X_p,
+                            model.joint_X_c,
+                            model.joint_axis_start,
+                            model.joint_axis_dim,
+                            model.joint_axis,
+                            model.joint_axis_mode,
+                            control.joint_act,
+                        ],
+                        outputs=[state_in.body_f],
+                        device=model.device,
+                    )
+
+                self.integrate_bodies(model, state_in, state_out, dt, self.angular_damping)
+
+            spring_constraint_lambdas = None
+            if model.spring_count:
+                spring_constraint_lambdas = wp.empty_like(model.spring_rest_length)
+            edge_constraint_lambdas = None
+            if model.edge_count:
+                edge_constraint_lambdas = wp.empty_like(model.edge_rest_angle)
+
+            for i in range(self.iterations):
+                with wp.ScopedTimer(f"iteration_{i}", False):
+                    if model.body_count:
+                        if requires_grad and i > 0:
+                            body_deltas = wp.zeros_like(body_deltas)
+                        else:
+                            body_deltas.zero_()
+
+                    if model.particle_count:
+                        if requires_grad and i > 0:
+                            particle_deltas = wp.zeros_like(particle_deltas)
+                        else:
+                            particle_deltas.zero_()
+
+                        # particle ground contact
+                        if model.ground:
+                            wp.launch(
+                                kernel=solve_particle_ground_contacts,
+                                dim=model.particle_count,
+                                inputs=[
+                                    particle_q,
+                                    particle_qd,
+                                    model.particle_inv_mass,
+                                    model.particle_radius,
+                                    model.particle_flags,
+                                    model.soft_contact_ke,
+                                    model.soft_contact_kd,
+                                    model.soft_contact_kf,
+                                    model.soft_contact_mu,
+                                    model.ground_plane,
+                                    dt,
+                                    self.soft_contact_relaxation,
+                                ],
+                                outputs=[particle_deltas],
+                                device=model.device,
+                            )
+
+                        # particle-rigid body contacts (besides ground plane)
+                        if model.shape_count > 1:
+                            wp.launch(
+                                kernel=solve_particle_shape_contacts,
+                                dim=model.soft_contact_max,
+                                inputs=[
+                                    particle_q,
+                                    particle_qd,
+                                    model.particle_inv_mass,
+                                    model.particle_radius,
+                                    model.particle_flags,
+                                    body_q,
+                                    body_qd,
+                                    model.body_com,
+                                    model.body_inv_mass,
+                                    model.body_inv_inertia,
+                                    model.shape_body,
+                                    model.shape_materials,
+                                    model.soft_contact_mu,
+                                    model.particle_adhesion,
+                                    model.soft_contact_count,
+                                    model.soft_contact_particle,
+                                    model.soft_contact_shape,
+                                    model.soft_contact_body_pos,
+                                    model.soft_contact_body_vel,
+                                    model.soft_contact_normal,
+                                    model.soft_contact_max,
+                                    dt,
+                                    self.soft_contact_relaxation,
+                                ],
+                                # outputs
+                                outputs=[particle_deltas, body_deltas],
+                                device=model.device,
+                            )
+
+                        if model.particle_max_radius > 0.0 and model.particle_count > 1:
+                            # assert model.particle_grid.reserved, "model.particle_grid must be built, see HashGrid.build()"
+                            wp.launch(
+                                kernel=solve_particle_particle_contacts,
+                                dim=model.particle_count,
+                                inputs=[
+                                    model.particle_grid.id,
+                                    particle_q,
+                                    particle_qd,
+                                    model.particle_inv_mass,
+                                    model.particle_radius,
+                                    model.particle_flags,
+                                    model.particle_mu,
+                                    model.particle_cohesion,
+                                    model.particle_max_radius,
+                                    dt,
+                                    self.soft_contact_relaxation,
+                                ],
+                                outputs=[particle_deltas],
+                                device=model.device,
+                            )
+
+                        # distance constraints
+                        if model.spring_count:
+                            spring_constraint_lambdas.zero_()
+                            wp.launch(
+                                kernel=solve_springs,
+                                dim=model.spring_count,
+                                inputs=[
+                                    particle_q,
+                                    particle_qd,
+                                    model.particle_inv_mass,
+                                    model.spring_indices,
+                                    model.spring_rest_length,
+                                    model.spring_stiffness,
+                                    model.spring_damping,
+                                    dt,
+                                    spring_constraint_lambdas,
+                                ],
+                                outputs=[particle_deltas],
+                                device=model.device,
+                            )
+
+                        # bending constraints
+                        if model.edge_count:
+                            edge_constraint_lambdas.zero_()
+                            wp.launch(
+                                kernel=bending_constraint,
+                                dim=model.edge_count,
+                                inputs=[
+                                    particle_q,
+                                    particle_qd,
+                                    model.particle_inv_mass,
+                                    model.edge_indices,
+                                    model.edge_rest_angle,
+                                    model.edge_bending_properties,
+                                    dt,
+                                    edge_constraint_lambdas,
+                                ],
+                                outputs=[particle_deltas],
+                                device=model.device,
+                            )
+
+                        # tetrahedral FEM
+                        if model.tet_count:
+                            wp.launch(
+                                kernel=solve_tetrahedra,
+                                dim=model.tet_count,
+                                inputs=[
+                                    particle_q,
+                                    particle_qd,
+                                    model.particle_inv_mass,
+                                    model.tet_indices,
+                                    model.tet_poses,
+                                    model.tet_activations,
+                                    model.tet_materials,
+                                    dt,
+                                    self.soft_body_relaxation,
+                                ],
+                                outputs=[particle_deltas],
+                                device=model.device,
+                            )
+
+                        particle_q, particle_qd = self.apply_particle_deltas(
+                            model, state_in, state_out, particle_deltas, dt
+                        )
+
+                    # handle rigid bodies
+                    # ----------------------------
+
+                    if model.joint_count:
+                        # wp.launch(
+                        #     kernel=solve_simple_body_joints,
+                        #     dim=model.joint_count,
+                        #     inputs=[
+                        #         body_q,
+                        #         body_qd,
+                        #         model.body_com,
+                        #         model.body_inv_mass,
+                        #         model.body_inv_inertia,
+                        #         model.joint_type,
+                        #         model.joint_enabled,
+                        #         model.joint_parent,
+                        #         model.joint_child,
+                        #         model.joint_X_p,
+                        #         model.joint_X_c,
+                        #         model.joint_limit_lower,
+                        #         model.joint_limit_upper,
+                        #         model.joint_axis_start,
+                        #         model.joint_axis_dim,
+                        #         model.joint_axis_mode,
+                        #         model.joint_axis,
+                        #         control.joint_target,
+                        #         model.joint_target_ke,
+                        #         model.joint_target_kd,
+                        #         model.joint_linear_compliance,
+                        #         model.joint_angular_compliance,
+                        #         self.joint_angular_relaxation,
+                        #         self.joint_linear_relaxation,
+                        #         dt,
+                        #     ],
+                        #     outputs=[body_deltas],
+                        #     device=model.device,
+                        # )
+
+                        wp.launch(
+                            kernel=solve_body_joints,
+                            dim=model.joint_count,
+                            inputs=[
+                                body_q,
+                                body_qd,
+                                model.body_com,
+                                model.body_inv_mass,
+                                model.body_inv_inertia,
+                                model.joint_type,
+                                model.joint_enabled,
+                                model.joint_parent,
+                                model.joint_child,
+                                model.joint_X_p,
+                                model.joint_X_c,
+                                model.joint_limit_lower,
+                                model.joint_limit_upper,
+                                model.joint_axis_start,
+                                model.joint_axis_dim,
+                                model.joint_axis_mode,
+                                model.joint_axis,
+                                control.joint_act,
+                                model.joint_target_ke,
+                                model.joint_target_kd,
+                                model.joint_linear_compliance,
+                                model.joint_angular_compliance,
+                                self.joint_angular_relaxation,
+                                self.joint_linear_relaxation,
+                                dt,
+                            ],
+                            outputs=[body_deltas],
+                            device=model.device,
+                        )
+
+                        body_q, body_qd = self.apply_body_deltas(model, state_in, state_out, body_deltas, dt)
+
+                    # Solve rigid contact constraints
+                    if model.rigid_contact_max and (
+                        model.ground and model.shape_ground_contact_pair_count or model.shape_contact_pair_count
+                    ):
+                        if self.rigid_contact_con_weighting:
+                            rigid_contact_inv_weight.zero_()
+                        body_deltas.zero_()
+
+                        wp.launch(
+                            kernel=solve_body_contact_positions,
+                            dim=model.rigid_contact_max,
+                            inputs=[
+                                body_q,
+                                body_qd,
+                                model.body_com,
+                                model.body_inv_mass,
+                                model.body_inv_inertia,
+                                model.shape_body,
+                                model.rigid_contact_count,
+                                model.rigid_contact_point0,
+                                model.rigid_contact_point1,
+                                model.rigid_contact_offset0,
+                                model.rigid_contact_offset1,
+                                model.rigid_contact_normal,
+                                model.rigid_contact_thickness,
+                                model.rigid_contact_shape0,
+                                model.rigid_contact_shape1,
+                                model.shape_materials,
+                                self.rigid_contact_relaxation,
+                                dt,
+                                model.rigid_contact_torsional_friction,
+                                model.rigid_contact_rolling_friction,
+                            ],
+                            outputs=[
+                                body_deltas,
+                                rigid_contact_inv_weight,
+                            ],
+                            device=model.device,
+                        )
+
+                        # if model.rigid_contact_count.numpy()[0] > 0:
+                        #     print("rigid_contact_count:", model.rigid_contact_count.numpy().flatten())
+                        #     # print("rigid_active_contact_distance:", rigid_active_contact_distance.numpy().flatten())
+                        #     # print("rigid_active_contact_point0:", rigid_active_contact_point0.numpy().flatten())
+                        #     # print("rigid_active_contact_point1:", rigid_active_contact_point1.numpy().flatten())
+                        #     print("body_deltas:", body_deltas.numpy().flatten())
+
+                        # print(rigid_active_contact_distance.numpy().flatten())
+
+                        if self.enable_restitution and i == 0:
+                            # remember contact constraint weighting from the first iteration
+                            if self.rigid_contact_con_weighting:
+                                rigid_contact_inv_weight_init = wp.clone(rigid_contact_inv_weight)
+                            else:
+                                rigid_contact_inv_weight_init = None
+
+                        body_q, body_qd = self.apply_body_deltas(
+                            model, state_in, state_out, body_deltas, dt, rigid_contact_inv_weight
+                        )
+
+            if model.particle_count:
+                if particle_q.ptr != state_out.particle_q.ptr:
+                    state_out.particle_q.assign(particle_q)
+                    state_out.particle_qd.assign(particle_qd)
+
+            if model.body_count:
+                if body_q.ptr != state_out.body_q.ptr:
+                    state_out.body_q.assign(body_q)
+                    state_out.body_qd.assign(body_qd)
+
+            # update body velocities from position changes
+            if self.compute_body_velocity_from_position_delta and model.body_count and not requires_grad:
+                # causes gradient issues (probably due to numerical problems
+                # when computing velocities from position changes)
+                if requires_grad:
+                    out_body_qd = wp.clone(state_out.body_qd)
+                else:
+                    out_body_qd = state_out.body_qd
+
+                # update body velocities
+                wp.launch(
+                    kernel=update_body_velocities,
+                    dim=model.body_count,
+                    inputs=[state_out.body_q, body_q_init, model.body_com, dt],
+                    outputs=[out_body_qd],
+                    device=model.device,
+                )
+
+            if self.enable_restitution:
+                if model.particle_count:
+                    wp.launch(
+                        kernel=apply_particle_shape_restitution,
+                        dim=model.particle_count,
+                        inputs=[
+                            particle_q,
+                            particle_qd,
+                            self.particle_q_init,
+                            self.particle_qd_init,
+                            model.particle_inv_mass,
+                            model.particle_radius,
+                            model.particle_flags,
+                            body_q,
+                            body_qd,
+                            model.body_com,
+                            model.body_inv_mass,
+                            model.body_inv_inertia,
+                            model.shape_body,
+                            model.shape_materials,
+                            model.particle_adhesion,
+                            model.soft_contact_restitution,
+                            model.soft_contact_count,
+                            model.soft_contact_particle,
+                            model.soft_contact_shape,
+                            model.soft_contact_body_pos,
+                            model.soft_contact_body_vel,
+                            model.soft_contact_normal,
+                            model.soft_contact_max,
+                            dt,
+                            self.soft_contact_relaxation,
+                        ],
+                        outputs=[state_out.particle_qd],
+                        device=model.device,
+                    )
+                    if model.ground:
+                        wp.launch(
+                            kernel=apply_particle_ground_restitution,
+                            dim=model.particle_count,
+                            inputs=[
+                                particle_q,
+                                particle_qd,
+                                self.particle_q_init,
+                                self.particle_qd_init,
+                                model.particle_inv_mass,
+                                model.particle_radius,
+                                model.particle_flags,
+                                model.particle_adhesion,
+                                model.soft_contact_restitution,
+                                model.ground_plane,
+                                dt,
+                                self.soft_contact_relaxation,
+                            ],
+                            outputs=[state_out.particle_qd],
+                            device=model.device,
+                        )
+
+                if model.body_count:
+                    body_deltas.zero_()
+                    wp.launch(
+                        kernel=apply_rigid_restitution,
+                        dim=model.rigid_contact_max,
+                        inputs=[
+                            state_out.body_q,
+                            state_out.body_qd,
+                            body_q_init,
+                            body_qd_init,
+                            model.body_com,
+                            model.body_inv_mass,
+                            model.body_inv_inertia,
+                            model.shape_body,
+                            model.rigid_contact_count,
+                            model.rigid_contact_normal,
+                            model.rigid_contact_shape0,
+                            model.rigid_contact_shape1,
+                            model.shape_materials,
+                            model.rigid_contact_point0,
+                            model.rigid_contact_point1,
+                            model.rigid_contact_offset0,
+                            model.rigid_contact_offset1,
+                            model.rigid_contact_thickness,
+                            rigid_contact_inv_weight_init,
+                            model.gravity,
+                            dt,
+                        ],
+                        outputs=[
+                            body_deltas,
+                        ],
+                        device=model.device,
+                    )
+
+                    wp.launch(
+                        kernel=apply_body_delta_velocities,
+                        dim=model.body_count,
+                        inputs=[
+                            body_deltas,
+                        ],
+                        outputs=[state_out.body_qd],
+                        device=model.device,
+                    )
+
+            return state_out