scipy 1.16.2__cp312-cp312-win_arm64.whl

scipy/stats/tests/test_resampling.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2000 @@
+import pytest
+
+import numpy as np
+from numpy.testing import assert_allclose, assert_equal, suppress_warnings
+
+from scipy._lib._util import rng_integers
+from scipy._lib._array_api import is_numpy
+from scipy._lib._array_api_no_0d import xp_assert_close, xp_assert_equal
+from scipy import stats, special
+from scipy.optimize import root
+
+from scipy.stats import bootstrap, monte_carlo_test, permutation_test, power
+import scipy.stats._resampling as _resampling
+
+
+def test_bootstrap_iv():
+
+    message = "`data` must be a sequence of samples."
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(1, np.mean)
+
+    message = "`data` must contain at least one sample."
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(tuple(), np.mean)
+
+    message = "each sample in `data` must contain two or more observations..."
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(([1, 2, 3], [1]), np.mean)
+
+    message = ("When `paired is True`, all samples must have the same length ")
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3, 4]), np.mean, paired=True)
+
+    message = "`vectorized` must be `True`, `False`, or `None`."
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(1, np.mean, vectorized='ekki')
+
+    message = "`axis` must be an integer."
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(([1, 2, 3],), np.mean, axis=1.5)
+
+    message = "could not convert string to float"
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(([1, 2, 3],), np.mean, confidence_level='ni')
+
+    message = "`n_resamples` must be a non-negative integer."
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(([1, 2, 3],), np.mean, n_resamples=-1000)
+
+    message = "`n_resamples` must be a non-negative integer."
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(([1, 2, 3],), np.mean, n_resamples=1000.5)
+
+    message = "`batch` must be a positive integer or None."
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(([1, 2, 3],), np.mean, batch=-1000)
+
+    message = "`batch` must be a positive integer or None."
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(([1, 2, 3],), np.mean, batch=1000.5)
+
+    message = "`method` must be in"
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(([1, 2, 3],), np.mean, method='ekki')
+
+    message = "`bootstrap_result` must have attribute `bootstrap_distribution'"
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(([1, 2, 3],), np.mean, bootstrap_result=10)
+
+    message = "Either `bootstrap_result.bootstrap_distribution.size`"
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(([1, 2, 3],), np.mean, n_resamples=0)
+
+    message = "SeedSequence expects int or sequence of ints"
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=message):
+        bootstrap(([1, 2, 3],), np.mean, rng='herring')
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method", ['basic', 'percentile', 'BCa'])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("axis", [0, 1, 2])
+def test_bootstrap_batch(method, axis):
+    # for one-sample statistics, batch size shouldn't affect the result
+    rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
+
+    x = rng.rand(10, 11, 12)
+    # SPEC-007 leave one call with random_state to ensure it still works
+    res1 = bootstrap((x,), np.mean, batch=None, method=method,
+                     random_state=0, axis=axis, n_resamples=100)
+    rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    res2 = bootstrap((x,), np.mean, batch=10, method=method,
+                     axis=axis, n_resamples=100, random_state=rng)
+
+    assert_equal(res2.confidence_interval.low, res1.confidence_interval.low)
+    assert_equal(res2.confidence_interval.high, res1.confidence_interval.high)
+    assert_equal(res2.standard_error, res1.standard_error)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method", ['basic', 'percentile', 'BCa'])
+def test_bootstrap_paired(method):
+    # test that `paired` works as expected
+    rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    n = 100
+    x = rng.rand(n)
+    y = rng.rand(n)
+
+    def my_statistic(x, y, axis=-1):
+        return ((x-y)**2).mean(axis=axis)
+
+    def my_paired_statistic(i, axis=-1):
+        a = x[i]
+        b = y[i]
+        res = my_statistic(a, b)
+        return res
+
+    i = np.arange(len(x))
+
+    res1 = bootstrap((i,), my_paired_statistic, rng=0)
+    res2 = bootstrap((x, y), my_statistic, paired=True, rng=0)
+
+    assert_allclose(res1.confidence_interval, res2.confidence_interval)
+    assert_allclose(res1.standard_error, res2.standard_error)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method", ['basic', 'percentile', 'BCa'])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("axis", [0, 1, 2])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("paired", [True, False])
+def test_bootstrap_vectorized(method, axis, paired):
+    # test that paired is vectorized as expected: when samples are tiled,
+    # CI and standard_error of each axis-slice is the same as those of the
+    # original 1d sample
+
+    rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
+
+    def my_statistic(x, y, z, axis=-1):
+        return x.mean(axis=axis) + y.mean(axis=axis) + z.mean(axis=axis)
+
+    shape = 10, 11, 12
+    n_samples = shape[axis]
+
+    x = rng.rand(n_samples)
+    y = rng.rand(n_samples)
+    z = rng.rand(n_samples)
+    res1 = bootstrap((x, y, z), my_statistic, paired=paired, method=method,
+                     rng=0, axis=0, n_resamples=100)
+    assert (res1.bootstrap_distribution.shape
+            == res1.standard_error.shape + (100,))
+
+    reshape = [1, 1, 1]
+    reshape[axis] = n_samples
+    x = np.broadcast_to(x.reshape(reshape), shape)
+    y = np.broadcast_to(y.reshape(reshape), shape)
+    z = np.broadcast_to(z.reshape(reshape), shape)
+    res2 = bootstrap((x, y, z), my_statistic, paired=paired, method=method,
+                     rng=0, axis=axis, n_resamples=100)
+
+    assert_allclose(res2.confidence_interval.low,
+                    res1.confidence_interval.low)
+    assert_allclose(res2.confidence_interval.high,
+                    res1.confidence_interval.high)
+    assert_allclose(res2.standard_error, res1.standard_error)
+
+    result_shape = list(shape)
+    result_shape.pop(axis)
+
+    assert_equal(res2.confidence_interval.low.shape, result_shape)
+    assert_equal(res2.confidence_interval.high.shape, result_shape)
+    assert_equal(res2.standard_error.shape, result_shape)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.slow
+@pytest.mark.xfail_on_32bit("MemoryError with BCa observed in CI")
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method", ['basic', 'percentile', 'BCa'])
+def test_bootstrap_against_theory(method):
+    # based on https://www.statology.org/confidence-intervals-python/
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(2442101192988600726)
+    data = stats.norm.rvs(loc=5, scale=2, size=5000, random_state=rng)
+    alpha = 0.95
+    dist = stats.t(df=len(data)-1, loc=np.mean(data), scale=stats.sem(data))
+    expected_interval = dist.interval(confidence=alpha)
+    expected_se = dist.std()
+
+    config = dict(data=(data,), statistic=np.mean, n_resamples=5000,
+                  method=method, rng=rng)
+    res = bootstrap(**config, confidence_level=alpha)
+    assert_allclose(res.confidence_interval, expected_interval, rtol=5e-4)
+    assert_allclose(res.standard_error, expected_se, atol=3e-4)
+
+    config.update(dict(n_resamples=0, bootstrap_result=res))
+    res = bootstrap(**config, confidence_level=alpha, alternative='less')
+    assert_allclose(res.confidence_interval.high, dist.ppf(alpha), rtol=5e-4)
+
+    config.update(dict(n_resamples=0, bootstrap_result=res))
+    res = bootstrap(**config, confidence_level=alpha, alternative='greater')
+    assert_allclose(res.confidence_interval.low, dist.ppf(1-alpha), rtol=5e-4)
+
+
+tests_R = {"basic": (23.77, 79.12),
+           "percentile": (28.86, 84.21),
+           "BCa": (32.31, 91.43)}
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method, expected", tests_R.items())
+def test_bootstrap_against_R(method, expected):
+    # Compare against R's "boot" library
+    # library(boot)
+
+    # stat <- function (x, a) {
+    #     mean(x[a])
+    # }
+
+    # x <- c(10, 12, 12.5, 12.5, 13.9, 15, 21, 22,
+    #        23, 34, 50, 81, 89, 121, 134, 213)
+
+    # # Use a large value so we get a few significant digits for the CI.
+    # n = 1000000
+    # bootresult = boot(x, stat, n)
+    # result <- boot.ci(bootresult)
+    # print(result)
+    x = np.array([10, 12, 12.5, 12.5, 13.9, 15, 21, 22,
+                  23, 34, 50, 81, 89, 121, 134, 213])
+    res = bootstrap((x,), np.mean, n_resamples=1000000, method=method,
+                    rng=0)
+    assert_allclose(res.confidence_interval, expected, rtol=0.005)
+
+
+def test_multisample_BCa_against_R():
+    # Because bootstrap is stochastic, it's tricky to test against reference
+    # behavior. Here, we show that SciPy's BCa CI matches R wboot's BCa CI
+    # much more closely than the other SciPy CIs do.
+
+    # arbitrary skewed data
+    x = [0.75859206, 0.5910282, -0.4419409, -0.36654601,
+         0.34955357, -1.38835871, 0.76735821]
+    y = [1.41186073, 0.49775975, 0.08275588, 0.24086388,
+         0.03567057, 0.52024419, 0.31966611, 1.32067634]
+
+    # a multi-sample statistic for which the BCa CI tends to be different
+    # from the other CIs
+    def statistic(x, y, axis):
+        s1 = stats.skew(x, axis=axis)
+        s2 = stats.skew(y, axis=axis)
+        return s1 - s2
+
+    # compute confidence intervals using each method
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(468865032284792692)
+
+    res_basic = stats.bootstrap((x, y), statistic, method='basic',
+                                batch=100, rng=rng)
+    res_percent = stats.bootstrap((x, y), statistic, method='percentile',
+                                  batch=100, rng=rng)
+    res_bca = stats.bootstrap((x, y), statistic, method='bca',
+                              batch=100, rng=rng)
+
+    # compute midpoints so we can compare just one number for each
+    mid_basic = np.mean(res_basic.confidence_interval)
+    mid_percent = np.mean(res_percent.confidence_interval)
+    mid_bca = np.mean(res_bca.confidence_interval)
+
+    # reference for BCA CI computed using R wboot package:
+    # library(wBoot)
+    # library(moments)
+
+    # x = c(0.75859206, 0.5910282, -0.4419409, -0.36654601,
+    #       0.34955357, -1.38835871,  0.76735821)
+    # y = c(1.41186073, 0.49775975, 0.08275588, 0.24086388,
+    #       0.03567057, 0.52024419, 0.31966611, 1.32067634)
+
+    # twoskew <- function(x1, y1) {skewness(x1) - skewness(y1)}
+    # boot.two.bca(x, y, skewness, conf.level = 0.95,
+    #              R = 9999, stacked = FALSE)
+    mid_wboot = -1.5519
+
+    # compute percent difference relative to wboot BCA method
+    diff_basic = (mid_basic - mid_wboot)/abs(mid_wboot)
+    diff_percent = (mid_percent - mid_wboot)/abs(mid_wboot)
+    diff_bca = (mid_bca - mid_wboot)/abs(mid_wboot)
+
+    # SciPy's BCa CI midpoint is much closer than that of the other methods
+    assert diff_basic < -0.15
+    assert diff_percent > 0.15
+    assert abs(diff_bca) < 0.03
+
+
+def test_BCa_acceleration_against_reference():
+    # Compare the (deterministic) acceleration parameter for a multi-sample
+    # problem against a reference value. The example is from [1], but Efron's
+    # value seems inaccurate. Straightforward code for computing the
+    # reference acceleration (0.011008228344026734) is available at:
+    # https://github.com/scipy/scipy/pull/16455#issuecomment-1193400981
+
+    y = np.array([10, 27, 31, 40, 46, 50, 52, 104, 146])
+    z = np.array([16, 23, 38, 94, 99, 141, 197])
+
+    def statistic(z, y, axis=0):
+        return np.mean(z, axis=axis) - np.mean(y, axis=axis)
+
+    data = [z, y]
+    res = stats.bootstrap(data, statistic)
+
+    axis = -1
+    alpha = 0.95
+    theta_hat_b = res.bootstrap_distribution
+    batch = 100
+    _, _, a_hat = _resampling._bca_interval(data, statistic, axis, alpha,
+                                            theta_hat_b, batch)
+    assert_allclose(a_hat, 0.011008228344026734)
+
+
+tests_against_itself_1samp = {"basic": 1789,
+                              "percentile": 1790,
+                              "BCa": 1789}
+
+
+@pytest.mark.slow
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method, expected",
+                         tests_against_itself_1samp.items())
+def test_bootstrap_against_itself_1samp(method, expected):
+    # The expected values in this test were generated using bootstrap
+    # to check for unintended changes in behavior. The test also makes sure
+    # that bootstrap works with multi-sample statistics and that the
+    # `axis` argument works as expected / function is vectorized.
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(9123847)
+
+    n = 100  # size of sample
+    n_resamples = 999  # number of bootstrap resamples used to form each CI
+    confidence_level = 0.9
+
+    # The true mean is 5
+    dist = stats.norm(loc=5, scale=1)
+    stat_true = dist.mean()
+
+    # Do the same thing 2000 times. (The code is fully vectorized.)
+    n_replications = 2000
+    data = dist.rvs(size=(n_replications, n), random_state=rng)
+    res = bootstrap((data,),
+                    statistic=np.mean,
+                    confidence_level=confidence_level,
+                    n_resamples=n_resamples,
+                    batch=50,
+                    method=method,
+                    axis=-1,
+                    rng=rng)
+    ci = res.confidence_interval
+
+    # ci contains vectors of lower and upper confidence interval bounds
+    ci_contains_true = np.sum((ci[0] < stat_true) & (stat_true < ci[1]))
+    assert ci_contains_true == expected
+
+    # ci_contains_true is not inconsistent with confidence_level
+    pvalue = stats.binomtest(ci_contains_true, n_replications,
+                             confidence_level).pvalue
+    assert pvalue > 0.1
+
+
+tests_against_itself_2samp = {"basic": 892,
+                              "percentile": 890}
+
+
+@pytest.mark.slow
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method, expected",
+                         tests_against_itself_2samp.items())
+def test_bootstrap_against_itself_2samp(method, expected):
+    # The expected values in this test were generated using bootstrap
+    # to check for unintended changes in behavior. The test also makes sure
+    # that bootstrap works with multi-sample statistics and that the
+    # `axis` argument works as expected / function is vectorized.
+    rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
+
+    n1 = 100  # size of sample 1
+    n2 = 120  # size of sample 2
+    n_resamples = 999  # number of bootstrap resamples used to form each CI
+    confidence_level = 0.9
+
+    # The statistic we're interested in is the difference in means
+    def my_stat(data1, data2, axis=-1):
+        mean1 = np.mean(data1, axis=axis)
+        mean2 = np.mean(data2, axis=axis)
+        return mean1 - mean2
+
+    # The true difference in the means is -0.1
+    dist1 = stats.norm(loc=0, scale=1)
+    dist2 = stats.norm(loc=0.1, scale=1)
+    stat_true = dist1.mean() - dist2.mean()
+
+    # Do the same thing 1000 times. (The code is fully vectorized.)
+    n_replications = 1000
+    data1 = dist1.rvs(size=(n_replications, n1), random_state=rng)
+    data2 = dist2.rvs(size=(n_replications, n2), random_state=rng)
+    res = bootstrap((data1, data2),
+                    statistic=my_stat,
+                    confidence_level=confidence_level,
+                    n_resamples=n_resamples,
+                    batch=50,
+                    method=method,
+                    axis=-1,
+                    random_state=rng)
+    ci = res.confidence_interval
+
+    # ci contains vectors of lower and upper confidence interval bounds
+    ci_contains_true = np.sum((ci[0] < stat_true) & (stat_true < ci[1]))
+    assert ci_contains_true == expected
+
+    # ci_contains_true is not inconsistent with confidence_level
+    pvalue = stats.binomtest(ci_contains_true, n_replications,
+                             confidence_level).pvalue
+    assert pvalue > 0.1
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method", ["basic", "percentile"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("axis", [0, 1])
+def test_bootstrap_vectorized_3samp(method, axis):
+    def statistic(*data, axis=0):
+        # an arbitrary, vectorized statistic
+        return sum(sample.mean(axis) for sample in data)
+
+    def statistic_1d(*data):
+        # the same statistic, not vectorized
+        for sample in data:
+            assert sample.ndim == 1
+        return statistic(*data, axis=0)
+
+    rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    x = rng.rand(4, 5)
+    y = rng.rand(4, 5)
+    z = rng.rand(4, 5)
+    res1 = bootstrap((x, y, z), statistic, vectorized=True,
+                     axis=axis, n_resamples=100, method=method, rng=0)
+    res2 = bootstrap((x, y, z), statistic_1d, vectorized=False,
+                     axis=axis, n_resamples=100, method=method, rng=0)
+    assert_allclose(res1.confidence_interval, res2.confidence_interval)
+    assert_allclose(res1.standard_error, res2.standard_error)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.xfail_on_32bit("Failure is not concerning; see gh-14107")
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method", ["basic", "percentile", "BCa"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("axis", [0, 1])
+def test_bootstrap_vectorized_1samp(method, axis):
+    def statistic(x, axis=0):
+        # an arbitrary, vectorized statistic
+        return x.mean(axis=axis)
+
+    def statistic_1d(x):
+        # the same statistic, not vectorized
+        assert x.ndim == 1
+        return statistic(x, axis=0)
+
+    rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    x = rng.rand(4, 5)
+    res1 = bootstrap((x,), statistic, vectorized=True, axis=axis,
+                     n_resamples=100, batch=None, method=method,
+                     rng=0)
+    res2 = bootstrap((x,), statistic_1d, vectorized=False, axis=axis,
+                     n_resamples=100, batch=10, method=method,
+                     rng=0)
+    assert_allclose(res1.confidence_interval, res2.confidence_interval)
+    assert_allclose(res1.standard_error, res2.standard_error)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method", ["basic", "percentile", "BCa"])
+def test_bootstrap_degenerate(method):
+    data = 35 * [10000.]
+    if method == "BCa":
+        with np.errstate(invalid='ignore'):
+            msg = "The BCa confidence interval cannot be calculated"
+            with pytest.warns(stats.DegenerateDataWarning, match=msg):
+                res = bootstrap([data, ], np.mean, method=method)
+                assert_equal(res.confidence_interval, (np.nan, np.nan))
+    else:
+        res = bootstrap([data, ], np.mean, method=method)
+        assert_equal(res.confidence_interval, (10000., 10000.))
+    assert_equal(res.standard_error, 0)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method", ["basic", "percentile", "BCa"])
+def test_bootstrap_gh15678(method):
+    # Check that gh-15678 is fixed: when statistic function returned a Python
+    # float, method="BCa" failed when trying to add a dimension to the float
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(354645618886684)
+    dist = stats.norm(loc=2, scale=4)
+    data = dist.rvs(size=100, random_state=rng)
+    data = (data,)
+    res = bootstrap(data, stats.skew, method=method, n_resamples=100,
+                    rng=np.random.default_rng(9563))
+    # this always worked because np.apply_along_axis returns NumPy data type
+    ref = bootstrap(data, stats.skew, method=method, n_resamples=100,
+                    rng=np.random.default_rng(9563), vectorized=False)
+    assert_allclose(res.confidence_interval, ref.confidence_interval)
+    assert_allclose(res.standard_error, ref.standard_error)
+    assert isinstance(res.standard_error, np.float64)
+
+
+def test_bootstrap_min():
+    # Check that gh-15883 is fixed: percentileofscore should
+    # behave according to the 'mean' behavior and not trigger nan for BCa
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(1891289180021102)
+    dist = stats.norm(loc=2, scale=4)
+    data = dist.rvs(size=100, random_state=rng)
+    true_min = np.min(data)
+    data = (data,)
+    res = bootstrap(data, np.min, method="BCa", n_resamples=100,
+                    rng=np.random.default_rng(3942))
+    assert true_min == res.confidence_interval.low
+    res2 = bootstrap(-np.array(data), np.max, method="BCa", n_resamples=100,
+                     rng=np.random.default_rng(3942))
+    assert_allclose(-res.confidence_interval.low,
+                    res2.confidence_interval.high)
+    assert_allclose(-res.confidence_interval.high,
+                    res2.confidence_interval.low)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("additional_resamples", [0, 1000])
+def test_re_bootstrap(additional_resamples):
+    # Test behavior of parameter `bootstrap_result`
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(8958153316228384)
+    x = rng.random(size=100)
+
+    n1 = 1000
+    n2 = additional_resamples
+    n3 = n1 + additional_resamples
+
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(296689032789913033)
+    res = stats.bootstrap((x,), np.mean, n_resamples=n1, rng=rng,
+                          confidence_level=0.95, method='percentile')
+    res = stats.bootstrap((x,), np.mean, n_resamples=n2, rng=rng,
+                          confidence_level=0.90, method='BCa',
+                          bootstrap_result=res)
+
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(296689032789913033)
+    ref = stats.bootstrap((x,), np.mean, n_resamples=n3, rng=rng,
+                          confidence_level=0.90, method='BCa')
+
+    assert_allclose(res.standard_error, ref.standard_error, rtol=1e-14)
+    assert_allclose(res.confidence_interval, ref.confidence_interval,
+                    rtol=1e-14)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.xfail_on_32bit("Sensible to machine precision")
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method", ['basic', 'percentile', 'BCa'])
+def test_bootstrap_alternative(method):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(5894822712842015040)
+    dist = stats.norm(loc=2, scale=4)
+    data = (dist.rvs(size=(100), random_state=rng),)
+
+    config = dict(data=data, statistic=np.std, rng=rng, axis=-1)
+    t = stats.bootstrap(**config, confidence_level=0.9)
+
+    config.update(dict(n_resamples=0, bootstrap_result=t))
+    l = stats.bootstrap(**config, confidence_level=0.95, alternative='less')
+    g = stats.bootstrap(**config, confidence_level=0.95, alternative='greater')
+
+    assert_allclose(l.confidence_interval.high, t.confidence_interval.high,
+                    rtol=1e-14)
+    assert_allclose(g.confidence_interval.low, t.confidence_interval.low,
+                    rtol=1e-14)
+    assert np.isneginf(l.confidence_interval.low)
+    assert np.isposinf(g.confidence_interval.high)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='`alternative` must be one of'):
+        stats.bootstrap(**config, alternative='ekki-ekki')
+
+
+def test_jackknife_resample():
+    shape = 3, 4, 5, 6
+    np.random.seed(0)
+    x = np.random.rand(*shape)
+    y = next(_resampling._jackknife_resample(x))
+
+    for i in range(shape[-1]):
+        # each resample is indexed along second to last axis
+        # (last axis is the one the statistic will be taken over / consumed)
+        slc = y[..., i, :]
+        expected = np.delete(x, i, axis=-1)
+
+        assert np.array_equal(slc, expected)
+
+    y2 = np.concatenate(list(_resampling._jackknife_resample(x, batch=2)),
+                        axis=-2)
+    assert np.array_equal(y2, y)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("rng_name", ["RandomState", "default_rng"])
+def test_bootstrap_resample(rng_name):
+    rng = getattr(np.random, rng_name, None)
+    if rng is None:
+        pytest.skip(f"{rng_name} not available.")
+    rng1 = rng(0)
+    rng2 = rng(0)
+
+    n_resamples = 10
+    shape = 3, 4, 5, 6
+
+    np.random.seed(0)
+    x = np.random.rand(*shape)
+    y = _resampling._bootstrap_resample(x, n_resamples, rng=rng1)
+
+    for i in range(n_resamples):
+        # each resample is indexed along second to last axis
+        # (last axis is the one the statistic will be taken over / consumed)
+        slc = y[..., i, :]
+
+        js = rng_integers(rng2, 0, shape[-1], shape[-1])
+        expected = x[..., js]
+
+        assert np.array_equal(slc, expected)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("score", [0, 0.5, 1])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("axis", [0, 1, 2])
+def test_percentile_of_score(score, axis):
+    shape = 10, 20, 30
+    np.random.seed(0)
+    x = np.random.rand(*shape)
+    p = _resampling._percentile_of_score(x, score, axis=-1)
+
+    def vectorized_pos(a, score, axis):
+        return np.apply_along_axis(stats.percentileofscore, axis, a, score)
+
+    p2 = vectorized_pos(x, score, axis=-1)/100
+
+    assert_allclose(p, p2, 1e-15)
+
+
+def test_percentile_along_axis():
+    # the difference between _percentile_along_axis and np.percentile is that
+    # np.percentile gets _all_ the qs for each axis slice, whereas
+    # _percentile_along_axis gets the q corresponding with each axis slice
+
+    shape = 10, 20
+    rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    x = rng.rand(*shape)
+    q = rng.rand(*shape[:-1]) * 100
+    y = _resampling._percentile_along_axis(x, q)
+
+    for i in range(shape[0]):
+        res = y[i]
+        expected = np.percentile(x[i], q[i], axis=-1)
+        assert_allclose(res, expected, 1e-15)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("axis", [0, 1, 2])
+def test_vectorize_statistic(axis):
+    # test that _vectorize_statistic vectorizes a statistic along `axis`
+
+    def statistic(*data, axis):
+        # an arbitrary, vectorized statistic
+        return sum(sample.mean(axis) for sample in data)
+
+    def statistic_1d(*data):
+        # the same statistic, not vectorized
+        for sample in data:
+            assert sample.ndim == 1
+        return statistic(*data, axis=0)
+
+    # vectorize the non-vectorized statistic
+    statistic2 = _resampling._vectorize_statistic(statistic_1d)
+
+    rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    x = rng.rand(4, 5, 6)
+    y = rng.rand(4, 1, 6)
+    z = rng.rand(1, 5, 6)
+
+    res1 = statistic(x, y, z, axis=axis)
+    res2 = statistic2(x, y, z, axis=axis)
+    assert_allclose(res1, res2)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.slow
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("method", ["basic", "percentile", "BCa"])
+def test_vector_valued_statistic(method):
+    # Generate 95% confidence interval around MLE of normal distribution
+    # parameters. Repeat 100 times, each time on sample of size 100.
+    # Check that confidence interval contains true parameters ~95 times.
+    # Confidence intervals are estimated and stochastic; a test failure
+    # does not necessarily indicate that something is wrong. More important
+    # than values of `counts` below is that the shapes of the outputs are
+    # correct.
+
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(2196847219)
+    params = 1, 0.5
+    sample = stats.norm.rvs(*params, size=(100, 100), random_state=rng)
+
+    def statistic(data, axis):
+        return np.asarray([np.mean(data, axis),
+                           np.std(data, axis, ddof=1)])
+
+    res = bootstrap((sample,), statistic, method=method, axis=-1,
+                    n_resamples=9999, batch=200, random_state=rng)
+
+    counts = np.sum((res.confidence_interval.low.T < params)
+                    & (res.confidence_interval.high.T > params),
+                    axis=0)
+    assert np.all(counts >= 90)
+    assert np.all(counts <= 100)
+    assert res.confidence_interval.low.shape == (2, 100)
+    assert res.confidence_interval.high.shape == (2, 100)
+    assert res.standard_error.shape == (2, 100)
+    assert res.bootstrap_distribution.shape == (2, 100, 9999)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.slow
+@pytest.mark.filterwarnings('ignore::RuntimeWarning')
+def test_vector_valued_statistic_gh17715():
+    # gh-17715 reported a mistake introduced in the extension of BCa to
+    # multi-sample statistics; a `len` should have been `.shape[-1]`. Check
+    # that this is resolved.
+
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(141921000979291141)
+
+    def concordance(x, y, axis):
+        xm = x.mean(axis)
+        ym = y.mean(axis)
+        cov = ((x - xm[..., None]) * (y - ym[..., None])).mean(axis)
+        return (2 * cov) / (x.var(axis) + y.var(axis) + (xm - ym) ** 2)
+
+    def statistic(tp, tn, fp, fn, axis):
+        actual = tp + fp
+        expected = tp + fn
+        return np.nan_to_num(concordance(actual, expected, axis))
+
+    def statistic_extradim(*args, axis):
+        return statistic(*args, axis)[np.newaxis, ...]
+
+    data = [[4, 0, 0, 2],  # (tp, tn, fp, fn)
+            [2, 1, 2, 1],
+            [0, 6, 0, 0],
+            [0, 6, 3, 0],
+            [0, 8, 1, 0]]
+    data = np.array(data).T
+
+    res = bootstrap(data, statistic_extradim, rng=rng, paired=True)
+    ref = bootstrap(data, statistic, rng=rng, paired=True)
+    assert_allclose(res.confidence_interval.low[0],
+                    ref.confidence_interval.low, atol=1e-15)
+    assert_allclose(res.confidence_interval.high[0],
+                    ref.confidence_interval.high, atol=1e-15)
+
+
+def test_gh_20850():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(2085020850)
+    x = rng.random((10, 2))
+    y = rng.random((11, 2))
+    def statistic(x, y, axis):
+        return stats.ttest_ind(x, y, axis=axis).statistic
+
+    # The shapes do *not* need to be the same along axis
+    stats.bootstrap((x, y), statistic)
+    stats.bootstrap((x.T, y.T), statistic, axis=1)
+    # But even when the shapes *are* the same along axis, the lengths
+    # along other dimensions have to be the same (or `bootstrap` warns).
+    message = "Array shapes are incompatible for broadcasting."
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+        stats.bootstrap((x, y[:10, 0]), statistic)  # this won't work after 1.16
+    stats.bootstrap((x, y[:10, 0:1]), statistic)  # this will
+    stats.bootstrap((x.T, y.T[0:1, :10]), statistic, axis=1)  # this will
+
+
+# --- Test Monte Carlo Hypothesis Test --- #
+
+class TestMonteCarloHypothesisTest:
+    atol = 2.5e-2  # for comparing p-value
+
+    def get_rvs(self, rvs_in, rs, dtype=None, xp=np):
+        return lambda *args, **kwds: xp.asarray(rvs_in(*args, random_state=rs, **kwds),
+                                                dtype=dtype)
+
+    def get_statistic(self, xp):
+        def statistic(x, axis):
+            m = xp.mean(x, axis=axis)
+            v = xp.var(x, axis=axis, correction=1)
+            n = x.shape[axis]
+            return m / (v/n)**0.5
+            # return stats.ttest_1samp(x, popmean=0., axis=axis).statistic)
+        return statistic
+
+    def test_input_validation(self, xp):
+        # test that the appropriate error messages are raised for invalid input
+
+        data = xp.asarray([1., 2., 3.])
+        def stat(x, axis=None):
+            return xp.mean(x, axis=axis)
+
+        message = "Array shapes are incompatible for broadcasting."
+        temp = (xp.zeros((2, 5)), xp.zeros((3, 5)))
+        rvs = (stats.norm.rvs, stats.norm.rvs)
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            monte_carlo_test(temp, rvs, lambda x, y, axis: 1, axis=-1)
+
+        message = "`axis` must be an integer."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            monte_carlo_test(data, stats.norm.rvs, stat, axis=1.5)
+
+        message = "`vectorized` must be `True`, `False`, or `None`."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            monte_carlo_test(data, stats.norm.rvs, stat, vectorized=1.5)
+
+        message = "`rvs` must be callable or sequence of callables."
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=message):
+            monte_carlo_test(data, None, stat)
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=message):
+            temp = xp.asarray([[1., 2.], [3., 4.]])
+            monte_carlo_test(temp, [lambda x: x, None], stat)
+
+        message = "If `rvs` is a sequence..."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            temp = xp.asarray([[1., 2., 3.]])
+            monte_carlo_test(temp, [lambda x: x, lambda x: x], stat)
+
+        message = "`statistic` must be callable."
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=message):
+            monte_carlo_test(data, stats.norm.rvs, None)
+
+        message = "`n_resamples` must be a positive integer."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            monte_carlo_test(data, stats.norm.rvs, stat, n_resamples=-1000)
+
+        message = "`n_resamples` must be a positive integer."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            monte_carlo_test(data, stats.norm.rvs, stat, n_resamples=1000.5)
+
+        message = "`batch` must be a positive integer or None."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            monte_carlo_test(data, stats.norm.rvs, stat, batch=-1000)
+
+        message = "`batch` must be a positive integer or None."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            monte_carlo_test(data, stats.norm.rvs, stat, batch=1000.5)
+
+        message = "`alternative` must be in..."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            monte_carlo_test(data, stats.norm.rvs, stat, alternative='ekki')
+
+        # *If* this raises a value error, make sure it has the intended message
+        message = "Signature inspection of statistic"
+        def rvs(size):
+            return xp.asarray(stats.norm.rvs(size=size))
+        try:
+            monte_carlo_test(data, rvs, xp.mean)
+        except ValueError as e:
+            assert str(e).startswith(message)
+
+    def test_input_validation_xp(self, xp):
+        def non_vectorized_statistic(x):
+            return xp.mean(x)
+
+        message = "`statistic` must be vectorized..."
+        sample = xp.asarray([1., 2., 3.])
+        if is_numpy(xp):
+            monte_carlo_test(sample, stats.norm.rvs, non_vectorized_statistic)
+            return
+
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            monte_carlo_test(sample, stats.norm.rvs, non_vectorized_statistic)
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            monte_carlo_test(sample, stats.norm.rvs, xp.mean, vectorized=False)
+
+    @pytest.mark.xslow
+    def test_batch(self, xp):
+        # make sure that the `batch` parameter is respected by checking the
+        # maximum batch size provided in calls to `statistic`
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(23492340193)
+        x = xp.asarray(rng.standard_normal(size=10))
+
+        def statistic(x, axis):
+            batch_size = 1 if x.ndim == 1 else x.shape[0]
+            statistic.batch_size = max(batch_size, statistic.batch_size)
+            statistic.counter += 1
+            return self.get_statistic(xp)(x, axis=axis)
+        statistic.counter = 0
+        statistic.batch_size = 0
+
+        kwds = {'sample': x, 'statistic': statistic,
+                'n_resamples': 1000, 'vectorized': True}
+
+        kwds['rvs'] = self.get_rvs(stats.norm.rvs, np.random.default_rng(328423), xp=xp)
+        res1 = monte_carlo_test(batch=1, **kwds)
+        assert_equal(statistic.counter, 1001)
+        assert_equal(statistic.batch_size, 1)
+
+        kwds['rvs'] = self.get_rvs(stats.norm.rvs, np.random.default_rng(328423), xp=xp)
+        statistic.counter = 0
+        res2 = monte_carlo_test(batch=50, **kwds)
+        assert_equal(statistic.counter, 21)
+        assert_equal(statistic.batch_size, 50)
+
+        kwds['rvs'] = self.get_rvs(stats.norm.rvs, np.random.default_rng(328423), xp=xp)
+        statistic.counter = 0
+        res3 = monte_carlo_test(**kwds)
+        assert_equal(statistic.counter, 2)
+        assert_equal(statistic.batch_size, 1000)
+
+        xp_assert_equal(res1.pvalue, res3.pvalue)
+        xp_assert_equal(res2.pvalue, res3.pvalue)
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('axis', range(-3, 3))
+    def test_axis_dtype(self, axis, xp):
+        # test that Nd-array samples are handled correctly for valid values
+        # of the `axis` parameter; also make sure non-default dtype is maintained
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(2389234)
+        size = [2, 3, 4]
+        size[axis] = 100
+
+        # Determine non-default dtype
+        dtype_default = xp.asarray(1.).dtype
+        dtype_str = 'float32'if ("64" in str(dtype_default)) else 'float64'
+        dtype_np = getattr(np, dtype_str)
+        dtype = getattr(xp, dtype_str)
+
+        # ttest_1samp is CPU array-API compatible, but it would be good to
+        # include CuPy in this test. We'll perform ttest_1samp with a
+        # NumPy array, but all the rest with be done with fully array-API
+        # compatible code.
+        x = rng.standard_normal(size=size, dtype=dtype_np)
+        expected = stats.ttest_1samp(x, popmean=0., axis=axis)
+
+        x = xp.asarray(x, dtype=dtype)
+        statistic = self.get_statistic(xp)
+        rvs = self.get_rvs(stats.norm.rvs, rng, dtype=dtype, xp=xp)
+
+        res = monte_carlo_test(x, rvs, statistic, vectorized=True,
+                               n_resamples=20000, axis=axis)
+
+        ref_statistic = xp.asarray(expected.statistic, dtype=dtype)
+        ref_pvalue = xp.asarray(expected.pvalue, dtype=dtype)
+        xp_assert_close(res.statistic, ref_statistic)
+        xp_assert_close(res.pvalue, ref_pvalue, atol=self.atol)
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('alternative', ("two-sided", "less", "greater"))
+    def test_alternative(self, alternative, xp):
+        # test that `alternative` is working as expected
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(65723433)
+
+        x = rng.standard_normal(size=30)
+        ref = stats.ttest_1samp(x, 0., alternative=alternative)
+
+        x = xp.asarray(x)
+        statistic = self.get_statistic(xp)
+        rvs = self.get_rvs(stats.norm.rvs, rng, xp=xp)
+
+        res = monte_carlo_test(x, rvs, statistic, alternative=alternative)
+
+        xp_assert_close(res.statistic, xp.asarray(ref.statistic))
+        xp_assert_close(res.pvalue, xp.asarray(ref.pvalue), atol=self.atol)
+
+
+    # Tests below involve statistics that are not yet array-API compatible.
+    # They can be converted when the statistics are converted.
+    @pytest.mark.slow
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('alternative', ("less", "greater"))
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('a', np.linspace(-0.5, 0.5, 5))  # skewness
+    def test_against_ks_1samp(self, alternative, a):
+        # test that monte_carlo_test can reproduce pvalue of ks_1samp
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(65723433)
+
+        x = stats.skewnorm.rvs(a=a, size=30, random_state=rng)
+        expected = stats.ks_1samp(x, stats.norm.cdf, alternative=alternative)
+
+        def statistic1d(x):
+            return stats.ks_1samp(x, stats.norm.cdf, mode='asymp',
+                                  alternative=alternative).statistic
+
+        norm_rvs = self.get_rvs(stats.norm.rvs, rng)
+        res = monte_carlo_test(x, norm_rvs, statistic1d,
+                               n_resamples=1000, vectorized=False,
+                               alternative=alternative)
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected.statistic)
+        if alternative == 'greater':
+            assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected.pvalue, atol=self.atol)
+        elif alternative == 'less':
+            assert_allclose(1-res.pvalue, expected.pvalue, atol=self.atol)
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('hypotest', (stats.skewtest, stats.kurtosistest))
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('alternative', ("less", "greater", "two-sided"))
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('a', np.linspace(-2, 2, 5))  # skewness
+    def test_against_normality_tests(self, hypotest, alternative, a):
+        # test that monte_carlo_test can reproduce pvalue of normality tests
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(85723405)
+
+        x = stats.skewnorm.rvs(a=a, size=150, random_state=rng)
+        expected = hypotest(x, alternative=alternative)
+
+        def statistic(x, axis):
+            return hypotest(x, axis=axis).statistic
+
+        norm_rvs = self.get_rvs(stats.norm.rvs, rng)
+        res = monte_carlo_test(x, norm_rvs, statistic, vectorized=True,
+                               alternative=alternative)
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected.statistic)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected.pvalue, atol=self.atol)
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('a', np.arange(-2, 3))  # skewness parameter
+    def test_against_normaltest(self, a):
+        # test that monte_carlo_test can reproduce pvalue of normaltest
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(12340513)
+
+        x = stats.skewnorm.rvs(a=a, size=150, random_state=rng)
+        expected = stats.normaltest(x)
+
+        def statistic(x, axis):
+            return stats.normaltest(x, axis=axis).statistic
+
+        norm_rvs = self.get_rvs(stats.norm.rvs, rng)
+        res = monte_carlo_test(x, norm_rvs, statistic, vectorized=True,
+                               alternative='greater')
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected.statistic)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected.pvalue, atol=self.atol)
+
+    @pytest.mark.xslow
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('a', np.linspace(-0.5, 0.5, 5))  # skewness
+    def test_against_cramervonmises(self, a):
+        # test that monte_carlo_test can reproduce pvalue of cramervonmises
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(234874135)
+
+        x = stats.skewnorm.rvs(a=a, size=30, random_state=rng)
+        expected = stats.cramervonmises(x, stats.norm.cdf)
+
+        def statistic1d(x):
+            return stats.cramervonmises(x, stats.norm.cdf).statistic
+
+        norm_rvs = self.get_rvs(stats.norm.rvs, rng)
+        res = monte_carlo_test(x, norm_rvs, statistic1d,
+                               n_resamples=1000, vectorized=False,
+                               alternative='greater')
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected.statistic)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected.pvalue, atol=self.atol)
+
+    @pytest.mark.slow
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('dist_name', ('norm', 'logistic'))
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('i', range(5))
+    def test_against_anderson(self, dist_name, i):
+        # test that monte_carlo_test can reproduce results of `anderson`. Note:
+        # `anderson` does not provide a p-value; it provides a list of
+        # significance levels and the associated critical value of the test
+        # statistic. `i` used to index this list.
+
+        # find the skewness for which the sample statistic matches one of the
+        # critical values provided by `stats.anderson`
+
+        def fun(a):
+            rng = np.random.default_rng(394295467)
+            x = stats.tukeylambda.rvs(a, size=100, random_state=rng)
+            expected = stats.anderson(x, dist_name)
+            return expected.statistic - expected.critical_values[i]
+        with suppress_warnings() as sup:
+            sup.filter(RuntimeWarning)
+            sol = root(fun, x0=0)
+        assert sol.success
+
+        # get the significance level (p-value) associated with that critical
+        # value
+        a = sol.x[0]
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(394295467)
+        x = stats.tukeylambda.rvs(a, size=100, random_state=rng)
+        expected = stats.anderson(x, dist_name)
+        expected_stat = expected.statistic
+        expected_p = expected.significance_level[i]/100
+
+        # perform equivalent Monte Carlo test and compare results
+        def statistic1d(x):
+            return stats.anderson(x, dist_name).statistic
+
+        dist_rvs = self.get_rvs(getattr(stats, dist_name).rvs, rng)
+        with suppress_warnings() as sup:
+            sup.filter(RuntimeWarning)
+            res = monte_carlo_test(x, dist_rvs,
+                                   statistic1d, n_resamples=1000,
+                                   vectorized=False, alternative='greater')
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected_stat)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected_p, atol=2*self.atol)
+
+    def test_p_never_zero(self):
+        # Use biased estimate of p-value to ensure that p-value is never zero
+        # per monte_carlo_test reference [1]
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(2190176673029737545)
+        x = np.zeros(100)
+        res = monte_carlo_test(x, rng.random, np.mean,
+                               vectorized=True, alternative='less')
+        assert res.pvalue == 0.0001
+
+    def test_against_ttest_ind(self):
+        # test that `monte_carlo_test` can reproduce results of `ttest_ind`.
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(219017667302737545)
+        data = rng.random(size=(2, 5)), rng.random(size=7)  # broadcastable
+        rvs = rng.normal, rng.normal
+        def statistic(x, y, axis):
+            return stats.ttest_ind(x, y, axis=axis).statistic
+
+        res = stats.monte_carlo_test(data, rvs, statistic, axis=-1)
+        ref = stats.ttest_ind(data[0], [data[1]], axis=-1)
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, ref.statistic)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, ref.pvalue, rtol=2e-2)
+
+    def test_against_f_oneway(self):
+        # test that `monte_carlo_test` can reproduce results of `f_oneway`.
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(219017667302737545)
+        data = (rng.random(size=(2, 100)), rng.random(size=(2, 101)),
+                rng.random(size=(2, 102)), rng.random(size=(2, 103)))
+        rvs = rng.normal, rng.normal, rng.normal, rng.normal
+
+        def statistic(*args, axis):
+            return stats.f_oneway(*args, axis=axis).statistic
+
+        res = stats.monte_carlo_test(data, rvs, statistic, axis=-1,
+                                     alternative='greater')
+        ref = stats.f_oneway(*data, axis=-1)
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, ref.statistic)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, ref.pvalue, atol=1e-2)
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(2)
+    @pytest.mark.xfail_on_32bit("Statistic may not depend on sample order on 32-bit")
+    def test_finite_precision_statistic(self):
+        # Some statistics return numerically distinct values when the values
+        # should be equal in theory. Test that `monte_carlo_test` accounts
+        # for this in some way.
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(2549824598234528)
+        n_resamples = 9999
+        def rvs(size):
+            return 1. * stats.bernoulli(p=0.333).rvs(size=size, random_state=rng)
+
+        x = rvs(100)
+        res = stats.monte_carlo_test(x, rvs, np.var, alternative='less',
+                                     n_resamples=n_resamples)
+        # show that having a tolerance matters
+        c0 = np.sum(res.null_distribution <= res.statistic)
+        c1 = np.sum(res.null_distribution <= res.statistic*(1+1e-15))
+        assert c0 != c1
+        assert res.pvalue == (c1 + 1)/(n_resamples + 1)
+
+
+class TestPower:
+    def test_input_validation(self):
+        # test that the appropriate error messages are raised for invalid input
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(8519895914314711673)
+
+        test = stats.ttest_ind
+        rvs = (rng.normal, rng.normal)
+        n_observations = (10, 12)
+
+        message = "`vectorized` must be `True`, `False`, or `None`."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            power(test, rvs, n_observations, vectorized=1.5)
+
+        message = "`rvs` must be callable or sequence of callables."
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=message):
+            power(test, None, n_observations)
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=message):
+            power(test, (rng.normal, 'ekki'), n_observations)
+
+        message = "If `rvs` is a sequence..."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            power(test, (rng.normal,), n_observations)
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            power(test, rvs, (10,))
+
+        message = "`significance` must contain floats between 0 and 1."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            power(test, rvs, n_observations, significance=2)
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            power(test, rvs, n_observations, significance=np.linspace(-1, 1))
+
+        message = "`kwargs` must be a dictionary"
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=message):
+            power(test, rvs, n_observations, kwargs=(1, 2, 3))
+
+        message = "shape mismatch: objects cannot be broadcast"
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            power(test, rvs, ([10, 11], [12, 13, 14]))
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            power(test, rvs, ([10, 11], [12, 13]), kwargs={'x': [1, 2, 3]})
+
+        message = "`test` must be callable"
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=message):
+            power(None, rvs, n_observations)
+
+        message = "`n_resamples` must be a positive integer"
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            power(test, rvs, n_observations, n_resamples=-10)
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            power(test, rvs, n_observations, n_resamples=10.5)
+
+        message = "`batch` must be a positive integer"
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            power(test, rvs, n_observations, batch=-10)
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            power(test, rvs, n_observations, batch=10.5)
+
+    @pytest.mark.slow
+    def test_batch(self):
+        # make sure that the `batch` parameter is respected by checking the
+        # maximum batch size provided in calls to `test`
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(23492340193)
+
+        def test(x, axis):
+            batch_size = 1 if x.ndim == 1 else len(x)
+            test.batch_size = max(batch_size, test.batch_size)
+            test.counter += 1
+            return stats.ttest_1samp(x, 0, axis=axis).pvalue
+        test.counter = 0
+        test.batch_size = 0
+
+        kwds = dict(test=test, n_observations=10, n_resamples=1000)
+
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(23492340193)
+        res1 = power(**kwds, rvs=rng.normal, batch=1)
+        assert_equal(test.counter, 1000)
+        assert_equal(test.batch_size, 1)
+
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(23492340193)
+        test.counter = 0
+        res2 = power(**kwds, rvs=rng.normal, batch=50)
+        assert_equal(test.counter, 20)
+        assert_equal(test.batch_size, 50)
+
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(23492340193)
+        test.counter = 0
+        res3 = power(**kwds, rvs=rng.normal, batch=1000)
+        assert_equal(test.counter, 1)
+        assert_equal(test.batch_size, 1000)
+
+        assert_equal(res1.power, res3.power)
+        assert_equal(res2.power, res3.power)
+
+    @pytest.mark.slow
+    def test_vectorization(self):
+        # Test that `power` is vectorized as expected
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(25495254834552)
+
+        # Single vectorized call
+        popmeans = np.array([0, 0.2])
+        def test(x, alternative, axis=-1):
+            # ensure that popmeans axis is zeroth and orthogonal to the rest
+            popmeans_expanded = np.expand_dims(popmeans, tuple(range(1, x.ndim + 1)))
+            return stats.ttest_1samp(x, popmeans_expanded, alternative=alternative,
+                                     axis=axis)
+
+        # nx and kwargs broadcast against one another
+        nx = np.asarray([10, 15, 20, 50, 100])[:, np.newaxis]
+        kwargs = {'alternative': ['less', 'greater', 'two-sided']}
+
+        # This dimension is added to the beginning
+        significance = np.asarray([0.01, 0.025, 0.05, 0.1])
+        res = stats.power(test, rng.normal, nx, significance=significance,
+                          kwargs=kwargs)
+
+        # Looping over all combinations
+        ref = []
+        for significance_i in significance:
+            for nx_i in nx:
+                for alternative_i in kwargs['alternative']:
+                    for popmean_i in popmeans:
+                        def test2(x, axis=-1):
+                            return stats.ttest_1samp(x, popmean_i, axis=axis,
+                                                     alternative=alternative_i)
+
+                        tmp = stats.power(test2, rng.normal, nx_i,
+                                          significance=significance_i)
+                        ref.append(tmp.power)
+        ref = np.reshape(ref, res.power.shape)
+
+        # Show that results are similar
+        assert_allclose(res.power, ref, rtol=2e-2, atol=1e-2)
+
+    def test_ttest_ind_null(self):
+        # Check that the p-values of `ttest_ind` are uniformly distributed under
+        # the null hypothesis
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(254952548345528)
+
+        test = stats.ttest_ind
+        n_observations = rng.integers(10, 100, size=(2, 10))
+        rvs = rng.normal, rng.normal
+        significance = np.asarray([0.01, 0.05, 0.1])
+        res = stats.power(test, rvs, n_observations, significance=significance)
+        significance = np.broadcast_to(significance[:, np.newaxis], res.power.shape)
+        assert_allclose(res.power, significance, atol=1e-2)
+
+    def test_ttest_1samp_power(self):
+        # Check simulated ttest_1samp power against reference
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(254952548345528)
+
+        # Reference values computed with statmodels
+        # import numpy as np
+        # from statsmodels.stats.power import tt_solve_power
+        # tt_solve_power = np.vectorize(tt_solve_power)
+        # tt_solve_power([0.1, 0.5, 0.9], [[10], [20]], [[[0.01]], [[0.05]]])
+        ref = [[[0.0126515 , 0.10269751, 0.40415802],
+                [0.01657775, 0.29734608, 0.86228288]],
+               [[0.0592903 , 0.29317561, 0.71718121],
+                [0.07094116, 0.56450441, 0.96815163]]]
+
+        kwargs = {'popmean': [0.1, 0.5, 0.9]}
+        n_observations = [[10], [20]]
+        significance = [0.01, 0.05]
+        res = stats.power(stats.ttest_1samp, rng.normal, n_observations,
+                          significance=significance, kwargs=kwargs)
+        assert_allclose(res.power, ref, atol=1e-2)
+
+
+class TestPermutationTest:
+
+    rtol = 1e-14
+
+    def setup_method(self):
+        self.rng = np.random.default_rng(7170559330470561044)
+
+    # -- Input validation -- #
+
+    def test_permutation_test_iv(self):
+
+        def stat(x, y, axis):
+            return stats.ttest_ind((x, y), axis).statistic
+
+        message = "each sample in `data` must contain two or more ..."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            permutation_test(([1, 2, 3], [1]), stat)
+
+        message = "`data` must be a tuple containing at least two samples"
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            permutation_test((1,), stat)
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=message):
+            permutation_test(1, stat)
+
+        message = "`axis` must be an integer."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            permutation_test(([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3]), stat, axis=1.5)
+
+        message = "`permutation_type` must be in..."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            permutation_test(([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3]), stat,
+                             permutation_type="ekki")
+
+        message = "`vectorized` must be `True`, `False`, or `None`."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            permutation_test(([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3]), stat, vectorized=1.5)
+
+        message = "`n_resamples` must be a positive integer."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            permutation_test(([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3]), stat, n_resamples=-1000)
+
+        message = "`n_resamples` must be a positive integer."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            permutation_test(([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3]), stat, n_resamples=1000.5)
+
+        message = "`batch` must be a positive integer or None."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            permutation_test(([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3]), stat, batch=-1000)
+
+        message = "`batch` must be a positive integer or None."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            permutation_test(([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3]), stat, batch=1000.5)
+
+        message = "`alternative` must be in..."
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            permutation_test(([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3]), stat, alternative='ekki')
+
+        message = "SeedSequence expects int or sequence of ints"
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=message):
+            permutation_test(([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3]), stat, rng='herring')
+
+    # -- Test Parameters -- #
+    # SPEC-007 leave one call with seed to check it still works
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('random_state', [np.random.RandomState,
+                                              np.random.default_rng])
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('permutation_type',
+                             ['pairings', 'samples', 'independent'])
+    def test_batch(self, permutation_type, random_state):
+        # make sure that the `batch` parameter is respected by checking the
+        # maximum batch size provided in calls to `statistic`
+        x = self.rng.random(10)
+        y = self.rng.random(10)
+
+        def statistic(x, y, axis):
+            batch_size = 1 if x.ndim == 1 else len(x)
+            statistic.batch_size = max(batch_size, statistic.batch_size)
+            statistic.counter += 1
+            return np.mean(x, axis=axis) - np.mean(y, axis=axis)
+        statistic.counter = 0
+        statistic.batch_size = 0
+
+        kwds = {'n_resamples': 1000, 'permutation_type': permutation_type,
+                'vectorized': True}
+        res1 = stats.permutation_test((x, y), statistic, batch=1,
+                                      random_state=random_state(0), **kwds)
+        assert_equal(statistic.counter, 1001)
+        assert_equal(statistic.batch_size, 1)
+
+        statistic.counter = 0
+        res2 = stats.permutation_test((x, y), statistic, batch=50,
+                                      random_state=random_state(0), **kwds)
+        assert_equal(statistic.counter, 21)
+        assert_equal(statistic.batch_size, 50)
+
+        statistic.counter = 0
+        res3 = stats.permutation_test((x, y), statistic, batch=1000,
+                                      random_state=random_state(0), **kwds)
+        assert_equal(statistic.counter, 2)
+        assert_equal(statistic.batch_size, 1000)
+
+        assert_equal(res1.pvalue, res3.pvalue)
+        assert_equal(res2.pvalue, res3.pvalue)
+
+    # SPEC-007 leave at least one call with seed to check it still works
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('random_state', [np.random.RandomState,
+                                              np.random.default_rng])
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('permutation_type, exact_size',
+                             [('pairings', special.factorial(3)**2),
+                              ('samples', 2**3),
+                              ('independent', special.binom(6, 3))])
+    def test_permutations(self, permutation_type, exact_size, random_state):
+        # make sure that the `permutations` parameter is respected by checking
+        # the size of the null distribution
+        x = self.rng.random(3)
+        y = self.rng.random(3)
+
+        def statistic(x, y, axis):
+            return np.mean(x, axis=axis) - np.mean(y, axis=axis)
+
+        kwds = {'permutation_type': permutation_type,
+                'vectorized': True}
+        res = stats.permutation_test((x, y), statistic, n_resamples=3,
+                                     random_state=random_state(0), **kwds)
+        assert_equal(res.null_distribution.size, 3)
+
+        res = stats.permutation_test((x, y), statistic, **kwds)
+        assert_equal(res.null_distribution.size, exact_size)
+
+    # -- Randomized Permutation Tests -- #
+
+    # To get reasonable accuracy, these next three tests are somewhat slow.
+    # Originally, I had them passing for all combinations of permutation type,
+    # alternative, and RNG, but that takes too long for CI. Instead, split
+    # into three tests, each testing a particular combination of the three
+    # parameters.
+
+    def test_randomized_test_against_exact_both(self):
+        # check that the randomized and exact tests agree to reasonable
+        # precision for permutation_type='both
+
+        alternative, rng = 'less', 0
+
+        nx, ny, permutations = 8, 9, 24000
+        assert special.binom(nx + ny, nx) > permutations
+
+        x = stats.norm.rvs(size=nx)
+        y = stats.norm.rvs(size=ny)
+        data = x, y
+
+        def statistic(x, y, axis):
+            return np.mean(x, axis=axis) - np.mean(y, axis=axis)
+
+        kwds = {'vectorized': True, 'permutation_type': 'independent',
+                'batch': 100, 'alternative': alternative, 'rng': rng}
+        res = permutation_test(data, statistic, n_resamples=permutations,
+                               **kwds)
+        res2 = permutation_test(data, statistic, n_resamples=np.inf, **kwds)
+
+        assert res.statistic == res2.statistic
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, res2.pvalue, atol=1e-2)
+
+    @pytest.mark.slow()
+    def test_randomized_test_against_exact_samples(self):
+        # check that the randomized and exact tests agree to reasonable
+        # precision for permutation_type='samples'
+
+        alternative, rng = 'greater', None
+
+        nx, ny, permutations = 15, 15, 32000
+        assert 2**nx > permutations
+
+        x = stats.norm.rvs(size=nx)
+        y = stats.norm.rvs(size=ny)
+        data = x, y
+
+        def statistic(x, y, axis):
+            return np.mean(x - y, axis=axis)
+
+        kwds = {'vectorized': True, 'permutation_type': 'samples',
+                'batch': 100, 'alternative': alternative, 'rng': rng}
+        res = permutation_test(data, statistic, n_resamples=permutations,
+                               **kwds)
+        res2 = permutation_test(data, statistic, n_resamples=np.inf, **kwds)
+
+        assert res.statistic == res2.statistic
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, res2.pvalue, atol=1e-2)
+
+    def test_randomized_test_against_exact_pairings(self):
+        # check that the randomized and exact tests agree to reasonable
+        # precision for permutation_type='pairings'
+
+        alternative, rng = 'two-sided', self.rng
+
+        nx, ny, permutations = 8, 8, 40000
+        assert special.factorial(nx) > permutations
+
+        x = stats.norm.rvs(size=nx)
+        y = stats.norm.rvs(size=ny)
+        data = [x]
+
+        def statistic1d(x):
+            return stats.pearsonr(x, y)[0]
+
+        statistic = _resampling._vectorize_statistic(statistic1d)
+
+        kwds = {'vectorized': True, 'permutation_type': 'samples',
+                'batch': 100, 'alternative': alternative, 'rng': rng}
+        res = permutation_test(data, statistic, n_resamples=permutations,
+                               **kwds)
+        res2 = permutation_test(data, statistic, n_resamples=np.inf, **kwds)
+
+        assert res.statistic == res2.statistic
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, res2.pvalue, atol=1e-2)
+
+    # -- Independent (Unpaired) Sample Tests -- #
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('alternative', ("less", "greater", "two-sided"))
+    def test_against_ks_2samp(self, alternative):
+
+        x = self.rng.normal(size=4, scale=1)
+        y = self.rng.normal(size=5, loc=3, scale=3)
+
+        expected = stats.ks_2samp(x, y, alternative=alternative, mode='exact')
+
+        def statistic1d(x, y):
+            return stats.ks_2samp(x, y, mode='asymp',
+                                  alternative=alternative).statistic
+
+        # ks_2samp is always a one-tailed 'greater' test
+        # it's the statistic that changes (D+ vs D- vs max(D+, D-))
+        res = permutation_test((x, y), statistic1d, n_resamples=np.inf,
+                               alternative='greater', rng=self.rng)
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected.statistic, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected.pvalue, rtol=self.rtol)
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('alternative', ("less", "greater", "two-sided"))
+    def test_against_ansari(self, alternative):
+
+        x = self.rng.normal(size=4, scale=1)
+        y = self.rng.normal(size=5, scale=3)
+
+        # ansari has a different convention for 'alternative'
+        alternative_correspondence = {"less": "greater",
+                                      "greater": "less",
+                                      "two-sided": "two-sided"}
+        alternative_scipy = alternative_correspondence[alternative]
+        expected = stats.ansari(x, y, alternative=alternative_scipy)
+
+        def statistic1d(x, y):
+            return stats.ansari(x, y).statistic
+
+        res = permutation_test((x, y), statistic1d, n_resamples=np.inf,
+                               alternative=alternative, rng=self.rng)
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected.statistic, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected.pvalue, rtol=self.rtol)
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('alternative', ("less", "greater", "two-sided"))
+    def test_against_mannwhitneyu(self, alternative):
+
+        x = stats.uniform.rvs(size=(3, 5, 2), loc=0, random_state=self.rng)
+        y = stats.uniform.rvs(size=(3, 5, 2), loc=0.05, random_state=self.rng)
+
+        expected = stats.mannwhitneyu(x, y, axis=1, alternative=alternative)
+
+        def statistic(x, y, axis):
+            return stats.mannwhitneyu(x, y, axis=axis).statistic
+
+        res = permutation_test((x, y), statistic, vectorized=True,
+                               n_resamples=np.inf, alternative=alternative,
+                               axis=1, rng=self.rng)
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected.statistic, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected.pvalue, rtol=self.rtol)
+
+    def test_against_cvm(self):
+
+        x = stats.norm.rvs(size=4, scale=1, random_state=self.rng)
+        y = stats.norm.rvs(size=5, loc=3, scale=3, random_state=self.rng)
+
+        expected = stats.cramervonmises_2samp(x, y, method='exact')
+
+        def statistic1d(x, y):
+            return stats.cramervonmises_2samp(x, y,
+                                              method='asymptotic').statistic
+
+        # cramervonmises_2samp has only one alternative, greater
+        res = permutation_test((x, y), statistic1d, n_resamples=np.inf,
+                               alternative='greater', rng=self.rng)
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected.statistic, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected.pvalue, rtol=self.rtol)
+
+    @pytest.mark.xslow()
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('axis', (-1, 2))
+    def test_vectorized_nsamp_ptype_both(self, axis):
+        # Test that permutation_test with permutation_type='independent' works
+        # properly for a 3-sample statistic with nd array samples of different
+        # (but compatible) shapes and ndims. Show that exact permutation test
+        # and random permutation tests approximate SciPy's asymptotic pvalues
+        # and that exact and random permutation test results are even closer
+        # to one another (than they are to the asymptotic results).
+
+        # Three samples, different (but compatible) shapes with different ndims
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(6709265303529651545)
+        x = rng.random(size=(3))
+        y = rng.random(size=(1, 3, 2))
+        z = rng.random(size=(2, 1, 4))
+        data = (x, y, z)
+
+        # Define the statistic (and pvalue for comparison)
+        def statistic1d(*data):
+            return stats.kruskal(*data).statistic
+
+        def pvalue1d(*data):
+            return stats.kruskal(*data).pvalue
+
+        statistic = _resampling._vectorize_statistic(statistic1d)
+        pvalue = _resampling._vectorize_statistic(pvalue1d)
+
+        # Calculate the expected results
+        x2 = np.broadcast_to(x, (2, 3, 3))  # broadcast manually because
+        y2 = np.broadcast_to(y, (2, 3, 2))  # _vectorize_statistic doesn't
+        z2 = np.broadcast_to(z, (2, 3, 4))
+        expected_statistic = statistic(x2, y2, z2, axis=axis)
+        expected_pvalue = pvalue(x2, y2, z2, axis=axis)
+
+        # Calculate exact and randomized permutation results
+        kwds = {'vectorized': False, 'axis': axis, 'alternative': 'greater',
+                'permutation_type': 'independent', 'rng': self.rng}
+        res = permutation_test(data, statistic1d, n_resamples=np.inf, **kwds)
+        res2 = permutation_test(data, statistic1d, n_resamples=1000, **kwds)
+
+        # Check results
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected_statistic, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, res2.statistic, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected_pvalue, atol=6e-2)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, res2.pvalue, atol=3e-2)
+
+    # -- Paired-Sample Tests -- #
+
+    @pytest.mark.slow
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('alternative', ("less", "greater", "two-sided"))
+    def test_against_wilcoxon(self, alternative):
+
+        x = stats.uniform.rvs(size=(3, 6, 2), loc=0, random_state=self.rng)
+        y = stats.uniform.rvs(size=(3, 6, 2), loc=0.05, random_state=self.rng)
+
+        # We'll check both 1- and 2-sample versions of the same test;
+        # we expect identical results to wilcoxon in all cases.
+        def statistic_1samp_1d(z):
+            # 'less' ensures we get the same of two statistics every time
+            return stats.wilcoxon(z, alternative='less').statistic
+
+        def statistic_2samp_1d(x, y):
+            return stats.wilcoxon(x, y, alternative='less').statistic
+
+        def test_1d(x, y):
+            return stats.wilcoxon(x, y, alternative=alternative)
+
+        test = _resampling._vectorize_statistic(test_1d)
+
+        expected = test(x, y, axis=1)
+        expected_stat = expected[0]
+        expected_p = expected[1]
+
+        kwds = {'vectorized': False, 'axis': 1, 'alternative': alternative,
+                'permutation_type': 'samples', 'rng': self.rng,
+                'n_resamples': np.inf}
+        res1 = permutation_test((x-y,), statistic_1samp_1d, **kwds)
+        res2 = permutation_test((x, y), statistic_2samp_1d, **kwds)
+
+        # `wilcoxon` returns a different statistic with 'two-sided'
+        assert_allclose(res1.statistic, res2.statistic, rtol=self.rtol)
+        if alternative != 'two-sided':
+            assert_allclose(res2.statistic, expected_stat, rtol=self.rtol)
+
+        assert_allclose(res2.pvalue, expected_p, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res1.pvalue, res2.pvalue, rtol=self.rtol)
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('alternative', ("less", "greater", "two-sided"))
+    def test_against_binomtest(self, alternative):
+
+        x = self.rng.integers(0, 2, size=10)
+        x[x == 0] = -1
+        # More naturally, the test would flip elements between 0 and one.
+        # However, permutation_test will flip the _signs_ of the elements.
+        # So we have to work with +1/-1 instead of 1/0.
+
+        def statistic(x, axis=0):
+            return np.sum(x > 0, axis=axis)
+
+        k, n, p = statistic(x), 10, 0.5
+        expected = stats.binomtest(k, n, p, alternative=alternative)
+
+        res = stats.permutation_test((x,), statistic, vectorized=True,
+                                     permutation_type='samples',
+                                     n_resamples=np.inf, rng=self.rng,
+                                     alternative=alternative)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected.pvalue, rtol=self.rtol)
+
+    # -- Exact Association Tests -- #
+
+    def test_against_kendalltau(self):
+
+        x = self.rng.normal(size=6)
+        y = x + self.rng.normal(size=6)
+
+        expected = stats.kendalltau(x, y, method='exact')
+
+        def statistic1d(x):
+            return stats.kendalltau(x, y, method='asymptotic').statistic
+
+        # kendalltau currently has only one alternative, two-sided
+        res = permutation_test((x,), statistic1d, permutation_type='pairings',
+                               n_resamples=np.inf, rng=self.rng)
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected.statistic, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected.pvalue, rtol=self.rtol)
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('alternative', ('less', 'greater', 'two-sided'))
+    def test_against_fisher_exact(self, alternative):
+
+        def statistic(x,):
+            return np.sum((x == 1) & (y == 1))
+
+        # x and y are binary random variables with some dependence
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(6235696159000529929)
+        x = (rng.random(7) > 0.6).astype(float)
+        y = (rng.random(7) + 0.25*x > 0.6).astype(float)
+        tab = stats.contingency.crosstab(x, y)[1]
+
+        res = permutation_test((x,), statistic, permutation_type='pairings',
+                               n_resamples=np.inf, alternative=alternative,
+                               rng=rng)
+        res2 = stats.fisher_exact(tab, alternative=alternative)
+
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, res2[1])
+
+    @pytest.mark.xslow()
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('axis', (-2, 1))
+    def test_vectorized_nsamp_ptype_samples(self, axis):
+        # Test that permutation_test with permutation_type='samples' works
+        # properly for a 3-sample statistic with nd array samples of different
+        # (but compatible) shapes and ndims. Show that exact permutation test
+        # reproduces SciPy's exact pvalue and that random permutation test
+        # approximates it.
+
+        x = self.rng.random(size=(2, 4, 3))
+        y = self.rng.random(size=(1, 4, 3))
+        z = self.rng.random(size=(2, 4, 1))
+        x = stats.rankdata(x, axis=axis)
+        y = stats.rankdata(y, axis=axis)
+        z = stats.rankdata(z, axis=axis)
+        y = y[0]  # to check broadcast with different ndim
+        data = (x, y, z)
+
+        def statistic1d(*data):
+            return stats.page_trend_test(data, ranked=True,
+                                         method='asymptotic').statistic
+
+        def pvalue1d(*data):
+            return stats.page_trend_test(data, ranked=True,
+                                         method='exact').pvalue
+
+        statistic = _resampling._vectorize_statistic(statistic1d)
+        pvalue = _resampling._vectorize_statistic(pvalue1d)
+
+        expected_statistic = statistic(*np.broadcast_arrays(*data), axis=axis)
+        expected_pvalue = pvalue(*np.broadcast_arrays(*data), axis=axis)
+
+        # Let's forgive this use of an integer seed, please.
+        kwds = {'vectorized': False, 'axis': axis, 'alternative': 'greater',
+                'permutation_type': 'pairings', 'rng': 0}
+        res = permutation_test(data, statistic1d, n_resamples=np.inf, **kwds)
+        res2 = permutation_test(data, statistic1d, n_resamples=5000, **kwds)
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected_statistic, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, res2.statistic, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected_pvalue, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, res2.pvalue, atol=3e-2)
+
+    # -- Test Against External References -- #
+
+    tie_case_1 = {'x': [1, 2, 3, 4], 'y': [1.5, 2, 2.5],
+                  'expected_less': 0.2000000000,
+                  'expected_2sided': 0.4,  # 2*expected_less
+                  'expected_Pr_gte_S_mean': 0.3428571429,  # see note below
+                  'expected_statistic': 7.5,
+                  'expected_avg': 9.142857, 'expected_std': 1.40698}
+    tie_case_2 = {'x': [111, 107, 100, 99, 102, 106, 109, 108],
+                  'y': [107, 108, 106, 98, 105, 103, 110, 105, 104],
+                  'expected_less': 0.1555738379,
+                  'expected_2sided': 0.3111476758,
+                  'expected_Pr_gte_S_mean': 0.2969971205,  # see note below
+                  'expected_statistic': 32.5,
+                  'expected_avg': 38.117647, 'expected_std': 5.172124}
+
+    @pytest.mark.xslow()  # only the second case is slow, really
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('case', (tie_case_1, tie_case_2))
+    def test_with_ties(self, case):
+        """
+        Results above from SAS PROC NPAR1WAY, e.g.
+
+        DATA myData;
+        INPUT X Y;
+        CARDS;
+        1 1
+        1 2
+        1 3
+        1 4
+        2 1.5
+        2 2
+        2 2.5
+        ods graphics on;
+        proc npar1way AB data=myData;
+            class X;
+            EXACT;
+        run;
+        ods graphics off;
+
+        Note: SAS provides Pr >= |S-Mean|, which is different from our
+        definition of a two-sided p-value.
+
+        """
+
+        x = case['x']
+        y = case['y']
+
+        expected_statistic = case['expected_statistic']
+        expected_less = case['expected_less']
+        expected_2sided = case['expected_2sided']
+        expected_Pr_gte_S_mean = case['expected_Pr_gte_S_mean']
+        expected_avg = case['expected_avg']
+        expected_std = case['expected_std']
+
+        def statistic1d(x, y):
+            return stats.ansari(x, y).statistic
+
+        with np.testing.suppress_warnings() as sup:
+            sup.filter(UserWarning, "Ties preclude use of exact statistic")
+            res = permutation_test((x, y), statistic1d, n_resamples=np.inf,
+                                   alternative='less')
+            res2 = permutation_test((x, y), statistic1d, n_resamples=np.inf,
+                                    alternative='two-sided')
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected_statistic, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected_less, atol=1e-10)
+        assert_allclose(res2.pvalue, expected_2sided, atol=1e-10)
+        assert_allclose(res2.null_distribution.mean(), expected_avg, rtol=1e-6)
+        assert_allclose(res2.null_distribution.std(), expected_std, rtol=1e-6)
+
+        # SAS provides Pr >= |S-Mean|; might as well check against that, too
+        S = res.statistic
+        mean = res.null_distribution.mean()
+        n = len(res.null_distribution)
+        Pr_gte_S_mean = np.sum(np.abs(res.null_distribution-mean)
+                               >= np.abs(S-mean))/n
+        assert_allclose(expected_Pr_gte_S_mean, Pr_gte_S_mean)
+
+    @pytest.mark.slow
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize('alternative, expected_pvalue',
+                             (('less', 0.9708333333333),
+                              ('greater', 0.05138888888889),
+                              ('two-sided', 0.1027777777778)))
+    def test_against_spearmanr_in_R(self, alternative, expected_pvalue):
+        """
+        Results above from R cor.test, e.g.
+
+        options(digits=16)
+        x <- c(1.76405235, 0.40015721, 0.97873798,
+               2.2408932, 1.86755799, -0.97727788)
+        y <- c(2.71414076, 0.2488, 0.87551913,
+               2.6514917, 2.01160156, 0.47699563)
+        cor.test(x, y, method = "spearm", alternative = "t")
+        """
+        # data comes from
+        # np.random.seed(0)
+        # x = stats.norm.rvs(size=6)
+        # y = x + stats.norm.rvs(size=6)
+        x = [1.76405235, 0.40015721, 0.97873798,
+             2.2408932, 1.86755799, -0.97727788]
+        y = [2.71414076, 0.2488, 0.87551913,
+             2.6514917, 2.01160156, 0.47699563]
+        expected_statistic = 0.7714285714285715
+
+        def statistic1d(x):
+            return stats.spearmanr(x, y).statistic
+
+        res = permutation_test((x,), statistic1d, permutation_type='pairings',
+                               n_resamples=np.inf, alternative=alternative)
+
+        assert_allclose(res.statistic, expected_statistic, rtol=self.rtol)
+        assert_allclose(res.pvalue, expected_pvalue, atol=1e-13)
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("batch", (-1, 0))
+    def test_batch_generator_iv(self, batch):
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="`batch` must be positive."):
+            list(_resampling._batch_generator([1, 2, 3], batch))
+
+    batch_generator_cases = [(range(0), 3, []),
+                             (range(6), 3, [[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]),
+                             (range(8), 3, [[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5], [6, 7]])]
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("iterable, batch, expected",
+                             batch_generator_cases)
+    def test_batch_generator(self, iterable, batch, expected):
+        got = list(_resampling._batch_generator(iterable, batch))
+        assert got == expected
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(2)
+    def test_finite_precision_statistic(self):
+        # Some statistics return numerically distinct values when the values
+        # should be equal in theory. Test that `permutation_test` accounts
+        # for this in some way.
+        x = [1, 2, 4, 3]
+        y = [2, 4, 6, 8]
+
+        def statistic(x, y):
+            return stats.pearsonr(x, y)[0]
+
+        res = stats.permutation_test((x, y), statistic, vectorized=False,
+                                     permutation_type='pairings')
+        r, pvalue, null = res.statistic, res.pvalue, res.null_distribution
+
+        correct_p = 2 * np.sum(null >= r - 1e-14) / len(null)
+        assert pvalue == correct_p == 1/3
+        # Compare against other exact correlation tests using R corr.test
+        # options(digits=16)
+        # x = c(1, 2, 4, 3)
+        # y = c(2, 4, 6, 8)
+        # cor.test(x, y, alternative = "t", method = "spearman")  # 0.333333333
+        # cor.test(x, y, alternative = "t", method = "kendall")  # 0.333333333
+
+
+def test_all_partitions_concatenated():
+    # make sure that _all_paritions_concatenated produces the correct number
+    # of partitions of the data into samples of the given sizes and that
+    # all are unique
+    n = np.array([3, 2, 4], dtype=int)
+    nc = np.cumsum(n)
+
+    all_partitions = set()
+    counter = 0
+    for partition_concatenated in _resampling._all_partitions_concatenated(n):
+        counter += 1
+        partitioning = np.split(partition_concatenated, nc[:-1])
+        all_partitions.add(tuple([frozenset(i) for i in partitioning]))
+
+    expected = np.prod([special.binom(sum(n[i:]), sum(n[i+1:]))
+                        for i in range(len(n)-1)])
+
+    assert_equal(counter, expected)
+    assert_equal(len(all_partitions), expected)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize('fun_name',
+                         ['bootstrap', 'permutation_test', 'monte_carlo_test'])
+def test_parameter_vectorized(fun_name):
+    # Check that parameter `vectorized` is working as desired for all
+    # resampling functions. Results don't matter; just don't fail asserts.
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(75245098234592)
+    sample = rng.random(size=10)
+
+    def rvs(size):  # needed by `monte_carlo_test`
+        return stats.norm.rvs(size=size, random_state=rng)
+
+    fun_options = {'bootstrap': {'data': (sample,), 'rng': rng,
+                                 'method': 'percentile'},
+                   'permutation_test': {'data': (sample,), 'rng': rng,
+                                        'permutation_type': 'samples'},
+                   'monte_carlo_test': {'sample': sample, 'rvs': rvs}}
+    common_options = {'n_resamples': 100}
+
+    fun = getattr(stats, fun_name)
+    options = fun_options[fun_name]
+    options.update(common_options)
+
+    def statistic(x, axis):
+        assert x.ndim > 1 or np.array_equal(x, sample)
+        return np.mean(x, axis=axis)
+    fun(statistic=statistic, vectorized=None, **options)
+    fun(statistic=statistic, vectorized=True, **options)
+
+    def statistic(x):
+        assert x.ndim == 1
+        return np.mean(x)
+    fun(statistic=statistic, vectorized=None, **options)
+    fun(statistic=statistic, vectorized=False, **options)
+
+
+class TestMonteCarloMethod:
+    def test_rvs_and_random_state(self):
+        message = "Use of `rvs` and `rng` are mutually exclusive."
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(34982345)
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=message):
+            stats.MonteCarloMethod(rvs=rng.random, rng=rng)