scipy 1.16.2__cp312-cp312-win_arm64.whl

scipy/optimize/_differentialevolution.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1970 @@
+"""
+differential_evolution: The differential evolution global optimization algorithm
+Added by Andrew Nelson 2014
+"""
+import warnings
+
+import numpy as np
+
+from scipy.optimize import OptimizeResult, minimize
+from scipy.optimize._constraints import (Bounds, new_bounds_to_old,
+                                         NonlinearConstraint, LinearConstraint)
+from scipy.optimize._optimize import _status_message, _wrap_callback
+from scipy._lib._util import (check_random_state, MapWrapper, _FunctionWrapper,
+                              rng_integers, _transition_to_rng)
+from scipy._lib._sparse import issparse
+
+
+__all__ = ['differential_evolution']
+
+
+_MACHEPS = np.finfo(np.float64).eps
+
+
+@_transition_to_rng("seed", position_num=9)
+def differential_evolution(func, bounds, args=(), strategy='best1bin',
+                           maxiter=1000, popsize=15, tol=0.01,
+                           mutation=(0.5, 1), recombination=0.7, rng=None,
+                           callback=None, disp=False, polish=True,
+                           init='latinhypercube', atol=0, updating='immediate',
+                           workers=1, constraints=(), x0=None, *,
+                           integrality=None, vectorized=False):
+    r"""Finds the global minimum of a multivariate function.
+
+    The differential evolution method [1]_ is stochastic in nature. It does
+    not use gradient methods to find the minimum, and can search large areas
+    of candidate space, but often requires larger numbers of function
+    evaluations than conventional gradient-based techniques.
+
+    The algorithm is due to Storn and Price [2]_.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    func : callable
+        The objective function to be minimized. Must be in the form
+        ``f(x, *args)``, where ``x`` is the argument in the form of a 1-D array
+        and ``args`` is a tuple of any additional fixed parameters needed to
+        completely specify the function. The number of parameters, N, is equal
+        to ``len(x)``.
+    bounds : sequence or `Bounds`
+        Bounds for variables. There are two ways to specify the bounds:
+
+        1. Instance of `Bounds` class.
+        2. ``(min, max)`` pairs for each element in ``x``, defining the
+           finite lower and upper bounds for the optimizing argument of
+           `func`.
+
+        The total number of bounds is used to determine the number of
+        parameters, N. If there are parameters whose bounds are equal the total
+        number of free parameters is ``N - N_equal``.
+
+    args : tuple, optional
+        Any additional fixed parameters needed to
+        completely specify the objective function.
+    strategy : {str, callable}, optional
+        The differential evolution strategy to use. Should be one of:
+
+        - 'best1bin'
+        - 'best1exp'
+        - 'rand1bin'
+        - 'rand1exp'
+        - 'rand2bin'
+        - 'rand2exp'
+        - 'randtobest1bin'
+        - 'randtobest1exp'
+        - 'currenttobest1bin'
+        - 'currenttobest1exp'
+        - 'best2exp'
+        - 'best2bin'
+
+        The default is 'best1bin'. Strategies that may be implemented are
+        outlined in 'Notes'.
+        Alternatively the differential evolution strategy can be customized by
+        providing a callable that constructs a trial vector. The callable must
+        have the form ``strategy(candidate: int, population: np.ndarray, rng=None)``,
+        where ``candidate`` is an integer specifying which entry of the
+        population is being evolved, ``population`` is an array of shape
+        ``(S, N)`` containing all the population members (where S is the
+        total population size), and ``rng`` is the random number generator
+        being used within the solver.
+        ``candidate`` will be in the range ``[0, S)``.
+        ``strategy`` must return a trial vector with shape ``(N,)``. The
+        fitness of this trial vector is compared against the fitness of
+        ``population[candidate]``.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 1.12.0
+            Customization of evolution strategy via a callable.
+
+    maxiter : int, optional
+        The maximum number of generations over which the entire population is
+        evolved. The maximum number of function evaluations (with no polishing)
+        is: ``(maxiter + 1) * popsize * (N - N_equal)``
+    popsize : int, optional
+        A multiplier for setting the total population size. The population has
+        ``popsize * (N - N_equal)`` individuals. This keyword is overridden if
+        an initial population is supplied via the `init` keyword. When using
+        ``init='sobol'`` the population size is calculated as the next power
+        of 2 after ``popsize * (N - N_equal)``.
+    tol : float, optional
+        Relative tolerance for convergence, the solving stops when
+        ``np.std(population_energies) <= atol + tol * np.abs(np.mean(population_energies))``,
+        where and `atol` and `tol` are the absolute and relative tolerance
+        respectively.
+    mutation : float or tuple(float, float), optional
+        The mutation constant. In the literature this is also known as
+        differential weight, being denoted by :math:`F`.
+        If specified as a float it should be in the range [0, 2).
+        If specified as a tuple ``(min, max)`` dithering is employed. Dithering
+        randomly changes the mutation constant on a generation by generation
+        basis. The mutation constant for that generation is taken from
+        ``U[min, max)``. Dithering can help speed convergence significantly.
+        Increasing the mutation constant increases the search radius, but will
+        slow down convergence.
+    recombination : float, optional
+        The recombination constant, should be in the range [0, 1]. In the
+        literature this is also known as the crossover probability, being
+        denoted by CR. Increasing this value allows a larger number of mutants
+        to progress into the next generation, but at the risk of population
+        stability.
+    rng : `numpy.random.Generator`, optional
+        Pseudorandom number generator state. When `rng` is None, a new
+        `numpy.random.Generator` is created using entropy from the
+        operating system. Types other than `numpy.random.Generator` are
+        passed to `numpy.random.default_rng` to instantiate a ``Generator``.
+    disp : bool, optional
+        Prints the evaluated `func` at every iteration.
+    callback : callable, optional
+        A callable called after each iteration. Has the signature::
+
+            callback(intermediate_result: OptimizeResult)
+
+        where ``intermediate_result`` is a keyword parameter containing an
+        `OptimizeResult` with attributes ``x`` and ``fun``, the best solution
+        found so far and the objective function. Note that the name
+        of the parameter must be ``intermediate_result`` for the callback
+        to be passed an `OptimizeResult`.
+
+        The callback also supports a signature like::
+
+            callback(x, convergence: float=val)
+
+        ``val`` represents the fractional value of the population convergence.
+        When ``val`` is greater than ``1.0``, the function halts.
+
+        Introspection is used to determine which of the signatures is invoked.
+
+        Global minimization will halt if the callback raises ``StopIteration``
+        or returns ``True``; any polishing is still carried out.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 1.12.0
+            callback accepts the ``intermediate_result`` keyword.
+
+    polish : bool, optional
+        If True (default), then `scipy.optimize.minimize` with the `L-BFGS-B`
+        method is used to polish the best population member at the end, which
+        can improve the minimization slightly. If a constrained problem is
+        being studied then the `trust-constr` method is used instead. For large
+        problems with many constraints, polishing can take a long time due to
+        the Jacobian computations.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 1.15.0
+            If `workers` is specified then the map-like callable that wraps
+            `func` is supplied to `minimize` instead of it using `func`
+            directly. This allows the caller to control how and where the
+            invocations actually run.
+
+    init : str or array-like, optional
+        Specify which type of population initialization is performed. Should be
+        one of:
+
+        - 'latinhypercube'
+        - 'sobol'
+        - 'halton'
+        - 'random'
+        - array specifying the initial population. The array should have
+          shape ``(S, N)``, where S is the total population size and N is
+          the number of parameters.
+
+        `init` is clipped to `bounds` before use.
+
+        The default is 'latinhypercube'. Latin Hypercube sampling tries to
+        maximize coverage of the available parameter space.
+
+        'sobol' and 'halton' are superior alternatives and maximize even more
+        the parameter space. 'sobol' will enforce an initial population
+        size which is calculated as the next power of 2 after
+        ``popsize * (N - N_equal)``. 'halton' has no requirements but is a bit
+        less efficient. See `scipy.stats.qmc` for more details.
+
+        'random' initializes the population randomly - this has the drawback
+        that clustering can occur, preventing the whole of parameter space
+        being covered. Use of an array to specify a population could be used,
+        for example, to create a tight bunch of initial guesses in an location
+        where the solution is known to exist, thereby reducing time for
+        convergence.
+    atol : float, optional
+        Absolute tolerance for convergence, the solving stops when
+        ``np.std(pop) <= atol + tol * np.abs(np.mean(population_energies))``,
+        where and `atol` and `tol` are the absolute and relative tolerance
+        respectively.
+    updating : {'immediate', 'deferred'}, optional
+        If ``'immediate'``, the best solution vector is continuously updated
+        within a single generation [4]_. This can lead to faster convergence as
+        trial vectors can take advantage of continuous improvements in the best
+        solution.
+        With ``'deferred'``, the best solution vector is updated once per
+        generation. Only ``'deferred'`` is compatible with parallelization or
+        vectorization, and the `workers` and `vectorized` keywords can
+        over-ride this option.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 1.2.0
+
+    workers : int or map-like callable, optional
+        If `workers` is an int the population is subdivided into `workers`
+        sections and evaluated in parallel
+        (uses `multiprocessing.Pool <multiprocessing>`).
+        Supply -1 to use all available CPU cores.
+        Alternatively supply a map-like callable, such as
+        `multiprocessing.Pool.map` for evaluating the population in parallel.
+        This evaluation is carried out as ``workers(func, iterable)``.
+        This option will override the `updating` keyword to
+        ``updating='deferred'`` if ``workers != 1``.
+        This option overrides the `vectorized` keyword if ``workers != 1``.
+        Requires that `func` be pickleable.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 1.2.0
+
+    constraints : {NonLinearConstraint, LinearConstraint, Bounds}
+        Constraints on the solver, over and above those applied by the `bounds`
+        kwd. Uses the approach by Lampinen [5]_.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 1.4.0
+
+    x0 : None or array-like, optional
+        Provides an initial guess to the minimization. Once the population has
+        been initialized this vector replaces the first (best) member. This
+        replacement is done even if `init` is given an initial population.
+        ``x0.shape == (N,)``.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 1.7.0
+
+    integrality : 1-D array, optional
+        For each decision variable, a boolean value indicating whether the
+        decision variable is constrained to integer values. The array is
+        broadcast to ``(N,)``.
+        If any decision variables are constrained to be integral, they will not
+        be changed during polishing.
+        Only integer values lying between the lower and upper bounds are used.
+        If there are no integer values lying between the bounds then a
+        `ValueError` is raised.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 1.9.0
+
+    vectorized : bool, optional
+        If ``vectorized is True``, `func` is sent an `x` array with
+        ``x.shape == (N, S)``, and is expected to return an array of shape
+        ``(S,)``, where `S` is the number of solution vectors to be calculated.
+        If constraints are applied, each of the functions used to construct
+        a `Constraint` object should accept an `x` array with
+        ``x.shape == (N, S)``, and return an array of shape ``(M, S)``, where
+        `M` is the number of constraint components.
+        This option is an alternative to the parallelization offered by
+        `workers`, and may help in optimization speed by reducing interpreter
+        overhead from multiple function calls. This keyword is ignored if
+        ``workers != 1``.
+        This option will override the `updating` keyword to
+        ``updating='deferred'``.
+        See the notes section for further discussion on when to use
+        ``'vectorized'``, and when to use ``'workers'``.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 1.9.0
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    res : OptimizeResult
+        The optimization result represented as a `OptimizeResult` object.
+        Important attributes are: ``x`` the solution array, ``success`` a
+        Boolean flag indicating if the optimizer exited successfully,
+        ``message`` which describes the cause of the termination,
+        ``population`` the solution vectors present in the population, and
+        ``population_energies`` the value of the objective function for each
+        entry in ``population``.
+        See `OptimizeResult` for a description of other attributes. If `polish`
+        was employed, and a lower minimum was obtained by the polishing, then
+        OptimizeResult also contains the ``jac`` attribute.
+        If the eventual solution does not satisfy the applied constraints
+        ``success`` will be `False`.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Differential evolution is a stochastic population based method that is
+    useful for global optimization problems. At each pass through the
+    population the algorithm mutates each candidate solution by mixing with
+    other candidate solutions to create a trial candidate. There are several
+    strategies [3]_ for creating trial candidates, which suit some problems
+    more than others. The 'best1bin' strategy is a good starting point for
+    many systems. In this strategy two members of the population are randomly
+    chosen. Their difference is used to mutate the best member (the 'best' in
+    'best1bin'), :math:`x_0`, so far:
+
+    .. math::
+
+        b' = x_0 + F \cdot (x_{r_0} - x_{r_1})
+
+    where :math:`F` is the `mutation` parameter.
+    A trial vector is then constructed. Starting with a randomly chosen ith
+    parameter the trial is sequentially filled (in modulo) with parameters
+    from ``b'`` or the original candidate. The choice of whether to use ``b'``
+    or the original candidate is made with a binomial distribution (the 'bin'
+    in 'best1bin') - a random number in [0, 1) is generated. If this number is
+    less than the `recombination` constant then the parameter is loaded from
+    ``b'``, otherwise it is loaded from the original candidate. The final
+    parameter is always loaded from ``b'``. Once the trial candidate is built
+    its fitness is assessed. If the trial is better than the original candidate
+    then it takes its place. If it is also better than the best overall
+    candidate it also replaces that.
+
+    The other strategies available are outlined in Qiang and
+    Mitchell (2014) [3]_.
+
+
+    - ``rand1`` : :math:`b' = x_{r_0} + F \cdot (x_{r_1} - x_{r_2})`
+    - ``rand2`` : :math:`b' = x_{r_0} + F \cdot (x_{r_1} + x_{r_2} - x_{r_3} - x_{r_4})`
+    - ``best1`` : :math:`b' = x_0 + F \cdot (x_{r_0} - x_{r_1})`
+    - ``best2`` : :math:`b' = x_0 + F \cdot (x_{r_0} + x_{r_1} - x_{r_2} - x_{r_3})`
+    - ``currenttobest1`` : :math:`b' = x_i + F \cdot (x_0 - x_i + x_{r_0} - x_{r_1})`
+    - ``randtobest1`` : :math:`b' = x_{r_0} + F \cdot (x_0 - x_{r_0} + x_{r_1} - x_{r_2})`
+
+    where the integers :math:`r_0, r_1, r_2, r_3, r_4` are chosen randomly
+    from the interval [0, NP) with `NP` being the total population size and
+    the original candidate having index `i`. The user can fully customize the
+    generation of the trial candidates by supplying a callable to ``strategy``.
+
+    To improve your chances of finding a global minimum use higher `popsize`
+    values, with higher `mutation` and (dithering), but lower `recombination`
+    values. This has the effect of widening the search radius, but slowing
+    convergence.
+
+    By default the best solution vector is updated continuously within a single
+    iteration (``updating='immediate'``). This is a modification [4]_ of the
+    original differential evolution algorithm which can lead to faster
+    convergence as trial vectors can immediately benefit from improved
+    solutions. To use the original Storn and Price behaviour, updating the best
+    solution once per iteration, set ``updating='deferred'``.
+    The ``'deferred'`` approach is compatible with both parallelization and
+    vectorization (``'workers'`` and ``'vectorized'`` keywords). These may
+    improve minimization speed by using computer resources more efficiently.
+    The ``'workers'`` distribute calculations over multiple processors. By
+    default the Python `multiprocessing` module is used, but other approaches
+    are also possible, such as the Message Passing Interface (MPI) used on
+    clusters [6]_ [7]_. The overhead from these approaches (creating new
+    Processes, etc) may be significant, meaning that computational speed
+    doesn't necessarily scale with the number of processors used.
+    Parallelization is best suited to computationally expensive objective
+    functions. If the objective function is less expensive, then
+    ``'vectorized'`` may aid by only calling the objective function once per
+    iteration, rather than multiple times for all the population members; the
+    interpreter overhead is reduced.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 0.15.0
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] Differential evolution, Wikipedia,
+           http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_evolution
+    .. [2] Storn, R and Price, K, Differential Evolution - a Simple and
+           Efficient Heuristic for Global Optimization over Continuous Spaces,
+           Journal of Global Optimization, 1997, 11, 341 - 359.
+    .. [3] Qiang, J., Mitchell, C., A Unified Differential Evolution Algorithm
+            for Global Optimization, 2014, https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1163659
+    .. [4] Wormington, M., Panaccione, C., Matney, K. M., Bowen, D. K., -
+           Characterization of structures from X-ray scattering data using
+           genetic algorithms, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A, 1999, 357,
+           2827-2848
+    .. [5] Lampinen, J., A constraint handling approach for the differential
+           evolution algorithm. Proceedings of the 2002 Congress on
+           Evolutionary Computation. CEC'02 (Cat. No. 02TH8600). Vol. 2. IEEE,
+           2002.
+    .. [6] https://mpi4py.readthedocs.io/en/stable/
+    .. [7] https://schwimmbad.readthedocs.io/en/latest/
+ 
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Let us consider the problem of minimizing the Rosenbrock function. This
+    function is implemented in `rosen` in `scipy.optimize`.
+
+    >>> import numpy as np
+    >>> from scipy.optimize import rosen, differential_evolution
+    >>> bounds = [(0,2), (0, 2), (0, 2), (0, 2), (0, 2)]
+    >>> result = differential_evolution(rosen, bounds)
+    >>> result.x, result.fun
+    (array([1., 1., 1., 1., 1.]), 1.9216496320061384e-19)
+
+    Now repeat, but with parallelization.
+
+    >>> result = differential_evolution(rosen, bounds, updating='deferred',
+    ...                                 workers=2)
+    >>> result.x, result.fun
+    (array([1., 1., 1., 1., 1.]), 1.9216496320061384e-19)
+
+    Let's do a constrained minimization.
+
+    >>> from scipy.optimize import LinearConstraint, Bounds
+
+    We add the constraint that the sum of ``x[0]`` and ``x[1]`` must be less
+    than or equal to 1.9.  This is a linear constraint, which may be written
+    ``A @ x <= 1.9``, where ``A = array([[1, 1]])``.  This can be encoded as
+    a `LinearConstraint` instance:
+
+    >>> lc = LinearConstraint([[1, 1]], -np.inf, 1.9)
+
+    Specify limits using a `Bounds` object.
+
+    >>> bounds = Bounds([0., 0.], [2., 2.])
+    >>> result = differential_evolution(rosen, bounds, constraints=lc,
+    ...                                 rng=1)
+    >>> result.x, result.fun
+    (array([0.96632622, 0.93367155]), 0.0011352416852625719)
+
+    Next find the minimum of the Ackley function
+    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_functions_for_optimization).
+
+    >>> def ackley(x):
+    ...     arg1 = -0.2 * np.sqrt(0.5 * (x[0] ** 2 + x[1] ** 2))
+    ...     arg2 = 0.5 * (np.cos(2. * np.pi * x[0]) + np.cos(2. * np.pi * x[1]))
+    ...     return -20. * np.exp(arg1) - np.exp(arg2) + 20. + np.e
+    >>> bounds = [(-5, 5), (-5, 5)]
+    >>> result = differential_evolution(ackley, bounds, rng=1)
+    >>> result.x, result.fun
+    (array([0., 0.]), 4.440892098500626e-16)
+
+    The Ackley function is written in a vectorized manner, so the
+    ``'vectorized'`` keyword can be employed. Note the reduced number of
+    function evaluations.
+
+    >>> result = differential_evolution(
+    ...     ackley, bounds, vectorized=True, updating='deferred', rng=1
+    ... )
+    >>> result.x, result.fun
+    (array([0., 0.]), 4.440892098500626e-16)
+
+    The following custom strategy function mimics 'best1bin':
+
+    >>> def custom_strategy_fn(candidate, population, rng=None):
+    ...     parameter_count = population.shape(-1)
+    ...     mutation, recombination = 0.7, 0.9
+    ...     trial = np.copy(population[candidate])
+    ...     fill_point = rng.choice(parameter_count)
+    ...
+    ...     pool = np.arange(len(population))
+    ...     rng.shuffle(pool)
+    ...
+    ...     # two unique random numbers that aren't the same, and
+    ...     # aren't equal to candidate.
+    ...     idxs = []
+    ...     while len(idxs) < 2 and len(pool) > 0:
+    ...         idx = pool[0]
+    ...         pool = pool[1:]
+    ...         if idx != candidate:
+    ...             idxs.append(idx)
+    ...
+    ...     r0, r1 = idxs[:2]
+    ...
+    ...     bprime = (population[0] + mutation *
+    ...               (population[r0] - population[r1]))
+    ...
+    ...     crossovers = rng.uniform(size=parameter_count)
+    ...     crossovers = crossovers < recombination
+    ...     crossovers[fill_point] = True
+    ...     trial = np.where(crossovers, bprime, trial)
+    ...     return trial
+
+    """# noqa: E501
+
+    # using a context manager means that any created Pool objects are
+    # cleared up.
+    with DifferentialEvolutionSolver(func, bounds, args=args,
+                                     strategy=strategy,
+                                     maxiter=maxiter,
+                                     popsize=popsize, tol=tol,
+                                     mutation=mutation,
+                                     recombination=recombination,
+                                     rng=rng, polish=polish,
+                                     callback=callback,
+                                     disp=disp, init=init, atol=atol,
+                                     updating=updating,
+                                     workers=workers,
+                                     constraints=constraints,
+                                     x0=x0,
+                                     integrality=integrality,
+                                     vectorized=vectorized) as solver:
+        ret = solver.solve()
+
+    return ret
+
+
+class DifferentialEvolutionSolver:
+
+    """This class implements the differential evolution solver
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    func : callable
+        The objective function to be minimized. Must be in the form
+        ``f(x, *args)``, where ``x`` is the argument in the form of a 1-D array
+        and ``args`` is a tuple of any additional fixed parameters needed to
+        completely specify the function. The number of parameters, N, is equal
+        to ``len(x)``.
+    bounds : sequence or `Bounds`
+        Bounds for variables. There are two ways to specify the bounds:
+
+            1. Instance of `Bounds` class.
+            2. ``(min, max)`` pairs for each element in ``x``, defining the
+               finite lower and upper bounds for the optimizing argument of
+               `func`.
+
+        The total number of bounds is used to determine the number of
+        parameters, N. If there are parameters whose bounds are equal the total
+        number of free parameters is ``N - N_equal``.
+    args : tuple, optional
+        Any additional fixed parameters needed to
+        completely specify the objective function.
+    strategy : {str, callable}, optional
+        The differential evolution strategy to use. Should be one of:
+
+            - 'best1bin'
+            - 'best1exp'
+            - 'rand1bin'
+            - 'rand1exp'
+            - 'rand2bin'
+            - 'rand2exp'
+            - 'randtobest1bin'
+            - 'randtobest1exp'
+            - 'currenttobest1bin'
+            - 'currenttobest1exp'
+            - 'best2exp'
+            - 'best2bin'
+
+        The default is 'best1bin'. Strategies that may be
+        implemented are outlined in 'Notes'.
+
+        Alternatively the differential evolution strategy can be customized
+        by providing a callable that constructs a trial vector. The callable
+        must have the form
+        ``strategy(candidate: int, population: np.ndarray, rng=None)``,
+        where ``candidate`` is an integer specifying which entry of the
+        population is being evolved, ``population`` is an array of shape
+        ``(S, N)`` containing all the population members (where S is the
+        total population size), and ``rng`` is the random number generator
+        being used within the solver.
+        ``candidate`` will be in the range ``[0, S)``.
+        ``strategy`` must return a trial vector with shape ``(N,)``. The
+        fitness of this trial vector is compared against the fitness of
+        ``population[candidate]``.
+    maxiter : int, optional
+        The maximum number of generations over which the entire population is
+        evolved. The maximum number of function evaluations (with no polishing)
+        is: ``(maxiter + 1) * popsize * (N - N_equal)``
+    popsize : int, optional
+        A multiplier for setting the total population size. The population has
+        ``popsize * (N - N_equal)`` individuals. This keyword is overridden if
+        an initial population is supplied via the `init` keyword. When using
+        ``init='sobol'`` the population size is calculated as the next power
+        of 2 after ``popsize * (N - N_equal)``.
+    tol : float, optional
+        Relative tolerance for convergence, the solving stops when
+        ``np.std(population_energies) <= atol + tol * np.abs(np.mean(population_energies))``,
+        where and `atol` and `tol` are the absolute and relative tolerance
+        respectively.
+    mutation : float or tuple(float, float), optional
+        The mutation constant. In the literature this is also known as
+        differential weight, being denoted by F.
+        If specified as a float it should be in the range [0, 2].
+        If specified as a tuple ``(min, max)`` dithering is employed. Dithering
+        randomly changes the mutation constant on a generation by generation
+        basis. The mutation constant for that generation is taken from
+        U[min, max). Dithering can help speed convergence significantly.
+        Increasing the mutation constant increases the search radius, but will
+        slow down convergence.
+    recombination : float, optional
+        The recombination constant, should be in the range [0, 1]. In the
+        literature this is also known as the crossover probability, being
+        denoted by CR. Increasing this value allows a larger number of mutants
+        to progress into the next generation, but at the risk of population
+        stability.
+
+    rng : {None, int, `numpy.random.Generator`}, optional
+        
+        ..versionchanged:: 1.15.0
+            As part of the `SPEC-007 <https://scientific-python.org/specs/spec-0007/>`_
+            transition from use of `numpy.random.RandomState` to
+            `numpy.random.Generator` this keyword was changed from `seed` to `rng`.
+            For an interim period both keywords will continue to work (only specify
+            one of them). After the interim period using the `seed` keyword will emit
+            warnings. The behavior of the `seed` and `rng` keywords is outlined below.
+
+        If `rng` is passed by keyword, types other than `numpy.random.Generator` are
+        passed to `numpy.random.default_rng` to instantiate a `Generator`.
+        If `rng` is already a `Generator` instance, then the provided instance is
+        used.
+        
+        If this argument is passed by position or `seed` is passed by keyword, the
+        behavior is:
+        
+        - If `seed` is None (or `np.random`), the `numpy.random.RandomState`
+          singleton is used.
+        - If `seed` is an int, a new `RandomState` instance is used,
+          seeded with `seed`.
+        - If `seed` is already a `Generator` or `RandomState` instance then
+          that instance is used.
+        
+        Specify `seed`/`rng` for repeatable minimizations.
+    disp : bool, optional
+        Prints the evaluated `func` at every iteration.
+    callback : callable, optional
+        A callable called after each iteration. Has the signature:
+
+            ``callback(intermediate_result: OptimizeResult)``
+
+        where ``intermediate_result`` is a keyword parameter containing an
+        `OptimizeResult` with attributes ``x`` and ``fun``, the best solution
+        found so far and the objective function. Note that the name
+        of the parameter must be ``intermediate_result`` for the callback
+        to be passed an `OptimizeResult`.
+
+        The callback also supports a signature like:
+
+            ``callback(x, convergence: float=val)``
+
+        ``val`` represents the fractional value of the population convergence.
+         When ``val`` is greater than ``1.0``, the function halts.
+
+        Introspection is used to determine which of the signatures is invoked.
+
+        Global minimization will halt if the callback raises ``StopIteration``
+        or returns ``True``; any polishing is still carried out.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 1.12.0
+            callback accepts the ``intermediate_result`` keyword.
+
+    polish : bool, optional
+        If True (default), then `scipy.optimize.minimize` with the `L-BFGS-B`
+        method is used to polish the best population member at the end, which
+        can improve the minimization slightly. If a constrained problem is
+        being studied then the `trust-constr` method is used instead. For large
+        problems with many constraints, polishing can take a long time due to
+        the Jacobian computations.
+    maxfun : int, optional
+        Set the maximum number of function evaluations. However, it probably
+        makes more sense to set `maxiter` instead.
+    init : str or array-like, optional
+        Specify which type of population initialization is performed. Should be
+        one of:
+
+            - 'latinhypercube'
+            - 'sobol'
+            - 'halton'
+            - 'random'
+            - array specifying the initial population. The array should have
+              shape ``(S, N)``, where S is the total population size and
+              N is the number of parameters.
+              `init` is clipped to `bounds` before use.
+
+        The default is 'latinhypercube'. Latin Hypercube sampling tries to
+        maximize coverage of the available parameter space.
+
+        'sobol' and 'halton' are superior alternatives and maximize even more
+        the parameter space. 'sobol' will enforce an initial population
+        size which is calculated as the next power of 2 after
+        ``popsize * (N - N_equal)``. 'halton' has no requirements but is a bit
+        less efficient. See `scipy.stats.qmc` for more details.
+
+        'random' initializes the population randomly - this has the drawback
+        that clustering can occur, preventing the whole of parameter space
+        being covered. Use of an array to specify a population could be used,
+        for example, to create a tight bunch of initial guesses in an location
+        where the solution is known to exist, thereby reducing time for
+        convergence.
+    atol : float, optional
+        Absolute tolerance for convergence, the solving stops when
+        ``np.std(pop) <= atol + tol * np.abs(np.mean(population_energies))``,
+        where and `atol` and `tol` are the absolute and relative tolerance
+        respectively.
+    updating : {'immediate', 'deferred'}, optional
+        If ``'immediate'``, the best solution vector is continuously updated
+        within a single generation [4]_. This can lead to faster convergence as
+        trial vectors can take advantage of continuous improvements in the best
+        solution.
+        With ``'deferred'``, the best solution vector is updated once per
+        generation. Only ``'deferred'`` is compatible with parallelization or
+        vectorization, and the `workers` and `vectorized` keywords can
+        over-ride this option.
+    workers : int or map-like callable, optional
+        If `workers` is an int the population is subdivided into `workers`
+        sections and evaluated in parallel
+        (uses `multiprocessing.Pool <multiprocessing>`).
+        Supply `-1` to use all cores available to the Process.
+        Alternatively supply a map-like callable, such as
+        `multiprocessing.Pool.map` for evaluating the population in parallel.
+        This evaluation is carried out as ``workers(func, iterable)``.
+        This option will override the `updating` keyword to
+        `updating='deferred'` if `workers != 1`.
+        Requires that `func` be pickleable.
+    constraints : {NonLinearConstraint, LinearConstraint, Bounds}
+        Constraints on the solver, over and above those applied by the `bounds`
+        kwd. Uses the approach by Lampinen.
+    x0 : None or array-like, optional
+        Provides an initial guess to the minimization. Once the population has
+        been initialized this vector replaces the first (best) member. This
+        replacement is done even if `init` is given an initial population.
+        ``x0.shape == (N,)``.
+    integrality : 1-D array, optional
+        For each decision variable, a boolean value indicating whether the
+        decision variable is constrained to integer values. The array is
+        broadcast to ``(N,)``.
+        If any decision variables are constrained to be integral, they will not
+        be changed during polishing.
+        Only integer values lying between the lower and upper bounds are used.
+        If there are no integer values lying between the bounds then a
+        `ValueError` is raised.
+    vectorized : bool, optional
+        If ``vectorized is True``, `func` is sent an `x` array with
+        ``x.shape == (N, S)``, and is expected to return an array of shape
+        ``(S,)``, where `S` is the number of solution vectors to be calculated.
+        If constraints are applied, each of the functions used to construct
+        a `Constraint` object should accept an `x` array with
+        ``x.shape == (N, S)``, and return an array of shape ``(M, S)``, where
+        `M` is the number of constraint components.
+        This option is an alternative to the parallelization offered by
+        `workers`, and may help in optimization speed. This keyword is
+        ignored if ``workers != 1``.
+        This option will override the `updating` keyword to
+        ``updating='deferred'``.
+    """ # noqa: E501
+
+    # Dispatch of mutation strategy method (binomial or exponential).
+    _binomial = {'best1bin': '_best1',
+                 'randtobest1bin': '_randtobest1',
+                 'currenttobest1bin': '_currenttobest1',
+                 'best2bin': '_best2',
+                 'rand2bin': '_rand2',
+                 'rand1bin': '_rand1'}
+    _exponential = {'best1exp': '_best1',
+                    'rand1exp': '_rand1',
+                    'randtobest1exp': '_randtobest1',
+                    'currenttobest1exp': '_currenttobest1',
+                    'best2exp': '_best2',
+                    'rand2exp': '_rand2'}
+
+    __init_error_msg = ("The population initialization method must be one of "
+                        "'latinhypercube' or 'random', or an array of shape "
+                        "(S, N) where N is the number of parameters and S>5")
+
+    def __init__(self, func, bounds, args=(),
+                 strategy='best1bin', maxiter=1000, popsize=15,
+                 tol=0.01, mutation=(0.5, 1), recombination=0.7, rng=None,
+                 maxfun=np.inf, callback=None, disp=False, polish=True,
+                 init='latinhypercube', atol=0, updating='immediate',
+                 workers=1, constraints=(), x0=None, *, integrality=None,
+                 vectorized=False):
+
+        if callable(strategy):
+            # a callable strategy is going to be stored in self.strategy anyway
+            pass
+        elif strategy in self._binomial:
+            self.mutation_func = getattr(self, self._binomial[strategy])
+        elif strategy in self._exponential:
+            self.mutation_func = getattr(self, self._exponential[strategy])
+        else:
+            raise ValueError("Please select a valid mutation strategy")
+        self.strategy = strategy
+
+        self.callback = _wrap_callback(callback, "differential_evolution")
+        self.polish = polish
+
+        # set the updating / parallelisation options
+        if updating in ['immediate', 'deferred']:
+            self._updating = updating
+
+        self.vectorized = vectorized
+
+        # want to use parallelisation, but updating is immediate
+        if workers != 1 and updating == 'immediate':
+            warnings.warn("differential_evolution: the 'workers' keyword has"
+                          " overridden updating='immediate' to"
+                          " updating='deferred'", UserWarning, stacklevel=2)
+            self._updating = 'deferred'
+
+        if vectorized and workers != 1:
+            warnings.warn("differential_evolution: the 'workers' keyword"
+                          " overrides the 'vectorized' keyword", stacklevel=2)
+            self.vectorized = vectorized = False
+
+        if vectorized and updating == 'immediate':
+            warnings.warn("differential_evolution: the 'vectorized' keyword"
+                          " has overridden updating='immediate' to updating"
+                          "='deferred'", UserWarning, stacklevel=2)
+            self._updating = 'deferred'
+
+        # an object with a map method.
+        if vectorized:
+            def maplike_for_vectorized_func(func, x):
+                # send an array (N, S) to the user func,
+                # expect to receive (S,). Transposition is required because
+                # internally the population is held as (S, N)
+                return np.atleast_1d(func(x.T))
+            workers = maplike_for_vectorized_func
+
+        self._mapwrapper = MapWrapper(workers)
+
+        # relative and absolute tolerances for convergence
+        self.tol, self.atol = tol, atol
+
+        # Mutation constant should be in [0, 2). If specified as a sequence
+        # then dithering is performed.
+        self.scale = mutation
+        if (not np.all(np.isfinite(mutation)) or
+                np.any(np.array(mutation) >= 2) or
+                np.any(np.array(mutation) < 0)):
+            raise ValueError('The mutation constant must be a float in '
+                             'U[0, 2), or specified as a tuple(min, max)'
+                             ' where min < max and min, max are in U[0, 2).')
+
+        self.dither = None
+        if hasattr(mutation, '__iter__') and len(mutation) > 1:
+            self.dither = [mutation[0], mutation[1]]
+            self.dither.sort()
+
+        self.cross_over_probability = recombination
+
+        # we create a wrapped function to allow the use of map (and Pool.map
+        # in the future)
+        self.func = _FunctionWrapper(func, args)
+        self.args = args
+
+        # convert tuple of lower and upper bounds to limits
+        # [(low_0, high_0), ..., (low_n, high_n]
+        #     -> [[low_0, ..., low_n], [high_0, ..., high_n]]
+        if isinstance(bounds, Bounds):
+            self.limits = np.array(new_bounds_to_old(bounds.lb,
+                                                     bounds.ub,
+                                                     len(bounds.lb)),
+                                   dtype=float).T
+        else:
+            self.limits = np.array(bounds, dtype='float').T
+
+        if (np.size(self.limits, 0) != 2 or not
+                np.all(np.isfinite(self.limits))):
+            raise ValueError('bounds should be a sequence containing finite '
+                             'real valued (min, max) pairs for each value'
+                             ' in x')
+
+        if maxiter is None:  # the default used to be None
+            maxiter = 1000
+        self.maxiter = maxiter
+        if maxfun is None:  # the default used to be None
+            maxfun = np.inf
+        self.maxfun = maxfun
+
+        # population is scaled to between [0, 1].
+        # We have to scale between parameter <-> population
+        # save these arguments for _scale_parameter and
+        # _unscale_parameter. This is an optimization
+        self.__scale_arg1 = 0.5 * (self.limits[0] + self.limits[1])
+        self.__scale_arg2 = np.fabs(self.limits[0] - self.limits[1])
+        with np.errstate(divide='ignore'):
+            # if lb == ub then the following line will be 1/0, which is why
+            # we ignore the divide by zero warning. The result from 1/0 is
+            # inf, so replace those values by 0.
+            self.__recip_scale_arg2 = 1 / self.__scale_arg2
+            self.__recip_scale_arg2[~np.isfinite(self.__recip_scale_arg2)] = 0
+
+        self.parameter_count = np.size(self.limits, 1)
+
+        self.random_number_generator = check_random_state(rng)
+
+        # Which parameters are going to be integers?
+        if np.any(integrality):
+            # # user has provided a truth value for integer constraints
+            integrality = np.broadcast_to(
+                integrality,
+                self.parameter_count
+            )
+            integrality = np.asarray(integrality, bool)
+            # For integrality parameters change the limits to only allow
+            # integer values lying between the limits.
+            lb, ub = np.copy(self.limits)
+
+            lb = np.ceil(lb)
+            ub = np.floor(ub)
+            if not (lb[integrality] <= ub[integrality]).all():
+                # there's a parameter that doesn't have an integer value
+                # lying between the limits
+                raise ValueError("One of the integrality constraints does not"
+                                 " have any possible integer values between"
+                                 " the lower/upper bounds.")
+            nlb = np.nextafter(lb[integrality] - 0.5, np.inf)
+            nub = np.nextafter(ub[integrality] + 0.5, -np.inf)
+
+            self.integrality = integrality
+            self.limits[0, self.integrality] = nlb
+            self.limits[1, self.integrality] = nub
+        else:
+            self.integrality = False
+
+        # check for equal bounds
+        eb = self.limits[0] == self.limits[1]
+        eb_count = np.count_nonzero(eb)
+
+        # default population initialization is a latin hypercube design, but
+        # there are other population initializations possible.
+        # the minimum is 5 because 'best2bin' requires a population that's at
+        # least 5 long
+        # 202301 - reduced population size to account for parameters with
+        # equal bounds. If there are no varying parameters set N to at least 1
+        self.num_population_members = max(
+            5,
+            popsize * max(1, self.parameter_count - eb_count)
+        )
+        self.population_shape = (self.num_population_members,
+                                 self.parameter_count)
+
+        self._nfev = 0
+        # check first str otherwise will fail to compare str with array
+        if isinstance(init, str):
+            if init == 'latinhypercube':
+                self.init_population_lhs()
+            elif init == 'sobol':
+                # must be Ns = 2**m for Sobol'
+                n_s = int(2 ** np.ceil(np.log2(self.num_population_members)))
+                self.num_population_members = n_s
+                self.population_shape = (self.num_population_members,
+                                         self.parameter_count)
+                self.init_population_qmc(qmc_engine='sobol')
+            elif init == 'halton':
+                self.init_population_qmc(qmc_engine='halton')
+            elif init == 'random':
+                self.init_population_random()
+            else:
+                raise ValueError(self.__init_error_msg)
+        else:
+            self.init_population_array(init)
+
+        if x0 is not None:
+            # scale to within unit interval and
+            # ensure parameters are within bounds.
+            x0_scaled = self._unscale_parameters(np.asarray(x0))
+            if ((x0_scaled > 1.0) | (x0_scaled < 0.0)).any():
+                raise ValueError(
+                    "Some entries in x0 lay outside the specified bounds"
+                )
+            self.population[0] = x0_scaled
+
+        # infrastructure for constraints
+        self.constraints = constraints
+        self._wrapped_constraints = []
+
+        if hasattr(constraints, '__len__'):
+            # sequence of constraints, this will also deal with default
+            # keyword parameter
+            for c in constraints:
+                self._wrapped_constraints.append(
+                    _ConstraintWrapper(c, self.x)
+                )
+        else:
+            self._wrapped_constraints = [
+                _ConstraintWrapper(constraints, self.x)
+            ]
+        self.total_constraints = np.sum(
+            [c.num_constr for c in self._wrapped_constraints]
+        )
+        self.constraint_violation = np.zeros((self.num_population_members, 1))
+        self.feasible = np.ones(self.num_population_members, bool)
+
+        # an array to shuffle when selecting candidates. Create it here
+        # rather than repeatedly creating it in _select_samples.
+        self._random_population_index = np.arange(self.num_population_members)
+        self.disp = disp
+
+    def init_population_lhs(self):
+        """
+        Initializes the population with Latin Hypercube Sampling.
+        Latin Hypercube Sampling ensures that each parameter is uniformly
+        sampled over its range.
+        """
+        rng = self.random_number_generator
+
+        # Each parameter range needs to be sampled uniformly. The scaled
+        # parameter range ([0, 1)) needs to be split into
+        # `self.num_population_members` segments, each of which has the following
+        # size:
+        segsize = 1.0 / self.num_population_members
+
+        # Within each segment we sample from a uniform random distribution.
+        # We need to do this sampling for each parameter.
+        samples = (segsize * rng.uniform(size=self.population_shape)
+
+        # Offset each segment to cover the entire parameter range [0, 1)
+                   + np.linspace(0., 1., self.num_population_members,
+                                 endpoint=False)[:, np.newaxis])
+
+        # Create an array for population of candidate solutions.
+        self.population = np.zeros_like(samples)
+
+        # Initialize population of candidate solutions by permutation of the
+        # random samples.
+        for j in range(self.parameter_count):
+            order = rng.permutation(range(self.num_population_members))
+            self.population[:, j] = samples[order, j]
+
+        # reset population energies
+        self.population_energies = np.full(self.num_population_members,
+                                           np.inf)
+
+        # reset number of function evaluations counter
+        self._nfev = 0
+
+    def init_population_qmc(self, qmc_engine):
+        """Initializes the population with a QMC method.
+
+        QMC methods ensures that each parameter is uniformly
+        sampled over its range.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        qmc_engine : str
+            The QMC method to use for initialization. Can be one of
+            ``latinhypercube``, ``sobol`` or ``halton``.
+
+        """
+        from scipy.stats import qmc
+
+        rng = self.random_number_generator
+
+        # Create an array for population of candidate solutions.
+        if qmc_engine == 'latinhypercube':
+            sampler = qmc.LatinHypercube(d=self.parameter_count, seed=rng)
+        elif qmc_engine == 'sobol':
+            sampler = qmc.Sobol(d=self.parameter_count, seed=rng)
+        elif qmc_engine == 'halton':
+            sampler = qmc.Halton(d=self.parameter_count, seed=rng)
+        else:
+            raise ValueError(self.__init_error_msg)
+
+        self.population = sampler.random(n=self.num_population_members)
+
+        # reset population energies
+        self.population_energies = np.full(self.num_population_members,
+                                           np.inf)
+
+        # reset number of function evaluations counter
+        self._nfev = 0
+
+    def init_population_random(self):
+        """
+        Initializes the population at random. This type of initialization
+        can possess clustering, Latin Hypercube sampling is generally better.
+        """
+        rng = self.random_number_generator
+        self.population = rng.uniform(size=self.population_shape)
+
+        # reset population energies
+        self.population_energies = np.full(self.num_population_members,
+                                           np.inf)
+
+        # reset number of function evaluations counter
+        self._nfev = 0
+
+    def init_population_array(self, init):
+        """
+        Initializes the population with a user specified population.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        init : np.ndarray
+            Array specifying subset of the initial population. The array should
+            have shape (S, N), where N is the number of parameters.
+            The population is clipped to the lower and upper bounds.
+        """
+        # make sure you're using a float array
+        popn = np.asarray(init, dtype=np.float64)
+
+        if (np.size(popn, 0) < 5 or
+                popn.shape[1] != self.parameter_count or
+                len(popn.shape) != 2):
+            raise ValueError("The population supplied needs to have shape"
+                             " (S, len(x)), where S > 4.")
+
+        # scale values and clip to bounds, assigning to population
+        self.population = np.clip(self._unscale_parameters(popn), 0, 1)
+
+        self.num_population_members = np.size(self.population, 0)
+
+        self.population_shape = (self.num_population_members,
+                                 self.parameter_count)
+
+        # reset population energies
+        self.population_energies = np.full(self.num_population_members,
+                                           np.inf)
+
+        # reset number of function evaluations counter
+        self._nfev = 0
+
+    @property
+    def x(self):
+        """
+        The best solution from the solver
+        """
+        return self._scale_parameters(self.population[0])
+
+    @property
+    def convergence(self):
+        """
+        The standard deviation of the population energies divided by their
+        mean.
+        """
+        if np.any(np.isinf(self.population_energies)):
+            return np.inf
+        return (np.std(self.population_energies) /
+                (np.abs(np.mean(self.population_energies)) + _MACHEPS))
+
+    def converged(self):
+        """
+        Return True if the solver has converged.
+        """
+        if np.any(np.isinf(self.population_energies)):
+            return False
+
+        return (np.std(self.population_energies) <=
+                self.atol +
+                self.tol * np.abs(np.mean(self.population_energies)))
+
+    def solve(self):
+        """
+        Runs the DifferentialEvolutionSolver.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        res : OptimizeResult
+            The optimization result represented as a `OptimizeResult` object.
+            Important attributes are: ``x`` the solution array, ``success`` a
+            Boolean flag indicating if the optimizer exited successfully,
+            ``message`` which describes the cause of the termination,
+            ``population`` the solution vectors present in the population, and
+            ``population_energies`` the value of the objective function for
+            each entry in ``population``.
+            See `OptimizeResult` for a description of other attributes. If
+            `polish` was employed, and a lower minimum was obtained by the
+            polishing, then OptimizeResult also contains the ``jac`` attribute.
+            If the eventual solution does not satisfy the applied constraints
+            ``success`` will be `False`.
+        """
+        nit, warning_flag = 0, False
+        status_message = _status_message['success']
+
+        # The population may have just been initialized (all entries are
+        # np.inf). If it has you have to calculate the initial energies.
+        # Although this is also done in the evolve generator it's possible
+        # that someone can set maxiter=0, at which point we still want the
+        # initial energies to be calculated (the following loop isn't run).
+        if np.all(np.isinf(self.population_energies)):
+            self.feasible, self.constraint_violation = (
+                self._calculate_population_feasibilities(self.population))
+
+            # only work out population energies for feasible solutions
+            self.population_energies[self.feasible] = (
+                self._calculate_population_energies(
+                    self.population[self.feasible]))
+
+            self._promote_lowest_energy()
+
+        # do the optimization.
+        for nit in range(1, self.maxiter + 1):
+            # evolve the population by a generation
+            try:
+                next(self)
+            except StopIteration:
+                warning_flag = True
+                if self._nfev > self.maxfun:
+                    status_message = _status_message['maxfev']
+                elif self._nfev == self.maxfun:
+                    status_message = ('Maximum number of function evaluations'
+                                      ' has been reached.')
+                break
+
+            if self.disp:
+                print(f"differential_evolution step {nit}: f(x)="
+                      f" {self.population_energies[0]}"
+                      )
+
+            if self.callback:
+                c = self.tol / (self.convergence + _MACHEPS)
+                res = self._result(nit=nit, message="in progress")
+                res.convergence = c
+                try:
+                    warning_flag = bool(self.callback(res))
+                except StopIteration:
+                    warning_flag = True
+
+                if warning_flag:
+                    status_message = 'callback function requested stop early'
+
+            # should the solver terminate?
+            if warning_flag or self.converged():
+                break
+
+        else:
+            status_message = _status_message['maxiter']
+            warning_flag = True
+
+        DE_result = self._result(
+            nit=nit, message=status_message, warning_flag=warning_flag
+        )
+
+        if self.polish and not np.all(self.integrality):
+            # can't polish if all the parameters are integers
+            if np.any(self.integrality):
+                # set the lower/upper bounds equal so that any integrality
+                # constraints work.
+                limits, integrality = self.limits, self.integrality
+                limits[0, integrality] = DE_result.x[integrality]
+                limits[1, integrality] = DE_result.x[integrality]
+
+            polish_method = 'L-BFGS-B'
+
+            if self._wrapped_constraints:
+                polish_method = 'trust-constr'
+
+                constr_violation = self._constraint_violation_fn(DE_result.x)
+                if np.any(constr_violation > 0.):
+                    warnings.warn("differential evolution didn't find a "
+                                  "solution satisfying the constraints, "
+                                  "attempting to polish from the least "
+                                  "infeasible solution",
+                                  UserWarning, stacklevel=2)
+            if self.disp:
+                print(f"Polishing solution with '{polish_method}'")
+            result = minimize(lambda x:
+                                list(self._mapwrapper(self.func, np.atleast_2d(x)))[0],
+                              np.copy(DE_result.x),
+                              method=polish_method,
+                              bounds=self.limits.T,
+                              constraints=self.constraints)
+
+            self._nfev += result.nfev
+            DE_result.nfev = self._nfev
+
+            # Polishing solution is only accepted if there is an improvement in
+            # cost function, the polishing was successful and the solution lies
+            # within the bounds.
+            if (result.fun < DE_result.fun and
+                    result.success and
+                    np.all(result.x <= self.limits[1]) and
+                    np.all(self.limits[0] <= result.x)):
+                DE_result.fun = result.fun
+                DE_result.x = result.x
+                DE_result.jac = result.jac
+                # to keep internal state consistent
+                self.population_energies[0] = result.fun
+                self.population[0] = self._unscale_parameters(result.x)
+
+        if self._wrapped_constraints:
+            DE_result.constr = [c.violation(DE_result.x) for
+                                c in self._wrapped_constraints]
+            DE_result.constr_violation = np.max(
+                np.concatenate(DE_result.constr))
+            DE_result.maxcv = DE_result.constr_violation
+            if DE_result.maxcv > 0:
+                # if the result is infeasible then success must be False
+                DE_result.success = False
+                DE_result.message = ("The solution does not satisfy the "
+                                     f"constraints, MAXCV = {DE_result.maxcv}")
+
+        return DE_result
+
+    def _result(self, **kwds):
+        # form an intermediate OptimizeResult
+        nit = kwds.get('nit', None)
+        message = kwds.get('message', None)
+        warning_flag = kwds.get('warning_flag', False)
+        result = OptimizeResult(
+            x=self.x,
+            fun=self.population_energies[0],
+            nfev=self._nfev,
+            nit=nit,
+            message=message,
+            success=(warning_flag is not True),
+            population=self._scale_parameters(self.population),
+            population_energies=self.population_energies
+        )
+        if self._wrapped_constraints:
+            result.constr = [c.violation(result.x)
+                             for c in self._wrapped_constraints]
+            result.constr_violation = np.max(np.concatenate(result.constr))
+            result.maxcv = result.constr_violation
+            if result.maxcv > 0:
+                result.success = False
+
+        return result
+
+    def _calculate_population_energies(self, population):
+        """
+        Calculate the energies of a population.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        population : ndarray
+            An array of parameter vectors normalised to [0, 1] using lower
+            and upper limits. Has shape ``(np.size(population, 0), N)``.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        energies : ndarray
+            An array of energies corresponding to each population member. If
+            maxfun will be exceeded during this call, then the number of
+            function evaluations will be reduced and energies will be
+            right-padded with np.inf. Has shape ``(np.size(population, 0),)``
+        """
+        num_members = np.size(population, 0)
+        # S is the number of function evals left to stay under the
+        # maxfun budget
+        S = min(num_members, self.maxfun - self._nfev)
+
+        energies = np.full(num_members, np.inf)
+
+        parameters_pop = self._scale_parameters(population)
+        try:
+            calc_energies = list(
+                self._mapwrapper(self.func, parameters_pop[0:S])
+            )
+            calc_energies = np.squeeze(calc_energies)
+        except (TypeError, ValueError) as e:
+            # wrong number of arguments for _mapwrapper
+            # or wrong length returned from the mapper
+            raise RuntimeError(
+                "The map-like callable must be of the form f(func, iterable), "
+                "returning a sequence of numbers the same length as 'iterable'"
+            ) from e
+
+        if calc_energies.size != S:
+            if self.vectorized:
+                raise RuntimeError("The vectorized function must return an"
+                                   " array of shape (S,) when given an array"
+                                   " of shape (len(x), S)")
+            raise RuntimeError("func(x, *args) must return a scalar value")
+
+        energies[0:S] = calc_energies
+
+        if self.vectorized:
+            self._nfev += 1
+        else:
+            self._nfev += S
+
+        return energies
+
+    def _promote_lowest_energy(self):
+        # swaps 'best solution' into first population entry
+
+        idx = np.arange(self.num_population_members)
+        feasible_solutions = idx[self.feasible]
+        if feasible_solutions.size:
+            # find the best feasible solution
+            idx_t = np.argmin(self.population_energies[feasible_solutions])
+            l = feasible_solutions[idx_t]
+        else:
+            # no solution was feasible, use 'best' infeasible solution, which
+            # will violate constraints the least
+            l = np.argmin(np.sum(self.constraint_violation, axis=1))
+
+        self.population_energies[[0, l]] = self.population_energies[[l, 0]]
+        self.population[[0, l], :] = self.population[[l, 0], :]
+        self.feasible[[0, l]] = self.feasible[[l, 0]]
+        self.constraint_violation[[0, l], :] = (
+        self.constraint_violation[[l, 0], :])
+
+    def _constraint_violation_fn(self, x):
+        """
+        Calculates total constraint violation for all the constraints, for a
+        set of solutions.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        x : ndarray
+            Solution vector(s). Has shape (S, N), or (N,), where S is the
+            number of solutions to investigate and N is the number of
+            parameters.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        cv : ndarray
+            Total violation of constraints. Has shape ``(S, M)``, where M is
+            the total number of constraint components (which is not necessarily
+            equal to len(self._wrapped_constraints)).
+        """
+        # how many solution vectors you're calculating constraint violations
+        # for
+        S = np.size(x) // self.parameter_count
+        _out = np.zeros((S, self.total_constraints))
+        offset = 0
+        for con in self._wrapped_constraints:
+            # the input/output of the (vectorized) constraint function is
+            # {(N, S), (N,)} --> (M, S)
+            # The input to _constraint_violation_fn is (S, N) or (N,), so
+            # transpose to pass it to the constraint. The output is transposed
+            # from (M, S) to (S, M) for further use.
+            c = con.violation(x.T).T
+
+            # The shape of c should be (M,), (1, M), or (S, M). Check for
+            # those shapes, as an incorrect shape indicates that the
+            # user constraint function didn't return the right thing, and
+            # the reshape operation will fail. Intercept the wrong shape
+            # to give a reasonable error message. I'm not sure what failure
+            # modes an inventive user will come up with.
+            if c.shape[-1] != con.num_constr or (S > 1 and c.shape[0] != S):
+                raise RuntimeError("An array returned from a Constraint has"
+                                   " the wrong shape. If `vectorized is False`"
+                                   " the Constraint should return an array of"
+                                   " shape (M,). If `vectorized is True` then"
+                                   " the Constraint must return an array of"
+                                   " shape (M, S), where S is the number of"
+                                   " solution vectors and M is the number of"
+                                   " constraint components in a given"
+                                   " Constraint object.")
+
+            # the violation function may return a 1D array, but is it a
+            # sequence of constraints for one solution (S=1, M>=1), or the
+            # value of a single constraint for a sequence of solutions
+            # (S>=1, M=1)
+            c = np.reshape(c, (S, con.num_constr))
+            _out[:, offset:offset + con.num_constr] = c
+            offset += con.num_constr
+
+        return _out
+
+    def _calculate_population_feasibilities(self, population):
+        """
+        Calculate the feasibilities of a population.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        population : ndarray
+            An array of parameter vectors normalised to [0, 1] using lower
+            and upper limits. Has shape ``(np.size(population, 0), N)``.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        feasible, constraint_violation : ndarray, ndarray
+            Boolean array of feasibility for each population member, and an
+            array of the constraint violation for each population member.
+            constraint_violation has shape ``(np.size(population, 0), M)``,
+            where M is the number of constraints.
+        """
+        num_members = np.size(population, 0)
+        if not self._wrapped_constraints:
+            # shortcut for no constraints
+            return np.ones(num_members, bool), np.zeros((num_members, 1))
+
+        # (S, N)
+        parameters_pop = self._scale_parameters(population)
+
+        if self.vectorized:
+            # (S, M)
+            constraint_violation = np.array(
+                self._constraint_violation_fn(parameters_pop)
+            )
+        else:
+            # (S, 1, M)
+            constraint_violation = np.array([self._constraint_violation_fn(x)
+                                             for x in parameters_pop])
+            # if you use the list comprehension in the line above it will
+            # create an array of shape (S, 1, M), because each iteration
+            # generates an array of (1, M). In comparison the vectorized
+            # version returns (S, M). It's therefore necessary to remove axis 1
+            constraint_violation = constraint_violation[:, 0]
+
+        feasible = ~(np.sum(constraint_violation, axis=1) > 0)
+
+        return feasible, constraint_violation
+
+    def __iter__(self):
+        return self
+
+    def __enter__(self):
+        return self
+
+    def __exit__(self, *args):
+        return self._mapwrapper.__exit__(*args)
+
+    def _accept_trial(self, energy_trial, feasible_trial, cv_trial,
+                      energy_orig, feasible_orig, cv_orig):
+        """
+        Trial is accepted if:
+        * it satisfies all constraints and provides a lower or equal objective
+          function value, while both the compared solutions are feasible
+        - or -
+        * it is feasible while the original solution is infeasible,
+        - or -
+        * it is infeasible, but provides a lower or equal constraint violation
+          for all constraint functions.
+
+        This test corresponds to section III of Lampinen [1]_.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        energy_trial : float
+            Energy of the trial solution
+        feasible_trial : float
+            Feasibility of trial solution
+        cv_trial : array-like
+            Excess constraint violation for the trial solution
+        energy_orig : float
+            Energy of the original solution
+        feasible_orig : float
+            Feasibility of original solution
+        cv_orig : array-like
+            Excess constraint violation for the original solution
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        accepted : bool
+
+        """
+        if feasible_orig and feasible_trial:
+            return energy_trial <= energy_orig
+        elif feasible_trial and not feasible_orig:
+            return True
+        elif not feasible_trial and (cv_trial <= cv_orig).all():
+            # cv_trial < cv_orig would imply that both trial and orig are not
+            # feasible
+            return True
+
+        return False
+
+    def __next__(self):
+        """
+        Evolve the population by a single generation
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        x : ndarray
+            The best solution from the solver.
+        fun : float
+            Value of objective function obtained from the best solution.
+        """
+        # the population may have just been initialized (all entries are
+        # np.inf). If it has you have to calculate the initial energies
+        if np.all(np.isinf(self.population_energies)):
+            self.feasible, self.constraint_violation = (
+                self._calculate_population_feasibilities(self.population))
+
+            # only need to work out population energies for those that are
+            # feasible
+            self.population_energies[self.feasible] = (
+                self._calculate_population_energies(
+                    self.population[self.feasible]))
+
+            self._promote_lowest_energy()
+
+        if self.dither is not None:
+            self.scale = self.random_number_generator.uniform(self.dither[0],
+                                                              self.dither[1])
+
+        if self._updating == 'immediate':
+            # update best solution immediately
+            for candidate in range(self.num_population_members):
+                if self._nfev > self.maxfun:
+                    raise StopIteration
+
+                # create a trial solution
+                trial = self._mutate(candidate)
+
+                # ensuring that it's in the range [0, 1)
+                self._ensure_constraint(trial)
+
+                # scale from [0, 1) to the actual parameter value
+                parameters = self._scale_parameters(trial)
+
+                # determine the energy of the objective function
+                if self._wrapped_constraints:
+                    cv = self._constraint_violation_fn(parameters)
+                    feasible = False
+                    energy = np.inf
+                    if not np.sum(cv) > 0:
+                        # solution is feasible
+                        feasible = True
+                        energy = self.func(parameters)
+                        self._nfev += 1
+                else:
+                    feasible = True
+                    cv = np.atleast_2d([0.])
+                    energy = self.func(parameters)
+                    self._nfev += 1
+
+                # compare trial and population member
+                if self._accept_trial(energy, feasible, cv,
+                                      self.population_energies[candidate],
+                                      self.feasible[candidate],
+                                      self.constraint_violation[candidate]):
+                    self.population[candidate] = trial
+                    self.population_energies[candidate] = np.squeeze(energy)
+                    self.feasible[candidate] = feasible
+                    self.constraint_violation[candidate] = cv
+
+                    # if the trial candidate is also better than the best
+                    # solution then promote it.
+                    if self._accept_trial(energy, feasible, cv,
+                                          self.population_energies[0],
+                                          self.feasible[0],
+                                          self.constraint_violation[0]):
+                        self._promote_lowest_energy()
+
+        elif self._updating == 'deferred':
+            # update best solution once per generation
+            if self._nfev >= self.maxfun:
+                raise StopIteration
+
+            # 'deferred' approach, vectorised form.
+            # create trial solutions
+            trial_pop = self._mutate_many(
+                np.arange(self.num_population_members)
+            )
+
+            # enforce bounds
+            self._ensure_constraint(trial_pop)
+
+            # determine the energies of the objective function, but only for
+            # feasible trials
+            feasible, cv = self._calculate_population_feasibilities(trial_pop)
+            trial_energies = np.full(self.num_population_members, np.inf)
+
+            # only calculate for feasible entries
+            trial_energies[feasible] = self._calculate_population_energies(
+                trial_pop[feasible])
+
+            # which solutions are 'improved'?
+            loc = [self._accept_trial(*val) for val in
+                   zip(trial_energies, feasible, cv, self.population_energies,
+                       self.feasible, self.constraint_violation)]
+            loc = np.array(loc)
+            self.population = np.where(loc[:, np.newaxis],
+                                       trial_pop,
+                                       self.population)
+            self.population_energies = np.where(loc,
+                                                trial_energies,
+                                                self.population_energies)
+            self.feasible = np.where(loc,
+                                     feasible,
+                                     self.feasible)
+            self.constraint_violation = np.where(loc[:, np.newaxis],
+                                                 cv,
+                                                 self.constraint_violation)
+
+            # make sure the best solution is updated if updating='deferred'.
+            # put the lowest energy into the best solution position.
+            self._promote_lowest_energy()
+
+        return self.x, self.population_energies[0]
+
+    def _scale_parameters(self, trial):
+        """Scale from a number between 0 and 1 to parameters."""
+        # trial either has shape (N, ) or (L, N), where L is the number of
+        # solutions being scaled
+        scaled = self.__scale_arg1 + (trial - 0.5) * self.__scale_arg2
+        if np.count_nonzero(self.integrality):
+            i = np.broadcast_to(self.integrality, scaled.shape)
+            scaled[i] = np.round(scaled[i])
+        return scaled
+
+    def _unscale_parameters(self, parameters):
+        """Scale from parameters to a number between 0 and 1."""
+        return (parameters - self.__scale_arg1) * self.__recip_scale_arg2 + 0.5
+
+    def _ensure_constraint(self, trial):
+        """Make sure the parameters lie between the limits."""
+        mask = np.bitwise_or(trial > 1, trial < 0)
+        if oob := np.count_nonzero(mask):
+            trial[mask] = self.random_number_generator.uniform(size=oob)
+
+    def _mutate_custom(self, candidate):
+        rng = self.random_number_generator
+        msg = (
+            "strategy must have signature"
+            " f(candidate: int, population: np.ndarray, rng=None) returning an"
+            " array of shape (N,)"
+        )
+        _population = self._scale_parameters(self.population)
+        if not len(np.shape(candidate)):
+            # single entry in population
+            trial = self.strategy(candidate, _population, rng=rng)
+            if trial.shape != (self.parameter_count,):
+                raise RuntimeError(msg)
+        else:
+            S = candidate.shape[0]
+            trial = np.array(
+                [self.strategy(c, _population, rng=rng) for c in candidate],
+                dtype=float
+            )
+            if trial.shape != (S, self.parameter_count):
+                raise RuntimeError(msg)
+        return self._unscale_parameters(trial)
+
+    def _mutate_many(self, candidates):
+        """Create trial vectors based on a mutation strategy."""
+        rng = self.random_number_generator
+
+        S = len(candidates)
+        if callable(self.strategy):
+            return self._mutate_custom(candidates)
+
+        trial = np.copy(self.population[candidates])
+        samples = np.array([self._select_samples(c, 5) for c in candidates])
+
+        if self.strategy in ['currenttobest1exp', 'currenttobest1bin']:
+            bprime = self.mutation_func(candidates, samples)
+        else:
+            bprime = self.mutation_func(samples)
+
+        fill_point = rng_integers(rng, self.parameter_count, size=S)
+        crossovers = rng.uniform(size=(S, self.parameter_count))
+        crossovers = crossovers < self.cross_over_probability
+        if self.strategy in self._binomial:
+            # the last one is always from the bprime vector for binomial
+            # If you fill in modulo with a loop you have to set the last one to
+            # true. If you don't use a loop then you can have any random entry
+            # be True.
+            i = np.arange(S)
+            crossovers[i, fill_point[i]] = True
+            trial = np.where(crossovers, bprime, trial)
+            return trial
+
+        elif self.strategy in self._exponential:
+            crossovers[..., 0] = True
+            for j in range(S):
+                i = 0
+                init_fill = fill_point[j]
+                while (i < self.parameter_count and crossovers[j, i]):
+                    trial[j, init_fill] = bprime[j, init_fill]
+                    init_fill = (init_fill + 1) % self.parameter_count
+                    i += 1
+
+            return trial
+
+    def _mutate(self, candidate):
+        """Create a trial vector based on a mutation strategy."""
+        rng = self.random_number_generator
+
+        if callable(self.strategy):
+            return self._mutate_custom(candidate)
+
+        fill_point = rng_integers(rng, self.parameter_count)
+        samples = self._select_samples(candidate, 5)
+
+        trial = np.copy(self.population[candidate])
+
+        if self.strategy in ['currenttobest1exp', 'currenttobest1bin']:
+            bprime = self.mutation_func(candidate, samples)
+        else:
+            bprime = self.mutation_func(samples)
+
+        crossovers = rng.uniform(size=self.parameter_count)
+        crossovers = crossovers < self.cross_over_probability
+        if self.strategy in self._binomial:
+            # the last one is always from the bprime vector for binomial
+            # If you fill in modulo with a loop you have to set the last one to
+            # true. If you don't use a loop then you can have any random entry
+            # be True.
+            crossovers[fill_point] = True
+            trial = np.where(crossovers, bprime, trial)
+            return trial
+
+        elif self.strategy in self._exponential:
+            i = 0
+            crossovers[0] = True
+            while i < self.parameter_count and crossovers[i]:
+                trial[fill_point] = bprime[fill_point]
+                fill_point = (fill_point + 1) % self.parameter_count
+                i += 1
+
+            return trial
+
+    def _best1(self, samples):
+        """best1bin, best1exp"""
+        # samples.shape == (S, 5)
+        # or
+        # samples.shape(5,)
+        r0, r1 = samples[..., :2].T
+        return (self.population[0] + self.scale *
+                (self.population[r0] - self.population[r1]))
+
+    def _rand1(self, samples):
+        """rand1bin, rand1exp"""
+        r0, r1, r2 = samples[..., :3].T
+        return (self.population[r0] + self.scale *
+                (self.population[r1] - self.population[r2]))
+
+    def _randtobest1(self, samples):
+        """randtobest1bin, randtobest1exp"""
+        r0, r1, r2 = samples[..., :3].T
+        bprime = np.copy(self.population[r0])
+        bprime += self.scale * (self.population[0] - bprime)
+        bprime += self.scale * (self.population[r1] -
+                                self.population[r2])
+        return bprime
+
+    def _currenttobest1(self, candidate, samples):
+        """currenttobest1bin, currenttobest1exp"""
+        r0, r1 = samples[..., :2].T
+        bprime = (self.population[candidate] + self.scale *
+                  (self.population[0] - self.population[candidate] +
+                   self.population[r0] - self.population[r1]))
+        return bprime
+
+    def _best2(self, samples):
+        """best2bin, best2exp"""
+        r0, r1, r2, r3 = samples[..., :4].T
+        bprime = (self.population[0] + self.scale *
+                  (self.population[r0] + self.population[r1] -
+                   self.population[r2] - self.population[r3]))
+
+        return bprime
+
+    def _rand2(self, samples):
+        """rand2bin, rand2exp"""
+        r0, r1, r2, r3, r4 = samples[..., :5].T
+        bprime = (self.population[r0] + self.scale *
+                  (self.population[r1] + self.population[r2] -
+                   self.population[r3] - self.population[r4]))
+
+        return bprime
+
+    def _select_samples(self, candidate, number_samples):
+        """
+        obtain random integers from range(self.num_population_members),
+        without replacement. You can't have the original candidate either.
+        """
+        self.random_number_generator.shuffle(self._random_population_index)
+        idxs = self._random_population_index[:number_samples + 1]
+        return idxs[idxs != candidate][:number_samples]
+
+
+class _ConstraintWrapper:
+    """Object to wrap/evaluate user defined constraints.
+
+    Very similar in practice to `PreparedConstraint`, except that no evaluation
+    of jac/hess is performed (explicit or implicit).
+
+    If created successfully, it will contain the attributes listed below.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    constraint : {`NonlinearConstraint`, `LinearConstraint`, `Bounds`}
+        Constraint to check and prepare.
+    x0 : array_like
+        Initial vector of independent variables, shape (N,)
+
+    Attributes
+    ----------
+    fun : callable
+        Function defining the constraint wrapped by one of the convenience
+        classes.
+    bounds : 2-tuple
+        Contains lower and upper bounds for the constraints --- lb and ub.
+        These are converted to ndarray and have a size equal to the number of
+        the constraints.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    _ConstraintWrapper.fun and _ConstraintWrapper.violation can get sent
+    arrays of shape (N, S) or (N,), where S is the number of vectors of shape
+    (N,) to consider constraints for.
+    """
+    def __init__(self, constraint, x0):
+        self.constraint = constraint
+
+        if isinstance(constraint, NonlinearConstraint):
+            def fun(x):
+                x = np.asarray(x)
+                return np.atleast_1d(constraint.fun(x))
+        elif isinstance(constraint, LinearConstraint):
+            def fun(x):
+                if issparse(constraint.A):
+                    A = constraint.A
+                else:
+                    A = np.atleast_2d(constraint.A)
+
+                res = A.dot(x)
+                # x either has shape (N, S) or (N)
+                # (M, N) x (N, S) --> (M, S)
+                # (M, N) x (N,)   --> (M,)
+                # However, if (M, N) is a matrix then:
+                # (M, N) * (N,)   --> (M, 1), we need this to be (M,)
+                if x.ndim == 1 and res.ndim == 2:
+                    # deal with case that constraint.A is an np.matrix
+                    # see gh20041
+                    res = np.asarray(res)[:, 0]
+
+                return res
+        elif isinstance(constraint, Bounds):
+            def fun(x):
+                return np.asarray(x)
+        else:
+            raise ValueError("`constraint` of an unknown type is passed.")
+
+        self.fun = fun
+
+        lb = np.asarray(constraint.lb, dtype=float)
+        ub = np.asarray(constraint.ub, dtype=float)
+
+        x0 = np.asarray(x0)
+
+        # find out the number of constraints
+        f0 = fun(x0)
+        self.num_constr = m = f0.size
+        self.parameter_count = x0.size
+
+        if lb.ndim == 0:
+            lb = np.resize(lb, m)
+        if ub.ndim == 0:
+            ub = np.resize(ub, m)
+
+        self.bounds = (lb, ub)
+
+    def __call__(self, x):
+        return np.atleast_1d(self.fun(x))
+
+    def violation(self, x):
+        """How much the constraint is exceeded by.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        x : array-like
+            Vector of independent variables, (N, S), where N is number of
+            parameters and S is the number of solutions to be investigated.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        excess : array-like
+            How much the constraint is exceeded by, for each of the
+            constraints specified by `_ConstraintWrapper.fun`.
+            Has shape (M, S) where M is the number of constraint components.
+        """
+        # expect ev to have shape (num_constr, S) or (num_constr,)
+        ev = self.fun(np.asarray(x))
+
+        try:
+            excess_lb = np.maximum(self.bounds[0] - ev.T, 0)
+            excess_ub = np.maximum(ev.T - self.bounds[1], 0)
+        except ValueError as e:
+            raise RuntimeError("An array returned from a Constraint has"
+                               " the wrong shape. If `vectorized is False`"
+                               " the Constraint should return an array of"
+                               " shape (M,). If `vectorized is True` then"
+                               " the Constraint must return an array of"
+                               " shape (M, S), where S is the number of"
+                               " solution vectors and M is the number of"
+                               " constraint components in a given"
+                               " Constraint object.") from e
+
+        v = (excess_lb + excess_ub).T
+        return v