passagemath-singular 10.6.31rc3__cp314-cp314-manylinux_2_27_aarch64.manylinux_2_28_aarch64.whl

sage_wheels/share/singular/LIB/crypto.lib

@@ -0,0 +1,3795 @@
+//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+version="version crypto.lib 4.4.0.5 Jul_2024 "; // $Id: 93d1b02b9c24093376ffb1e1393c18f8b77d541f $
+category="Teaching";
+info="
+LIBRARY:  crypto.lib     Procedures for teaching cryptography
+AUTHORS:                 Gerhard Pfister, pfister@mathematik.uni-kl.de
+@*                       David Brittinger, dativ@gmx.net
+
+OVERVIEW:
+     The library contains procedures to compute the discrete logarithm,
+      primality-tests, factorization included elliptic curves.
+      The library is intended to be used for teaching purposes but not
+      for serious computations. Sufficiently high printlevel allows to
+      control each step, thus illustrating the algorithms at work.
+
+
+PROCEDURES:
+ round(r);                  rounds r to the nearest number in Z
+ bubblesort(L)              sorts elements of the list L
+ decimal(s);                number corresponding to the hexadecimal number s
+ eexgcdN(L)                 T with sum_i L[i]*T[i]=T[n+1]=gcd(L[1],...,L[n])
+ lcmN(a,b)                  compute lcm(a,b)
+ powerN(m,d,n)              compute m^d mod n
+ chineseRem(T,L)            compute x such that x = T[i] mod L[i]
+ Jacobi(a,n)                the generalized Legendre symbol of a and n
+ primList(n)                the list of all primes <=n
+ primL(q)                   first primes p_1,...,p_r such that q<p_1*...*p_r
+ intPart(x)                 the integral part of a rational number
+ intRoot(m)                 the integral part of the square root of m
+ squareRoot(a,p)            the square root of a in Z/p, p prime
+ solutionsMod2(M)           basis solutions of Mx=0 over Z/2
+ powerX(q,i,I)              q-th power of the i-th variable modulo I
+ babyGiant(b,y,p)           discrete logarithm x: b^x=y mod p
+ rho(b,y,p)                 discrete logarithm x: b^x=y mod p
+ MillerRabin(n,k)           probabilistic primaly-test of Miller-Rabin
+ SolowayStrassen(n,k)       probabilistic primaly-test of Soloway-Strassen
+ PocklingtonLehmer(N,[])    primaly-test of Pocklington-Lehmer
+ PollardRho(n,k,a,[])       Pollard's rho factorization
+ pFactor(n,B,P)             Pollard's p-factorization
+ quadraticSieve(n,c,B,k)    quadratic sieve factorization
+ isOnCurve(N,a,b,P)         P is on the curve y^2z=x^3+a*xz^2+b*z^3  over Z/N
+ ellipticAdd(N,a,b,P,Q)     P+Q, addition on elliptic curves
+ ellipticMult(N,a,b,P,k)    k*P on elliptic curves
+ ellipticRandomCurve(N)     generates y^2z=x^3+a*xz^2+b*z^3  over Z/N randomly
+ ellipticRandomPoint(N,a,b) random point on y^2z=x^3+a*xz^2+b*z^3  over Z/N
+ countPoints(N,a,b)         number of points of y^2=x^3+a*x+b  over Z/N
+ ellipticAllPoints(N,a,b)   points of y^2=x^3+a*x+b  over Z/N
+ ShanksMestre(q,a,b,[])     number of points of y^2=x^3+a*x+b  over Z/N
+ Schoof(N,a,b)              number of points of y^2=x^3+a*x+b  over Z/N
+ generateG(a,b,m)           m-th division polynomial of y^2=x^3+a*x+b  over Z/N
+ factorLenstraECM(N,S,B,[]) Lenstra's factorization
+ ECPP(N)                    primaly-test of Goldwasser-Kilian
+ calculate_ordering(num1, primitive, mod1)    Calculates x so that primitive^x == num1 mod mod1
+  is_primitive_root(primitive, mod1) Checks if primitive is a primitive root modulo mod1
+  find_first_primitive_root(mod1) Returns the first primitive root modulo mod1, starting with 1
+  binary_add(binary_list)         Adds a 1 to a binary encoded list
+  inverse_modulus(num,mod1)       Finds a t so that t*num = 1 mod mod1
+  is_prime(n)                     Checks if n is prime
+  proc find_biggest_index(a)      Returns the index of the biggest element of a
+  find_index(a,e)                 Returns the list index of element e in list a. Returns 0 if e is not in a
+  subset_sum01(list knapsack, int solution)                          solves the subset-sum-knapsack-problem by calculating all subsets and choosing the right solution
+  subset_sum02(list knapsack, int sol)                            solves the subset-sum-knapsack-problem with a naive greedy algorithm
+  unbounded_knapsack(list knapsack, list profit, int capacity)                solves the unbounded_knapsack-problem, needing a list of knapsack weights, a list of profits and a capacity
+  multidimensional_knapsack(matrix m, list capacities, list profits)              solves the multidimensional_knapsack-problem by using the PECH algorithm, needing a weight matrix m, a list of capacities and a list of profits
+  naccache_stern_generation(int key, int primenum)                      generates a hard knapsack for the Naccache-Stern Kryptosystem for given key and prime modulus
+  naccache_stern_encryption(list knapsack, list message, int primenum)            encrypts a message with the Naccache-Stern Kryptosystem, using a hard knapsack, a message encoded as binary list and a prime modulus
+  naccache_stern_decryption(list knapsack, int key, int primenum, int message)        decrypts a message with the Naccache-Stern Kryptosystem, using the easy knapsack, the key, the prime modulus and the message encoded as integer
+  m_merkle_hellman_transformation(list knapsack, int primitive, int mod1)            generates a hard knapsack for the multiplicative Merkle-Hellman Kryptosystem for a given easy knapsack and a primitive root for a modulus mod1
+  m_merkle_hellman_encryption(list knapsack, list message)                  encrypts a message with the multiplicative Merkle-Hellman Kryptosystem, using a hard knapsack and a message encoded as binary list
+  m_merkle_hellman_decryption(list knapsack, bigint primitive, bigint mod1, int message)    decrypts a message with the multiplicative Merkle-Hellman Kryptosystem, using the easy knapsack, the key given by the primitive root, the modulus mod1 and the message encoded as integer
+  merkle_hellman_transformation(list knapsack, int key, int mod1                generates a hard knapsack for the  Merkle-Hellman Kryptosystem for a given easy knapsack , a multiplicator key and a modulus mod1
+  merkle_hellman_encryption(list knapsack, list message)                    encrypts a message with the Merkle-Hellman Kryptosystem, using a hard knapsack and a message encoded as binary list
+  merkle_hellman_decryption(list knapsack, int key, int mod1, int message)          decrypts a message with the multiplicative Merkle-Hellman Kryptosystem, using the hard knapsack, the key, the modulus mod1 and the message encoded as integer
+  super_increasing_knapsack(int ksize)                            Creates the smallest super-increasing knapsack of given size ksize
+  h_increasing_knapsack(int ksize, int h)                            Creates the smallest h-increasing knapsack of given size ksize and h
+  injective_knapsack(int ksize, int kmaxelement)                        Creates all list of all injective knapsacks of given size ksize and maximal element kmaxelement
+  calculate_max_sum(list a)                                  Calculates the maximal sum of a given knapsack a
+  set_is_injective(list a)                                    Checks if knapsack a is injective
+  is_h_injective(list a, int h)                                Checks if knapsack a is h-injective
+  is_fix_injective(list a)                                  Checks if knapsack a is fix-injective
+  three_elements(list out, int iterations)                          Creates the smallest injective knapsack with a given injective_knapsack by using the three-elements-algorithm with a given number of iterations
+
+              [parameters in square brackets are optional]
+";
+
+LIB "polylib.lib";
+
+///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+
+proc round(number r)
+"USAGE: round(r);
+RETURN: the nearest number to r out of Z
+ASSUME: r should be a rational or a real number
+EXAMPLE:example round; shows an example
+"
+{
+  number a=absValue(r);
+  number v=r/a;
+
+  number d=10;
+  int e;
+  while(1)
+  {
+    e=e+1;
+    if(a-d^e<0)
+    {
+      e=e-1;
+      break;
+    }
+  }
+
+  number b=a;
+  int k;
+  for(k=0;k<=e;k++)
+  {
+    while(1)
+    {
+      b=b-d^(e-k);
+      if(b<0)
+      {
+        b=b+d^(e-k);
+        break;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  if(b<1/2)
+  {
+    return(v*(a-b));
+  }
+  else
+  {
+    return(v*(a+1-b));
+  }
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+    ring R = (real,50),x,dp;
+    number r=7357683445788723456321.6788643224;
+    round(r);
+}
+
+
+proc bubblesort(list L)
+"USAGE: bubblesort(L);
+RETURN: list L, sort in decreasing order
+EXAMPLE:example bubblesort; shows an example
+"
+{
+  def b;
+  int n,i,j;
+  while(j==0)
+  {
+    i=i+1;
+    j=1;
+    for(n=1;n<=size(L)-i;n++)
+    {
+      if(L[n]<L[n+1])
+      {
+        b=L[n];
+        L[n]=L[n+1];
+        L[n+1]=b;
+        j=0;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return(L);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+    ring r = 0,x,dp;
+    list L=-567,-233,446,12,-34,8907;
+    bubblesort(L);
+}
+
+//=============================================================================
+//=========================== basic prozedures ================================
+//=============================================================================
+
+proc decimal(string s)
+"USAGE:  decimal(s); s = string
+RETURN: the (decimal) number corresponding to the hexadecimal number s
+EXAMPLE:example decimal; shows an example
+"
+{
+   int n=size(s);
+   int i;
+   bigint k;
+   bigint t=16;
+   bigint m=0;
+   for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
+   {
+      k=0;
+      if(s[i]=="1"){k=1;}
+      if(s[i]=="2"){k=2;}
+      if(s[i]=="3"){k=3;}
+      if(s[i]=="4"){k=4;}
+      if(s[i]=="5"){k=5;}
+      if(s[i]=="6"){k=6;}
+      if(s[i]=="7"){k=7;}
+      if(s[i]=="8"){k=8;}
+      if(s[i]=="9"){k=9;}
+      if(s[i]=="a"){k=10;}
+      if(s[i]=="b"){k=11;}
+      if(s[i]=="c"){k=12;}
+      if(s[i]=="d"){k=13;}
+      if(s[i]=="e"){k=14;}
+      if(s[i]=="f"){k=15;}
+      m=m*t+k;
+   }
+   return(m);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   string s  ="8edfe37dae96cfd2466d77d3884d4196";
+   decimal(s);
+}
+
+proc eexgcdN(list L)
+"USAGE:  eexgcdN(L);
+RETURN: list T such that sum_i L[i]*T[i]=T[n+1]=gcd(L[1],...,L[n])
+EXAMPLE:example eexgcdN; shows an example
+"
+{
+   if(size(L)==2)
+   {
+     list LL=extgcd(L[1],L[2]);return(list(LL[2],LL[3],LL[1]));
+   }
+   bigint p=L[size(L)];
+   L=delete(L,size(L));
+   list T=eexgcdN(L);
+   list S=extgcd(T[size(T)],p);
+   int i;
+   for(i=1;i<=size(T)-1;i++)
+   {
+      T[i]=T[i]*S[2];
+   }
+   p=T[size(T)];
+   T[size(T)]=S[3];
+   T[size(T)+1]=S[1];
+   return(T);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   eexgcdN(list(24,15,21));
+}
+
+proc lcmN(bigint a, bigint b)
+"USAGE:  lcmN(a,b);
+RETURN: lcm(a,b);
+EXAMPLE:example lcmN; shows an example
+"
+{
+   return (a*b/gcd(a,b));
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   lcmN(24,15);
+}
+
+proc powerN(bigint m, bigint d, bigint n)
+"USAGE:  powerN(m,d,n);
+RETURN: m^d mod n
+EXAMPLE:example powerN; shows an example
+"
+{
+   if(d==0){return(bigint(1));}
+   int i;
+   if(n==0)
+   {
+      for(i=12;i>=2;i--)
+      {
+         if((d mod i)==0){return(powerN(m,d div i,n)^i);}
+      }
+      return(m*powerN(m,d-1,n));
+   }
+   for(i=12;i>=2;i--)
+   {
+      if((d mod i)==0)
+      {
+        bigint rr=powerN(m,d div i,n)^i mod n;
+        if (rr<0) { rr=rr+n;}
+        return(rr);
+      }
+   }
+   return(m*powerN(m,d-1,n) mod n);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   powerN(24,15,7);
+}
+
+proc chineseRem(list T,list L)
+"USAGE:  chineseRem(T,L);
+RETURN: x such that x = T[i] mod L[i]
+NOTE:   chinese remainder theorem
+EXAMPLE:example chineseRem; shows an example
+"
+{
+   int i;
+   int n=size(L);
+   bigint N=1;
+   for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
+   {
+      N=N*L[i];
+   }
+   list M;
+   for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
+   {
+      M[i]=N div L[i];
+   }
+   list S=eexgcdN(M);
+   bigint x;
+   for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
+   {
+      x=x+S[i]*M[i]*T[i];
+   }
+   x=x mod N;
+   return(x);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   chineseRem(list(24,15,7),list(2,3,5));
+}
+
+proc Jacobi(bigint a, bigint n)
+"USAGE:  Jacobi(a,n);
+RETURN: the generalized Legendre symbol
+NOTE: if n is an odd prime then Jacobi(a,n)=0,1,-1 if n|a, a=x^2 mod n,else
+EXAMPLE:example Jacobi; shows an example
+"
+{
+   int i;
+   int z=1;
+   bigint t=1;
+   bigint k;
+
+   if((((n-1) div 2) mod 2)!=0){z=-1;}
+   if(a<0){return(z*Jacobi(-a,n));}
+   a=a mod n;
+   if(n==1){return(1);}
+   if(a==0){return(0);}
+
+   while(a!=0)
+   {
+      while((a mod 2)==0)
+      {
+         a=a div 2;
+         if(((n mod 8)==3)||((n mod 8)==5)){t=-t;}
+      }
+      k=a;a=n;n=k;
+      if(((a mod 4)==3)&&((n mod 4)==3)){t=-t;}
+      a=a mod n;
+   }
+   if (n==1){return(t);}
+   return(0);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   Jacobi(13580555397810650806,5792543);
+}
+
+proc primList(int n)
+"USAGE:  primList(n);
+RETURN: the list of all primes <=n
+EXAMPLE:example primList; shows an example
+"
+{
+   int i,j;
+   list re;
+   re[1]=2;
+   re[2]=3;
+   for(i=5;i<=n;i=i+2)
+   {
+     j=1;
+     while(j<=size(re))
+     {
+        if((i mod re[j])==0){break;}
+        j++;
+     }
+     if(j==size(re)+1){re[size(re)+1]=i;}
+   }
+   return(re);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   list L=primList(100);
+   size(L);
+   L[size(L)];
+}
+
+proc primL(bigint q)
+"USAGE:  primL(q);
+RETURN: list of the first primes p_1,...,p_r such that q>p_1*...*p_(r-1)
+        and q<p_1*...*p_r
+EXAMPLE:example primL; shows an example
+"
+{
+   int i,j;
+   list re;
+   re[1]=2;
+   re[2]=3;
+   bigint s=6;
+   i=3;
+   while(s<=q)
+   {
+     i=i+2;
+     j=1;
+     while(j<=size(re))
+     {
+        if((i mod re[j])==0){break;}
+        j++;
+     }
+     if(j==size(re)+1)
+     {
+        re[size(re)+1]=i;
+        s=s*i;
+     }
+   }
+   return(re);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   primL(20);
+}
+
+proc intPart(number x)
+"USAGE:  intPart(x);
+RETURN: the integral part of a rational number
+EXAMPLE:example intPart; shows an example
+"
+{
+  if (x>=0)
+  {
+    return(bigint((numerator(x)-(bigint(numerator(x)) mod bigint(denominator(x)))))
+         div bigint(denominator(x)));
+  }
+  else
+  {
+    return(bigint((numerator(x)-(bigint(numerator(x)) mod bigint(denominator(x)+denominator(x)))))
+         div bigint(denominator(x)));
+  }
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   ring r=0,x,dp;
+   intPart(7/3);
+}
+
+proc intRoot(bigint mm)
+"USAGE:  intRoot(m);
+RETURN: the integral part of the square root of m
+EXAMPLE:example intRoot; shows an example
+"
+{
+   ring R = 0,@x,dp;
+   number m=mm;
+   number x=1;
+   number t=x^2;
+   number s=(x+1)^2;
+   while(((m>t)&&(m>s))||((m<t)&&(m<s)))
+   {
+      if (x==0) { t=0; }
+      else
+      {
+        x=intPart(x/2+m/(2*x));  //Newton step
+        t=x^2;
+      }
+      if(t>m)
+      {
+         s=(x-1)^2;
+      }
+      else
+      {
+         s=(x+1)^2;
+      }
+   }
+   if(t>m){return(bigint(x-1));}
+   if(s==m){return(bigint(x+1));}
+   return(bigint(x));
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   intRoot(20);
+}
+
+proc squareRoot(bigint a, bigint p)
+"USAGE:  squareRoot(a,p);
+RETURN: the square root of a in Z/p, p prime
+NOTE:   assumes the Jacobi symbol is 1 or p=2.
+EXAMPLE:example squareRoot; shows an example
+"
+{
+   if(p==2){return(a);}
+   if((a mod p)==0){return(0);}
+   if (a<0) { a=a+p; }
+   if(powerN(a,p-1,p)!=1)
+   {
+      "p is not prime";
+      return(bigint(-5));
+   }
+   bigint n=random(1,2147483647) mod p;
+   if(n==0){n=n+1;}
+   bigint j=Jacobi(n,p);
+   if(j==0)
+   {
+      "p is not prime";
+      return(bigint(-5));
+   }
+   if(j==1)
+   {
+      return(squareRoot(a,p));
+   }
+   bigint q=p-1;
+   bigint e=0;
+   bigint two=2;
+   bigint z,m,t;
+   while((q mod 2)==0)
+   {
+      e=e+1;
+      q=q div 2;
+   }
+   bigint y=powerN(n,q,p);
+   bigint r=e;
+   bigint x=powerN(a,(q-1) div 2,p);
+   bigint b=a*x^2 mod p;
+   x=a*x mod p;
+
+   while(((b-1) mod p)!=0)
+   {
+      m=0;z=b;
+      while(((z-1) mod p)!=0)
+      {
+         z=z^2 mod p;
+         m=m+1;
+      }
+      t=powerN(y,powerN(two,r-m-1,p),p);
+      y=t^2 mod p;
+      r=m;
+      x=x*t mod p;
+      b=b*y mod p;
+   }
+   return(x);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   squareRoot(8315890421938608,32003);
+}
+
+
+proc solutionsMod2(bigintmat MM)
+"USAGE:  solutionsMod2(M);
+RETURN: an intmat containing a basis of the vector space of solutions of the
+        linear system of equations defined by M over the prime field of
+        characteristic 2
+EXAMPLE:example solutionsMod2; shows an example
+"
+{
+   ring Rhelp=2,z,(c,dp);
+   int i,j;
+   matrix M[nrows(MM)][ncols(MM)];
+   for(i=1;i<=nrows(MM);i++)
+   {
+      for(j=1;j<=ncols(MM);j++)
+      {
+         M[i,j]=MM[i,j];
+      }
+   }
+   matrix S=syz(M);
+   intmat v[nrows(S)][ncols(S)];
+   for(i=1;i<=nrows(S);i++)
+   {
+      for(j=1;j<=ncols(S);j++)
+      {
+         if(S[i,j]==1){v[i,j]=1;}
+      }
+   }
+   return(v);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   bigintmat M[3][3]=1,2,3,4,5,6,7,6,5;
+   solutionsMod2(M);
+}
+
+proc powerX(int q, int i, ideal I)
+"USAGE:  powerX(q,i,I);
+RETURN: the q-th power of the i-th variable modulo I
+ASSUME: I is a standard basis
+EXAMPLE:example powerX; shows an example
+"
+{
+   if(q<=181){return(reduce(var(i)^int(q),I));}
+   if((q mod 5)==0){return(reduce(powerX(q div 5,i,I)^5,I));}
+   if((q mod 4)==0){return(reduce(powerX(q div 4,i,I)^4,I));}
+   if((q mod 3)==0){return(reduce(powerX(q div 3,i,I)^3,I));}
+   if((q mod 2)==0){return(reduce(powerX(q div 2,i,I)^2,I));}
+   return(reduce(var(i)*powerX(q-1,i,I),I));
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   ring R = 0,(x,y),dp;
+   powerX(100,2,std(ideal(x3-1,y2-x)));
+}
+
+//======================================================================
+//=========================== Discrete Logarithm =======================
+//======================================================================
+
+//============== Shank's baby step - giant step ========================
+
+proc babyGiant(bigint b, bigint y, bigint p)
+"USAGE:  babyGiant(b,y,p);
+RETURN: the discrete logarithm x: b^x=y mod p
+NOTE:   This procedure works based on Shank's baby step - giant step method.
+EXAMPLE:example babyGiant; shows an example
+"
+{
+   int i,j,m;
+   list l;
+   bigint h=1;
+   bigint x;
+
+//choose m minimal such that m^2>p
+   for(i=1;i<=p;i++){if(i^2>p) break;}
+   m=i;
+
+//baby-step:  compute the table y*b^i for 1<=i<=m
+   for(i=1;i<=m;i++){l[i]=y*b^i mod p;}
+
+//giant-step: compute b^(m+j), 1<=j<=m and search in the baby-step table
+//for an i with y*b^i=b^(m*j). If found then x=m*j-i
+   bigint g=b^m mod p;
+   while(j<m)
+   {
+      j++;
+      h=h*g mod p;
+      for(i=1;i<=m;i++)
+      {
+         if(h==l[i])
+         {
+            x=m*j-i;
+            j=m;
+            break;
+         }
+     }
+   }
+   return(x);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   bigint b=2;
+   bigint y=10;
+   bigint p=101;
+   babyGiant(b,y,p);
+}
+
+//==============  Pollards rho  =================================
+
+proc rho(bigint b, bigint y, bigint p)
+"USAGE:  rho(b,y,p);
+RETURN: the discrete logarithm x=log_b(y): b^x=y mod p
+NOTE: Pollard's rho:
+       choose random f_0 in 0,...,p-2 ,e_0=0, define x_0=b^f_0, define
+       x_i=y^e_i*b^f_i as below. For i large enough there is i with
+       x_(i/2)=x_i. Let s:=e_(i/2)-e_i mod p-1 and t:=f_i-f_(i/2) mod p-1,
+       d=gcd(s,p-1)=u*s+v*(p-1) then x=tu/d +j*(p-1)/d for some j (to be
+       found by trying)
+EXAMPLE:example rho; shows an example
+"
+{
+   int i=1;
+   int j;
+   bigint s,t;
+   list e,f,x;
+
+   e[1]=0;
+   f[1]=random(0,2147483629) mod (p-1);
+   x[1]=powerN(b,f[1],p);
+   while(i)
+   {
+      if((x[i] mod 3)==1)
+      {
+         x[i+1]=y*x[i] mod p;
+         e[i+1]=e[i]+1 mod (p-1);
+         f[i+1]=f[i];
+      }
+      if((x[i] mod 3)==2)
+      {
+         x[i+1]=x[i]^2 mod p;
+         e[i+1]=e[i]*2 mod (p-1);
+         f[i+1]=f[i]*2 mod (p-1);
+      }
+      if((x[i] mod 3)==0)
+      {
+         x[i+1]=x[i]*b mod p;
+         e[i+1]=e[i];
+         f[i+1]=f[i]+1 mod (p-1);
+      }
+      i++;
+      for(j=i-1;j>=1;j--)
+      {
+         if(x[i]==x[j])
+         {
+            s=(e[j]-e[i]) mod (p-1);
+            t=(f[i]-f[j]) mod (p-1);
+            if(s!=0)
+            {
+               i=0;
+            }
+            else
+            {
+               e[1]=0;
+               f[1]=random(0,2147483629) mod (p-1);
+               x[1]=powerN(b,f[1],p);
+               i=1;
+            }
+            break;
+         }
+      }
+   }
+
+   list w=extgcd(s,p-1);
+   bigint u=w[2];
+   bigint d=w[1];
+
+   bigint a=(t*u div d) mod (p-1);
+
+   bigint pn=powerN(b,a,p);
+   if (pn<0) { pn=pn+p;}
+   while(powerN(b,a,p)!=y)
+   {
+      a=(a+(p-1) div d) mod (p-1);
+      if (a<0) { a=a+p-1; }
+   }
+   return(a);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   bigint b=2;
+   bigint y=10;
+   bigint p=101;
+   rho(b,y,p);
+}
+//====================================================================
+//====================== Primality Tests =============================
+//====================================================================
+
+//================================= Miller-Rabin =====================
+
+proc MillerRabin(bigint n, int k)
+"USAGE:  MillerRabin(n,k);
+RETURN: 1 if n is prime, 0 else
+NOTE: probabilistic test of Miller-Rabin with k loops to test if n is prime.
+       Using the theorem: If n is prime, n-1=2^s*r, r odd, then
+       powerN(a,r,n)=1 or powerN(a,r*2^i,n)=-1 for some i
+EXAMPLE:example MillerRabin; shows an example
+"
+{
+   if(n<0){n=-n;}
+   if((n==2)||(n==3)){return(1);}
+   if((n mod 2)==0){return(0);}
+
+   int i;
+   bigint a,b,j,r,s;
+   r=n-1;
+   s=0;
+   while((r mod 2)==0)
+   {
+      s=s+1;
+      r=r div 2;
+   }
+   while(i<k)
+   {
+      i++;
+      a=random(2,2147483629) mod n; if(a==0){a=3;}
+      if(gcd(a,n)!=1){return(0);}
+      b=powerN(a,r,n);
+      if(b!=1)
+      {
+         j=0;
+         while(j<s)
+         {
+           if(((b+1) mod n)==0) break;
+           b=powerN(b,2,n);
+           j=j+1;
+         }
+         if(j==s){return(0);}
+      }
+   }
+   return(1);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   bigint x=2;
+   x=x^787-1;
+   MillerRabin(x,3);
+}
+
+//======================= Soloway-Strassen  ==========================
+
+proc SolowayStrassen(bigint n, int k)
+"USAGE:  SolowayStrassen(n,k);
+RETURN: 1 if n is prime, 0 else
+NOTE: probabilistic test of Soloway-Strassen with k loops to test if n is
+       prime using the theorem: If n is prime then
+       powerN(a,(n-1)/2,n)=Jacobi(a,n) mod n
+EXAMPLE:example SolowayStrassen; shows an example
+"
+{
+   if(n<0){n=-n;}
+   if((n==2)||(n==3)){return(1);}
+   if((n mod 2)==0){return(0);}
+
+   bigint a,pn,jn;
+   int i;
+   while(i<k)
+   {
+      i++;
+      a=random(2,2147483629) mod n; if(a==0){a=3;}
+      if(gcd(a,n)!=1){return(0);}
+      pn=powerN(a,(n-1) div 2,n);
+      if (pn<0) { pn=pn+n;}
+      jn=Jacobi(a,n) mod n;
+      if (jn<0) { jn=jn+n;}
+      if(pn!=jn){return(0);}
+   }
+   return(1);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   bigint h=10;
+   bigint p=h^100+267;
+   //p=h^100+43723;
+   //p=h^200+632347;
+   SolowayStrassen(h,3);
+}
+
+
+/*
+ring R=0,z,dp;
+number p=398075086424064937397125500550386491199064362342526708406385189575946388957261768583317;
+number q=472772146107435302536223071973048224632914695302097116459852171130520711256363590397527;
+number n=p*q;
+SolowayStrassen(n,3);
+*/
+
+//===================== Pocklington-Lehmer ==============================
+
+proc PocklingtonLehmer(bigint N, list #)
+"USAGE: PocklingtonLehmer(N); optional: PocklingtonLehmer(N,L);
+        L a list of the first k primes
+RETURN:message N is not prime or {A,{p},{a_p}} as certificate for N being prime
+NOTE:assumes that it is possible to factorize N-1=A*B such that gcd(A,B)=1,
+      the factorization of A is completely known and A^2>N .
+      N is prime if and only if for each prime factor p of A we can find
+      a_p such that a_p^(N-1)=1 mod N and gcd(a_p^((N-1)/p)-1,N)=1
+EXAMPLE:example PocklingtonLehmer; shows an example
+"
+{
+   bigint m=intRoot(N);
+   if(size(#)>0)
+   {
+      list S=PollardRho(N-1,10000,1,#);
+   }
+   else
+   {
+      list S=PollardRho(N-1,10000,1);
+   }
+   int i,j;
+   bigint A=1;
+   bigint p,a,g;
+   list PA;
+   list re;
+
+   while(i<size(S))
+   {
+      p=S[i+1];
+      A=A*p;
+      PA[i+1]=p;
+      if(A>m){break;}
+
+      while(1)
+      {
+        p=p*S[i+1];
+        if(((N-1) mod p)==0)
+        {
+           A=A*p;
+        }
+        else
+        {
+           break;
+        }
+      }
+      i++;
+   }
+   if(A<=m)
+   {
+     A=N div A;
+     PA=list(S[size(S)]);
+   }
+   for(i=1;i<=size(PA);i++)
+   {
+      a=1;
+      while(a<N-1)
+      {
+         a=a+1;
+         if(powerN(a,N-1,N)!=1){return("not prime");}
+         g=gcd(powerN(a,(N-1) div PA[i],N),N);
+         if(g==1)
+         {
+           re[size(re)+1]=list(PA[i],a);
+           break;
+         }
+         if(g<N){"not prime";return(g);}
+      }
+   }
+   return(list(A,re));
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   bigint N=105554676553297;
+   PocklingtonLehmer(N);
+   list L=primList(1000);
+   PocklingtonLehmer(N,L);
+}
+
+//=======================================================================
+//======================= Factorization =================================
+//=======================================================================
+
+//======================= Pollards rho  =================================
+
+proc PollardRho(bigint n, int k, int allFactors, list #)
+"USAGE:  PollardRho(n,k,allFactors); optional: PollardRho(n,k,allFactors,L);
+         L a list of the first k primes
+RETURN: a list of factors of n (which could be just n),if allFactors=0@*
+        a list of all factors of n ,if allFactors=1
+NOTE: probabilistic rho-algorithm of Pollard to find a factor of n in k loops.
+      Creates a sequence x_i such that (x_i)^2=(x_2i)^2 mod n for some i,
+      computes gcd(x_i-x_2i,n) to find a divisor. To define the sequence
+      choose x,a and define x_n+1=x_n^2+a mod n, x_1=x.
+      If allFactors is 1, it tries to find recursively all prime factors
+      using the Soloway-Strassen test.
+SEE ALSO: primefactors
+EXAMPLE:example PollardRho; shows an example
+"
+{
+    int i,j;
+    list L=primList(100);
+    list re,se;
+    if(n<0){n=-n;}
+    if(n==1){return(re);}
+
+//this is optional: test whether a prime of the list # divides n
+    if(size(#)>0)
+    {
+       L=#;
+    }
+    for(i=1;i<=size(L);i++)
+    {
+       if((n mod L[i])==0)
+       {
+          re[size(re)+1]=L[i];
+          while((n mod L[i])==0)
+          {
+             n=n div L[i];
+          }
+       }
+       if(n==1){return(re);}
+    }
+    int e=size(re);
+//here the rho-algorithm starts
+    bigint a,d,x,y;
+    while(n>1)
+    {
+       a=random(2,2147483629);
+       x=random(2,2147483629);
+       y=x;
+       d=1;
+       i=0;
+       while(i<k)
+       {
+          i++;
+          x=powerN(x,2,n); x=(x+a) mod n;
+          y=powerN(y,2,n); y=(y+a) mod n;
+          y=powerN(y,2,n); y=(y+a) mod n;
+          d=gcd(x-y,n);
+          if(d>1)
+          {
+             re[size(re)+1]=d;
+             while((n mod d)==0)
+             {
+               n=n div d;
+             }
+             break;
+          }
+          if(i==k)
+          {
+             re[size(re)+1]=n;
+             n=1;
+          }
+       }
+    }
+    if(allFactors)      //want to obtain all prime factors
+    {
+       i=e;
+       while(i<size(re))
+       {
+          i++;
+
+          if(!SolowayStrassen(re[i],5))
+          {
+             se=PollardRho(re[i],2*k,1);
+             re[i]=se[size(se)];
+             for(j=1;j<=size(se)-1;j++)
+             {
+                re[size(re)+1]=se[j];
+             }
+             i--;
+          }
+       }
+    }
+    return(re);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   bigint h=10;
+   bigint p=h^30+4;
+   PollardRho(p,5000,0);
+}
+
+//======================== Pollards p-factorization ================
+proc pFactor(bigint n,int B, list P)
+"USAGE:  pFactor(n,B,P); n to be factorized, B a bound , P a list of primes
+RETURN: a list of factors of n or n if no factor found
+NOTE: Pollard's p-factorization
+       creates the product k of powers of primes (bounded by B)  from
+       the list P with the idea that for a prime divisor p of n we have
+       p-1|k, and then p divides gcd(a^k-1,n) for some random a
+EXAMPLE:example pFactor; shows an example
+"
+{
+   int i;
+   bigint k=1;
+   bigint w;
+   while(i<size(P))
+   {
+      i++;
+      w=P[i];
+      if(w>B) break;
+      while(w*P[i]<=B)
+      {
+         w=w*P[i];
+      }
+      k=k*w;
+   }
+   bigint a=random(2,2147483629);
+   bigint d=gcd(powerN(a,k,n)-1,n);
+   if((d>1)&&(d<n)){return(d);}
+   return(n);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   list L=primList(1000);
+   pFactor(1241143,13,L);
+   bigint h=10;
+   h=h^30+25;
+   pFactor(h,20,L);
+}
+
+//==================== quadratic sieve ==============================
+
+proc quadraticSieve(bigint n, int c, list B, int k)
+"USAGE:  quadraticSieve(n,c,B,k); n to be factorized, [-c,c] the
+         sieve-intervall, B a list of primes,
+         k for using the first k elements in B
+RETURN: a list of factors of n or the message: no divisor found
+NOTE: The idea being used is to find x,y such that x^2=y^2 mod n then
+      gcd(x-y,n) can be a proper divisor of n
+EXAMPLE:example quadraticSieve; shows an example
+"
+{
+   bigint f,d;
+   int i,j,l,s,p;
+   list S,tmp;
+   intvec v;
+   v[k]=0;
+
+//compute the integral part of the square root of n
+   bigint m=intRoot(n);
+
+//consider the function f(X)=(X+m)^2-n and compute for s in [-c,c] the values
+   while(i<=2*c)
+   {
+      f=(i-c+m)^2-n;
+      tmp[1]=i-c+m;
+      tmp[2]=f;
+      tmp[3]=v;
+      S[i+1]=tmp;
+      i++;
+   }
+
+//the sieve with p in B
+//find all s in [-c,c] such that f(s) has all prime divisors in the first
+//k elements of B and the decomposition of f(s). They are characterized
+//by 1 or -1 at the second place of S[j]:
+//S[j]=j-c+m,f(j-c)/p_1^v_1*...*p_k^v_k, v_1,...,v_k maximal
+   for(i=1;i<=k;i++)
+   {
+      p=B[i];
+      if((p>2)&&(Jacobi(n,p)==-1)){i++;continue;}//n is no quadratic rest mod p
+      j=1;
+      while(j<=p)
+      {
+         if(j>2*c+1) break;
+         f=S[j][2];
+         v=S[j][3];
+         s=0;
+         while((f mod p)==0)
+         {
+            s++;
+            f=f div p;
+         }
+         if(s)
+         {
+           S[j][2]=f;
+           v[i]=s;
+           S[j][3]=v;
+           l=j;
+           while(l+p<=2*c+1)
+           {
+              l=l+p;
+              f=S[l][2];
+              v=S[l][3];
+              s=0;
+              while((f mod p)==0)
+              {
+                s++;
+                f=f div p;
+              }
+              S[l][2]=f;
+              v[i]=s;
+              S[l][3]=v;
+           }
+         }
+         j++;
+      }
+   }
+   list T;
+   for(j=1;j<=2*c+1;j++)
+   {
+      if((S[j][2]==1)||(S[j][2]==-1))
+      {
+         T[size(T)+1]=S[j];
+      }
+   }
+
+//the system of equations for the exponents {l_s} for the f(s) such
+//product f(s)^l_s is a square (l_s are 1 or 0)
+   bigintmat M[k+1][size(T)];
+   for(j=1;j<=size(T);j++)
+   {
+      if(T[j][2]==-1){M[1,j]=1;}
+      for(i=1;i<=k;i++)
+      {
+         M[i+1,j]=T[j][3][i];
+      }
+   }
+   intmat G=solutionsMod2(M);
+
+//construction of x and y such that x^2=y^2 mod n and d=gcd(x-y,n)
+//y=square root of product f(s)^l_s
+//x=product s+m
+   bigint x=1;
+   bigint y=1;
+
+   for(i=1;i<=ncols(G);i++)
+   {
+      kill v;
+      intvec v;
+      v[k]=0;
+      for(j=1;j<=size(T);j++)
+      {
+         x=x*T[j][1]^G[j,i] mod n;
+         if((T[j][2]==-1)&&(G[j,i]==1)){y=-y;}
+         v=v+G[j,i]*T[j][3];
+
+      }
+      for(l=1;l<=k;l++)
+      {
+         y=y*B[l]^(v[l] div 2) mod n;
+      }
+      d=gcd(x-y,n);
+      if((d>1)&&(d<n)){return(d);}
+   }
+   return("no divisor found");
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   list L=primList(5000);
+   quadraticSieve(7429,3,L,4);
+   quadraticSieve(1241143,100,L,50);
+}
+
+//======================================================================
+//==================== elliptic curves  ================================
+//======================================================================
+
+//================= elementary operations ==============================
+
+proc isOnCurve(bigint N, bigint a, bigint b, list P)
+"USAGE:  isOnCurve(N,a,b,P);
+RETURN: 1 or 0 (depending on whether P is on the curve or not)
+NOTE: checks whether P=(P[1]:P[2]:P[3]) is a point on the elliptic
+      curve defined by y^2z=x^3+a*xz^2+b*z^3  over Z/N
+EXAMPLE:example isOnCurve; shows an example
+"
+{
+   if(((P[2]^2*P[3]-P[1]^3-a*P[1]*P[3]^2-b*P[3]^3) mod N)!=0){return(0);}
+   return(1);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   isOnCurve(32003,5,7,list(10,16,1));
+}
+
+proc ellipticAdd(bigint N, bigint a, bigint b, list P, list Q)
+"USAGE:  ellipticAdd(N,a,b,P,Q);
+RETURN: list L, representing the point P+Q
+NOTE: P=(P[1]:P[2]:P[3]), Q=(Q[1]:Q[2]:Q[3]) points on the elliptic curve
+      defined by y^2z=x^3+a*xz^2+b*z^3  over Z/N
+EXAMPLE:example ellipticAdd; shows an example
+"
+{
+   if(N==2){ERROR("not implemented for 2");}
+   int i;
+   for(i=1;i<=3;i++)
+   {
+      P[i]=P[i] mod N; if (P[i]<0) { P[i]=P[i]+N:}
+      Q[i]=Q[i] mod N; if (Q[i]<0) { Q[i]=Q[i]+N;}
+   }
+   list Resu;
+   Resu[1]=bigint(0);
+   Resu[2]=bigint(1);
+   Resu[3]=bigint(0);
+   list Error;
+   Error[1]=0;
+   //test for ellictic curve
+   bigint D=4*a^3+27*b^2;
+   bigint g=gcd(D,N);
+   if(g==N){return(Error);}
+   if(g!=1)
+   {
+      P[4]=g;
+      return(P);
+   }
+   if(((P[1]==0)&&(P[2]==0)&&(P[3]==0))||((Q[1]==0)&&(Q[2]==0)&&(Q[3]==0)))
+   {
+      Error[1]=-2;
+      return(Error);
+   }
+   if(!isOnCurve(N,a,b,P)||!isOnCurve(N,a,b,Q))
+   {
+      Error[1]=-1;
+      return(Error);
+   }
+   if(P[3]==0){return(Q);}
+   if(Q[3]==0){return(P);}
+   list I=extgcd(P[3],N);
+   if(I[1]!=1)
+   {
+      P[4]=I[1];
+      return(P);
+   }
+   P[1]=P[1]*I[2] mod N;
+   P[2]=P[2]*I[2] mod N;
+   I=extgcd(Q[3],N);
+   if(I[1]!=1)
+   {
+      P[4]=I[1];
+      return(P);
+   }
+   Q[1]=Q[1]*I[2] mod N;
+   Q[2]=Q[2]*I[2] mod N;
+   if((P[1]==Q[1])&&(((P[2]+Q[2]) mod N)==0)){return(Resu);}
+   bigint L;
+   if((P[1]==Q[1])&&(P[2]==Q[2]))
+   {
+      I=extgcd(2*Q[2],N);
+      if(I[1]!=1)
+      {
+         P[4]=I[1];
+         return(P);
+      }
+      L=I[2]*(3*Q[1]^2+a) mod N;
+   }
+   else
+   {
+      I=extgcd(Q[1]-P[1],N);
+      if(I[1]!=1)
+      {
+         P[4]=I[1];
+         return(P);
+      }
+      L=(Q[2]-P[2])*I[2] mod N;
+   }
+   Resu[1]=(L^2-P[1]-Q[1]) mod N;
+   if (Resu[1]<0) { Resu[1]=Resu[1]+N; }
+   Resu[2]=(L*(P[1]-Resu[1])-P[2]) mod N;
+   if (Resu[2]<0) { Resu[2]=Resu[2]+N; }
+   Resu[3]=bigint(1);
+   return(Resu);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   bigint N=11;
+   bigint a=1;
+   bigint b=6;
+   list P,Q;
+   P[1]=2;
+   P[2]=4;
+   P[3]=1;
+   Q[1]=3;
+   Q[2]=5;
+   Q[3]=1;
+   ellipticAdd(N,a,b,P,Q);
+}
+
+proc ellipticMult(bigint N, bigint a, bigint b, list P, bigint k)
+"USAGE:  ellipticMult(N,a,b,P,k);
+RETURN: a list L representing the point k*P
+NOTE:  P=(P[1]:P[2]:P[3]) a point on the elliptic curve defined by
+       y^2z=x^3+a*xz^2+b*z^3  over Z/N
+EXAMPLE:example ellipticMult; shows an example
+"
+{
+   if(P[3]==0){return(P);}
+   list resu;
+   resu[1]=bigint(0);
+   resu[2]=bigint(1);
+   resu[3]=bigint(0);
+
+   if(k==0){return(resu);}
+   if(k==1){return(P);}
+   if(k==2){return(ellipticAdd(N,a,b,P,P));}
+   if(k==-1)
+   {
+      resu=P;
+      resu[2]=N-P[2];
+      return(resu);
+   }
+   if(k<0)
+   {
+      resu=ellipticMult(N,a,b,P,-k);
+      return(ellipticMult(N,a,b,resu,-1));
+   }
+   if((k mod 2)==0)
+   {
+      resu=ellipticMult(N,a,b,P,k div 2);
+      return(ellipticAdd(N,a,b,resu,resu));
+   }
+   resu=ellipticMult(N,a,b,P,k-1);
+   return(ellipticAdd(N,a,b,resu,P));
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   bigint N=11;
+   bigint a=1;
+   bigint b=6;
+   list P;
+   P[1]=2;
+   P[2]=4;
+   P[3]=1;
+   ellipticMult(N,a,b,P,3);
+}
+
+//================== Random for elliptic curves =====================
+
+proc ellipticRandomCurve(bigint N)
+"USAGE:  ellipticRandomCurve(N);
+RETURN: a list of two random numbers a,b and 4a^3+27b^2 mod N
+NOTE:   y^2z=x^3+a*xz^2+b^2*z^3 defines an elliptic curve over Z/N
+EXAMPLE:example ellipticRandomCurve; shows an example
+"
+{
+   int k;
+   while(k<=10)
+   {
+     k++;
+     bigint a=random(1,2147483647) mod N;
+     bigint b=random(1,2147483647) mod N;
+     //test for ellictic curve
+     bigint D=4*a^3+27*b^4; //the constant term is b^2
+     bigint g=gcd(D,N);
+     if(g<N){return(list(a,b,g));}
+   }
+   ERROR("no random curve found");
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   ellipticRandomCurve(32003);
+}
+
+proc ellipticRandomPoint(bigint N, bigint a, bigint b)
+"USAGE:  ellipticRandomPoint(N,a,b);
+RETURN: a list representing  a random point (x:y:z) of the elliptic curve
+        defined by y^2z=x^3+a*xz^2+b*z^3  over Z/N
+EXAMPLE:example ellipticRandomPoint; shows an example
+"
+{
+   bigint x=random(1,2147483647) mod N;
+   bigint h=x^3+a*x+b;
+   h=h mod N;
+   list resu;
+   resu[1]=x;
+   resu[2]=0;
+   resu[3]=1;
+   if(h==0){return(resu);}
+
+   bigint n=Jacobi(h,N);
+   if(n==0)
+   {
+      resu=-5;
+      "N is not prime";
+      return(resu);
+   }
+   if(n==1)
+   {
+      resu[2]=squareRoot(h,N);
+      return(resu);
+   }
+   return(ellipticRandomPoint(N,a,b));
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   ellipticRandomPoint(32003,3,181);
+}
+
+
+
+//====================================================================
+//======== counting the points of an elliptic curve  =================
+//====================================================================
+
+//==================   the trivial approaches  =======================
+proc countPoints(bigint N, bigint a, bigint b)
+"USAGE:  countPoints(N,a,b);
+RETURN: the number of points of the elliptic curve defined by
+        y^2=x^3+a*x+b  over Z/N
+NOTE: trivial approach
+EXAMPLE:example countPoints; shows an example
+"
+{
+  bigint x;
+  bigint r=N+1;
+  while(x<N)
+  {
+     r=r+Jacobi((x^3+a*x+b) mod N,N);
+     x=x+1;
+  }
+  return(r);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   countPoints(181,71,150);
+}
+
+proc ellipticAllPoints(bigint N, bigint a, bigint b)
+"USAGE:  ellipticAllPoints(N,a,b);
+RETURN: list of points (x:y:z) of the elliptic curve defined by
+        y^2z=x^3+a*xz^2+b*z^3  over Z/N
+EXAMPLE:example ellipticAllPoints; shows an example
+"
+{
+   list resu,point;
+   point[1]=0;
+   point[2]=1;
+   point[3]=0;
+   resu[1]=point;
+   point[3]=1;
+   bigint x,h,n;
+   while(x<N)
+   {
+      h=(x^3+a*x+b) mod N;
+      if(h==0)
+      {
+         point[1]=x;
+         point[2]=0;
+         resu[size(resu)+1]=point;
+      }
+      else
+      {
+         n=Jacobi(h,N);
+         if(n==1)
+         {
+            n=squareRoot(h,N);
+            point[1]=x;
+            point[2]=n;
+            resu[size(resu)+1]=point;
+            point[2]=N-n;
+            resu[size(resu)+1]=point;
+         }
+      }
+      x=x+1;
+   }
+   return(resu);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   list L=ellipticAllPoints(181,71,150);
+   size(L);
+   L[size(L)];
+}
+
+//================ the algorithm of Shanks and Mestre =================
+
+proc ShanksMestre(bigint q, bigint a, bigint b, list #)
+"USAGE:  ShanksMestre(q,a,b); optional: ShanksMestre(q,a,b,s); s the number
+         of loops in the algorithm (default s=1)
+RETURN: the number of points of the elliptic curve defined by
+         y^2=x^3+a*x+b  over Z/N
+NOTE: algorithm of Shanks and Mestre (baby-step-giant-step)
+EXAMPLE:example ShanksMestre; shows an example
+"
+{
+   bigint n=intRoot(4*q);
+   bigint m=intRoot(intRoot(16*q))+1;
+   bigint d;
+   int i,j,k,s;
+   list B,K,T,P,Q,R,mP;
+   B[1]=list(0,1,0);
+   if(size(#)>0)
+   {
+      s=#[1];
+   }
+   else
+   {
+      s=1;
+   }
+   while(k<s)
+   {
+      P =ellipticRandomPoint(q,a,b);
+      Q =ellipticMult(q,a,b,P,n+q+1);
+
+      while(j<m)
+      {
+         j++;
+         B[j+1]=ellipticAdd(q,a,b,P,B[j]);  //baby-step list
+      }
+      mP=ellipticAdd(q,a,b,P,B[j]);
+      mP[2]=q-mP[2];
+      while(i<m)                            //giant-step
+      {
+         j=0;
+         while(j<m)
+         {
+            j++;
+            if((Q[1]==B[j][1])&&(Q[2]==B[j][2])&&(Q[3]==B[j][3]))
+            {
+               T[1]=P;
+               T[2]=q+1+n-(i*m+j-1);
+               K[size(K)+1]=T;
+               if(size(K)>1)
+               {
+                  if(K[size(K)][2]!=K[size(K)-1][2])
+                  {
+                     d=gcd(K[size(K)][2],K[size(K)-1][2]);
+                     if(ellipticMult(q,a,b,K[size(K)],d)[3]==0)
+                     {
+                       K[size(K)][2]=K[size(K)-1][2];
+                     }
+                  }
+               }
+               i=int(m);
+               break;
+            }
+         }
+         i=i+1;
+         Q=ellipticAdd(q,a,b,mP,Q);
+      }
+      k++;
+   }
+   if(size(K)>0)
+   {
+      int te=1;
+      for(i=1;i<=size(K)-1;i++)
+      {
+         if(K[size(K)][2]!=K[i][2])
+         {
+           if(ellipticMult(q,a,b,K[i],K[size(K)][2])[3]!=0)
+           {
+             te=0;
+             break;
+           }
+         }
+      }
+      if(te)
+      {
+         return(K[size(K)][2]);
+      }
+   }
+   return(ShanksMestre(q,a,b,s));
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   ShanksMestre(32003,71,602);
+}
+
+//==================== Schoof's algorithm =============================
+
+proc Schoof(bigint N,bigint a, bigint b)
+"USAGE:  Schoof(N,a,b);
+RETURN: the number of points of the elliptic curve defined by
+        y^2=x^3+a*x+b  over Z/N
+NOTE:  algorithm of Schoof
+EXAMPLE:example Schoof; shows an example
+"
+{
+   int pr=printlevel;
+//test for ellictic curve
+   bigint D=4*a^3+27*b^2;
+   bigint G=gcd(D,N);
+   if(G==N){ERROR("not an elliptic curve");}
+   if(G!=1){ERROR("not a prime");}
+//=== small N
+   if((N<=500)&&(pr<5)){return(countPoints(int(N),a,b));}
+//=== the general case
+   bigint q=intRoot(4*N);
+   list L=primL(2*q);
+   list L1=primList(100);
+   int r=size(L);
+   L1=L1[r+1..size(L1)];
+   list T;
+   int i,j;
+   for(j=1;j<=size(L1);j++)
+   {
+      if(N mod L1[j]==2){L1=delete(L1,j);}
+   }
+   i=1;
+   for(j=1;j<=r;j++)
+   {
+      T[j]=(testElliptic(int(N),a,b,L[j])+int(q)) mod L[j];
+   }
+   if(pr>=5)
+   {
+      "===================================================================";
+      "Chinese remainder :";
+      for(i=1;i<=size(T);i++)
+      {
+         " x =",T[i]," mod ",L[i];
+      }
+      "gives t+ integral part of the square root of q (to be positive)";
+      chineseRem(T,L);
+      "we obtain t = ",chineseRem(T,L)-q;
+      "===================================================================";
+   }
+   bigint t=chineseRem(T,L)-q;
+   return(N+1-t);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   Schoof(32003,71,602);
+}
+
+/*
+Schoof(2147483629,17,3567);
+2147339065       //Aenderung
+*/
+
+
+proc generateG(number a,number b, int m)
+"USAGE:  generateG(a,b,m);
+RETURN: m-th division polynomial
+NOTE: generate the so-called division polynomials, i.e., the recursively defined
+polynomials p_m=generateG(a,b,m) in Z[x, y] such that, for a point (x:y:1) on the
+elliptic curve defined by y^2=x^3+a*x+b  over Z/N the point@*
+m*P=(x-(p_(m-1)*p_(m+1))/p_m^2 :(p_(m+2)*p_(m-1)^2-p_(m-2)*p_(m+1)^2)/4y*p_m^3 :1)
+and m*P=0 if and only if p_m(P)=0
+EXAMPLE:example generateG; shows an example
+"
+{
+   if(m==0){return(poly(0));}
+   if(m==1){return(poly(1));}
+   if(m==2){return(2*var(1));}
+   if(m==3){return(3*var(2)^4+6*a*var(2)^2+12*b*var(2)-a^2);}
+   if(m==4)
+   {
+      return(4*var(1)*(var(2)^6+5*a*var(2)^4+20*b*var(2)^3-5*a^2*var(2)^2
+        -4*a*b*var(2)-8*b^2-a^3));
+   }
+   if((m mod 2)==0)
+   {
+      return((generateG(a,b,m div 2+2)*generateG(a,b,m div 2-1)^2
+        -generateG(a,b,m div 2-2)*generateG(a,b,m div 2+1)^2)
+        *generateG(a,b,m div 2)/(2*var(1)));
+   }
+   return(generateG(a,b,(m-1) div 2+2)*generateG(a,b,(m-1) div 2)^3
+     -generateG(a,b,(m-1) div 2-1)*generateG(a,b,(m-1) div 2+1)^3);
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   ring R = 0,(x,y),dp;
+   generateG(7,15,4);
+}
+
+
+static proc testElliptic(int q,bigint aa,bigint bb,int l)
+"USAGE:  testElliptic(q,a,b,l);
+RETURN: an integer t, the trace of the Frobenius
+NOTE: the kernel for the Schoof algorithm: looks for the t such that for all
+      points (x:y:1) in C[l]={P in C | l*P=0},C the elliptic curve defined by
+      y^2=x^3+a*x+b  over Z/q with group structure induced by 0=(0:1:0),
+      (x:y:1)^(q^2)-t*(x:y:1)^q -ql*(x:y:1)=(0:1:0), ql= q mod l, trace of
+      Frobenius.
+EXAMPLE:example testElliptic; shows an example
+"
+{
+   int pr=printlevel;
+   ring S=q,(y,x),(L(100000),lp);
+   number a=aa;
+   number b=bb;
+   poly F=y2-x3-a*x-b;       // the curve C
+   poly G=generateG(a,b,l);
+   ideal I=std(ideal(F,G));  // the points C[l]
+   poly xq=powerX(q,2,I);
+   poly yq=powerX(q,1,I);
+   poly xq2=reduce(subst(xq,x,xq,y,yq),I);
+   poly yq2=reduce(subst(yq,x,xq,y,yq),I);
+   ideal J;
+   int ql=q mod l;
+   if(ql==0){ERROR("q is not prime");}
+   int t;
+   poly F1,F2,G1,G2,P1,P2,Q1,Q2,H1,H2,L1,L2;
+
+   if(pr>=5)
+   {
+      "===================================================================";
+      "q=",q;
+      "l=",l;
+      "q mod l=",ql;
+      "the Groebner basis for C[l]:";I;
+      "x^q mod I = ",xq;
+      "x^(q^2) mod I = ",xq2;
+      "y^q mod I = ",yq;
+      "y^(q^2) mod I = ",yq2;
+      pause();
+   }
+   //==== l=2 =============================================================
+   if(l==2)
+   {
+      xq=powerX(q,2,std(x3+a*x+b));
+      J=std(ideal(xq-x,x3+a*x+b));
+      if(deg(J[1])==0){t=1;}
+      if(pr>=5)
+      {
+         "===================================================================";
+         "the case l=2";
+         "the gcd(x^q-x,x^3+ax+b)=",J[1];
+         pause();
+      }
+      return(t);
+   }
+   //=== (F1/G1,F2/G2)=[ql](x,y) ==========================================
+   if(ql==1)
+   {
+      F1=x;G1=1;F2=y;G2=1;
+   }
+   else
+   {
+      G1=reduce(generateG(a,b,ql)^2,I);
+      F1=reduce(x*G1-generateG(a,b,ql-1)*generateG(a,b,ql+1),I);
+      G2=reduce(4*y*generateG(a,b,ql)^3,I);
+      F2=reduce(generateG(a,b,ql+2)*generateG(a,b,ql-1)^2
+               -generateG(a,b,ql-2)*generateG(a,b,ql+1)^2,I);
+
+   }
+   if(pr>=5)
+   {
+      "===================================================================";
+      "the point ql*(x,y)=(F1/G1,F2/G2)";
+      "F1=",F1;
+      "G1=",G1;
+      "F2=",F2;
+      "G2=",G2;
+      pause();
+   }
+   //==== the case t=0 :  the equations for (x,y)^(q^2)=-[ql](x,y) ===
+   J[1]=xq2*G1-F1;
+   J[2]=yq2*G2+F2;
+   if(pr>=5)
+   {
+      "===================================================================";
+      "the case t=0 mod l";
+      "the equations for (x,y)^(q^2)=-[ql](x,y) :";
+      J;
+      "the test, if they vanish for all points in C[l]:";
+      reduce(J,I);
+      pause();
+   }
+   //=== test if all points of C[l] satisfy  (x,y)^(q^2)=-[ql](x,y)
+   //=== if so: t mod l =0 is returned
+   if(size(reduce(J,I,5))==0){return(0);}
+
+   //==== test for (x,y)^(q^2)=[ql](x,y) for some point
+
+   J=xq2*G1-F1,yq2*G2-F2;
+   J=std(J+I);
+   if(pr>=5)
+   {
+      "===================================================================";
+      "test if (x,y)^(q^2)=[ql](x,y) for one point";
+      "if so, the Frobenius has an eigenvalue 2ql/t: (x,y)^q=(2ql/t)*(x,y)";
+      "it follows that t^2=4q mod l";
+      "if w is one square root of q mod l";
+      "t =2w mod l or -2w mod l ";
+      "-------------------------------------------------------------------";
+      "the equations for (x,y)^(q^2)=[ql](x,y) :";
+      xq2*G1-F1,yq2*G2-F2;
+      "the test if one point satisfies them";
+      J;
+      pause();
+   }
+   if(deg(J[1])>0)
+   {
+      int w=int(squareRoot(q,l));
+      //=== +/-2w mod l zurueckgeben, wenn (x,y)^q=+/-[w](x,y)
+      //==== the case t>0 :  (Q1/P1,Q2/P2)=[w](x,y) ==============
+      if(w==1)
+      {
+         Q1=x;P1=1;Q2=y;P2=1;
+      }
+      else
+      {
+         P1=reduce(generateG(a,b,w)^2,I);
+         Q1=reduce(x*G1-generateG(a,b,w-1)*generateG(a,b,w+1),I);
+         P2=reduce(4*y*generateG(a,b,w)^3,I);
+         Q2=reduce(generateG(a,b,w+2)*generateG(a,b,w-1)^2
+               -generateG(a,b,w-2)*generateG(a,b,w+1)^2,I);
+      }
+      J=xq*P1-Q1,yq*P2+Q2;  //Aenderung
+      J=std(I+J);
+      if(pr>=5)
+      {
+      "===================================================================";
+      "the Frobenius has an eigenvalue, one of the roots of  w^2=q mod l:";
+      "one root is:";w;
+      "test, if it is the eigenvalue (if not it must be -w):";
+      "the equations for (x,y)^q=w*(x,y)";I;xq*P1-Q1,yq*P2-Q2;
+      "the Groebner basis";
+       J;
+         pause();
+      }
+      if(deg(J[1])>0){return(2*w mod l);}
+      return(-2*w mod l);
+   }
+
+   //==== the case t>0 :  (Q1/P1,Q2/P2)=(x,y)^(q^2)+[ql](x,y) =====
+   P1=reduce(G1*G2^2*(F1-xq2*G1)^2,I);
+   Q1=reduce((F2-yq2*G2)^2*G1^3-F1*G2^2*(F1-xq2*G1)^2-xq2*P1,I);
+   P2=reduce(P1*G2*(F1-xq2*G1),I);
+   Q2=reduce((xq2*P1-Q1)*(F2-yq2*G2)*G1-yq2*P2,I);
+
+   if(pr>=5)
+   {
+      "we are in the general case:";
+      "(x,y)^(q^2)!=ql*(x,y) and (x,y)^(q^2)!=-ql*(x,y) ";
+      "the point (Q1/P1,Q2/P2)=(x,y)^(q^2)+[ql](x,y)";
+      "Q1=",Q1;
+      "P1=",P1;
+      "Q2=",Q2;
+      "P2=",P2;
+      pause();
+   }
+   while(t<(l-1) div 2)
+   {
+      t++;
+      //====  (H1/L1,H2/L2)=[t](x,y)^q ===============================
+      if(t==1)
+      {
+         H1=xq;L1=1;
+         H2=yq;L2=1;
+      }
+      else
+      {
+         H1=x*generateG(a,b,t)^2-generateG(a,b,t-1)*generateG(a,b,t+1);
+         H1=subst(H1,x,xq,y,yq);
+         H1=reduce(H1,I);
+         L1=generateG(a,b,t)^2;
+         L1=subst(L1,x,xq,y,yq);
+         L1=reduce(L1,I);
+         H2=generateG(a,b,t+2)*generateG(a,b,t-1)^2
+           -generateG(a,b,t-2)*generateG(a,b,t+1)^2;
+         H2=subst(H2,x,xq,y,yq);
+         H2=reduce(H2,I);
+         L2=4*y*generateG(a,b,t)^3;
+         L2=subst(L2,x,xq,y,yq);
+         L2=reduce(L2,I);
+      }
+      J=Q1*L1-P1*H1,Q2*L2-P2*H2;
+      if(pr>=5)
+      {
+      "we test now the different t, 0<t<=(l-1)/2:";
+      "the point (H1/L1,H2/L2)=[t](x,y)^q :";
+      "H1=",H1;
+      "L1=",L1;
+      "H2=",H2;
+      "L2=",L2;
+      "the equations for (x,y)^(q^2)+[ql](x,y)=[t](x,y)^q :";J;
+      "the test";reduce(J,I);
+      "the test for l-t (the x-cordinate is the same):";
+       Q1*L1-P1*H1,Q2*L2+P2*H2;
+       reduce(ideal(Q1*L1-P1*H1,Q2*L2+P2*H2),I);
+         pause();
+      }
+      if(size(reduce(J,I,5))==0){return(t);}
+      J=Q1*L1-P1*H1,Q2*L2+P2*H2;
+      if(size(reduce(J,I,5))==0){return(l-t);}
+   }
+   ERROR("something is wrong in testElliptic");
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   testElliptic(1267985441,338474977,64740730,3);
+}
+
+//============================================================================
+//================== Factorization and Primality Test ========================
+//============================================================================
+
+//============= Lenstra's ECM Factorization ==================================
+
+proc factorLenstraECM(bigint N, list S, int B, list #)
+"USAGE:  factorLenstraECM(N,S,B); optional: factorLenstraECM(N,S,B,d);
+         d+1 the number of loops in the algorithm (default d=0)
+RETURN: a factor of N or the message no factor found
+NOTE: - computes a factor of N using Lenstra's ECM factorization@*
+      - the idea is that the fact that N is not prime is detected using
+        the operations on the elliptic curve
+      - is similarly to Pollard's p-1-factorization
+EXAMPLE:example factorLenstraECM; shows an example
+"
+{
+   list L,P;
+   bigint g,M,w;
+   int i,j,k,d;
+   int l=size(S);
+   if(size(#)>0)
+   {
+      d=#[1];
+   }
+
+   while(i<=d)
+   {
+      L=ellipticRandomCurve(N);
+      if(L[3]>1){return(L[3]);} //the discriminant was not invertible
+      P=list(0,L[2],1);
+      j=0;
+      M=1;
+      while(j<l)
+      {
+         j++;
+         w=S[j];
+         if(w>B) break;
+         while(w*S[j]<B)
+         {
+           w=w*S[j];
+         }
+         M=M*w;
+         P=ellipticMult(N,L[1],L[2]^2,P,w);
+         if(size(P)==4){return(P[4]);}  //some inverse did not exist
+         if(P[3]==0){break;}            //the case M*P=0
+      }
+      i++;
+   }
+   return("no factor found");
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   list L=primList(1000);
+   factorLenstraECM(181*32003,L,10,5);
+   bigint h=10;
+   h=h^30+25;
+   factorLenstraECM(h,L,4,3);
+}
+
+//================= ECPP (Goldwasser-Kilian) a primaly-test =============
+
+proc ECPP(bigint N)
+"USAGE:  ECPP(N);
+RETURN: message:N is not prime or {L,P,m,q} as certificate for N being prime@*
+         L a list (y^2=x^3+L[1]*x+L[2] defines an elliptic curve C)@*
+         P a list ((P[1]:P[2]:P[3]) is a point of C)@*
+         m,q integers
+ASSUME: gcd(N,6)=1
+NOTE:   The basis of the algorithm is the following theorem:
+         Given C, an elliptic curve over Z/N, P a point of C(Z/N),
+         m an integer, q a prime with the following properties:
+         - q|m
+         - q>(4-th root(N) +1)^2
+         - m*P=0=(0:1:0)
+         - (m/q)*P=(x:y:z) and z a unit in Z/N
+         Then N is prime.
+EXAMPLE:example ECPP; shows an example
+"
+{
+   list L,S,P;
+   bigint m,q;
+   int i;
+
+   bigint n=intRoot(intRoot(N));
+   n=(n+1)^2;                         //lower bound for q
+   while(1)
+   {
+      L=ellipticRandomCurve(N);       //a random elliptic curve C
+      m=ShanksMestre(N,L[1],L[2],3);  //number of points of the curve C
+      S=PollardRho(m,10000,1);        //factorization of m
+      for(i=1;i<=size(S);i++)         //search for q between the primes
+      {
+         q=S[i];
+         if(n<q){break;}
+      }
+      if(n<q){break;}
+   }
+   bigint u=m/q;
+   while(1)
+   {
+      P=ellipticRandomPoint(N,L[1],L[2]);  //a random point on C
+      "P=",P;
+      if(ellipticMult(N,L[1],L[2],P,m)[3]!=0){"N is not prime";return(-5);}
+      if(ellipticMult(N,L[1],L[2],P,u)[3]!=0)
+      {
+         L=delete(L,3);
+         return(list(L,P,m,q));
+      }
+   }
+}
+example
+{ "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+   bigint N=1267985441;
+   ECPP(N);
+}
+
+static proc wordToNumber(string s)
+{
+   int i;
+   intvec v;
+   bigint n;
+   bigint t=27;
+   for(i=size(s);i>0;i--)
+   {
+      if(s[i]=="a"){v[i]=0;}
+      if(s[i]=="b"){v[i]=1;}
+      if(s[i]=="c"){v[i]=2;}
+      if(s[i]=="d"){v[i]=3;}
+      if(s[i]=="e"){v[i]=4;}
+      if(s[i]=="f"){v[i]=5;}
+      if(s[i]=="g"){v[i]=6;}
+      if(s[i]=="h"){v[i]=7;}
+      if(s[i]=="i"){v[i]=8;}
+      if(s[i]=="j"){v[i]=9;}
+      if(s[i]=="k"){v[i]=10;}
+      if(s[i]=="l"){v[i]=11;}
+      if(s[i]=="m"){v[i]=12;}
+      if(s[i]=="n"){v[i]=13;}
+      if(s[i]=="o"){v[i]=14;}
+      if(s[i]=="p"){v[i]=15;}
+      if(s[i]=="q"){v[i]=16;}
+      if(s[i]=="r"){v[i]=17;}
+      if(s[i]=="s"){v[i]=18;}
+      if(s[i]=="t"){v[i]=19;}
+      if(s[i]=="u"){v[i]=20;}
+      if(s[i]=="v"){v[i]=21;}
+      if(s[i]=="w"){v[i]=22;}
+      if(s[i]=="x"){v[i]=23;}
+      if(s[i]=="y"){v[i]=24;}
+      if(s[i]=="z"){v[i]=25;}
+      if(s[i]==" "){v[i]=26;}
+   }
+   for(i=1;i<=size(s);i++)
+   {
+      n=n+v[i]*t^(i-1);
+   }
+   return(n);
+}
+
+static proc numberToWord(bigint n)
+{
+   int i,j;
+   string v;
+   list s;
+   bigint t=27;
+   bigint mm;
+   bigint nn=n;
+   while(nn>t)
+   {
+      j++;
+      mm=nn mod t;
+      s[j]=mm;
+      nn=(nn-mm) div t;
+   }
+   j++;
+   s[j]=nn;
+   for(i=1;i<=j;i++)
+   {
+      if(s[i]==0){v=v+"a";}
+      if(s[i]==1){v=v+"b";}
+      if(s[i]==2){v=v+"c";}
+      if(s[i]==3){v=v+"d";}
+      if(s[i]==4){v=v+"e";}
+      if(s[i]==5){v=v+"f";}
+      if(s[i]==6){v=v+"g";}
+      if(s[i]==7){v=v+"h";}
+      if(s[i]==8){v=v+"i";}
+      if(s[i]==9){v=v+"j";}
+      if(s[i]==10){v=v+"k";}
+      if(s[i]==11){v=v+"l";}
+      if(s[i]==12){v=v+"m";}
+      if(s[i]==13){v=v+"n";}
+      if(s[i]==14){v=v+"o";}
+      if(s[i]==15){v=v+"p";}
+      if(s[i]==16){v=v+"q";}
+      if(s[i]==17){v=v+"r";}
+      if(s[i]==18){v=v+"s";}
+      if(s[i]==19){v=v+"t";}
+      if(s[i]==20){v=v+"u";}
+      if(s[i]==21){v=v+"v";}
+      if(s[i]==22){v=v+"w";}
+      if(s[i]==23){v=v+"x";}
+      if(s[i]==24){v=v+"y";}
+      if(s[i]==25){v=v+"z";}
+      if(s[i]==26){v=v+" ";}
+   }
+   return(v);
+}
+
+proc code(string s)
+"USAGE:  code(s); s a string
+ASSUME:  s contains only small letters and space
+COMPUTE: a bigint, RSA-coding of the string s
+RETURN:  return RSA-coding of the string s as string
+EXAMPLE: code;  shows an example
+"
+{
+   ring r=0,x,dp;
+   bigint
+p=398075086424064937397125500550386491199064362342526708406385189575946388957261768583317;
+   bigint
+q=472772146107435302536223071973048224632914695302097116459852171130520711256363590397527;
+   bigint n=p*q;
+   bigint phi=(p-1)*(q-1);
+   bigint e=1234567891;
+   //bigint d=extgcd(e,phi)[2];
+   bigint m=wordToNumber(s);
+   bigint c=powerN(m,e,n);
+   string cc=string(c);
+   return(cc);
+}
+example
+{"EXAMPLE:";  echo = 2;
+  string s="i go to school";
+  code(s);
+}
+
+proc decodeString(string g)
+"USAGE:  decodeString(s); s a string
+ASSUME:  s is a string of a bigint, the output of code
+COMPUTE: a string, RSA-decoding of the string s
+RETURN:  return RSA-decoding of the string s as string
+EXAMPLE: decodeString;  shows an example
+"
+{
+   bigint
+p=398075086424064937397125500550386491199064362342526708406385189575946388957261768583317;
+   bigint
+q=472772146107435302536223071973048224632914695302097116459852171130520711256363590397527;
+   bigint n=p*q;
+   bigint phi=(p-1)*(q-1);
+   bigint e=1234567891;
+   bigint d=extgcd(e,phi)[2];
+   execute("bigint c="+g+";");
+   bigint f=powerN(c,d,n);
+   string s=numberToWord(f);
+   return(s);
+}
+example
+{"EXAMPLE:";  echo = 2;
+  string
+s="78638618599886548153321853785991541374544958648147340831959482696082179852616053583234149080198937632782579537867262780982185252913122030800897193851413140758915381848932565";
+  string t=decodeString(s);
+  t;
+}
+/*----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ * set stuff
+ * -------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
+static proc set_multiply_list_content(list h)
+"USAGE:   set_multiply_list_content(h)
+RETURN:  An integer c als product of all elements in h
+EXAMPLE: example set_multiply_list_content; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  int c = 1;
+  for (int i=1;i<=size(h);i++)
+  {
+    c = c*h[i];
+  }
+  return(c);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list h=2,4,5;
+  set_multiply_list_content(h);
+}
+
+static proc set_delete_certain_element(list a, int e)
+"USAGE:   set_delete_certain_element(a,e)
+RETURN:  A list a without element e. If e was not in the list before, a will not be changed
+EXAMPLE: example set_delete_certain_element; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  list output_list = a;
+  for (int i=1;i<=size(a);i++)
+  {
+    if (a[i]==e)
+    {
+      output_list = delete(output_list,i);
+    }
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list h=2,4,5;
+  set_delete_certain_element(h,4);
+  set_delete_certain_element(h,10);
+}
+
+static proc set_bubblesort_int(list output_list)
+"USAGE:   set_bubblesort_int(output_list)
+RETURN:  An ascending sorted list with integer values.
+EXAMPLE: set_bubblesort_int; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  output_list = bubblesort(output_list);
+  //Cast every value into an integer
+  for (int i=1; i<=size(output_list);i++)
+  {
+    output_list[i] = int(output_list[i]);
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list output_list=10,4,5,24,9;
+  set_bubblesort_int(output_list);
+}
+
+static proc set_is_set(list a)
+"USAGE:   set_is_set(a)
+RETURN:  1 if the list is a set, 0 the list contains any duplicated elements
+EXAMPLE: set_is_set; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  int i,v;
+  for (v=1; v<=size(a); v++)
+  {
+    for (i=v+1; i<=size(a); i++)
+    {
+      if (a[i]==a[v])
+      {
+        return(0);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return(1);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list set = 1,5,10,2;
+  list noset = 1,5,10,2,5;
+  set_is_set(set);
+  set_is_set(noset);
+}
+
+static proc set_contains(list a, int e)
+"USAGE:   set_contains(a,e)
+RETURN:  1 if the list contains e, 0 otherwise
+EXAMPLE: set_contains; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  for (int v=1; v<=size(a); v++)
+  {
+    if (a[v]==e)
+    {
+      return(1);
+    }
+  }
+  return(0);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list set = 1,5,10,2;
+  set_contains(set,5);
+  set_contains(set,40);
+}
+
+static proc set_delete_duplicates(list a)
+"USAGE:   set_delete_duplicates(a)
+RETURN:  a list a without any duplicated elements
+EXAMPLE: set_delete_duplicates; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  int i;
+  list output_list = a[1];
+  for (i=1; i<=size(a); i++)
+  {
+    if (set_contains(output_list,a[i])==0)
+    {
+      output_list = insert(output_list,a[i]);
+    }
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list set = 1,5,10,2,10,5;
+  set_delete_duplicates(set);
+}
+
+static proc set_equals(list a,list b)
+"USAGE:   set_equals(a, b)
+RETURN:  1 if the lists are equal from a set-structure standpoint, 0 otherwise
+EXAMPLE: set_equals; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  //Checks if the lists have the same length
+  if (size(a)!=size(b))
+  {
+    return(0);
+  }
+
+  //Sorts the lists
+  a = set_bubblesort_int(a);
+  b = set_bubblesort_int(b);
+
+  //Checks every single element of both lists
+  for (int i=1; i<=size(a); i++)
+  {
+    if (a[i]!=b[i])
+    {
+      return(0);
+    }
+  }
+  return(1);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list set1 = 1,5,10,2;
+  list set2 = 10,2,5,1;
+  list set3 = 1,5,9,2;
+  set_equals(set1,set2);
+  set_equals(set1,set3);
+}
+
+static proc set_insert(list a, int e)
+"USAGE:   set_insert(a,e)
+RETURN:  list a containing element e
+EXAMPLE: set_insert; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  if(set_contains(a,e))
+  {
+    return(a);
+  }
+  else
+  {
+    a=insert(a,e);
+    return(a);
+  }
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list set = 1,5,10,2;
+  set_insert(set,5);
+  set_insert(set,22);
+}
+
+static proc set_union(list a, list b)
+"USAGE:   set_union(a, b)
+RETURN:  list a as union of a and b
+EXAMPLE: set_union; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  for (int i=1; i<=size(b); i++)
+  {
+    if (set_contains(a,b[i])==0)
+    {
+      a = insert(a,b[i]);
+    }
+  }
+  return(a);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list set1 = 1,5,10,2;
+  list set2 = 5,10,93,58,29;
+  set_union(set1,set2);
+}
+
+static proc set_section(list a, list b)
+"USAGE:   set_section(a, b)
+RETURN:  list output_list as intersection of a and b
+EXAMPLE: set_section; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  list output_list;
+  for (int i=1; i<=size(a); i++)
+  {
+    if (set_contains(b,a[i])==1)
+    {
+      output_list = insert(output_list,a[i]);
+    }
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list set1 = 1,5,10,2;
+  list set2 = 5,10,93,58,29;
+  set_section(set1,set2);
+}
+
+static proc set_list_delete_duplicates(list a)
+"USAGE:   set_list_delete_duplicates(a)
+RETURN:  list output_list with no duplicated lists
+EXAMPLE: set_list_delete_duplicates; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  int v;
+  int i;
+  int counter;
+  int out_size;
+  list output_list=insert(output_list,a[1]);
+  //Create a new list and try to insert every list element from a into that list. If a list is already inserted into the
+  //new list, do nothing.
+  for (i=2; i<=size(a); i++)
+  {
+    out_size = size(output_list);
+    counter = 0;
+
+    for (v=1; v<=out_size; v++)
+    {
+      if (set_equals(output_list[v],a[i])==1)
+      {
+        counter++;
+      }
+    }
+    if (counter==0)
+    {
+      output_list = insert(output_list,a[i]);
+    }
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list set1 = 1,5,10,2;
+  list set2 = 1,10,2,5;
+  list set3 = 1,2,3;
+  list superset = set1,set2,set3;
+  set_list_delete_duplicates(superset);
+}
+
+static proc set_construct_increasing_set(int maxelement)
+"USAGE:   set_construct_increasing_set(maxelement)
+RETURN:  list output_list with increasing elements from 1 to maxelement
+EXAMPLE: set_construct_increasing_set; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  list output_list;
+  for (int i=1; i<=maxelement; i++)
+  {
+    output_list = insert(output_list, i);
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  set_construct_increasing_set(10);
+}
+
+static proc set_addtoall(list a, int element)
+"USAGE:   set_addtoall(a,alement)
+RETURN:  Transformed list with e_i+element for every element e_i in list a
+EXAMPLE: set_addtoall; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  list output_list;
+  int c;
+  for (int i=1; i<=size(a); i++)
+  {
+    c = a[i]+element;
+    output_list = insert(output_list,c);
+  }
+  return(set_turn(output_list));
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list set = 1,5,10,2;
+  set_addtoall(set,5);
+}
+
+static proc set_turn(list a)
+"USAGE:   set_turn(a)
+RETURN:  Turned list a
+EXAMPLE: set_turn; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  list output_list;
+  for (int i=1; i<=size(a); i++)
+  {
+    output_list[size(a)+1-i] = a[i];
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list set = 1,5,10;
+  set_turn(set);
+}
+
+static proc set_subset_set(list a)
+"USAGE:   set_subset_set(a)
+RETURN:  Set of subsets
+EXAMPLE: set_subset_set; shows an example.
+"
+{
+  int v;
+  int choice;
+  list output_list;
+  list start = a[1];
+  list insertion_list;
+  int output_length;
+  output_list = insert(output_list,start);
+
+  for (int i=2; i<=size(a); i++)
+  {
+    choice = 0;
+    start = a[i];
+    output_list = insert(output_list,start);
+    output_length = size(output_list);
+    for (v=2; v<=output_length; v++)
+    {
+      insertion_list = set_insert(output_list[v],a[i]);
+      output_list = insert(output_list, insertion_list,size(output_list));
+    }
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list set = 1,5,10;
+  set_subset_set(set);
+}
+/* -----------------------------------------------------------------
+ * knapsack_utilities: Utility functions needed for knapsack
+ * -----------------------------------------------------------------*/
+proc calculate_ordering(bigint num1, bigint primitive, bigint mod1)
+"USAGE:   calculate_ordering(num1, primitive, mod1)
+RETURN:  x so that primitive^x == num1 mod mod1
+EXAMPLE: example calculate_ordering; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  for (int i=1;i<=int((mod1-2));i++)
+  {
+    if ((primitive^i%mod1)==num1)
+    {
+      return(i);
+    }
+  }
+  return(0);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  bigint mod1 = 33;
+  bigint primitive = 14;
+  bigint num1 = 5;
+  calculate_ordering(num1,primitive,mod1);
+}
+
+proc is_primitive_root(bigint primitive, bigint mod1)
+"USAGE:   is_primitive_root(primitive, mod1)
+RETURN:  1 if primitive is a primitive root modulo mod1, 0 otherwise
+EXAMPLE: example is_primitive_root; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  list output_list;
+  for (int i=1;i<=int((mod1-1));i++)
+  {
+    output_list = set_insert(output_list,int((primitive^i%mod1)));
+  }
+  if (bigint(size(output_list))==bigint(mod1-1))
+  {
+    return(1);
+  }
+  else
+  {
+    return(0);
+  }
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  is_primitive_root(3,7);
+  is_primitive_root(2,7);
+}
+
+proc find_first_primitive_root(bigint mod1)
+"USAGE:   find_first_primitive_root(mod1)
+RETURN:  First primitive root modulo mod1, 0 if no root can be found.
+EXAMPLE: example find_first_primitive_root; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  for (int i=0;i<=int(mod1-1);i++)
+  {
+    if (is_primitive_root(bigint(i),mod1)==1)
+    {
+      return(i);
+    }
+  }
+  return(0);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  ring r = 0,x,lp;
+  find_first_primitive_root(7);
+  find_first_primitive_root(557);
+}
+
+proc binary_add(list binary_list)
+"USAGE:   binary_add(binary_list)
+RETURN:  binary encoded list, increased by 1
+EXAMPLE: example binary_add; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  int residual=1;
+  int position = size(binary_list);
+  while((residual==1)&&(position!=0))
+  {
+    if(binary_list[position]==0)
+    {
+      binary_list[position]=1;
+      residual=0;
+    }
+    else
+    {
+      binary_list[position]=0;
+      position--;
+    }
+  }
+  if (position==0)
+  {
+    binary_list = insert(binary_list,1);
+  }
+  return(binary_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  ring r = 0,x,lp;
+  list binary_list = 1,0,1,1,1;
+  binary_add(binary_list);
+}
+
+proc inverse_modulus(int num, int mod1)
+"USAGE:   inverse_modulus(num, mod1)
+RETURN:  inverse element of num modulo mod1
+EXAMPLE: example inverse_modulus; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  if (num>=mod1)
+  {
+    return(0);
+  }
+  else
+  {
+    for (int i=1;i<mod1;i++)
+    {
+      if ((i*num%mod1)==1)
+      {
+        return(i);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  ring r = 0,x,lp;
+  int mod1 = 13;
+  int num = 5;
+  inverse_modulus(num,mod1);
+}
+
+proc is_prime(int n)
+"USAGE:   is_prime(n)
+RETURN:  1 if n is prime, 0 otherwise
+EXAMPLE: example is_prime; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  int prime1 = 1;
+  for (int i=n-1;i>1;i--)
+  {
+    if(n%i==0)
+    {
+        prime1 = 0;
+    }
+  }
+  return(prime1);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  ring r = 0,x,lp;
+  is_prime(10);
+  is_prime(7);
+}
+
+proc find_biggest_index(list a)
+"USAGE:   find_biggest_index( a)
+RETURN:  Returns the index of the biggest element of a
+EXAMPLE: example find_biggest_index; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  list sortedlist = bubblesort(a);
+  return(find_index(a,sortedlist[1]));
+}
+
+proc find_index(list a, bigint e)
+"USAGE:   find_index(a, e)
+RETURN:  Returns the list index of element e in list a. Returns 0 if e is not in a
+EXAMPLE: example find_index; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  for(int i=1;i<=size(a);i++)
+  {
+    if (bigint(a[i])==e)
+    {
+      return(i);
+    }
+  }
+  return(0);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list a = 1,5,20,6,37;
+  find_index(a,20);
+  find_index(a,6);
+  find_index(a,100);
+}
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------
+ * Knapsack Algorithmus such as solving several knapsack problems,
+ * kryptographic algorithms and algorithms for creatings suitable knapsacks
+ * ---------------------------------------------------------------- */
+proc subset_sum01(list knapsack, int solution)
+"USAGE:   subset_sum01(knapsack,solution)
+RETURN:  binary list of the positions of the elements included in the subset sum or 0 if no solution exists
+NOTE: This will return the first solution of the ssk-problem, given be the smallest binary encoding. It wont return several solutions if they exist
+EXAMPLE: example subset_sum01; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  int i;
+  int v;
+  int comparable;
+  //Check if the knapsack is a set
+  if (set_is_set(knapsack)==1)
+  {
+    //Create a binary list full of zeroes
+    list binary_list;
+    for (i=1;i<=size(knapsack);i++)
+    {
+      binary_list = insert(binary_list,0);
+    }
+    binary_list = binary_add(binary_list);
+
+    for(i=1;i<=2^(size(knapsack));i++)
+    {
+      comparable = 0;
+      //Create the Subset-Sum for the actual binary coding of binary_list
+      for (v=1;v<=size(knapsack);v++)
+      {
+        comparable = comparable+knapsack[v]*binary_list[v];
+      }
+      //Check if the sum equals the solution
+      if (comparable==solution)
+      {
+        return(binary_list);
+      }
+      else
+      {
+        binary_list = binary_add(binary_list);
+      }
+    }
+    return(0);
+  }
+  else
+  {
+    return(0);
+  }
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list h=1,4,7,32;
+  subset_sum01(h,20);
+  subset_sum01(h,11);
+  subset_sum01(h,33);
+}
+
+proc subset_sum02(list knapsack, int sol)
+"USAGE:   subset_sum02(knapsack,sol)
+RETURN:  binary list of the positions of the elements included in the subset sum or 0 if no solution exists
+EXAMPLE: example subset_sum02; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  list summands;
+  int calcu;
+  int i;
+  //Create a sorted copy of the knapsack, calling it worksack
+  list worksack = set_bubblesort_int(knapsack);
+  int counter = 1;
+  while((counter<=size(worksack))&&(sol>0))
+  {
+    //Try to subtract an element of the knapsack from the capacity. Create a list with all the summands used
+    calcu = sol-worksack[counter];
+    if (calcu>=0)
+    {
+      sol = sol-worksack[counter];
+      summands = insert(summands,int(worksack[counter]));
+    }
+    counter++;
+  }
+  if(sol>0)
+  {
+    return(0);
+  }
+
+  //Get the index of the summands of the original knapsack and change the bits in the binary list which will be the solution
+  list binary_list;
+  for (i=1;i<=size(knapsack);i++)
+  {
+    binary_list = insert(binary_list,0);
+  }
+
+  for (i=1; i<=size(knapsack);i++)
+  {
+    if (set_contains(summands,knapsack[i])==1)
+    {
+      binary_list[i]=1;
+    }
+  }
+  return(binary_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list h=1,4,7,32;
+  subset_sum02(h,20);
+  subset_sum02(h,11);
+  subset_sum02(h,33);
+}
+
+proc unbounded_knapsack(list knapsack, list profit, int capacity)
+"USAGE:   unbounded_knapsack(knapsack,profit,capacity)
+RETURN:  list of maximum profit of each iteration. For example, output_list[2] contains the maximum profit that can be achieved if the knapsack has capacity 2.
+EXAMPLE: unbounded_knapsack; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  int i;
+  int v;
+  list output_list;
+  for (i=1;i<=capacity+1;i++)
+  {
+    output_list = insert(output_list,0);
+  }
+  for (i=1;i<=capacity+1;i++)
+  {
+    for(v=1;v<=size(knapsack);v++)
+    {
+      if (knapsack[v]<i)
+      {
+        if(output_list[i]<(output_list[i-knapsack[v]]+profit[v]))
+        {
+          output_list[i] = output_list[i-knapsack[v]]+profit[v];
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list h=1,4,7,32;
+  list knapsack = 5,2;
+  list profit = 10,3;
+  int capacity = 5;
+  unbounded_knapsack(knapsack,profit,capacity);
+}
+
+proc multidimensional_knapsack(matrix m, list capacities, list profits)
+"USAGE:   multidimensional_knapsack(m,capacities,profits)
+RETURN:  binary list of the positions of the elements included in the optimal selection
+EXAMPLE: example multidimensional_knapsack; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  int index;
+  list output_list;
+  list nolist;
+  list y_list;
+  list minmax_list;
+  int i;
+  int v;
+  int checkint;
+  //create the output_list full of zeroes with the length of all given selections
+  for (i=1;i<=size(profits);i++)
+  {
+    output_list = insert(output_list,0);
+  }
+
+  //Create the List E with all indices of the output_list that haven't been used yet.
+  list E = set_turn(set_construct_increasing_set(size(profits)));
+
+  //Repeat till every index in E is used.
+  while(size(E)>0)
+  {
+    y_list = nolist;
+    for (i=1;i<=size(E);i++)
+    {
+      //Create all possible elements of y_i (y_list). minimax_list will be replaced of an empty list in each iteration
+      minmax_list = nolist;
+      for (v=1; v<=size(capacities);v++)
+      {
+        if (set_contains(E,v)==1)
+        {
+        minmax_list = insert(minmax_list, bigint(capacities[v])/bigint(m[v,E[i]]));
+        }
+      }
+      //Sort the elements so that it is easy to pick the smallest one
+      minmax_list = bubblesort(minmax_list);
+
+      //insert Element y_i into y_list, which is the smallest of (b_i/w_ij) like in the PECH algorithm description.
+      y_list = insert(y_list,minmax_list[size(minmax_list)],size(y_list));
+
+
+    }
+
+    //Check if all y_i in y_list are smaller than 1. If so, every additional selection will exceed the capacity and the algorithm stops.
+    checkint=0;
+    for(i=1;i<=size(y_list);i++)
+    {
+      if (y_list[i]>=1)
+      {
+        checkint=1;
+      }
+    }
+    if (checkint==0)
+    {
+      return(output_list);
+    }
+
+
+    //Find the index of the selection and update the binary output_list
+    minmax_list = nolist;
+    for (i=1;i<=size(E);i++)
+    {
+      minmax_list = insert(minmax_list, profits[E[i]]*y_list[i],size(minmax_list));
+    }
+    index = find_biggest_index(minmax_list);
+
+    output_list[E[index]]=1;
+
+    //Update the capacities by subtracting the weights of the selection
+    for (i=1;i<=size(capacities);i++)
+    {
+      capacities[i] = capacities[i]- m[i,E[index]];
+    }
+    E = set_delete_certain_element(E,index);
+
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  ring r = 0,x,lp;
+  matrix m[3][3] = 1,4,10,7,8,3,1,9,7;
+  list c = 12,17,10;
+  list p = 3,2,5;
+  multidimensional_knapsack(m,c,p);
+}
+
+proc naccache_stern_generation(int key, int primenum)
+"USAGE:   naccache_stern_generation(key, primenum)
+RETURN:  a hard knapsack list
+EXAMPLE: example naccache_stern_generation; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  //Check if primenum is a prime and the gcd-Condition holds
+  if ((is_prime(primenum)==0)||(gcd(key,(primenum-1))!=1))
+  {
+    return(0);
+  }
+  else
+  {
+    int i;
+    int p;
+    list primelist;
+    int primecounter=2;
+    //Generate the knapsack containing the smallest prime numbers so that primenum exceeds the product of all of them
+    while(set_multiply_list_content(primelist)<primenum)
+    {
+      if (is_prime(primecounter)==1)
+      {
+      primelist = insert(primelist,primecounter);
+      }
+      primecounter++;
+    }
+    primelist = delete(primelist,1);
+
+
+    //Generate the hard knapsack of the length of the prime numbers containing zeroes.
+    list hardknapsack;
+    for (i=1;i<=size(primelist);i++)
+    {
+      hardknapsack = insert(hardknapsack,0);
+    }
+
+    //Create the elements of the hard knapsack
+    primecounter = 1;
+    bigint calcu;
+    i=0;
+    while (i<size(primelist))
+    {
+      //Create some v_i^key%primenum and store it in calcu
+      calcu = bigint(primecounter)^key%bigint(primenum);
+
+      //If calcu is one of the prime numbers in the knapsack, find the index and insert v_i in the hard knapsack at that given index
+      if(set_contains(primelist,int(calcu))==1)
+      {
+        p=find_index(primelist,int(calcu));
+        hardknapsack[p] = primecounter;
+        i++;
+      }
+      primecounter++;
+    }
+  return(hardknapsack);
+  }
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  naccache_stern_generation(5,292);
+  naccache_stern_generation(5,293);
+}
+
+proc naccache_stern_encryption(list knapsack, list message, int primenum)
+"USAGE:   naccache_stern_encryption(knapsack, message, primenum)
+RETURN:  an encrypted message as integer
+EXAMPLE: example naccache_stern_encryption; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  bigint solution = 1;
+  if (size(knapsack)==size(message))
+  {
+    for(int i=1;i<=size(knapsack);i++)
+    {
+      solution = solution*((bigint(knapsack[i])^message[i])%bigint(primenum));
+    }
+    return(solution);
+  }
+  else
+  {
+    return(0);
+  }
+
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  //Please note that the values for primenum and hardknapsack have been obtained from the example of naccache_stern_generation!
+  list hardknapsack = 85,164,117,44;
+  int primenum = 293;
+  list message = 1,0,1,0;
+  naccache_stern_encryption(hardknapsack,message,primenum);
+}
+
+proc naccache_stern_decryption(list knapsack, int key, int primenum, int message)
+"USAGE:   naccache_stern_decryption(knapsack, key, primenum, message)
+RETURN:  decrypted binary list
+EXAMPLE: example naccache_stern_decryption; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  //create a binary list with the length of the knapsack containing zeros
+  int k = int(bigint(message)^key%bigint(primenum));
+  int i;
+  list binary_list;
+  for (i=1;i<=size(knapsack);i++)
+  {
+    binary_list = insert(binary_list,0);
+  }
+
+  //create primelist like in int naccache_stern_generation process
+  list primelist;
+  int primecounter=2;
+  while(size(primelist)<size(knapsack))
+  {
+    if (is_prime(primecounter)==1)
+    {
+      primelist = insert(primelist,primecounter);
+    }
+      primecounter++;
+  }
+
+  //find divisors of k and update the binarylist in a way that the positions of the divisors in primelist are marked
+  for (i=1;i<=size(primelist);i++)
+  {
+    if(k%primelist[i]==0)
+    {
+      binary_list[i]=1;
+    }
+  }
+  return(binary_list);
+
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  //Please note that the values have been obtained from the example of naccache_stern_generation and naccache_stern_encryption!
+  int primenum = 293;
+  int message = 9945;
+  int key = 5;
+  list hardknapsack = 85,164,117,44;
+  naccache_stern_decryption(hardknapsack,key,primenum,message);
+}
+
+proc m_merkle_hellman_transformation(list knapsack, int primitive, int mod1)
+"USAGE:   m_merkle_hellman_transformation(knapsack, primitive, mod1)
+RETURN:  list containing a hard knapsack
+EXAMPLE: example m_merkle_hellman_transformation; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  bigint new_element;
+  list output_list;
+  //calculate the primitiv root of every element in knapsack and insert it into a new knapsack
+  for (int i=size(knapsack);i>=1;i--)
+  {
+    new_element = calculate_ordering(knapsack[i],primitive,mod1);
+    output_list = insert(output_list,int(new_element));
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  //Please note that the values for primenum and hardknapsack have been obtained from the example of naccache_stern_generation and naccache_stern_encryption!
+  list knapsack = 2,3,5,7;
+  int mod1 = 211;
+  int primitive = 2;
+  m_merkle_hellman_transformation(knapsack,primitive,mod1);
+}
+
+proc m_merkle_hellman_encryption(list knapsack, list message)
+"USAGE:    m_merkle_hellman_encryption(knapsack, message)
+RETURN:  an encrypted message as integer
+NOTE: This works in the same way as merkle_hellman_encryption. The additional function is created to keep consistency with the needed functions for every kryptosystem.
+EXAMPLE: example m_merkle_hellman_encryption; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  return(merkle_hellman_encryption(knapsack,message));
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  //Please note that the values for primenum and hardknapsack have been obtained from the example of m_merkle_hellman_transformation!
+  list knapsack = 1,43,132,139;
+  list message = 1,0,0,1;
+  m_merkle_hellman_encryption(knapsack,message);
+}
+
+proc m_merkle_hellman_decryption(list knapsack, bigint primitive, bigint mod1, int message)
+"USAGE:  m_merkle_hellman_decryption(knapsack, primitive, mod1, message)
+RETURN:  decrypted binary list
+EXAMPLE: example merkle_hellman_decryption; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  //Convert message
+  int factorizing = int((primitive^message)%mod1);
+  int i;
+
+  //Create binary list of length of the knapsack, containing zeroes.
+  list binary_list;
+  for (i=1;i<=size(knapsack);i++)
+  {
+    binary_list = insert(binary_list,0);
+  }
+
+  //factorize the converted message, mark the factor positions in knapsack as bits in binary_list
+  for (i=1;i<=size(knapsack);i++)
+  {
+    if(factorizing%knapsack[i]==0)
+    {
+      binary_list[i]=1;
+    }
+  }
+  return(binary_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  //Please note that the values  have been obtained from the example of m_merkle_hellman_encryption and m_merkle_hellman_transformation!
+  list knapsack = 2,3,5,7;
+  int message = 140;
+  bigint primitive = 2;
+  bigint mod1 = 211;
+  m_merkle_hellman_decryption(knapsack,primitive,mod1,message);
+}
+
+proc merkle_hellman_transformation(list knapsack, int key, int mod1)
+"USAGE:   merkle_hellman_transformation(knapsack, key, mod1)
+RETURN:  hard knapsack
+EXAMPLE: example merkle_hellman_transformation; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  list output_list;
+  int new_element;
+  //transform every element in the knapsack with normal strong modular multiplication
+  for (int i=size(knapsack);i>=1;i--)
+  {
+    new_element=knapsack[i]*key%mod1;
+    output_list = insert(output_list,new_element);
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list knapsack = 1,3,5,12;
+  int key = 3;
+  int mod1 = 23;
+  merkle_hellman_transformation(knapsack,key,mod1);
+}
+
+proc merkle_hellman_encryption(list knapsack, list message)
+"USAGE:   merkle_hellman_encryption(knapsack, message)
+RETURN:  encrypted integer
+EXAMPLE: example merkle_hellman_encryption; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  int solution = 0;
+  if (size(knapsack)!=size(message)||(set_is_set(knapsack)==0))
+  {
+    return(0);
+  }
+  else
+  {
+    for (int i=1;i<=size(knapsack);i++)
+    {
+      solution = solution+knapsack[i]*message[i];
+    }
+    return(solution);
+  }
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  //Please note that the values  have been obtained from the example of merkle_hellman_transformation!
+  list hardknapsack =3,9,15,13;
+  list message = 0,1,0,1;
+  merkle_hellman_encryption(hardknapsack,message);
+}
+
+proc merkle_hellman_decryption(list knapsack, int key, int mod1, int message)
+"USAGE:   merkle_hellman_decryption(knapsack, key, mod1, message)
+RETURN:  decrypted binary list
+EXAMPLE: example merkle_hellman_decryption; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  int new_element;
+  int t = inverse_modulus(key,mod1);
+  int transformed_message;
+  list binary_list;
+  if ((set_is_set(knapsack)==1)&&(key<mod1))
+  {
+    //reconstruct easy knapsack be multiplying with the inverse modulus t
+    list easy_knapsack;
+    for (int i=size(knapsack);i>=1;i--)
+    {
+      new_element=knapsack[i]*t%mod1;
+      easy_knapsack = insert(easy_knapsack,new_element);
+    }
+
+    //solve the easy knapsack problem with subset_sum01 or subset_sum02
+    transformed_message = (message*t)%mod1;
+    transformed_message;
+    binary_list = subset_sum01(easy_knapsack,transformed_message);
+    return(binary_list)
+  }
+  else
+  {
+    return(0)
+  }
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  //Please note that the values  have been obtained from the example of merkle_hellman_decryption and merkle_hellman_transformation!
+  list hardknapsack =3,9,15,13;
+  int key = 3;
+  int message = 22;
+  int mod1 = 23;
+  merkle_hellman_decryption(hardknapsack, key, mod1, message);
+}
+
+proc super_increasing_knapsack(int ksize)
+"USAGE:   super_increasing_knapsack(ksize)
+RETURN:  super-increasing knapsack list
+EXAMPLE: super_increasing_knapsack; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  list output_list = insert(output_list,1);
+  int next_element;
+
+  for (int i=2; i<=ksize; i++)
+  {
+    next_element = calculate_max_sum(output_list)+1;
+    output_list = insert(output_list,next_element);
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  super_increasing_knapsack(10);
+}
+
+proc h_increasing_knapsack(int ksize, int h)
+"USAGE:   h_increasing_knapsack(ksize, h)
+RETURN:  h-increasing knapsack list
+EXAMPLE: h_increasing_knapsack; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  int v;
+  if (ksize<=h+1)
+  {
+    return(set_turn(super_increasing_knapsack(ksize)))
+  }
+  else
+  {
+    list out = set_turn(super_increasing_knapsack(h+1));
+    int next_element;
+    for (int i=h+2; i<=ksize; i++)
+    {
+      next_element = 0;
+      for (v=i-h; v<=i-1; v++)
+      {
+        next_element = next_element+out[v];
+      }
+      next_element++;
+      out = insert(out,next_element,size(out));
+    }
+    return(out);
+  }
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  h_increasing_knapsack(10,5);
+}
+
+proc injective_knapsack(int ksize, int kmaxelement)
+"USAGE:   injective_knapsack(ksize, kmaxelement)
+RETURN:  list of injective knapsacks with maximal element kmaxelement and size ksize
+EXAMPLE: injective_knapsack; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  //Create a List of size ksize with the greatest possible elements keeping the set structure
+  list list_of_lists;
+  list A = insert(A,kmaxelement);
+  int i;
+  for (i=2;i<=ksize;i++)
+  {
+    A = insert(A,kmaxelement-(i-1));
+  }
+  A = set_turn(A);
+  list_of_lists = insert(list_of_lists,A);
+
+  //Create all possible sets containing the possible elements of A
+  int residual;
+  int position;
+  while(A[1]==kmaxelement)
+  {
+    residual=3;
+    position = ksize;
+    while((residual!=0))
+    {
+      if(A[position]==1)
+      {
+        A[position]=kmaxelement-position+1;
+        residual=1;
+        position--;
+      }
+      else
+      {
+        A[position]=A[position]-1;
+        residual=0;
+      }
+    }
+    //Insert the list into the overall list if its a set
+    if (set_is_set(A)==1)
+    {
+      list_of_lists = insert(list_of_lists,A);
+    }
+  }
+  //delete the first element since it is smaller than kmaxelement
+  list_of_lists = delete(list_of_lists,1);
+  //delete duplicates
+  list_of_lists = set_list_delete_duplicates(list_of_lists);
+
+  //Check if the remaining knapsacks are injective
+  list output_list;
+  for(i=1;i<=size(list_of_lists);i++)
+  {
+    if (set_is_injective(list_of_lists[i])==1)
+    {
+      output_list=insert(output_list,list_of_lists[i]);
+    }
+  }
+  return(output_list);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  injective_knapsack(3,9);
+}
+
+proc calculate_max_sum(list a)
+"USAGE:   calculate_max_sum(a)
+RETURN:  sum of all elements in a
+EXAMPLE: calculate_max_sum; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  int sum = a[1];
+  for (int i=2; i<=size(a);i++)
+  {
+    sum = sum+a[i];
+  }
+  return(sum);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list a = 1,5,3,2,12;
+  calculate_max_sum(a);
+}
+
+proc set_is_injective(list a)
+"USAGE:   set_is_injective(a)
+RETURN:  1 if a is injective, 0 otherwise
+EXAMPLE: set_is_injective; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  //Create all subsets of the set a
+  list subsum = set_subset_set(a);
+  list checklist=calculate_max_sum(subsum[1]);
+  int calculator;
+  for (int i=2; i<=size(subsum);i++)
+  {
+    //calculate the maximal subset_sum for every subset. Check if there are duplicated subset_sums. If so, a is not injective
+    calculator = calculate_max_sum(subsum[i]);
+    if (set_contains(checklist, calculator))
+    {
+      return(0);
+    }
+    else
+    {
+      checklist = insert(checklist,calculator);
+    }
+  }
+  return(1);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list inj = 1,5,7,41;
+  list non_inj = 1,2,3,4;
+  set_is_injective(inj);
+  set_is_injective(non_inj);
+}
+
+proc is_h_injective(list a, int h)
+"USAGE:   is_h_injective(a, h)
+RETURN:  1 if a is h-injective, 0 otherwise
+EXAMPLE: is_h_injective; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  //Create all sets of subsets
+  list subsetlist = set_subset_set(a);
+  list h_subsetlist;
+  //delete every list with elements more than h+1 since they are not needed to check h-injectivity
+  for (int i=1; i<=size(subsetlist); i++)
+  {
+    if(size(subsetlist[i])<=h)
+    {
+      h_subsetlist = insert(h_subsetlist,subsetlist[i]);
+    }
+  }
+
+  //Check if the remaining max_sums do not occure more than once
+  list checklist=calculate_max_sum(h_subsetlist[1]);
+  int calculator;
+  for (i=2; i<=size(h_subsetlist);i++)
+  {
+    calculator = calculate_max_sum(h_subsetlist[i]);
+    if (set_contains(checklist, calculator)==1)
+    {
+      return(0);
+    }
+    else
+    {
+      checklist = insert(checklist,calculator);
+    }
+  }
+  return(1);
+
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  list h_inj = 1,2,4,10,17;
+  is_h_injective(h_inj,3);
+  //1+2+4+10=17
+  is_h_injective(h_inj,4);
+}
+
+proc is_fix_injective(list a)
+"USAGE:   is_fix_injective(a)
+RETURN:  1 if a is fix-injective, 0 otherwise
+EXAMPLE: is_fix_injective; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  //Generation of the list-list-list
+  list subsetlist = set_subset_set(a);
+  list alreadycreatedlist;
+  list listoflists;
+  list emptylist1;
+  list worklist;
+  int i;
+  int v;
+  list checklist;
+  int calculator;
+
+  int set_destination;
+
+  //create list of lists which contain the lists of a certain length as elements
+  for (i = 1; i<= size(subsetlist); i++)
+  {
+    //Determine the size of the actual list to choose where to insert it in the listoflists
+    set_destination = size(subsetlist[i]);
+    if (set_contains(alreadycreatedlist,set_destination)==1)
+    {
+      //There is already an element with the same set size, so just insert it
+      listoflists[set_destination] = insert(listoflists[set_destination],subsetlist[i]);
+    }
+    else
+    {
+      //There is not yet an element with the same set size, so create a new one
+      listoflists[set_destination] = insert(emptylist1,subsetlist[i]);
+      alreadycreatedlist = set_insert(alreadycreatedlist,set_destination );
+    }
+  }
+
+  //Check for injectivity of each separate list. Works as in injectivity or h-injectivity
+  for (v=1; v<=size(listoflists); v++)
+  {
+    worklist = listoflists[v];
+
+    checklist=calculate_max_sum(worklist[1]);
+    for (i=2; i<=size(worklist); i++)
+    {
+      calculator = calculate_max_sum(worklist[i]);
+      if (set_contains(checklist, calculator)==1)
+      {
+        return(0);
+      }
+      else
+      {
+        checklist = insert(checklist,calculator);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return(1);
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  //this is fix-injective because 17=10+2+4+1 with different numbers of addens.
+  list fix_inj = 1,2,4,10,17;
+  //this is not fix-injective because 4+1=2+3.
+  list not_fix_inj = 1,2,3,4;
+  is_fix_injective(fix_inj);
+  is_fix_injective(not_fix_inj);
+}
+
+proc three_elements(list out, int iterations)
+"USAGE:   three_elements(out, iterations)
+RETURN:  Injective_knapsack created with the three elements method
+EXAMPLE: three_elements; shows an example;
+"
+{
+  int a;
+  int b;
+  int c;
+  int subsum;
+  int adden = 1;
+  int condition = 0;
+  out = set_turn(out);
+  if (set_is_injective(out)==0)
+  {
+    return(0);
+  }
+  else
+  {
+    for (int i=1; i<=iterations; i++)
+    {
+      while(condition==0)
+      {
+        subsum = calculate_max_sum(out);
+        a = 2*subsum+adden;
+        b = a+subsum+adden;
+        c = b+subsum+1;
+        if ((a+b)>(c+subsum))
+        {
+          condition=1;
+        }
+        else
+        {
+          adden++;
+        }
+      }
+      adden =1;
+      condition=0;
+      out=set_insert(out, a);
+      out=set_insert(out, b);
+      out=set_insert(out, c);
+    }
+    return(out);
+  }
+}
+example
+{
+  "EXAMPLE:"; echo = 2;
+  //this is fix-injective because 17=10+2+4+1 with different numbers of addens.
+  list super_increasing = 1,2,4,10,20;
+  list a = three_elements(super_increasing,2);
+  a;
+  set_is_injective(a);
+}
+/*
+//===============================================================
+//=======  Example for DSA  =====================================
+//===============================================================
+Suppose a file test is given.It contains "Oscar".
+
+//Hash-function MD5 under Linux
+
+md5sum test           8edfe37dae96cfd2466d77d3884d4196
+
+//================================================================
+
+ring R=0,x,dp;
+
+number q=2^19+21;          //524309
+number o=2*3*23*number(7883)*number(16170811);
+
+number p=o*q+1;            //9223372036869000547
+number b=2;
+number g=power(2,o,p);     //8308467587808723131
+
+number a=111111;
+number A=power(g,a,p);     //8566038811843553785
+
+number h =decimal("8edfe37dae96cfd2466d77d3884d4196");
+
+                           //189912871665444375716340628395668619670
+h= h mod q;                //259847
+
+number k=123456;
+
+number ki=exgcd(k,q)[1];    //50804
+                            //inverse von k mod q
+
+number r= power(g,k,p) mod q;    //76646
+
+number s=ki*(h+a*r) mod q;       //2065
+
+//========== signature is (r,s)=(76646,2065) ====================
+//==================== verification  ============================
+
+number si=exgcd(s,q)[1];  //inverse von s mod q
+number e1=si*h mod q;
+number e2=si*r mod q;
+number rr=((power(g,e1,p)*power(A,e2,p)) mod p) mod q;    //76646
+
+//===============================================================
+//=======  Example for knapsack  ================================
+//===============================================================
+ring R=(5^5,t),x,dp;
+R;
+//   # ground field : 3125
+//   primitive element : t
+//   minpoly        : 1*t^5+4*t^1+2*t^0
+//   number of vars : 1
+//        block   1 : ordering dp
+//                  : names    x
+//        block   2 : ordering C
+
+proc findEx(number n, number g)
+{
+   int i;
+   for(i=0;i<=size(basering)-1;i++)
+   {
+      if(g^i==n){return(i);}
+   }
+}
+
+number g=t^3;                       //choice of the primitive root
+
+findEx(t+1,g);
+//2091
+findEx(t+2,g);
+//2291
+findEx(t+3,g);
+//1043
+
+intvec b=1,2091,2291,1043;          // k=4
+int z=199;
+intvec v=1043+z,1+z,2091+z,2291+z;  //permutation   pi=(0123)
+v;
+1242,200,2290,2490
+
+//(1101)=(e_3,e_2,e_1,e_0)
+//encoding 2490+2290+1242=6022 und 1+1+0+1=3
+
+//(6022,3) decoding: c-z*c'=6022-199*3=5425
+
+ring S=5,x,dp;
+poly F=x5+4x+2;
+poly G=reduce((x^3)^5425,std(F));
+G;
+//x3+x2+x+1
+
+factorize(G);
+//[1]:
+//   _[1]=1
+//   _[2]=x+1
+//   _[3]=x-2
+//   _[4]=x+2
+//[2]:
+//   1,1,1,1
+
+//factors x+1,x+2,x+3, i.e.  (1110)=(e_pi(3),e_pi(2),e_pi(1),e_pi(0))
+
+//pi(0)=1,pi(1)=2,pi(2)=3,pi(3)=0 gives:  (1101)
+
+*/
+