passagemath-combinat 10.6.42__cp314-cp314-musllinux_1_2_x86_64.whl

sage/combinat/words/morphism.py

@@ -0,0 +1,3878 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-combinat
+r"""
+Word morphisms/substitutions
+
+This module implements morphisms over finite and infinite words.
+
+AUTHORS:
+
+- Sébastien Labbé (2007-06-01): initial version
+- Sébastien Labbé (2008-07-01): merged into sage-words
+- Sébastien Labbé (2008-12-17): merged into sage
+- Sébastien Labbé (2009-02-03): words next generation
+- Sébastien Labbé (2009-11-20): allowing the choice of the
+  datatype of the image. Doc improvements.
+- Stepan Starosta (2012-11-09): growing letters
+
+EXAMPLES:
+
+Creation of a morphism from a dictionary or a string::
+
+    sage: n = WordMorphism({0:[0,2,2,1],1:[0,2],2:[2,2,1]})
+
+::
+
+    sage: m = WordMorphism('x->xyxsxss,s->xyss,y->ys')
+
+::
+
+    sage: n
+    WordMorphism: 0->0221, 1->02, 2->221
+    sage: m
+    WordMorphism: s->xyss, x->xyxsxss, y->ys
+
+The codomain may be specified::
+
+    sage: WordMorphism({0:[0,2,2,1],1:[0,2],2:[2,2,1]}, codomain=Words([0,1,2,3,4]))
+    WordMorphism: 0->0221, 1->02, 2->221
+
+Power of a morphism::
+
+    sage: n^2
+    WordMorphism: 0->022122122102, 1->0221221, 2->22122102
+
+Image under a morphism::
+
+    sage: m('y')
+    word: ys
+    sage: m('xxxsy')
+    word: xyxsxssxyxsxssxyxsxssxyssys
+
+Iterated image under a morphism::
+
+    sage: m('y', 3)
+    word: ysxyssxyxsxssysxyssxyss
+
+See more examples in the documentation of the call method
+(``m.__call__?``).
+
+Infinite fixed point of morphism::
+
+    sage: fix = m.fixed_point('x')
+    sage: fix
+    word: xyxsxssysxyxsxssxyssxyxsxssxyssxyssysxys...
+    sage: fix.length()
+    +Infinity
+
+Incidence matrix::
+
+    sage: matrix(m)                                                                     # needs sage.modules
+    [2 3 1]
+    [1 3 0]
+    [1 1 1]
+
+Many other functionalities...::
+
+    sage: m.is_identity()
+    False
+    sage: m.is_endomorphism()
+    True
+"""
+# ****************************************************************************
+#       Copyright (C) 2008 Sebastien Labbe <slabqc@gmail.com>
+#                     2018 Vincent Delecroix <20100.delecroix@gmail.com>
+#
+# This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
+# it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+# the Free Software Foundation, either version 2 of the License, or
+# (at your option) any later version.
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# ****************************************************************************
+
+from collections.abc import Iterable
+from sage.misc.callable_dict import CallableDict
+from sage.structure.sage_object import SageObject
+from sage.misc.cachefunc import cached_method
+from sage.misc.lazy_import import lazy_import
+from sage.misc.lazy_list import lazy_list
+from sage.sets.set import Set
+from sage.rings.rational_field import QQ
+from sage.rings.infinity import Infinity
+from sage.rings.integer_ring import IntegerRing
+from sage.rings.integer import Integer
+from sage.combinat.words.word import FiniteWord_class
+from sage.combinat.words.words import FiniteWords, FiniteOrInfiniteWords
+
+lazy_import('sage.modules.free_module_element', 'vector')
+lazy_import('sage.matrix.constructor', 'Matrix')
+
+
+def get_cycles(f, domain):
+    r"""
+    Return the list of cycles of the function ``f`` contained in ``domain``.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``f`` -- function
+
+    - ``domain`` -- iterable, a subdomain of the domain of definition of ``f``
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.combinat.words.morphism import get_cycles
+        sage: get_cycles(lambda i: (i+1)%3, [0,1,2])
+        [(0, 1, 2)]
+        sage: get_cycles(lambda i: [0,0,0][i], [0,1,2])
+        [(0,)]
+        sage: get_cycles(lambda i: [1,1,1][i], [0,1,2])
+        [(1,)]
+        sage: get_cycles(lambda i: [2,3,0][i], [0,1,2])
+        [(0, 2)]
+        sage: d = {'a': 'a', 'b': 'b'}
+        sage: get_cycles(d.__getitem__, 'ba')
+        [('b',), ('a',)]
+    """
+    cycles = []
+    not_seen = set(domain)
+    for a in domain:
+        if a not in not_seen:
+            continue
+        cycle = [a]
+        b = f(a)
+        not_seen.remove(a)
+        while b in not_seen:
+            not_seen.remove(b)
+            cycle.append(b)
+            b = f(b)
+        if b in cycle:
+            cycles.append(tuple(cycle[cycle.index(b):]))
+
+    return cycles
+
+
+class PeriodicPointIterator:
+    r"""
+    (Lazy) constructor of the periodic points of a word morphism.
+
+    This class is mainly used in :class:`WordMorphism.periodic_point` and
+    :class:`WordMorphism.periodic_points`.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.combinat.words.morphism import PeriodicPointIterator
+        sage: s = WordMorphism('a->bacca,b->cba,c->aab')
+        sage: p = PeriodicPointIterator(s, ['a','b','c'])
+        sage: p._cache[0]
+        lazy list ['a', 'a', 'b', ...]
+        sage: p._cache[1]
+        lazy list ['b', 'a', 'c', ...]
+        sage: p._cache[2]
+        lazy list ['c', 'b', 'a', ...]
+    """
+    def __init__(self, m, cycle):
+        r"""
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``m`` -- a word morphism
+
+        - ``cycle`` -- a cycle of letters under the morphism
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.combinat.words.morphism import PeriodicPointIterator
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->bacca,b->cba,c->aab')
+            sage: p = PeriodicPointIterator(s, ['a','b','c'])
+            sage: pp = loads(dumps(p))
+            sage: pp._cache[0]
+            lazy list ['a', 'a', 'b', ...]
+        """
+        self._m = m            # for pickling only
+        self._image = m.image
+        self._cycle = tuple(cycle)
+        self._cache = [lazy_list(self.get_iterator(i)) for i in range(len(cycle))]
+
+    def __reduce__(self):
+        r"""
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.combinat.words.morphism import PeriodicPointIterator
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->bacca,b->cba,c->aab')
+            sage: p = PeriodicPointIterator(s, ['a','b','c'])
+            sage: p.__reduce__()
+            (<class 'sage.combinat.words.morphism.PeriodicPointIterator'>,
+             (WordMorphism: a->bacca, b->cba, c->aab, ('a', 'b', 'c')))
+        """
+        return PeriodicPointIterator, (self._m, self._cycle)
+
+    @cached_method
+    def get_iterator(self, i):
+        r"""
+        Internal method.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.combinat.words.morphism import PeriodicPointIterator
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->bacca,b->cba,c->aab')
+            sage: p = PeriodicPointIterator(s, ['a','b','c'])
+            sage: p.get_iterator(0)
+            <generator object ...get_iterator at ...>
+        """
+        j = (i - 1) % len(self._cycle)
+        for a in self._image(self._cycle[j]):
+            yield a
+        u = iter(self._cache[j])
+        next(u)
+        while True:
+            for a in self._image(next(u)):
+                yield a
+
+
+class WordMorphism(SageObject):
+    r"""
+    WordMorphism class.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``data`` -- dictionary or string or an instance of WordMorphism, the map
+      giving the image of letters
+    - ``domain`` -- (optional:``None``) set of words over a given
+      alphabet. If ``None``, the domain alphabet is computed from ``data``
+      and is *sorted*.
+    - ``codomain`` -- (optional:``None``) set of words over a given
+      alphabet. If ``None``, the codomain alphabet is computed from
+      ``data`` and is *sorted*.
+
+    .. NOTE::
+
+        When the domain or the codomain are not explicitly given, it is
+        expected that the letters are comparable because the alphabets of
+        the domain and of the codomain are sorted.
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    From a dictionary::
+
+        sage: n = WordMorphism({0:[0,2,2,1],1:[0,2],2:[2,2,1]})
+        sage: n
+        WordMorphism: 0->0221, 1->02, 2->221
+
+    From a string with ``'->'`` as separation::
+
+        sage: m = WordMorphism('x->xyxsxss,s->xyss,y->ys')
+        sage: m
+        WordMorphism: s->xyss, x->xyxsxss, y->ys
+        sage: m.domain()
+        Finite words over {'s', 'x', 'y'}
+        sage: m.codomain()
+        Finite words over {'s', 'x', 'y'}
+
+    Specifying the domain and codomain::
+
+        sage: W = FiniteWords([0,1,2])
+        sage: d = {0:[0,1], 1:[0,1,0], 2:[0]}
+        sage: m = WordMorphism(d, domain=W, codomain=W)
+        sage: m([0]).parent()
+        Finite words over {0, 1, 2}
+
+    When the alphabet is non-sortable, the domain and/or codomain must be
+    explicitly given::
+
+        sage: W = FiniteWords(['a',6])
+        sage: d = {'a':['a',6,'a'],6:[6,6,6,'a']}
+        sage: WordMorphism(d, domain=W, codomain=W)
+        WordMorphism: 6->666a, a->a6a
+
+    TESTS::
+
+        sage: wm = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+        sage: wm == loads(dumps(wm))
+        True
+    """
+    def __init__(self, data, domain=None, codomain=None):
+        r"""
+        Construction of the morphism.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        1. If data is a str::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            WordMorphism: a->ab, b->ba
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            WordMorphism: a->ab, b->ba
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->abc,b->bca,c->cab')
+            WordMorphism: a->abc, b->bca, c->cab
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->abdsf,b->hahdad,c->asdhasd')
+            WordMorphism: a->abdsf, b->hahdad, c->asdhasd
+            sage: WordMorphism('(->(),)->)(')
+            WordMorphism: (->(), )->)(
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->53k,b->y5?,$->49i')
+            WordMorphism: $->49i, a->53k, b->y5?
+
+        An erasing morphism::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->')
+            WordMorphism: a->ab, b->
+
+        Use the arrows ('->') correctly::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b-')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: the second and third characters must be '->' (not '-')
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: the second and third characters must be '->' (not '')
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,a-]asdfa')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: the second and third characters must be '->' (not '-]')
+
+        Each letter must be defined only once::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,a->ba')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: the image of 'a' is defined twice
+
+        2. From a dictionary::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism({"a":"ab","b":"ba"})
+            WordMorphism: a->ab, b->ba
+            sage: WordMorphism({2:[4,5,6],3:[1,2,3]})
+            WordMorphism: 2->456, 3->123
+
+        The image of a letter can be a set, but the order is not
+        preserved::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism({2:[4,5,6],3:set([4,1,8])})  # random results
+            WordMorphism: 2->456, 3->814
+
+        If the image of a letter is not iterable, it is considered as a
+        letter::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism({0:1, 1:0})
+            WordMorphism: 0->1, 1->0
+            sage: WordMorphism({0:123, 1:789})
+            WordMorphism: 0->123, 1->789
+            sage: WordMorphism({2:[4,5,6], 3:123})
+            WordMorphism: 2->456, 3->123
+
+        3. From a WordMorphism::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism(WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba'))
+            WordMorphism: a->ab, b->ba
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism(',,,a->ab,,,b->ba,,')
+            WordMorphism: a->ab, b->ba
+
+            sage: WordMorphism({(1,2):'ab', 'a': ['c', (1,2), 'a']})
+            WordMorphism: (1, 2)->ab, a->c,(1, 2),a
+
+            sage: WordMorphism({'a':'a'}, domain=FiniteWords('ab'))
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: invalid input; the keys of the dictionary must coincide with the domain alphabet
+            sage: WordMorphism({'a':'a', 'b':'b'}, domain=FiniteWords('a'))
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: invalid input; the keys of the dictionary must coincide with the domain alphabet
+        """
+        if isinstance(data, WordMorphism):
+            self._domain = data._domain
+            self._codomain = data._codomain
+            self._morph = data._morph
+        else:
+            if isinstance(data, str):
+                data = self._build_dict(data)
+            elif not isinstance(data, dict):
+                raise NotImplementedError
+
+            if codomain is None:
+                codomain = self._build_codomain(data)
+
+            if isinstance(codomain, FiniteOrInfiniteWords):
+                codomain = codomain.finite_words()
+            elif not isinstance(codomain, FiniteWords):
+                raise TypeError("the codomain must be a set of finite words")
+            self._codomain = codomain
+
+            self._morph = {}
+
+            dom_alph = []
+            for key, val in data.items():
+                dom_alph.append(key)
+                if val in codomain.alphabet():
+                    self._morph[key] = codomain([val])
+                else:
+                    self._morph[key] = codomain(val)
+
+            if domain is not None:
+                if isinstance(domain, FiniteOrInfiniteWords):
+                    domain = domain.finite_words()
+                elif not isinstance(domain, FiniteWords):
+                    raise TypeError("the codomain must be a set of finite words")
+                A = domain.alphabet()
+                if len(self._morph) != A.cardinality() or not all(a in A for a in self._morph):
+                    raise ValueError('invalid input; the keys of the dictionary must coincide with the domain alphabet')
+            else:
+                try:
+                    dom_alph.sort()
+                except TypeError:
+                    dom_alph.sort(key=str)
+                domain = FiniteWords(dom_alph)
+            self._domain = domain
+
+    def _build_dict(self, s):
+        r"""
+        Parse the string input to WordMorphism and build the dictionary
+        it represents.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: wm = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: wm._build_dict('a->ab,b->ba') == {'a': 'ab', 'b': 'ba'}
+            True
+            sage: wm._build_dict('a->ab,a->ba')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: the image of 'a' is defined twice
+            sage: wm._build_dict('a->ab,b>ba')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: the second and third characters must be '->' (not '>b')
+        """
+        tmp_dict = {}
+        for fleche in s.split(','):
+            if len(fleche) == 0:
+                continue
+
+            if len(fleche) < 3 or fleche[1:3] != '->':
+                raise ValueError("the second and third characters must be '->' (not '%s')" % fleche[1:3])
+
+            lettre = fleche[0]
+            image = fleche[3:]
+
+            if lettre in tmp_dict:
+                raise ValueError("the image of %r is defined twice" % lettre)
+
+            tmp_dict[lettre] = image
+        return tmp_dict
+
+    def _build_codomain(self, data):
+        r"""
+        Return a Words domain containing all the letters in the values of
+        data (which must be a dictionary).
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        If the image of all the letters are iterable::
+
+            sage: wm = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: wm._build_codomain({'a': 'ab', 'b': 'ba'})
+            Finite words over {'a', 'b'}
+            sage: wm._build_codomain({'a': 'dcb', 'b': 'a'})
+            Finite words over {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd'}
+            sage: wm._build_codomain({2:[4,5,6],3:[1,2,3]})
+            Finite words over {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
+            sage: wm._build_codomain({2:[4,5,6],3:set([4,1,8])})
+            Finite words over {1, 4, 5, 6, 8}
+
+        If the image of a letter is not iterable, it is considered as
+        a letter::
+
+            sage: wm._build_codomain({2:[4,5,6],3:123})
+            Finite words over {4, 5, 6, 123}
+            sage: wm._build_codomain({0:1, 1:0, 2:2})
+            Finite words over {0, 1, 2}
+        """
+        codom_alphabet = set()
+        for val in data.values():
+            try:
+                it = iter(val)
+            except TypeError:
+                it = [val]
+            codom_alphabet.update(it)
+        try:
+            codom_alphabet = sorted(codom_alphabet)
+        except TypeError:
+            codom_alphabet = sorted(codom_alphabet, key=str)
+        return FiniteWords(codom_alphabet)
+
+    @cached_method
+    def __hash__(self):
+        r"""
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: hash(WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')) # random
+            7211091143079804375
+        """
+        return hash(tuple((k, v) for k, v in self._morph.items())) ^ hash(self._codomain)
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: n = WordMorphism('a->a,b->aa,c->aaa')
+            sage: n**3 == n**1
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('b->ba,a->ab') == WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('b->ba,a->ab') == WordMorphism({"a":"ab","b":"ba"})
+            True
+            sage: m = WordMorphism({0:[1,2,3],1:[4,5,6]}); m
+            WordMorphism: 0->123, 1->456
+            sage: o = WordMorphism('0->123,1->456'); o
+            WordMorphism: 0->123, 1->456
+            sage: m == o
+            False
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Check that equality depends on the codomain::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->a,b->aa,c->aaa')
+            sage: n = WordMorphism('a->a,b->aa,c->aaa', codomain=Words('abc'))
+            sage: m == n
+            False
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, WordMorphism):
+            return False
+        return self._morph == other._morph and self._codomain == other._codomain
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Return whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->baba')
+            sage: n = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->baba')
+            sage: o = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->bab')
+            sage: m != n
+            False
+            sage: n != o
+            True
+
+        This solves :issue:`12475`::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->121,2->131,3->4,4->1')
+            sage: s == s.reversal()
+            True
+            sage: s != s.reversal()
+            False
+        """
+        return not self == other
+
+    def __repr__(self) -> str:
+        r"""
+        Return the string representation of the morphism.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            WordMorphism: a->ab, b->ba
+            sage: WordMorphism({0:[0,1],1:[1,0]})
+            WordMorphism: 0->01, 1->10
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: repr(s)
+            'WordMorphism: a->ab, b->ba'
+        """
+        return "WordMorphism: %s" % str(self)
+
+    def __str__(self) -> str:
+        r"""
+        Return the morphism in str.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: print(WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba'))
+            a->ab, b->ba
+            sage: print(WordMorphism({0:[0,1],1:[1,0]}))
+            0->01, 1->10
+
+        The output is sorted to make it unique::
+
+            sage: print(WordMorphism('b->ba,a->ab'))
+            a->ab, b->ba
+
+        The str method is used for string formatting::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: "Here is a map : %s" % s
+            'Here is a map : a->ab, b->ba'
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({1:[1,2],2:[1]})
+            sage: s.dual_map()                                                          # needs sage.modules
+            E_1^*(1->12, 2->1)
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: str(s)
+            'a->ab, b->ba'
+        """
+        L = [str(lettre) + '->' + image.string_rep()
+             for lettre, image in self._morph.items()]
+        return ', '.join(sorted(L))
+
+    def __call__(self, w, order=1):
+        r"""
+        Return the image of ``w`` under ``self`` to the given order.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``w`` -- word or sequence in the domain of self
+
+        - ``order`` -- integer or plus ``Infinity`` (default: 1)
+
+        OUTPUT: ``word`` -- ``order``-th iterated image under ``self`` of ``w``
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        The image of a word under a morphism:
+
+        1. The image of a finite word under a morphism::
+
+            sage: tm = WordMorphism ('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: tm('a')
+            word: ab
+            sage: tm('aabababb')
+            word: ababbaabbaabbaba
+
+        2. The iterated image of a word::
+
+            sage: tm('a', 2)
+            word: abba
+            sage: tm('aba', 3)
+            word: abbabaabbaababbaabbabaab
+
+        3. The infinitely iterated image of a letter::
+
+            sage: tm('a', oo)
+            word: abbabaabbaababbabaababbaabbabaabbaababba...
+
+        4. The image of an infinite word::
+
+            sage: t = words.ThueMorseWord()
+            sage: n = WordMorphism({0:[0, 1], 1:[1, 0]})
+            sage: n(t)
+            word: 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110...
+            sage: n(t, 3)
+            word: 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110...
+            sage: n(t)[:1000] == t[:1000]
+            True
+
+        The Fibonacci word::
+
+            sage: w = words.FibonacciWord()
+            sage: m = WordMorphism({0:'a', 1:'b'})
+            sage: m(w)
+            word: abaababaabaababaababaabaababaabaababaaba...
+            sage: f = words.FibonacciWord('ab')
+            sage: f[:1000] == m(w)[:1000]
+            True
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: w = words.FibonacciWord("ab")
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->01,b->101')
+            sage: m(w)
+            word: 0110101011010110101011010101101011010101...
+
+        The word must be in the domain of self::
+
+            sage: tm('0021')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: 0 not in alphabet
+
+        The order must be a nonnegative integer or plus Infinity::
+
+            sage: tm('a', -1)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: order (-1) must be a nonnegative integer or plus Infinity
+            sage: tm('a', 6.7)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: order (6.7...) must be a nonnegative integer or plus Infinity
+
+        Only the first letter is considered for infinitely iterated image of
+        a word under a morphism::
+
+            sage: tm('aba',oo)
+            word: abbabaabbaababbabaababbaabbabaabbaababba...
+
+        The morphism ``self`` must be prolongable on the given letter for infinitely
+        iterated image::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->ba,b->ab')
+            sage: m('a', oo)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: self must be prolongable on a
+
+        The empty word is fixed by any morphism for all natural
+        powers::
+
+            sage: phi = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a')
+            sage: phi(Word())
+            word:
+            sage: phi(Word(), oo)
+            word:
+            sage: it = iter([])
+            sage: phi(it, oo)
+            word:
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: for i in range(6):
+            ....:   tm('a', i)
+            word: a
+            word: ab
+            word: abba
+            word: abbabaab
+            word: abbabaabbaababba
+            word: abbabaabbaababbabaababbaabbabaab
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->,b->')
+            sage: m('')
+            word:
+
+        When the input is a finite word, the output is another
+        finite word::
+
+            sage: w = m('aabb')
+            sage: type(w)
+            <class 'sage.combinat.words.word.FiniteWord_char'>
+
+            sage: w == loads(dumps(w))
+            True
+            sage: import tempfile
+            sage: with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(suffix='.sobj') as f:
+            ....:     save(w, filename=f.name)
+        """
+        if order == 1:
+            D = self.domain()
+            C = self.codomain()
+            if isinstance(w, (tuple, str, list)):
+                w = D(w)
+
+            if isinstance(w, FiniteWord_class):
+                im = C()
+                for a in w:
+                    im += self._morph[a]
+                return im
+
+            if isinstance(w, Iterable):
+                pass
+            elif w in self._domain.alphabet():
+                return self._morph[w]
+            else:
+                raise TypeError("do not know how to handle an input (=%s) that is not iterable or not in the domain alphabet" % w)
+
+            # here we assume (maybe wrongly) that the length is infinite
+            parent = self.codomain().shift()
+            iterator = (x for y in w for x in self._morph[y])
+            parent = parent.shift()
+            return parent(iterator)
+
+        elif order is Infinity:
+            if isinstance(w, (tuple, str, list, FiniteWord_class)):
+                if len(w) == 0:
+                    return self.codomain()()
+                else:
+                    letter = w[0]
+            elif isinstance(w, Iterable):
+                try:
+                    letter = next(w)
+                except StopIteration:
+                    return self.codomain()()
+            elif w in self._domain.alphabet():
+                letter = w
+            else:
+                raise TypeError("do not know how to handle an input (=%s) that is not iterable or not in the domain alphabet" % w)
+            return self.fixed_point(letter=letter)
+
+        elif isinstance(order, (int, Integer)) and order > 1:
+            return self(self(w, order - 1))
+
+        elif order == 0:
+            return self._domain(w)
+
+        else:
+            raise TypeError("order (%s) must be a nonnegative integer or plus Infinity" % order)
+
+    def latex_layout(self, layout=None):
+        r"""
+        Get or set the actual latex layout (oneliner vs array).
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``layout`` -- string (default: ``None``); can take one of the
+          following values:
+
+          - ``None`` -- returns the actual latex layout; by default, the
+            layout is ``'array'``
+          - ``'oneliner'`` -- set the layout to ``'oneliner'``
+          - ``'array'`` -- set the layout to ``'array'``
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: s.latex_layout()
+            'array'
+            sage: s.latex_layout('oneliner')
+            sage: s.latex_layout()
+            'oneliner'
+        """
+        if layout is None:
+            # return the layout
+            if not hasattr(self, '_latex_layout'):
+                self._latex_layout = 'array'
+            return self._latex_layout
+        else:
+            # change the layout
+            self._latex_layout = layout
+
+    def _latex_(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the latex representation of the morphism.
+
+        Use :meth:`latex_layout` to change latex layout (oneliner vs
+        array). The default is a latex array.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: s._latex_()
+            \begin{array}{l}
+            a \mapsto ab\\
+            b \mapsto ba
+            \end{array}
+
+        Change the latex layout to a one liner::
+
+            sage: s.latex_layout('oneliner')
+            sage: s._latex_()
+            a \mapsto ab,b \mapsto ba
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Unknown latex style::
+
+            sage: s.latex_layout('tabular')
+            sage: s._latex_()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: unknown latex_layout(=tabular)
+        """
+        from sage.misc.latex import LatexExpr
+        A = self.domain().alphabet()
+        latex_layout = self.latex_layout()
+        if latex_layout == 'oneliner':
+            lines = (fr"{a} \mapsto {self.image(a)}" for a in A)
+            return LatexExpr(r','.join(lines))
+        if latex_layout == 'array':
+            s = r"\begin{array}{l}" + '\n'
+            lines = (fr"{a} \mapsto {self.image(a)}" for a in A)
+            s += '\\\\\n'.join(lines)
+            s += '\n' + r"\end{array}"
+            return LatexExpr(s)
+        raise ValueError('unknown latex_layout(=%s)' % latex_layout)
+
+    def __mul__(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Return the morphism ``self``\*``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: fibo = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a')
+            sage: fibo*m
+            WordMorphism: a->aba, b->aab
+            sage: fibo*fibo
+            WordMorphism: a->aba, b->ab
+            sage: m*fibo
+            WordMorphism: a->abba, b->ab
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: n = WordMorphism('a->a,b->aa,c->aaa')
+            sage: p1 = n*m
+            sage: p1
+            WordMorphism: a->aaa, b->aaa
+            sage: p1.domain()
+            Finite words over {'a', 'b'}
+            sage: p1.codomain()
+            Finite words over {'a'}
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: p2 = m*n
+            sage: p2
+            WordMorphism: a->ab, b->abab, c->ababab
+            sage: p2.domain()
+            Finite words over {'a', 'b', 'c'}
+            sage: p2.codomain()
+            Finite words over {'a', 'b'}
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('0->a,1->b')
+            sage: n = WordMorphism('a->c,b->e',codomain=Words('abcde'))
+            sage: p = n * m
+            sage: p.codomain()
+            Finite words over {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'}
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->b,b->c,c->a')
+            sage: WordMorphism('')*m
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            KeyError: 'b'
+            sage: m * WordMorphism('')
+            WordMorphism:
+        """
+        return WordMorphism({key: self(w) for key, w in other._morph.items()},
+                            codomain=self.codomain())
+
+    def __pow__(self, exp):
+        r"""
+        Return the power of ``self`` with exponent = ``exp``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``exp`` -- positive integer
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: m^1
+            WordMorphism: a->ab, b->ba
+            sage: m^2
+            WordMorphism: a->abba, b->baab
+            sage: m^3
+            WordMorphism: a->abbabaab, b->baababba
+
+        The exponent must be a positive integer::
+
+            sage: m^1.5
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: exponent (1.5...) must be an integer
+            sage: m^-2
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: exponent (-2) must be strictly positive
+
+        When ``self`` is not an endomorphism::
+
+            sage: n = WordMorphism('a->ba,b->abc')
+            sage: n^2
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            KeyError: 'c'
+        """
+        # If exp is not an integer
+        if not isinstance(exp, (int, Integer)):
+            raise ValueError("exponent (%s) must be an integer" % exp)
+
+        # If exp is negative
+        elif exp <= 0:
+            raise ValueError("exponent (%s) must be strictly positive" % exp)
+
+        # Base of induction
+        elif exp == 1:
+            return self
+
+        else:
+            nexp = int(exp // 2)
+            over = exp % 2
+            res = (self * self)**nexp
+            if over == 1:
+                res *= self
+            return res
+
+    def extend_by(self, other):
+        r"""
+        Return ``self`` extended by ``other``.
+
+        Let `\varphi_1:A^*\rightarrow B^*` and `\varphi_2:C^*\rightarrow D^*`
+        be two morphisms. A morphism `\mu:(A\cup C)^*\rightarrow (B\cup D)^*`
+        corresponds to `\varphi_1` *extended by* `\varphi_2` if
+        `\mu(a)=\varphi_1(a)` if `a\in A` and `\mu(a)=\varphi_2(a)` otherwise.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- a WordMorphism
+
+        OUTPUT: WordMorphism
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: n = WordMorphism({'0':'1','1':'0','a':'5'})
+            sage: m.extend_by(n)
+            WordMorphism: 0->1, 1->0, a->ab, b->ba
+            sage: n.extend_by(m)
+            WordMorphism: 0->1, 1->0, a->5, b->ba
+            sage: m.extend_by(m)
+            WordMorphism: a->ab, b->ba
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: m.extend_by(WordMorphism({})) == m
+            True
+            sage: m.extend_by(WordMorphism('')) == m
+            True
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: m.extend_by(4)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: other (=4) is not a WordMorphism
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, WordMorphism):
+            raise TypeError("other (=%s) is not a WordMorphism" % other)
+
+        nv = dict(other._morph)
+        nv.update(self._morph)
+        return WordMorphism(nv)
+
+    def restrict_domain(self, alphabet):
+        r"""
+        Return a restriction of ``self`` to the given alphabet.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``alphabet`` -- an iterable
+
+        OUTPUT: WordMorphism
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->b,b->a')
+            sage: m.restrict_domain('a')
+            WordMorphism: a->b
+            sage: m.restrict_domain('')
+            WordMorphism:
+            sage: m.restrict_domain('A')
+            WordMorphism:
+            sage: m.restrict_domain('Aa')
+            WordMorphism: a->b
+
+        The input alphabet must be iterable::
+
+            sage: m.restrict_domain(66)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: 'sage.rings.integer.Integer' object is not iterable
+        """
+        return WordMorphism({a: self(a) for a in alphabet
+                             if a in self.domain().alphabet()})
+
+    def _matrix_(self, R=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the incidence matrix of the morphism over the specified ring.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: fibo = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a')
+            sage: tm = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: Mfibo = matrix(fibo); Mfibo      # indirect doctest
+            [1 1]
+            [1 0]
+            sage: Mtm = matrix(tm); Mtm
+            [1 1]
+            [1 1]
+            sage: Mtm * Mfibo == matrix(tm*fibo)   # indirect doctest
+            True
+            sage: Mfibo * Mtm == matrix(fibo*tm)   # indirect doctest
+            True
+            sage: Mfibo.parent()
+            Full MatrixSpace of 2 by 2 dense matrices over Integer Ring
+            sage: p = Mfibo.charpoly(); p
+            x^2 - x - 1
+            sage: p.roots(ring=RR, multiplicities=False)                                # needs numpy
+            [-0.618033988749895, 1.61803398874989]
+        """
+        if R is None:
+            return self.incidence_matrix()
+        else:
+            return self.incidence_matrix().change_ring(R)
+
+    def incidence_matrix(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the incidence matrix of the morphism. The order of the rows
+        and column are given by the order defined on the alphabet of the
+        domain and the codomain.
+
+        The matrix returned is over the integers.  If a different ring is
+        desired, use either the ``change_ring`` function or the ``matrix``
+        function.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->abc,b->a,c->c')
+            sage: m.incidence_matrix()                                                  # needs sage.modules
+            [1 1 0]
+            [1 0 0]
+            [1 0 1]
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->abc,b->a,c->c,d->abbccccabca,e->abc')
+            sage: m.incidence_matrix()                                                  # needs sage.modules
+            [1 1 0 3 1]
+            [1 0 0 3 1]
+            [1 0 1 5 1]
+        """
+        L = []
+        domain_alphabet = self.domain().alphabet()
+        codomain_alphabet = self.codomain().alphabet()
+        for b in domain_alphabet:
+            w = self._morph[b]
+            ev_dict = w.evaluation_dict()
+            L.append([ev_dict.get(a, 0) for a in codomain_alphabet])
+        M = Matrix(IntegerRing(), L).transpose()
+        return M
+
+    def domain(self):
+        r"""
+        Return domain of ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a').domain()
+            Finite words over {'a', 'b'}
+            sage: WordMorphism('b->ba,a->ab').domain()
+            Finite words over {'a', 'b'}
+            sage: WordMorphism('6->ab,y->5,0->asd').domain()
+            Finite words over {'0', '6', 'y'}
+        """
+        return self._domain
+
+    def codomain(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the codomain of ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a').codomain()
+            Finite words over {'a', 'b'}
+            sage: WordMorphism('6->ab,y->5,0->asd').codomain()
+            Finite words over {'5', 'a', 'b', 'd', 's'}
+        """
+        return self._codomain
+
+    def is_endomorphism(self):
+        r"""
+        Return whether ``self`` is an endomorphism, that is if the
+        domain coincide with the codomain.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a').is_endomorphism()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('6->ab,y->5,0->asd').is_endomorphism()
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->a,b->aa,c->aaa').is_endomorphism()
+            False
+            sage: Wabc = Words('abc')
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->a,b->aa,c->aaa',codomain = Wabc)
+            sage: m.is_endomorphism()
+            True
+
+        We check that :issue:`8674` is fixed::
+
+            sage: P = WordPaths('abcd')                                                 # needs sage.modules
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->adab,b->ab,c->cbcd,d->cd',                       # needs sage.modules
+            ....:                  domain=P, codomain=P)
+            sage: m.is_endomorphism()                                                   # needs sage.modules
+            True
+        """
+        return self.codomain() == self.domain()
+
+    def is_self_composable(self):
+        r"""
+        Return whether the codomain of ``self`` is contained in the domain.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->a,b->a')
+            sage: f.is_endomorphism()
+            False
+            sage: f.is_self_composable()
+            True
+        """
+        Adom = self.domain().alphabet()
+        Acodom = self.codomain().alphabet()
+        if Adom == Acodom:
+            return True
+        if Adom.cardinality() < Acodom.cardinality():
+            return False
+        if Adom.cardinality() == Infinity:
+            raise NotImplementedError
+        return all(a in Adom for a in Acodom)
+
+    def image(self, letter):
+        r"""
+        Return the image of a letter.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``letter`` -- a letter in the domain alphabet
+
+        OUTPUT: word
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The letter is assumed to be in the domain alphabet
+            (no check done). Hence, this method is faster
+            than the ``__call__`` method suitable for words input.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ac,c->a')
+            sage: m.image('b')
+            word: ac
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({('a', 1):[('a', 1), ('a', 2)], ('a', 2):[('a', 1)]})
+            sage: s.image(('a',1))
+            word: ('a', 1),('a', 2)
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({'b':[1,2], 'a':(2,3,4), 'z':[9,8,7]})
+            sage: s.image('b')
+            word: 12
+            sage: s.image('a')
+            word: 234
+            sage: s.image('z')
+            word: 987
+        """
+        return self._morph[letter]
+
+    def images(self) -> list:
+        r"""
+        Return the list of all the images of the letters of the alphabet
+        under ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: sorted(WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a').images())
+            [word: a, word: ab]
+            sage: sorted(WordMorphism('6->ab,y->5,0->asd').images())
+            [word: 5, word: ab, word: asd]
+        """
+        return list(self._morph.values())
+
+    def reversal(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the reversal of ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('6->ab,y->5,0->asd').reversal()
+            WordMorphism: 0->dsa, 6->ba, y->5
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a').reversal()
+            WordMorphism: a->ba, b->a
+        """
+        return WordMorphism({key: w.reversal()
+                             for key, w in self._morph.items()},
+                            codomain=self._codomain)
+
+    def is_empty(self):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if the cardinality of the domain is zero and
+        ``False`` otherwise.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('').is_empty()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->a').is_empty()
+            False
+        """
+        return len(self._morph) == 0
+
+    def is_erasing(self):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is an erasing morphism, i.e. the image of a
+        letter is the empty word.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a').is_erasing()
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism('6->ab,y->5,0->asd').is_erasing()
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism('6->ab,y->5,0->asd,7->').is_erasing()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('').is_erasing()
+            False
+        """
+        for image in self.images():
+            if image.is_empty():
+                return True
+        return False
+
+    def is_identity(self):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is the identity morphism.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->a,b->b,c->c,d->e')
+            sage: m.is_identity()
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->a,b->b,c->c').is_identity()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->a,b->b,c->cb').is_identity()
+            False
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->b,b->c,c->a')
+            sage: (m^2).is_identity()
+            False
+            sage: (m^3).is_identity()
+            True
+            sage: (m^4).is_identity()
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism('').is_identity()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism({0:[0],1:[1]}).is_identity()
+            True
+
+        We check that :issue:`8618` is fixed::
+
+            sage: t = WordMorphism({'a1':['a2'], 'a2':['a1']})
+            sage: (t*t).is_identity()
+            True
+        """
+        if self.domain() != self.codomain():
+            return False
+
+        for letter in self.domain().alphabet():
+            img = self.image(letter)
+            if img.length() != 1:
+                return False
+            elif img[0] != letter:
+                return False
+        return True
+
+    def partition_of_domain_alphabet(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a partition of the domain alphabet.
+
+        Let `\varphi:\Sigma^*\rightarrow\Sigma^*` be an involution. There
+        exists a triple of sets `(A, B, C)` such that
+
+         -  `A \cup B \cup C =\Sigma`;
+         -  `A`, `B` and `C` are mutually disjoint and
+         -  `\varphi(A)= B`, `\varphi(B)= A`, `\varphi(C)= C`.
+
+        These sets are not unique.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- an involution
+
+        OUTPUT: a tuple of three sets
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->b,b->a')
+            sage: m.partition_of_domain_alphabet()  # random ordering
+            ({'a'}, {'b'}, {})
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->b,b->a,c->c')
+            sage: m.partition_of_domain_alphabet()  # random ordering
+            ({'a'}, {'b'}, {'c'})
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->a,b->b,c->c')
+            sage: m.partition_of_domain_alphabet()  # random ordering
+            ({}, {}, {'a', 'c', 'b'})
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('A->T,T->A,C->G,G->C')
+            sage: m.partition_of_domain_alphabet()  # random ordering
+            ({'A', 'C'}, {'T', 'G'}, {})
+            sage: I = WordMorphism({0:oo,oo:0,1:-1,-1:1,2:-2,-2:2,3:-3,-3:3})
+            sage: I.partition_of_domain_alphabet()  # random ordering
+            ({0, -1, -3, -2}, {1, 2, 3, +Infinity}, {})
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->b,b->a,c->a')
+            sage: m.partition_of_domain_alphabet()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: self (=a->b, b->a, c->a) is not an endomorphism
+        """
+        if not self.is_involution():
+            raise TypeError("self is not an involution")
+
+        A = set()
+        B = set()
+        C = set()
+        for a in self.domain().alphabet():
+            if a == self(a)[0]:
+                C.add(a)
+            elif not (a in A or a in B):
+                A.add(a)
+                B.add(self(a)[0])
+
+        return Set(A), Set(B), Set(C)
+
+    def is_involution(self):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is an involution, i.e. its square
+        is the identity.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- an endomorphism
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->b,b->a').is_involution()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->b,b->ba').is_involution()
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism({0:[1],1:[0]}).is_involution()
+            True
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('').is_involution()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism({0:1,1:0,2:3}).is_involution()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: self (=0->1, 1->0, 2->3) is not an endomorphism
+        """
+        if not self.is_endomorphism():
+            raise TypeError("self (=%s) is not an endomorphism" % self)
+
+        return (self * self).is_identity()
+
+    def pisot_eigenvector_right(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the right eigenvector of the incidence matrix associated
+        to the largest eigenvalue (in absolute value).
+
+        Unicity of the result is guaranteed when the multiplicity of the
+        largest eigenvalue is one, for example when ``self`` is a Pisot
+        irreductible substitution.
+
+        A substitution is Pisot irreducible if the characteristic
+        polynomial of its incidence matrix is irreducible over `\QQ` and
+        has all roots, except one, of modulus strictly smaller than 1.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- a Pisot irreducible substitution
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->aaaabbc,b->aaabbc,c->aabc')
+            sage: matrix(m)                                                             # needs sage.modules
+            [4 3 2]
+            [2 2 1]
+            [1 1 1]
+            sage: m.pisot_eigenvector_right()                                           # needs sage.modules sage.rings.number_field
+            (1, 0.5436890126920763?, 0.2955977425220848?)
+        """
+        eig = self.incidence_matrix().eigenvectors_right()
+        return max(eig, key=lambda x: abs(x[0]))[1][0]
+
+    def pisot_eigenvector_left(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the left eigenvector of the incidence matrix associated
+        to the largest eigenvalue (in absolute value).
+
+        Unicity of the result is guaranteed when the multiplicity of the
+        largest eigenvalue is one, for example when ``self`` is a Pisot
+        irreductible substitution.
+
+        A substitution is Pisot irreducible if the characteristic
+        polynomial of its incidence matrix is irreducible over `\QQ` and
+        has all roots, except one, of modulus strictly smaller than 1.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- a Pisot irreducible substitution
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->aaaabbc,b->aaabbc,c->aabc')
+            sage: matrix(m)                                                             # needs sage.modules
+            [4 3 2]
+            [2 2 1]
+            [1 1 1]
+            sage: m.pisot_eigenvector_left()                                            # needs sage.modules sage.rings.number_field
+            (1, 0.8392867552141611?, 0.5436890126920763?)
+        """
+        eig = self.incidence_matrix().eigenvectors_left()
+        return max(eig, key=lambda x: abs(x[0]))[1][0]
+
+    def _check_primitive(self):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if all the letters of the domain appear in all the
+        images of letters of the domain.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- the codomain must be an instance of Words
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: m._check_primitive()
+            True
+            sage: fibo = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a')
+            sage: fibo._check_primitive()
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism({2:[4,5,6],3:[4,1,8]})
+            WordMorphism: 2->456, 3->418
+            sage: WordMorphism({2:[4,5,6],3:[4,1,8]})._check_primitive()
+            False
+        """
+        dom_alphabet = set(self.domain().alphabet())
+
+        for image in self.images():
+            if not dom_alphabet <= set(image):
+                return False
+        return True
+
+    def is_primitive(self):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is primitive.
+
+        A morphism `\varphi` is *primitive* if there exists
+        an positive integer `k` such that for all `\alpha\in\Sigma`,
+        `\varphi^k(\alpha)` contains all the letters of `\Sigma`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- an endomorphism
+
+        ALGORITHM:
+
+            Exercices 8.7.8, p.281 in [1]:
+            (c) Let `y(M)` be the least integer `e` such that `M^e` has all
+            positive entries. Prove that, for all primitive matrices `M`,
+            we have `y(M) \leq (d-1)^2 + 1`.
+            (d) Prove that the bound `y(M)\leq (d-1)^2+1` is best possible.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: tm = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: tm.is_primitive()                                                     # needs sage.modules
+            True
+            sage: fibo = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a')
+            sage: fibo.is_primitive()                                                   # needs sage.modules
+            True
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->bb,b->aa')
+            sage: m.is_primitive()                                                      # needs sage.modules
+            False
+            sage: f = WordMorphism({0:[1],1:[0]})
+            sage: f.is_primitive()                                                      # needs sage.modules
+            False
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->b,b->c,c->ab')
+            sage: s.is_primitive()                                                      # needs sage.modules
+            True
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->b,b->c,c->d,d->e,e->f,f->g,g->h,h->ab')
+            sage: s.is_primitive()                                                      # needs sage.modules
+            True
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->bb,b->aac')
+            sage: m.is_primitive()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: self (=a->bb, b->aac) is not an endomorphism
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->,b->', codomain=Words('ab'))
+            sage: m.is_primitive()                                                      # needs sage.modules
+            False
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->,b->')
+            sage: m.is_primitive()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: self (=a->, b->) is not an endomorphism
+
+        REFERENCES:
+
+        - [1] Jean-Paul Allouche and Jeffrey Shallit, Automatic Sequences:
+          Theory, Applications, Generalizations, Cambridge University Press,
+          2003.
+        """
+        if not self.is_endomorphism():
+            raise TypeError("self (=%s) is not an endomorphism" % self)
+        return self.incidence_matrix().is_primitive()
+
+    def is_prolongable(self, letter):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is prolongable on ``letter``.
+
+        A morphism `\varphi` is prolongable on a letter `a`
+        if `a` is a prefix of `\varphi(a)`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- its codomain must be an instance of Words
+        - ``letter`` -- a letter in the domain alphabet
+
+        OUTPUT: boolean
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a').is_prolongable(letter='a')
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a').is_prolongable(letter='b')
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ba,b->ab').is_prolongable(letter='b')
+            False
+            sage: (WordMorphism('a->ba,b->ab')^2).is_prolongable(letter='b')
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ba,b->').is_prolongable(letter='b')
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->bb,b->aac').is_prolongable(letter='a')
+            False
+
+        We check that :issue:`8595` is fixed::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({('a', 1) : [('a', 1), ('a', 2)], ('a', 2) : [('a', 1)]})
+            sage: s.is_prolongable(('a',1))
+            True
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->b,c->ba').is_prolongable(letter='d')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: letter (=d) is not in the domain alphabet (={'a', 'b', 'c'})
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: n0, n1 = matrix(2,[1,1,1,0]), matrix(2,[2,1,1,0])                     # needs sage.modules
+            sage: n = {'a':n0, 'b':n1}                                                  # needs sage.modules
+            sage: WordMorphism(n).is_prolongable(letter='a')    # not implemented, needs sage.modules
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: codomain of self must be an instance of Words
+        """
+        if letter not in self.domain().alphabet():
+            raise TypeError("letter (={}) is not in the domain alphabet (={})".format(letter, self.domain().alphabet()))
+        image = self.image(letter)
+        return not image.is_empty() and letter == image[0]
+
+    def is_uniform(self, k=None):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is a `k`-uniform morphism.
+
+        Let `k` be a positive integer. A morphism `\phi` is called `k`-uniform
+        if for every letter `\alpha`, we have `|\phi(\alpha)| = k`. In other
+        words, all images have length `k`. A morphism is called uniform if it
+        is `k`-uniform for some positive integer `k`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``k`` -- positive integer or ``None``. If set to a positive integer,
+          then the function return ``True`` if ``self`` is `k`-uniform.
+          If set to ``None``, then the function return ``True`` if ``self``
+          is uniform.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: phi = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a')
+            sage: phi.is_uniform()
+            False
+            sage: phi.is_uniform(k=1)
+            False
+            sage: tau = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: tau.is_uniform()
+            True
+            sage: tau.is_uniform(k=1)
+            False
+            sage: tau.is_uniform(k=2)
+            True
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: phi = WordMorphism('')
+            sage: phi.is_uniform()
+            True
+        """
+        if k is None:
+            try:
+                k = self.images()[0].length()
+            except IndexError:
+                return True
+        return all(w.length() == k for w in self.images())
+
+    def fixed_point(self, letter):
+        r"""
+        Return the fixed point of ``self`` beginning by the given ``letter``.
+
+        A fixed point of morphism `\varphi` is a word `w` such that
+        `\varphi(w) = w`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- an endomorphism (or more generally a self-composable
+          morphism), must be prolongable on ``letter``
+
+        - ``letter`` -- in the domain of ``self``, the first letter
+          of the fixed point
+
+        OUTPUT: ``word`` -- the fixed point of ``self`` beginning with ``letter``
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: W = FiniteWords('abc')
+
+        1. Infinite fixed point::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba').fixed_point(letter='a')
+            word: abbabaabbaababbabaababbaabbabaabbaababba...
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a').fixed_point(letter='a')
+            word: abaababaabaababaababaabaababaabaababaaba...
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->b,c->ba', codomain=W).fixed_point(letter='a')
+            word: abbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb...
+
+        2. Infinite fixed point of an erasing morphism::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->,c->ba', codomain=W).fixed_point(letter='a')
+            word: ab
+
+        3. Finite fixed point::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->b,c->ba', codomain=W).fixed_point(letter='b')
+            word: b
+            sage: _.parent()
+            Finite words over {'a', 'b', 'c'}
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->cc,c->', codomain=W).fixed_point(letter='a')
+            word: abcc
+            sage: _.parent()
+            Finite words over {'a', 'b', 'c'}
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->abc,b->,c->')
+            sage: fp = m.fixed_point('a'); fp
+            word: abc
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->ba,b->')
+            sage: m('ba')
+            word: ba
+            sage: m.fixed_point('a') #todo: not implemented
+            word: ba
+
+        5. Fixed point of a power of a morphism::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->ba,b->ab')
+            sage: (m^2).fixed_point(letter='a')
+            word: abbabaabbaababbabaababbaabbabaabbaababba...
+
+        6. With a self-composable but not endomorphism
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->cbc,b->bc,c->b')
+            sage: m.is_endomorphism()
+            False
+            sage: m.fixed_point('b')
+            word: bcbbcbcbbcbbcbcbbcbcbbcbbcbcbbcbbcbcbbcb...
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->,c->ba', codomain=W).fixed_point(letter='b')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: self must be prolongable on b
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->,c->ba', codomain=W).fixed_point(letter='c')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: self must be prolongable on c
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->,c->ba', codomain=W).fixed_point(letter='d')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: letter (=d) is not in the domain alphabet (={'a', 'b', 'c'})
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->aa,b->aac').fixed_point(letter='a')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: self (=a->aa, b->aac) is not self-composable
+        """
+        if not self.is_self_composable():
+            raise TypeError("self (=%s) is not self-composable" % self)
+
+        if not self.is_prolongable(letter=letter):
+            raise TypeError("self must be prolongable on %s" % letter)
+
+        parent = self.codomain()
+        if self.is_growing(letter):
+            from sage.combinat.words.word import InfiniteWord_morphic
+            return InfiniteWord_morphic(parent.shift(), self, letter,
+                                        coding=None, length=Infinity)
+        else:
+            from sage.combinat.words.word import FiniteWord_morphic
+            w = FiniteWord_morphic(parent, self, letter,
+                                   coding=None, length='finite')
+            # since FiniteWord_morphic uses the method __getitem__
+            # from FiniteWord_callable, the length must be precomputed
+            # for __getitem__ to work properly
+            w.length()
+            return w
+
+    def fixed_points(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the list of all fixed points of ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: for w in f.fixed_points(): print(w)
+            abbabaabbaababbabaababbaabbabaabbaababba...
+            baababbaabbabaababbabaabbaababbaabbabaab...
+
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->c,c->a')
+            sage: for w in f.fixed_points(): print(w)
+            abcaababcabcaabcaababcaababcabcaababcabc...
+
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->cab,c->bcc')
+            sage: for w in f.fixed_points(): print(w)
+            abcabbccabcabcabbccbccabcabbccabcabbccab...
+
+        This shows that issue :issue:`13668` has been resolved::
+
+            sage: d = {1:[1,2],2:[2,3],3:[4],4:[5],5:[6],6:[7],7:[8],8:[9],9:[10],10:[1]}
+            sage: s = WordMorphism(d)
+            sage: s7 = s^7
+            sage: s7.fixed_points()
+            [word: 12232342..., word: 2,3,4,5,6,7,8...]
+            sage: s7r = s7.reversal()
+            sage: s7r.periodic_point(2)
+            word: 2,1,1,10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1,10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,8,...
+
+        This shows that issue :issue:`13668` has been resolved::
+
+            sage: s = "1->321331332133133,2->133321331332133133,3->2133133133321331332133133"
+            sage: s = WordMorphism(s)
+            sage: (s^2).fixed_points()
+            []
+        """
+        return [self.fixed_point(letter=letter)
+                for letter in self.domain().alphabet()
+                if self.is_prolongable(letter=letter)]
+
+    def periodic_point(self, letter):
+        r"""
+        Return the periodic point of ``self`` that starts with ``letter``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->bab,b->ab')
+            sage: f.periodic_point('a')
+            word: abbababbababbabababbababbabababbababbaba...
+            sage: f.fixed_point('a')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: self must be prolongable on a
+
+        Make sure that :issue:`31759` is fixed::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->b,b->a').periodic_point('a')
+            word: a
+        """
+        if not self.is_growing(letter):
+            w = self.domain()(letter)
+            prev = set()
+            while w not in prev:
+                prev.add(w)
+                w = self(w)
+            return w
+
+        elif self.is_erasing():
+            raise NotImplementedError("self should be non erasing")
+
+        else:
+            cycle = [letter]
+            a = self(letter)[0]
+            while a not in cycle:
+                cycle.append(a)
+                a = self(a)[0]
+            if a != letter:
+                raise ValueError("there is no periodic point starting with letter (=%s)" % letter)
+
+            P = PeriodicPointIterator(self, cycle)
+            return self.codomain().shift()(P._cache[0])
+
+    def periodic_points(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the periodic points of ``f`` as a list of tuples where each tuple is
+        a periodic orbit of ``f``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->aba,b->baa')
+            sage: for p in f.periodic_points():
+            ....:     print("{} , {}".format(len(p), p[0]))
+            1 , ababaaababaaabaabaababaaababaaabaabaabab...
+            1 , baaabaabaababaaabaababaaabaababaaababaaa...
+
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->bab,b->aa')
+            sage: for p in f.periodic_points():
+            ....:     print("{} , {}".format(len(p), p[0]))
+            2 , aababaaaababaababbabaababaababbabaababaa...
+            sage: f.fixed_points()
+            []
+
+        This shows that issue :issue:`13668` has been resolved::
+
+            sage: d = {1:[1,2],2:[2,3],3:[4],4:[5],5:[6],6:[7],7:[8],8:[9],9:[10],10:[1]}
+            sage: s = WordMorphism(d)
+            sage: s7 = s^7
+            sage: s7r = s7.reversal()
+            sage: for p in s7r.periodic_points(): p
+            [word: 1,10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,...,
+             word: 8765432765432654325432432322176543265432...,
+             word: 5,4,3,2,4,3,2,3,2,2,1,4,3,2,3,2,2,1,3,2,...,
+             word: 2,1,1,10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1,10,9,8,7,6,5,...,
+             word: 9876543287654327654326543254324323221876...,
+             word: 6543254324323221543243232214323221322121...,
+             word: 3,2,2,1,2,1,1,10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,2,1,1,1...,
+             word: 10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,8,7,6...,
+             word: 7654326543254324323221654325432432322154...,
+             word: 4,3,2,3,2,2,1,3,2,2,1,2,1,1,10,9,8,7,6,5...]
+
+        Make sure that :issue:`31454` is fixed::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->a,b->bb').periodic_points()
+            [[word: bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb...]]
+        """
+        if not self.is_endomorphism():
+            raise ValueError("f should be an endomorphism")
+
+        if self.is_erasing():
+            raise NotImplementedError("f should be non erasing")
+
+        A = self.domain().alphabet()
+        d = {letter: self(letter)[0] for letter in A}
+        G = set(self.growing_letters())
+
+        res = []
+        parent = self.codomain().shift()
+        for cycle in get_cycles(CallableDict(d), A):
+            if cycle[0] in G:
+                P = PeriodicPointIterator(self, cycle)
+                res.append([parent(P._cache[i]) for i in range(len(cycle))])
+
+        return res
+
+    def _language_naive(self, n, u):
+        r"""
+        Return all words of length less than ``n`` by naive substitution.
+
+        The language of the substitution is the DOL language which consist
+        of factors of `s^n(u)`.
+
+        This method assumes this substitution is non-erasing.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``n`` -- nonnegative integer; length of the words in the language
+
+        - ``u`` -- a word used as a seed
+
+        OUTPUT: a Python set
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({0: [0,1], 1:[0]})
+            sage: W = s.domain()
+            sage: sorted(s._language_naive(3, W([0])))
+            [word: 0, word: 00, word: 01, word: 1, word: 10]
+            sage: sorted(s._language_naive(3, W([1])))
+            [word: 0, word: 00, word: 01, word: 1, word: 10]
+
+            sage: s._language_naive(3, W())
+            set()
+            sage: W([1, 1]) in s._language_naive(3, W([1, 1]))
+            True
+        """
+        L = set()
+        todo = []
+        for i in range(len(u)):
+            for j in range(i + 1, min(len(u) + 1, i + n)):
+                f = u[i:j]
+                if f not in L:
+                    todo.append(f)
+                    L.add(f)
+        while todo:
+            u = todo.pop()
+            v = self(u)
+            if u.length() == 1:
+                for i in range(len(v)):
+                    for j in range(i + 1, min(len(v) + 1, i + n)):
+                        f = v[i:j]
+                        if f not in L:
+                            todo.append(f)
+                            L.add(f)
+            else:
+                l = self._morph[u[0]].length()
+                r = self._morph[u[-1]].length()
+                m = v.length() - l - r
+                x = n - 1 - m
+                for i in range(l - min(x - 1, l), l):
+                    for j in range(l + m + 1, l + m + 1 + min(x - l + i, r)):
+                        f = v[i:j]
+                        if f not in L:
+                            todo.append(f)
+                            L.add(f)
+        return L
+
+    def language(self, n, u=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the words of length ``n`` in the language generated by this substitution.
+
+        Given a non-erasing substitution `s` and a word `u` the DOL-language
+        generated by `s` and `u` is the union of the factors of `s^n(u)` where
+        `n` is a nonnegative integer.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``n`` -- nonnegative integer; length of the words in the language
+
+        - ``u`` -- a word or ``None`` (default: ``None``); if set to
+          ``None`` some letter of the alphabet is used
+
+        OUTPUT: a Python set
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        The fibonacci morphism::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({0: [0,1], 1: [0]})
+            sage: sorted(s.language(3))                                                 # needs sage.modules
+            [word: 001, word: 010, word: 100, word: 101]
+            sage: len(s.language(1000))                                                 # needs sage.modules
+            1001
+            sage: all(len(s.language(n)) == n+1 for n in range(100))                    # needs sage.modules
+            True
+
+        A growing but non-primitive example. The DOL-languages generated
+        by 0 and 2 are different::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({0: [0,1], 1: [0], 2: [2,0,2]})
+
+            sage: u = s.fixed_point(0)
+            sage: A0 = u[:200].factor_set(5)                                            # needs sage.modules
+            sage: B0 = s.language(5, [0])                                               # needs sage.modules
+            sage: set(A0) == B0                                                         # needs sage.modules
+            True
+
+            sage: v = s.fixed_point(2)
+            sage: A2 = v[:200].factor_set(5)                                            # needs sage.modules
+            sage: B2 = s.language(5, [2])                                               # needs sage.modules
+            sage: set(A2) == B2                                                         # needs sage.modules
+            True
+
+            sage: len(A0), len(A2)                                                      # needs sage.modules
+            (6, 20)
+
+        The Chacon transformation (non-primitive)::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({0: [0,0,1,0], 1:[1]})
+            sage: sorted(s.language(10))                                                # needs sage.modules
+            [word: 0001000101,
+             word: 0001010010,
+             ...
+             word: 1010010001,
+             word: 1010010100]
+        """
+        W = self.domain()
+        if self.codomain() != W:
+            raise ValueError('substitution not an endomorphism')
+
+        if n == 0:
+            return [W()]
+
+        A = W.alphabet()
+        if u is None:
+            u = W([A.an_element()])
+        else:
+            u = W(u)
+
+        if n <= 2 or not self.is_growing():
+            return [w for w in self._language_naive(n + 1, u) if len(w) == n]
+
+        # compute the right power
+        M = m = self.incidence_matrix().transpose()
+        p = 1
+        d = m.nrows()
+        while any(sum(M.row(j)) < n for j in range(d)):
+            M *= m
+            p += 1
+        s = self**p
+        im = {a: s.image(a) for a in A}
+
+        # build factors by considering concatenations of images
+        # of two letter words
+        L2 = (w for w in self._language_naive(3, u) if len(w) == 2)
+        L = set()
+        for u in L2:
+            v = im[u[0]] + im[u[1]]
+            for k in range(len(v) - n + 1):
+                L.add(v[k:k + n])
+        return L
+
+    def conjugate(self, pos):
+        r"""
+        Return the morphism where the image of the letter by ``self``
+        is conjugated of parameter ``pos``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``pos`` -- integer
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->abcde')
+            sage: m.conjugate(0) == m
+            True
+            sage: m.conjugate(1)
+            WordMorphism: a->bcdea
+            sage: m.conjugate(3)
+            WordMorphism: a->deabc
+            sage: WordMorphism('').conjugate(4)
+            WordMorphism:
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->abcde,b->xyz')
+            sage: m.conjugate(2)
+            WordMorphism: a->cdeab, b->zxy
+        """
+        return WordMorphism({key: w.conjugate(pos)
+                             for (key, w) in self._morph.items()})
+
+    def has_left_conjugate(self) -> bool:
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if all the non empty images of ``self`` begins with
+        the same letter.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->abcde,b->xyz')
+            sage: m.has_left_conjugate()
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism('b->xyz').has_left_conjugate()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('').has_left_conjugate()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->,b->xyz').has_left_conjugate()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->abbab,b->abb').has_left_conjugate()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->abbab,b->abb,c->').has_left_conjugate()
+            True
+        """
+        I = (w for w in self.images() if not FiniteWord_class.is_empty(w))
+
+        try:
+            letter = next(I)[0]
+        except StopIteration:
+            return True
+
+        # Compare the first letter of all the non empty images
+        return all(image[0] == letter for image in I)
+
+    def has_right_conjugate(self) -> bool:
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if all the non empty images of ``self`` ends with the
+        same letter.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->abcde,b->xyz')
+            sage: m.has_right_conjugate()
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism('b->xyz').has_right_conjugate()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('').has_right_conjugate()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->,b->xyz').has_right_conjugate()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->abbab,b->abb').has_right_conjugate()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->abbab,b->abb,c->').has_right_conjugate()
+            True
+        """
+        return self.reversal().has_left_conjugate()
+
+    def list_of_conjugates(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the list of all the conjugate morphisms of ``self``.
+
+        DEFINITION:
+
+        Recall from Lothaire [1] (Section 2.3.4)
+        that `\varphi` is *right conjugate* of `\varphi'`,
+        noted `\varphi\triangleleft\varphi'`, if there exists
+        `u \in \Sigma^*` such that
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            \varphi(\alpha)u = u\varphi'(\alpha),
+
+        for all `\alpha \in \Sigma`, or equivalently that
+        `\varphi(x)u = u\varphi'(x)`, for all words `x \in \Sigma^*`.
+        Clearly, this relation is not
+        symmetric so that we say that two morphisms `\varphi` and
+        `\varphi'` are *conjugate*, noted
+        `\varphi\bowtie\varphi'`, if
+        `\varphi\triangleleft\varphi'` or
+        `\varphi'\triangleleft\varphi`. It is easy to see that
+        conjugacy of morphisms is an equivalence relation.
+
+        REFERENCES:
+
+        - [1] M. Lothaire, Algebraic Combinatorics on words, Cambridge
+          University Press, 2002.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->abbab,b->abb')
+            sage: m.list_of_conjugates()
+            [WordMorphism: a->babba, b->bab,
+            WordMorphism: a->abbab, b->abb,
+            WordMorphism: a->bbaba, b->bba,
+            WordMorphism: a->babab, b->bab,
+            WordMorphism: a->ababb, b->abb,
+            WordMorphism: a->babba, b->bba,
+            WordMorphism: a->abbab, b->bab]
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->aaa,b->aa')
+            sage: m.list_of_conjugates()
+            [WordMorphism: a->aaa, b->aa]
+            sage: WordMorphism('').list_of_conjugates()
+            [WordMorphism: ]
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->aba,b->aba')
+            sage: m.list_of_conjugates()
+            [WordMorphism: a->baa, b->baa,
+            WordMorphism: a->aab, b->aab,
+            WordMorphism: a->aba, b->aba]
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->abb,b->abbab,c->')
+            sage: m.list_of_conjugates()
+            [WordMorphism: a->bab, b->babba, c->,
+            WordMorphism: a->abb, b->abbab, c->,
+            WordMorphism: a->bba, b->bbaba, c->,
+            WordMorphism: a->bab, b->babab, c->,
+            WordMorphism: a->abb, b->ababb, c->,
+            WordMorphism: a->bba, b->babba, c->,
+            WordMorphism: a->bab, b->abbab, c->]
+        """
+        if self.is_empty():
+            return [self]
+
+        # Build the list c of conjugate morphisms
+        c = []
+        m = self
+        c.append(m)
+        while m.has_left_conjugate():
+            m = m.conjugate(1)
+            if m == self:
+                break
+            c.append(m)
+        m = self
+        while m.has_right_conjugate():
+            m = m.conjugate(-1)
+            if m == self:
+                break
+            c.insert(0, m)
+
+        # Build the list d of distinct morphisms
+        d = []
+        for m in c:
+            if m not in d:
+                d.append(m)
+        return d
+
+    def is_in_classP(self, f=None):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` is in class `P` (or `f`-`P`).
+
+        DEFINITION : Let `A` be an alphabet. We say that a
+        primitive substitution `S` is in the *class P* if there
+        exists a palindrome `p` and for each `b\in A` a
+        palindrome `q_b` such that `S(b)=pq_b` for all
+        `b\in A`. [1]
+
+        Let `f` be an involution on `A`. "We say that a morphism
+        `\varphi` is in class `f`-`P` if there exists an
+        `f`-palindrome `p` and for each `\alpha \in A`
+        there exists an `f`-palindrome `q_\alpha` such
+        that `\varphi(\alpha)=pq_\alpha`. [2]
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``f`` -- involution (default: ``None``) on the alphabet of ``self``;
+          it must be callable on letters as well as words (e.g. WordMorphism)
+
+        REFERENCES:
+
+        - [1] Hof, A., O. Knill et B. Simon, Singular continuous
+          spectrum for palindromic Schrödinger operators,
+          Commun. Math. Phys.  174 (1995) 149-159.
+
+        - [2] Labbe, Sebastien. Proprietes combinatoires des
+          `f`-palindromes, Memoire de maitrise en Mathematiques,
+          Montreal, UQAM, 2008, 109 pages.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->bbaba,b->bba').is_in_classP()
+            True
+            sage: tm = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba')
+            sage: tm.is_in_classP()
+            False
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->b,b->a')
+            sage: tm.is_in_classP(f=f)
+            True
+            sage: (tm^2).is_in_classP()
+            True
+            sage: (tm^2).is_in_classP(f=f)
+            False
+            sage: fibo = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a')
+            sage: fibo.is_in_classP()
+            True
+            sage: fibo.is_in_classP(f=f)
+            False
+            sage: (fibo^2).is_in_classP()
+            False
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->b,b->a,c->c')
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->acbcc,b->acbab,c->acbba').is_in_classP(f)
+            True
+        """
+        if self.is_empty():
+            return True
+
+        # Compute the longest common prefix of all the images of letters
+        images = self.images()
+        lcp = images[0]
+        for image in images:
+            lcp = lcp.longest_common_prefix(image)
+
+        # Find a common palindrome prefix
+        for i in range(lcp.length() + 1):
+            if lcp[:i].is_palindrome(f=f):
+
+                # If all the suffixes are palindromes,
+                for image in images:
+                    if not image[i:].is_palindrome(f=f):
+                        break
+                else:
+                    return True
+
+        return False
+
+    def has_conjugate_in_classP(self, f=None) -> bool:
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if ``self`` has a conjugate in class `f`-`P`.
+
+        DEFINITION : Let `A` be an alphabet. We say that a
+        primitive substitution `S` is in the *class P* if there
+        exists a palindrome `p` and for each `b\in A` a
+        palindrome `q_b` such that `S(b)=pq_b` for all
+        `b\in A`. [1]
+
+        Let `f` be an involution on `A`. We say that a morphism
+        `\varphi` is in class `f`-`P` if there exists an
+        `f`-palindrome `p` and for each `\alpha \in A`
+        there exists an `f`-palindrome `q_\alpha` such
+        that `\varphi(\alpha)=pq_\alpha`. [2]
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``f`` -- involution (default: ``None``) on the alphabet of ``self``;
+          it must be callable on letters as well as words (e.g. WordMorphism)
+
+        REFERENCES:
+
+        - [1] Hof, A., O. Knill et B. Simon, Singular continuous
+          spectrum for palindromic Schrödinger operators,
+          Commun. Math. Phys.  174 (1995) 149-159.
+
+        - [2] Labbé, Sébastien. Propriétés combinatoires des
+          `f`-palindromes, Mémoire de maitrise en Mathématiques,
+          Montréal, UQAM, 2008, 109 pages.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: fibo = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->a')
+            sage: fibo.has_conjugate_in_classP()
+            True
+            sage: (fibo^2).is_in_classP()
+            False
+            sage: (fibo^2).has_conjugate_in_classP()
+            True
+        """
+        for k in self.list_of_conjugates():
+            if k.is_in_classP(f=f):
+                return True
+        return False
+
+    def dual_map(self, k=1):
+        r"""
+        Return the dual map `E_k^*` of ``self`` (see [1]).
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            It is actually implemented only for `k=1`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- unimodular endomorphism defined on integers
+          ``1, 2, \ldots, d``
+        - ``k`` -- integer (default: 1)
+
+        OUTPUT: an instance of E1Star - the dual map
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: sigma = WordMorphism({1: [2], 2: [3], 3: [1,2]})
+            sage: sigma.dual_map()                                                      # needs sage.modules
+            E_1^*(1->2, 2->3, 3->12)
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: sigma.dual_map(k=2)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            NotImplementedError: the dual map E_k^* is implemented only for k = 1 (not 2)
+
+        REFERENCES:
+
+        - [1] Sano, Y., Arnoux, P. and Ito, S., Higher dimensional
+          extensions of substitutions and their dual maps, Journal
+          d'Analyse Mathématique 83 (2001), 183-206.
+        """
+        if k == 1:
+            from sage.combinat.e_one_star import E1Star
+            return E1Star(self)
+
+        raise NotImplementedError("the dual map E_k^* is implemented only "
+                                  "for k = 1 (not %s)" % k)
+
+    @cached_method
+    def rauzy_fractal_projection(self, eig=None, prec=53):
+        r"""
+        Return a dictionary giving the projection of the canonical basis.
+
+        See the method :meth:`rauzy_fractal_plot` for more details about the projection.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``eig`` -- a real element of ``QQbar`` of degree >= 2 (default: ``None``).
+          The eigenvalue used for the projection.
+          It must be an eigenvalue of ``self.incidence_matrix()``.
+          The one used by default is the maximal eigenvalue of
+          ``self.incidence_matrix()`` (usually a Pisot number),
+          but for substitutions with more than 3 letters
+          other interesting choices are sometimes possible.
+
+        - ``prec`` -- integer (default: 53);
+          the number of bits used in the floating point representations
+          of the coordinates
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+            dictionary, letter -> vector, giving the projection
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        The projection for the Rauzy fractal of the Tribonacci substitution
+        is::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->12,2->13,3->1')
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_projection()                                          # needs sage.modules sage.rings.number_field
+            {'1': (1.00000000000000, 0.000000000000000),
+             '2': (-1.41964337760708, -0.606290729207199),
+             '3': (-0.771844506346038, 1.11514250803994)}
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: t = WordMorphism('1->12,2->3,3->45,4->5,5->6,6->7,7->8,8->1')
+            sage: E = t.incidence_matrix().eigenvalues()                                # needs sage.modules sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: x = [x for x in E if -0.8 < x < -0.7][0]                              # needs sage.modules sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: t.rauzy_fractal_projection(prec=10)                                   # needs sage.modules sage.rings.number_field
+            {'1': (1.0, 0.00),
+             '2': (-1.7, -0.56),
+             '3': (0.79, 1.3),
+             '4': (1.9, -0.74),
+             '5': (-1.7, -0.56),
+             '6': (0.79, 1.3),
+             '7': (0.21, -1.3),
+             '8': (-0.88, 0.74)}
+            sage: t.rauzy_fractal_projection(eig=x, prec=10)                            # needs sage.modules sage.rings.number_field
+            {'1': (1.0, 0.00),
+             '2': (-0.12, -0.74),
+             '3': (-0.66, -0.56),
+             '4': (-0.46, -0.18),
+             '5': (-0.54, 0.18),
+             '6': (-0.34, 0.56),
+             '7': (0.12, 0.74),
+             '8': (0.66, 0.56)}
+
+        AUTHOR:
+
+            Timo Jolivet (2012-06-16)
+        """
+        alphabet = self.domain().alphabet()
+        size_alphabet = len(alphabet)
+
+        # Eigenvalues
+        if eig is None:
+            beta = max(self.incidence_matrix().eigenvalues(), key=abs)
+        else:
+            beta = eig
+
+        # Test is deg(beta) >= 2
+        if beta.degree() < 2:
+            raise ValueError("the algebraic degree of ``eig`` must be at least two")
+
+        # Algebraic conjugates of beta
+        from sage.rings.qqbar import QQbar
+        beta_conjugates = beta.minpoly().roots(QQbar, multiplicities=False)
+        if not beta.imag():
+            beta_conjugates.remove(beta)
+        for x in beta_conjugates:
+            if x.imag():
+                beta_conjugates.remove(x.conjugate())
+
+        # Left eigenvector vb in the number field Q(beta)
+        from sage.rings.number_field.number_field import NumberField
+        K = NumberField(beta.minpoly(), 'b')
+        vb = (self.incidence_matrix() - K.gen()).kernel().basis()[0]
+
+        # Projections of canonical base vectors from R^size_alphabet to C, using vb
+        from sage.modules.free_module import VectorSpace
+        canonical_basis = VectorSpace(K, size_alphabet).basis()
+        canonical_basis_proj = {}
+
+        from sage.rings.real_mpfr import RealField
+        RealField_prec = RealField(prec)
+        for a, x in zip(alphabet, canonical_basis):
+            v = []
+            for y in beta_conjugates:
+                # if y has nonzero imaginary part
+                if y.imag():
+                    z = (vb * x).lift()(y)
+                    z1, z2 = z.real(), z.imag()
+                    v += [RealField_prec(z1), RealField_prec(z2)]
+                # if y is real
+                else:
+                    z = (vb * x).lift()(y)
+                    v += [RealField_prec(z)]
+            canonical_basis_proj[a] = vector(v)
+
+        return canonical_basis_proj
+
+    def rauzy_fractal_points(self, n=None, exchange=False, eig=None, translate=None, prec=53):
+        r"""
+        Return a dictionary of list of points associated with the pieces
+        of the Rauzy fractal of ``self``.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        See the method :meth:`rauzy_fractal_plot` for a description
+        of the options and more examples.
+
+        OUTPUT: dictionary of list of points
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        The Rauzy fractal of the Tribonacci substitution and the number of
+        points in the piece of the fractal associated with ``'1'``, ``'2'``
+        and ``'3'`` are respectively::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->12,2->13,3->1')
+            sage: D = s.rauzy_fractal_points(n=100)
+            sage: len(D['1'])
+            54
+            sage: len(D['2'])
+            30
+            sage: len(D['3'])
+            16
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->12,2->13,3->1')
+            sage: D = s.rauzy_fractal_points(n=100, exchange=True,
+            ....:                            translate=[(3,1,-2), (5,-33,8)], prec=40)
+            sage: len(D['1'])
+            108
+
+        AUTHOR:
+
+            Timo Jolivet (2012-06-16)
+        """
+        alphabet = self.domain().alphabet()
+        canonical_basis_proj = self.rauzy_fractal_projection(eig=eig, prec=prec)
+
+        # if exchange, set the projection to its opposite
+        if exchange:
+            for a in canonical_basis_proj:
+                canonical_basis_proj[a] = - canonical_basis_proj[a]
+
+        # Compute a fixed point u
+        if exchange:
+            u = iter(self.reversal().periodic_points()[0][0])
+        else:
+            u = iter(self.periodic_points()[0][0])
+
+        # Manage various options in function of dimension
+        if n is None:
+            dim_fractal = len(canonical_basis_proj[alphabet[0]])
+            if dim_fractal == 1:
+                n = 1000
+            elif dim_fractal == 2:
+                n = 50000
+            elif dim_fractal == 3:
+                n = 5000
+            else:
+                n = 50000
+
+        # Compute orbit points to plot
+        S = 0
+        orbit_points = {a: [] for a in alphabet}
+        for _ in range(n):
+            a = next(u)
+            S += canonical_basis_proj[a]
+            orbit_points[a].append(S)
+
+        # Manage translated copies
+        from sage.rings.real_mpfr import RealField
+        RealField_prec = RealField(prec)
+        if translate is not None:
+
+            if isinstance(translate, dict):
+                for a in translate:
+                    translate[a] = [vector(RealField_prec, v) for v in translate[a]]
+
+            else:
+                translate = [vector(RealField_prec, v) for v in translate]
+
+            for a in alphabet:
+                translated_copies = {i: [] for i in alphabet}
+
+                if isinstance(translate, list):
+                    to_treat = translate
+
+                elif isinstance(translate, dict):
+                    try:
+                        to_treat = translate[a]
+                    except KeyError:
+                        to_treat = []
+
+                for x in to_treat:
+                    v = 0
+                    for i, z in zip(alphabet, x):
+                        v += z * canonical_basis_proj[i]
+                    translated_copies[a] += [vector(v) + w for w in orbit_points[a]]
+
+                orbit_points[a] = translated_copies[a]
+
+        return orbit_points
+
+    def rauzy_fractal_plot(self, n=None, exchange=False, eig=None,
+                           translate=None, prec=53,
+                           colormap='hsv', opacity=None, plot_origin=None,
+                           plot_basis=False, point_size=None):
+        r"""
+        Return a plot of the Rauzy fractal associated with a substitution.
+
+        The substitution does not have to be irreducible.
+        The usual definition of a Rauzy fractal requires that
+        its dominant eigenvalue is a Pisot number but the present method
+        doesn't require this, allowing to plot some interesting pictures
+        in the non-Pisot case (see the examples below).
+
+        For more details about the definition of the fractal and the
+        projection which is used, see Section 3.1 of [1].
+
+        Plots with less than 100,000 points take a few seconds,
+        and several millions of points can be plotted in reasonable time.
+
+        Other ways to draw Rauzy fractals (and more generally projections of paths)
+        can be found in :meth:`sage.combinat.words.paths.FiniteWordPath_all.plot_projection`
+        or in :meth:`sage.combinat.e_one_star`.
+
+        OUTPUT: a Graphics object
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``n`` -- integer (default: ``None``)
+          The number of points used to plot the fractal.
+          Default values: ``1000`` for a 1D fractal,
+          ``50000`` for a 2D fractal, ``10000`` for a 3D fractal.
+
+        - ``exchange`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); plot the Rauzy fractal
+          with domain exchange
+
+        - ``eig`` -- a real element of ``QQbar`` of degree >= 2 (default: ``None``);
+          the eigenvalue used to plot the fractal.
+          It must be an eigenvalue of ``self.incidence_matrix()``.
+          The one used by default the maximal eigenvalue of
+          ``self.incidence_matrix()`` (usually a Pisot number),
+          but for substitutions with more than 3 letters
+          other interesting choices are sometimes possible.
+
+        - ``translate`` -- list of vectors of ``RR^size_alphabet``,
+          or a dictionary from the alphabet to lists of vectors (default: ``None``).
+          Plot translated copies of the fractal.
+          This option allows to plot tilings easily.
+          The projection used for these vectors is the same as
+          the projection used for the canonical basis to plot the fractal.
+          If the input is a list, all the pieces will be translated and plotted.
+          If the input is a dictionary, each piece will be translated and plotted
+          accordingly to the vectors associated with each letter in the dictionary.
+          Note: by default, the Rauzy fractal placed at the origin
+          is not plotted with the ``translate`` option;
+          the vector ``(0,0,...,0)`` has to be added manually.
+
+        - ``prec`` -- integer (default: 53);
+          the number of bits used in the floating point representations
+          of the points of the fractal
+
+        - ``colormap`` -- color map or dictionary (default: ``'hsv'``).
+          It can be one of the following:
+
+           - ``string`` -- a coloring map. For available coloring map names type:
+             ``sorted(colormaps)``
+
+           - ``dict`` -- dictionary of the alphabet mapped to colors
+
+        - ``opacity`` -- dictionary from the alphabet to the real interval
+          [0,1] (default: ``None``); if none is specified, all letters are
+          plotted with opacity ``1``
+
+        - ``plot_origin`` -- a couple ``(k,c)`` (default: ``None``);
+          if specified, mark the origin by a point of size ``k`` and color ``c``
+
+        - ``plot_basis`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); plot the projection
+          of the canonical basis with the fractal
+
+        - ``point_size`` -- float (default: ``None``); the size of the points
+          used to plot the fractal
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        #. The Rauzy fractal of the Tribonacci substitution::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->12,2->13,3->1')
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot()        # long time                             # needs sage.plot
+            Graphics object consisting of 3 graphics primitives
+
+        #. The "Hokkaido" fractal. We tweak the plot using the plotting options
+           to get a nice reusable picture, in which we mark the origin by a black dot::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->c,c->d,d->e,e->a')
+            sage: G = s.rauzy_fractal_plot(n=100000, point_size=3,          # not tested
+            ....:                          plot_origin=(50,"black"))
+            sage: G.show(figsize=10, axes=false) # not tested
+
+        #. Another "Hokkaido" fractal and its domain exchange::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({1:[2], 2:[4,3], 3:[4], 4:[5,3], 5:[6], 6:[1]})
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot()                                    # not tested (> 1 second)
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(exchange=True)                       # not tested (> 1 second)
+
+        #. A three-dimensional Rauzy fractal::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->12,2->13,3->14,4->1')
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot()                                    # not tested (> 1 second)
+
+        #. A one-dimensional Rauzy fractal (very scattered)::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->2122,2->1')
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot().show(figsize=20)                   # not tested (> 1 second)
+
+        #. A high resolution plot of a complicated fractal::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->23,2->123,3->1122233')
+            sage: G = s.rauzy_fractal_plot(n=300000)                        # not tested (> 1 second)
+            sage: G.show(axes=false, figsize=20)                            # not tested (> 1 second)
+
+        #. A nice colorful animation of a domain exchange::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->21,2->3,3->4,4->25,5->6,6->7,7->1')
+            sage: L = [s.rauzy_fractal_plot(),                              # not tested (> 1 second)
+            ....:      s.rauzy_fractal_plot(exchange=True)]
+            sage: animate(L, axes=false).show(delay=100)                    # not tested (> 1 second)
+
+        #. Plotting with only one color::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->12,2->31,3->1')
+            sage: cm = {'1':'black', '2':'black', '3':'black'}
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(colormap=cm)                         # not tested (> 1 second)
+
+        #. Different fractals can be obtained by choosing another (non-Pisot) eigenvalue::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->12,2->3,3->45,4->5,5->6,6->7,7->8,8->1')
+            sage: E = s.incidence_matrix().eigenvalues()                                # needs sage.modules sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: x = [x for x in E if -0.8 < x < -0.7][0]                              # needs sage.modules sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot()                                    # not tested (> 1 second)
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(eig=x)                               # not tested (> 1 second)
+
+        #. A Pisot reducible substitution with seemingly overlapping tiles::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({1:[1,2], 2:[2,3], 3:[4], 4:[5], 5:[6],
+            ....:                   6:[7], 7:[8], 8:[9], 9:[10], 10:[1]})
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot()                                    # not tested (> 1 second)
+
+        #. A non-Pisot reducible substitution with a strange Rauzy fractal::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({1:[3,2], 2:[3,3], 3:[4], 4:[1]})
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot()                                    # not tested (> 1 second)
+
+        #. A substitution with overlapping tiles. We use the options
+           ``colormap`` and ``opacity`` to study how the tiles overlap::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->213,2->4,3->5,4->1,5->21')
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot()                                    # not tested (> 1 second)
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(colormap={'1':'red', '4':'purple'})  # not tested (> 1 second)
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(n=150000,                            # not tested (> 1 second)
+            ....:                      opacity={'1':0.1,'2':1,'3':0.1,'4':0.1,'5':0.1})
+
+        #. Funny experiments by playing with the precision of the float numbers used to plot the fractal::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->12,2->13,3->1')
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(prec=6)                              # not tested
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(prec=9)                              # not tested
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(prec=15)                             # not tested
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(prec=19)                             # not tested
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(prec=25)                             # not tested
+
+        #. Using the ``translate`` option to plot periodic tilings::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('1->12,2->13,3->1')
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(n=10000,                             # not tested (> 1 second)
+            ....:                      translate=[(0,0,0),(-1,0,1),(0,-1,1),(1,-1,0),
+            ....:                                 (1,0,-1),(0,1,-1),(-1,1,0)])
+
+           ::
+
+            sage: t = WordMorphism("a->aC,b->d,C->de,d->a,e->ab")   # substitution found by Julien Bernat
+            sage: V = [vector((0,0,1,0,-1)), vector((0,0,1,-1,0))]                      # needs sage.modules
+            sage: S = set(map(tuple, [i*V[0] + j*V[1]                                   # needs sage.modules
+            ....:                     for i in [-1,0,1] for j in [-1,0,1]]))
+            sage: t.rauzy_fractal_plot(n=10000,                             # not tested (> 1 second)
+            ....:                      translate=S, exchange=true)
+
+        #. Using the ``translate`` option to plot arbitrary tilings with the fractal pieces.
+           This can be used for example to plot the self-replicating tiling of the Rauzy fractal::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({1:[1,2], 2:[3], 3:[4,3], 4:[5], 5:[6], 6:[1]})
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot()                                    # not tested (> 1 second)
+            sage: D = {1: [(0,0,0,0,0,0), (0,1,0,0,0,0)],
+            ....:      3: [(0,0,0,0,0,0), (0,1,0,0,0,0)], 6: [(0,1,0,0,0,0)]}
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(n=30000, translate=D)                # not tested (> 1 second)
+
+        #. Plot the projection of the canonical basis with the fractal::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism({1:[2,1], 2:[3], 3:[6,4], 4:[5,1],
+            ....:                   5:[6], 6:[7], 7:[8], 8:[9], 9:[1]})
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(plot_basis=True)                     # not tested (> 1 second)
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->ab,b->c,c->d,d->e,e->a')
+            sage: s.rauzy_fractal_plot(n=1000, colormap='Set1',                         # needs sage.modules sage.plot
+            ....:                      opacity={'a':0.5,'b':1,'c':0.7,'d':0,'e':0.2},
+            ....:                      plot_origin=(100,"black"), plot_basis=True,
+            ....:                      point_size=2.5)
+            Graphics object consisting of 10 graphics primitives
+
+        REFERENCES:
+
+        - [1] Valerie Berthe and Anne Siegel,
+          Tilings associated with beta-numeration and substitutions,
+          Integers 5 (3), 2005.
+          http://www.integers-ejcnt.org/vol5-3.html
+
+        AUTHOR:
+
+            Timo Jolivet (2012-06-16)
+        """
+        alphabet = self.domain().alphabet()
+        size_alphabet = len(alphabet)
+
+        orbit_points = self.rauzy_fractal_points(n=n, exchange=exchange, eig=eig, translate=translate, prec=prec)
+
+        dim_fractal = len(orbit_points[alphabet[0]][0])
+
+        # Manage colors and opacity
+        if isinstance(colormap, dict):
+            col_dict = colormap
+
+        elif isinstance(colormap, str):
+            from matplotlib import cm
+
+            if colormap not in cm.datad:
+                raise RuntimeError("color map %s not known (type sorted(colors) for valid names)" % colormap)
+
+            colormap = cm.__dict__[colormap]
+            col_dict = {}
+            for i, a in enumerate(alphabet):
+                col_dict[a] = colormap(float(i) / float(size_alphabet))[:3]
+
+        else:
+            raise TypeError("type of option colormap (=%s) must be dict or str" % colormap)
+
+        if opacity is None:
+            opacity = {a: 1 for a in alphabet}
+
+        elif not isinstance(opacity, dict):
+            raise TypeError("type of option opacity (=%s) must be dict" % opacity)
+
+        # Plot points size
+        if point_size is None:
+            if dim_fractal == 1 or dim_fractal == 2:
+                point_size = 1
+            elif dim_fractal == 3:
+                point_size = 8
+
+        # Make graphics
+        from sage.plot.plot import Graphics
+        G = Graphics()
+
+        from sage.plot.point import points
+
+        # 1D plots
+        if dim_fractal == 1:
+            from sage.plot.plot import plot
+            for a in col_dict:
+                # We plot only the points with a color in col_dict and with positive opacity
+                if (a in col_dict) and (opacity[a] > 0):
+                    G += plot([x[0] for x in orbit_points[a]], color=col_dict[a], alpha=opacity[a], thickness=point_size)
+            if plot_basis:
+                from matplotlib import cm
+                from sage.plot.arrow import arrow
+                canonical_basis_proj = self.rauzy_fractal_projection(eig=eig, prec=prec)
+                for i, a in enumerate(alphabet):
+                    x = canonical_basis_proj[a]
+                    G += arrow((-1.1, 0), (-1.1, x[0]),
+                               color=cm.__dict__["gist_gray"](0.75 * float(i) / float(size_alphabet))[:3])
+
+        # 2D or 3D plots
+        else:
+            if point_size is None and dim_fractal == 2:
+                point_size = 1
+            elif point_size is None and dim_fractal == 3:
+                point_size = 8
+
+            for a in col_dict:
+                # We plot only the points with a color in col_dict and with positive opacity
+                if (a in col_dict) and (opacity[a] > 0):
+                    G += points(orbit_points[a], color=col_dict[a], alpha=opacity[a], size=point_size)
+
+            if plot_basis:
+                from matplotlib import cm
+                from sage.plot.arrow import arrow
+                canonical_basis_proj = self.rauzy_fractal_projection(eig=eig, prec=prec)
+                for i, a in enumerate(alphabet):
+                    x = canonical_basis_proj[a]
+                    G += arrow([0] * dim_fractal, x,
+                               color=cm.__dict__["gist_gray"](0.75 * float(i) / float(size_alphabet))[:3])
+
+        if plot_origin:
+            G += points([(0, 0)], size=plot_origin[0], color=plot_origin[1])
+
+        if dim_fractal == 1 or dim_fractal == 2:
+            G.set_aspect_ratio(1)
+
+        return G
+
+    def is_growing(self, letter=None):
+        r"""
+        Return ``True`` if ``letter`` is a growing letter.
+
+        A letter `a` is *growing* for the morphism `s` if the length of the
+        iterates of `| s^n(a) |` tend to infinity as `n` goes to infinity.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``letter`` -- ``None`` or a letter in the domain of ``self``
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            If letter is ``None``, this returns ``True`` if ``self`` is
+            everywhere growing, i.e., all letters are growing letters (see
+            [CassNic10]_), and that ``self`` **must** be an endomorphism.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->01,1->1').is_growing('0')
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->01,1->1').is_growing('1')
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->01,1->10').is_growing()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->1,1->2,2->01').is_growing()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->01,1->1').is_growing()
+            False
+
+        The domain needs to be equal to the codomain::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->01,1->0,2->1',codomain=Words('012')).is_growing()
+            True
+
+        Test of erasing morphisms::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->01,1->').is_growing('0')
+            False
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->bc,b->bcc,c->',codomain=Words('abc'))
+            sage: m.is_growing('a')
+            False
+            sage: m.is_growing('b')
+            False
+            sage: m.is_growing('c')
+            False
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Make sure that :issue:`31454` is fixed::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->a').is_growing('a')
+            False
+
+        REFERENCES:
+
+        ..  [CassNic10] Cassaigne J., Nicolas F. Factor complexity.
+            Combinatorics, automata and number theory, 163--247, Encyclopedia
+            Math. Appl., 135, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 2010.
+        """
+        if not letter:
+            return self.domain().alphabet().cardinality() == len(self.growing_letters())
+        else:
+            return letter in self.growing_letters()
+
+    def growing_letters(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the list of growing letters.
+
+        See :meth:`.is_growing` for more information.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->01,1->10').growing_letters()
+            ['0', '1']
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->01,1->1').growing_letters()
+            ['0']
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->01,1->0,2->1',codomain=Words('012')).growing_letters()
+            ['0', '1', '2']
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->b,b->a').growing_letters()
+            []
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->b,b->c,c->d,d->c', codomain=Words('abcd')).growing_letters()
+            []
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        Make sure that :issue:`31454` is fixed::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->a').growing_letters()
+            []
+        """
+        # Remove letters that vanish, ie sigma^n(letter) is ultimately empty
+        immortal = set(self.immortal_letters())
+        new_morph = {x: [z for z in self._morph[x] if z in immortal] for x in immortal}
+
+        # Remove cycles of letters
+        graph_one = {x: y[0] for x, y in new_morph.items() if len(y) == 1}
+        no_loops = set(new_morph)
+        for cycle in get_cycles(graph_one.__getitem__, graph_one):
+            no_loops.difference_update(cycle)
+        new_morph = {x: [z for z in new_morph[x] if z in no_loops] for x in no_loops}
+
+        # NOTE: here we should actually be using the domain made of the
+        # remaining letters in new_morph. However, building the corresponding
+        # alphabet and finite words cost much more time than using the same
+        # domain. Instead we just erase the corresponding letters.
+        for a in self._domain.alphabet():
+            if a not in new_morph:
+                new_morph[a] = self._codomain()
+
+        # Remove letters ending in a cycle
+        new_morph = WordMorphism(new_morph, domain=self.domain(), codomain=self.codomain())
+        return new_morph.immortal_letters()
+
+    def immortal_letters(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the list of immortal letters.
+
+        A letter `a` is *immortal* for the morphism `s` if the length of the
+        iterates of `| s^n(a) |` is larger than zero as `n` goes to infinity.
+
+        Requires this morphism to be self-composable.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->a').immortal_letters()
+            ['a']
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->b,b->a').immortal_letters()
+            ['a', 'b']
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->abcd,b->cd,c->dd,d->').immortal_letters()
+            ['a']
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->bc,b->cac,c->de,d->,e->').immortal_letters()
+            ['a', 'b']
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->', domain=Words('a'), codomain=Words('a')).immortal_letters()
+            []
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->').immortal_letters()
+            []
+        """
+        if not self.is_self_composable():
+            raise TypeError(f'self ({self}) is not a self-composable')
+
+        forward = {}
+        backward = {letter: set() for letter in self._morph}
+        stack = []
+        for letter, image in self._morph.items():
+            if not image:
+                stack.append(letter)
+                forward[letter] = set()
+            else:
+                simage = set(image)
+                forward[letter] = simage
+                for occurrence in simage:
+                    backward[occurrence].add(letter)
+
+        while stack:
+            letter = stack.pop()
+            for preimage in backward[letter]:
+                forward[preimage].remove(letter)
+                if not forward[preimage]:
+                    stack.append(preimage)
+            del forward[letter]
+            del backward[letter]
+
+        return sorted(forward, key=self.domain().alphabet().rank)
+
+    def letter_growth_types(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the mortal, polynomial and exponential growing letters.
+
+        The growth of `| s^n(a) |` as `n` goes to `\infty` is always of the
+        form `\alpha^n n^\beta` (where `\alpha` is a Perron number and
+        `\beta` an integer).
+
+        Without doing any linear algebra three cases can be differentiated:
+        mortal (ultimately empty or `\alpha=0`); polynomial (`\alpha=1`);
+        exponential (`\alpha > 1`). This is what is done in this method.
+
+        It requires this morphism to be an endomorphism.
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        The output is a 3-tuple of lists (mortal, polynomial, exponential)
+        where:
+
+        - ``mortal`` -- list of mortal letters
+        - ``polynomial`` -- list of lists where ``polynomial[i]`` is the
+          list of letters with growth `n^i`
+        - ``exponential`` -- list of at least exponentionally growing letters
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->abc,b->bc,c->c')
+            sage: mortal, poly, expo = s.letter_growth_types()
+            sage: mortal
+            []
+            sage: poly
+            [['c'], ['b'], ['a']]
+            sage: expo
+            []
+
+        When three mortal letters (c, d, and e), and two letters (a, b) are
+        not growing::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->bc,b->cac,c->de,d->,e->')
+            sage: s^20
+            WordMorphism: a->cacde, b->debcde, c->, d->, e->
+            sage: mortal, poly, expo = s.letter_growth_types()
+            sage: mortal
+            ['c', 'd', 'e']
+            sage: poly
+            [['a', 'b']]
+            sage: expo
+            []
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->abcd,b->bc,c->c,d->a')
+            sage: mortal, poly, expo = s.letter_growth_types()
+            sage: mortal
+            []
+            sage: poly
+            [['c'], ['b']]
+            sage: expo
+            ['a', 'd']
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->a')
+            sage: s.letter_growth_types()
+            ([], [['a']], [])
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->b,b->a')
+            sage: s.letter_growth_types()
+            ([], [['a', 'b']], [])
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->abcd,b->cd,c->dd,d->')
+            sage: s.letter_growth_types()
+            (['b', 'c', 'd'], [['a']], [])
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: s = WordMorphism('a->', domain=Words('a'), codomain=Words('a'))
+            sage: s.letter_growth_types()
+            (['a'], [], [])
+        """
+        immortal = set(self.immortal_letters())
+        mortal = [a for a in self.domain().alphabet()
+                  if a not in immortal]
+
+        # Starting with degree d=0, search for letters with polynomial
+        # growth of degree d.
+        polynomial = []
+        m = {a: [b for b in self.image(a) if b in immortal] for a in immortal}
+        while True:
+            # Construct the permutation of letters containing all letters whose
+            # iterated images under morphism m is always of length 1.
+            not_growing = {a: image_a[0] for a, image_a in m.items()
+                           if len(image_a) == 1}
+            preimages = {}
+            roots = []
+            for k, v in not_growing.items():
+                if v not in not_growing:
+                    roots.append(v)
+                if v not in preimages:
+                    preimages[v] = []
+                preimages[v].append(k)
+
+            while roots:
+                v = roots.pop()
+                for k in preimages.get(v):
+                    del not_growing[k]
+                    if k in preimages:
+                        roots.append(k)
+
+            # The letters inside not_growing are the ones with polynomial
+            # growth d. If there is none, then the remaining letters in m
+            # have exponential growth.
+            if not not_growing:
+                break
+            polynomial.append(list(not_growing))
+
+            # clean the morphism m for the next iteration by removing the
+            # letters with polynomial growth degree d
+            m = {a: [b for b in L if b not in not_growing] for a, L in m.items()
+                 if a not in not_growing}
+
+        exponential = list(m)
+
+        # sort the letters as in the input alphabet if possible
+        A = self.domain().alphabet()
+        try:
+            rank = A.rank
+        except AttributeError:
+            pass
+        else:
+            mortal.sort(key=rank)
+            for letters in polynomial:
+                letters.sort(key=rank)
+            exponential.sort(key=rank)
+
+        return mortal, polynomial, exponential
+
+    def abelian_rotation_subspace(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the subspace on which the incidence matrix of ``self`` acts by
+        roots of unity.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.libs.pari sage.modules
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->1,1->0').abelian_rotation_subspace()
+            Vector space of degree 2 and dimension 2 over Rational Field
+            Basis matrix:
+            [1 0]
+            [0 1]
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->01,1->10').abelian_rotation_subspace()
+            Vector space of degree 2 and dimension 0 over Rational Field
+            Basis matrix:
+            []
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->01,1->1').abelian_rotation_subspace()
+            Vector space of degree 2 and dimension 1 over Rational Field
+            Basis matrix:
+            [0 1]
+            sage: WordMorphism('1->122,2->211').abelian_rotation_subspace()
+            Vector space of degree 2 and dimension 1 over Rational Field
+            Basis matrix:
+            [ 1 -1]
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->1,1->102,2->3,3->4,4->2').abelian_rotation_subspace()
+            Vector space of degree 5 and dimension 3 over Rational Field
+            Basis matrix:
+            [0 0 1 0 0]
+            [0 0 0 1 0]
+            [0 0 0 0 1]
+
+        The domain needs to be equal to the codomain::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('0->1,1->',codomain=Words('01')).abelian_rotation_subspace()         # needs sage.libs.pari sage.modules
+            Vector space of degree 2 and dimension 0 over Rational Field
+            Basis matrix:
+            []
+        """
+        if not self.domain() == self.codomain():
+            raise TypeError("self (=%s) is not an endomorphism" % self)
+
+        if self.domain().alphabet().cardinality() == Infinity:
+            raise ValueError("the alphabet is infinite")
+
+        M = self.incidence_matrix()
+        p = M.charpoly().factor()
+        basis = []
+        for factor in p:
+            if factor[0].is_cyclotomic():
+                basis.extend((factor[0])(M).right_kernel().basis())
+
+        return M.column_ambient_module(base_ring=QQ).subspace(basis)
+
+    def is_injective(self):
+        """
+        Return whether this morphism is injective.
+
+        ALGORITHM:
+
+        Uses a version of :wikipedia:`Sardinas–Patterson_algorithm`.
+        Time complexity is on average quadratic with regards to the size of the
+        morphism.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->0,b->10,c->110,d->111').is_injective()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->00,b->01,c->012,d->20001').is_injective()
+            False
+        """
+        def check(u, v):
+            if u.is_prefix(v):
+                tail = v[u.length():]
+                if tail not in tails:
+                    tails.add(tail)
+                    todo.append(tail)
+
+        if self.is_erasing():
+            return False
+        images = self.images()
+        tails = set()
+        todo = []
+
+        for i in range(len(images)):
+            for j in range(i + 1, len(images)):
+                if images[i] == images[j]:
+                    return False
+                check(images[i], images[j])
+                check(images[j], images[i])
+        while todo:
+            u = todo.pop()
+            for v in images:
+                if u == v:
+                    return False
+                check(u, v)
+                check(v, u)
+
+        return True
+
+    def is_pushy(self, w=None):
+        r"""
+        Return whether the language `\{m^n(w) | n \ge 0\}` is pushy,
+        where `m` is this morphism and `w` is a word inputted as a parameter.
+
+        Requires this morphism to be an endomorphism.
+
+        A language created by iterating a morphism is pushy, if its words
+        contain an infinite number of factors containing no growing letters. It
+        turns out that this is equivalent to having at least one infinite
+        repetition containing no growing letters.
+
+        See :meth:`infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots` and :meth:`is_growing`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``w`` -- finite iterable (default: ``self.domain().alphabet()``);
+          represents a word used to start the language
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->abca,b->bc,c->').is_pushy()
+            False
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->abc,b->,c->bcb').is_pushy()
+            True
+        """
+        return bool(self.infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots(w, False))
+
+    def is_unboundedly_repetitive(self, w=None):
+        r"""
+        Return whether the language `\{m^n(w) | n \ge 0\}` is unboundedly repetitive,
+        where `m` is this morphism and `w` is a word inputted as a parameter.
+
+        Requires this morphism to be an endomorphism.
+
+        A language created by iterating a morphism is unboundedly repetitive, if
+        it has at least one infinite repetition containing at least one growing
+        letter.
+
+        See :meth:`infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots` and :meth:`is_growing`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``w`` -- finite iterable (default: ``self.domain().alphabet()``);
+          represents a word used to start the language
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->abca,b->bc,c->').is_unboundedly_repetitive()
+            True
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->abc,b->,c->bcb').is_unboundedly_repetitive()
+            False
+        """
+        return bool(self.infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots(w, True))
+
+    def is_repetitive(self, w=None):
+        r"""
+        Return whether the language `\{m^n(w) | n \ge 0\}` is repetitive,
+        where `m` is this morphism and `w` is a word inputted as a parameter.
+
+        Requires this morphism to be an endomorphism.
+
+        A language is repetitive, if for each positive integer `k` there exists
+        a word `u` such that `u^k` is a factor of some word of the language.
+
+        It turns out that for languages created by iterating a morphism this is
+        equivalent to having at least one infinite repetition (this property is
+        also known as strong repetitiveness).
+
+        See :meth:`infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``w`` -- finite iterable (default: ``self.domain().alphabet()``);
+          represents a word used to start the language
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        This method can be used to check whether a purely morphic word is not
+        k-power free for all positive integers k. For example, the language
+        containing just the Thue-Morse word and its prefixes is not repetitive,
+        since the Thue-Morse word is cube-free::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->ab,b->ba').is_repetitive('a')
+            False
+
+        Similarly, the Hanoi word is square-free::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->aC,A->ac,b->cB,B->cb,c->bA,C->ba').is_repetitive('a')
+            False
+
+        However, this method solves a more general problem, as it can be called
+        on any morphism `m` and with any word `w`::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->c,b->cda,c->a,d->abc').is_repetitive('bd')
+            True
+        """
+        return self.is_pushy(w) or self.is_unboundedly_repetitive(w)
+
+    def infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots(self, w=None, allow_growing=None):
+        r"""
+        Return the set of primitive roots (up to conjugacy) of infinite
+        repetitions from the language `\{m^n(w) | n \ge 0\}`, where `m` is this
+        morphism and `w` is a word inputted as a parameter.
+
+        Requires this morphism to be an endomorphism.
+
+        The word `v^\omega` is an infinite repetition (in other words, an
+        infinite periodic factor) of a language, if `v` is a non-empty word and
+        for each positive integer `k` the word `v^k` is a factor of some word
+        from the language. It turns out that a language created by iterating a
+        morphism has a finite number of primitive roots of infinite repetitions.
+
+        If `v` is a primitive root of an infinite repetition, then all its
+        conjugations are also primitive roots of an infinite repetition. For
+        simplicity's sake this method returns only the lexicographically minimal
+        one from each conjugacy class.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``w`` -- finite iterable (default: ``self.domain().alphabet()``);
+          represents a word used to start the language
+
+        - ``allow_growing`` -- boolean or ``None`` (default: ``None``); if
+          ``False``, return only the primitive roots that contain no growing
+          letters. If ``True``, return only the primitive roots that contain at
+          least one growing letter. If ``None``, return both.
+
+        ALGORITHM:
+
+        The algorithm used is described in detail in [KS2015]_.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->aba,b->aba,c->cd,d->e,e->d')
+            sage: inf_reps = m.infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots('ac')
+            sage: sorted(inf_reps)
+            [word: aab, word: de]
+
+        ``allow_growing`` parameter::
+
+            sage: sorted(m.infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots('ac', True))
+            [word: aab]
+            sage: sorted(m.infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots('ac', False))
+            [word: de]
+
+        Incomplete check that these words are indeed the primitive roots of
+        infinite repetitions::
+
+            sage: SL = m._language_naive(10, Word('ac'))
+            sage: all(x in SL for x in inf_reps)
+            True
+            sage: all(x^2 in SL for x in inf_reps)
+            True
+            sage: all(x^3 in SL for x in inf_reps)
+            True
+
+        Large example::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->1b5,b->fcg,c->dae,d->432,e->678,f->f,g->g,1->2,2->3,3->4,4->1,5->6,6->7,7->8,8->5')
+            sage: sorted(m.infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots('a'))
+            [word: 1432f2143f3214f4321f, word: 5678g8567g7856g6785g]
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->Cab,b->1c1,c->E2bd5,d->BbaA,5->6,6->7,7->8,8->9,9->5,1->2,2->1,A->B,B->C,C->D,D->E,E->')
+            sage: sorted(m.infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots())
+            [word: 1, word: 1519181716, word: 2, word: 2529282726]
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->b,b->b', codomain=FiniteWords('ab'))
+            sage: m.infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots()
+            set()
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('c->d,d->c,e->fc,f->ed')
+            sage: sorted(m.infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots())
+            [word: c, word: d]
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->bcb,b->ada,c->d,d->c')
+            sage: sorted(m.infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots())
+            [word: ad, word: bc]
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('b->c,c->bcb')
+            sage: sorted(m.infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots())
+            [word: bc]
+
+            sage: m = WordMorphism('a->abc,b->dab,c->abc,d->dab')
+            sage: sorted(m.infinite_repetitions_primitive_roots())
+            [word: ababcd]
+        """
+        def impl_no_growing(g, k):
+            U = {}
+            for x in unbounded:
+                xg = g.image(x)
+                for i, y in enumerate(reversed(xg)):
+                    if y in unbounded:
+                        break
+                U[x] = y, xg[xg.length() - i:]
+            for cycle in get_cycles(lambda x: U[x][0], domain=unbounded):
+                if all(not U[x][1] for x in cycle):
+                    continue
+                gq = gb**len(cycle)
+                for cyc in g.domain()(cycle).conjugates_iterator():
+                    u = g.domain()()
+                    for x in cyc:
+                        u = U[x][1] + gb(u)
+                    inf_rep = g.domain()()
+                    history = set()
+                    while u not in history:
+                        history.add(u)
+                        inf_rep += u
+                        u = gq(u)
+                    yield k(inf_rep.primitive()).primitive()
+
+        if w is None:
+            w = self._morph
+        reach = self._language_naive(2, self._domain(w))
+        f = self.restrict_domain([x[0] for x in reach])
+        f._codomain = f._domain
+        g, _, k, _ = f.simplify_until_injective()
+        g._codomain = g._domain
+        unbounded = set(g.growing_letters())
+        result = set()
+
+        if allow_growing is not True:
+            gb = g.restrict_domain(set(g._morph) - unbounded)
+            for x in impl_no_growing(g, k):  # UR.
+                result.add(x.minimal_conjugate())
+            for x in impl_no_growing(g.reversal(), k.reversal()):  # UL.
+                result.add(self.domain()(reversed(x)).minimal_conjugate())
+
+        if allow_growing is not False:
+            for periodic_orbit in g.periodic_points():
+                gq = g**len(periodic_orbit)
+                for periodic_point in periodic_orbit:
+                    # Check if this periodic point is a periodic infinite word.
+                    periodic_point = periodic_point[:1]
+                    occurred = set(periodic_point)
+                    one_unbounded_twice = False
+                    for _ in g.domain().alphabet():
+                        previous_length = periodic_point.length()
+                        periodic_point = gq(periodic_point)
+                        for i, letter in enumerate(periodic_point[previous_length:]):
+                            if letter in unbounded:
+                                if letter in occurred:
+                                    one_unbounded_twice = True
+                                    break
+                                occurred.add(letter)
+                        if one_unbounded_twice:
+                            break
+                    if not one_unbounded_twice or letter != periodic_point[0]:
+                        break
+                    v = periodic_point[:previous_length + i]
+                    vq = gq(v)
+                    m = 0
+                    while vq[m * v.length(): (m + 1) * v.length()] == v:
+                        m += 1
+                    if m * v.length() != vq.length():
+                        break
+                    result.add(k(v).primitive().minimal_conjugate())
+
+        return result
+
+    def simplify_alphabet_size(self, Z=None):
+        r"""
+        If this morphism is simplifiable, return morphisms `h` and `k` such that
+        this morphism is simplifiable with respect to `h` and `k`, otherwise
+        raise :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+        This method is quite fast if this morphism is non-injective, but very
+        slow if it is injective.
+
+        Let `f: X^* \rightarrow Y^*` be a morphism. Then `f` is simplifiable
+        with respect to morphisms `h: X^* \rightarrow Z^*` and
+        `k: Z^* \rightarrow Y^*`, if `f = k \circ h` and `|Z| < |X|`. If also
+        `Y \subseteq X`, then the morphism `g: Z^* \rightarrow Z^* = h \circ k`
+        is a simplification of `f` (with respect to `h` and `k`).
+
+        Loosely speaking, a morphism is simplifiable if it contains "more letters
+        than is needed". Non-injectivity implies simplifiability. Simplification
+        preserves some properties of the original morphism (e.g. repetitiveness).
+
+        For more information see Section 3 in [KO2000]_.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``Z`` -- iterable (default: ``self.domain().alphabet()``) whose
+          elements are used as an alphabet for the simplification
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Example of a simplifiable (non-injective) morphism::
+
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->aca,b->badc,c->acab,d->adc')
+            sage: h, k = f.simplify_alphabet_size('xyz'); h, k
+            (WordMorphism: a->x, b->zy, c->xz, d->y, WordMorphism: x->aca, y->adc, z->b)
+            sage: k * h == f
+            True
+            sage: g = h * k; g
+            WordMorphism: x->xxzx, y->xyxz, z->zy
+
+        Example of a simplifiable (injective) morphism::
+
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->abcc,b->abcd,c->abdc,d->abdd')
+            sage: h, k = f.simplify_alphabet_size('xyz'); h, k
+            (WordMorphism: a->xyy, b->xyz, c->xzy, d->xzz, WordMorphism: x->ab, y->c, z->d)
+            sage: k * h == f
+            True
+            sage: g = h * k; g
+            WordMorphism: x->xyyxyz, y->xzy, z->xzz
+
+        Example of a non-simplifiable morphism::
+
+            sage: WordMorphism('a->aa').simplify_alphabet_size()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: self (a->aa) is not simplifiable
+
+        Example of an erasing morphism::
+
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->abc,b->cc,c->')
+            sage: h, k = f.simplify_alphabet_size(); h, k
+            (WordMorphism: a->a, b->b, c->, WordMorphism: a->abc, b->cc)
+            sage: k * h == f
+            True
+            sage: g = h * k; g
+            WordMorphism: a->ab, b->
+
+        Example of a morphism, that is not an endomorphism::
+
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->xx,b->xy,c->yx,d->yy')
+            sage: h, k = f.simplify_alphabet_size(NN); h, k
+            (WordMorphism: a->00, b->01, c->10, d->11, WordMorphism: 0->x, 1->y)
+            sage: k * h == f
+            True
+            sage: len(k.domain().alphabet()) < len(f.domain().alphabet())
+            True
+        """
+        def try_create_h(f, k):
+            h = {}
+            for letter1, image1 in f.items():
+                image3 = []
+                while image1:
+                    for letter2, image2 in k.items():
+                        if image2.is_prefix(image1):
+                            image1 = image1[image2.length():]
+                            image3.append(letter2)
+                            break
+                    else:  # nobreak
+                        return None
+                h[letter1] = image3
+            return h
+
+        X = self.domain().alphabet()
+        Y = self.codomain().alphabet()
+        f = self._morph
+
+        if self.is_erasing():  # Trivial case #1.
+            k = {letter: image for letter, image in f.items() if image}
+            h = {letter: [letter] if image else [] for letter, image in f.items()}
+        elif len(Y) < len(X):  # Trivial case #2.
+            k = {x: [y] for x, y in zip(X, Y)}
+            k_inverse = dict(zip(Y, X))
+            h = {x: [k_inverse[y] for y in image] for x, image in f.items()}
+        elif not self.is_injective():  # Non-trivial but a fast case.
+            k = dict(f)
+            to_do = set(k)
+            while to_do:
+                to_remove = []
+                # min() and remove() instead of pop() to have deterministic output.
+                letter1 = min(to_do)
+                to_do.remove(letter1)
+                image1 = k[letter1]
+                for letter2, image2 in k.items():
+                    if letter1 == letter2:
+                        continue
+                    if image1 == image2:
+                        to_remove.append(letter2)
+                        to_do.discard(letter2)
+                    elif image1.is_prefix(image2):
+                        k[letter2] = image2[image1.length():]
+                        to_do.add(letter2)
+                    elif image2.is_prefix(image1):
+                        k[letter1] = image1[image2.length():]
+                        to_do.add(letter1)
+                        break
+                for letter in to_remove:
+                    del k[letter]
+            h = try_create_h(f, k)
+        else:  # Non-trivial and a slow case.
+            factors = set()
+            for image in f.values():
+                factors.update(x.primitive() for x in image.factor_iterator())
+            factors.remove(self.codomain()())
+            factors = sorted(factors)  # For deterministic output.
+            from itertools import combinations
+            for comb in combinations(factors, len(X) - 1):
+                if any(x.is_proper_prefix(y) for x in comb for y in comb):
+                    continue
+                k = dict(zip(X, comb))
+                h = try_create_h(f, k)
+                if h:
+                    break
+            else:  # nobreak
+                raise ValueError(f'self ({self}) is not simplifiable')
+
+        k = WordMorphism(k, codomain=self.codomain())
+        h = WordMorphism(h, domain=self.domain(), codomain=k.domain())
+
+        if Z is not None:  # Custom alphabet.
+            old_Z_star = k.domain()
+            old_Z = old_Z_star.alphabet()
+            Z = [z for z, _ in zip(Z, old_Z)]
+            if len(Z) < len(old_Z):
+                raise ValueError(f'Z should have length at least {len(old_Z)}, is {len(Z)}')
+            Z_star = FiniteWords(Z)
+            h_new = {old: [new] for old, new in zip(old_Z, Z)}
+            k_new = {new: [old] for new, old in zip(Z, old_Z)}
+            h_new = WordMorphism(h_new, domain=old_Z_star, codomain=Z_star)
+            k_new = WordMorphism(k_new, domain=Z_star, codomain=old_Z_star)
+            h = h_new * h
+            k = k * k_new
+
+        return h, k
+
+    def simplify_until_injective(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a quadruplet `(g, h, k, i)`, where `g` is an injective
+        simplification of this morphism with respect to `h`, `k` and `i`.
+
+        Requires this morphism to be an endomorphism.
+
+        This methods basically calls :meth:`simplify_alphabet_size` until the
+        returned simplification is injective. If this morphism is already
+        injective, a quadruplet `(g, h, k, i)` is still returned, where `g`
+        is this morphism, `h` and `k` are the identity morphisms and `i` is 0.
+
+        Let `f: X^* \rightarrow Y^*` be a morphism and `Y \subseteq X`. Then
+        `g: Z^* \rightarrow Z^*` is an injective simplification of `f` with
+        respect to morphisms `h: X^* \rightarrow Z^*` and
+        `k: Z^* \rightarrow Y^*` and a positive integer `i`, if `g` is
+        injective, `|Z| < |X|`, `g^i = h \circ k` and `f^i = k \circ h`.
+
+        For more information see Section 4 in [KO2000]_.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: f = WordMorphism('a->abc,b->a,c->bc')
+            sage: g, h, k, i = f.simplify_until_injective(); g, h, k, i
+            (WordMorphism: a->aa, WordMorphism: a->aa, b->a, c->a, WordMorphism: a->abc, 2)
+            sage: g.is_injective()
+            True
+            sage: g**i == h * k
+            True
+            sage: f**i == k * h
+            True
+        """
+        if not self.is_endomorphism():
+            raise TypeError(f'self ({self}) is not an endomorphism')
+
+        g = self
+        h = self.domain().identity_morphism()
+        k = self.codomain().identity_morphism()
+        i = 0
+        while not g.is_injective():
+            h_new, k_new = g.simplify_alphabet_size()
+            g, h, k, i = h_new * k_new, h_new * h, k * k_new, i + 1
+        return g, h, k, i