@oriro/orirocli 0.1.9 → 0.1.11

package/skills/engineering/eng-mechanical/SKILL.md

@@ -1,66 +1,66 @@
----
-watermark: ORIRO
-disable-model-invocation: true
-name: eng-mechanical
-provider: ORIRO.ai
-copyright: Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
-description: >
-  Mechanical engineering — thermodynamics, mechanics, machine design, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, materials, and manufacturing processes.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-  Sources: MIT OCW, ASME principles, OSHA, engineering textbook fundamentals.
-  Consult a licensed professional engineer for safety-critical calculations.
----
-
-# Mechanical Engineering Fundamentals
-
-## Statics — forces in equilibrium
-
-**Conditions for static equilibrium:** Sum of all forces = 0; Sum of all moments = 0.
-Free body diagram: Isolate the body, draw all forces acting on it.
-Moment = Force × Perpendicular distance. Units: N·m or lb·ft.
-
-## Thermodynamics
-
-**First Law:** Energy cannot be created or destroyed; only converted.
-Q - W = ΔU (Heat added - Work done = Change in internal energy)
-**Second Law:** Heat flows spontaneously from hot to cold. Entropy of a closed system increases.
-**Efficiency of heat engine:** η = W/Q_H = (T_H - T_C)/T_H (Carnot, ideal maximum)
-**Key processes:** Isothermal (constant T), Adiabatic (no heat transfer), Isobaric (constant pressure), Isochoric (constant volume).
-
-## Material mechanics
-
-**Stress = Force/Area.** σ = F/A (Units: Pa or psi)
-**Strain = Deformation/Original length.** ε = ΔL/L (dimensionless)
-**Elastic modulus (Young's Modulus):** E = σ/ε (slope of linear stress-strain curve)
-Steel: ~200 GPa. Aluminum: ~70 GPa. Concrete: ~30 GPa.
-**Yield strength:** Stress at which permanent deformation begins.
-**Factor of safety:** Yield strength / Working stress. Typical: 2-4 for static loads.
-
-## Fluid mechanics
-
-**Bernoulli's principle:** P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant (along streamline, incompressible, inviscid)
-Faster flow = lower pressure. Explains lift, atomizers, carburetors.
-**Continuity equation:** A₁V₁ = A₂V₂ (conservation of mass in incompressible flow)
-**Reynolds number:** Re = ρvD/μ. Re < 2,300: laminar. Re > 4,000: turbulent.
-
-## Heat transfer
-
-**Conduction:** Q = kA(ΔT)/Δx (k = thermal conductivity, A = area, ΔT = temp diff, Δx = thickness)
-**Convection:** Q = hAΔT (h = convection coefficient)
-**Radiation:** Q = εσAT⁴ (σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, ε = emissivity)
-Thermal resistance analogy: Resistances in series add like electrical resistors.
-
-## Machine design
-
-**Shaft design:** Account for bending, torsion, and combined loading. Use von Mises criterion for combined stress.
-**Fatigue:** Cyclic loading causes failure below yield strength. S-N curve shows stress vs. cycles to failure.
-Endurance limit: Maximum stress for infinite life (~0.5 × ultimate tensile strength for steel).
-**Bearings:** Rolling element (ball, roller) for high speed. Sleeve/journal for heavy loads, low speed.
-**Gear design:** Pitch, module, pressure angle. Interference if too few teeth. Gear ratio = driven/driver teeth.
-
-Sources: MIT OCW 2.001 Mechanics, Beer & Johnston Mechanics of Materials (principles), Cengel Thermodynamics (principles)
+---
+watermark: ORIRO
+disable-model-invocation: true
+name: eng-mechanical
+provider: ORIRO.ai
+copyright: Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
+description: >
+  Mechanical engineering — thermodynamics, mechanics, machine design, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, materials, and manufacturing processes.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  Sources: MIT OCW, ASME principles, OSHA, engineering textbook fundamentals.
+  Consult a licensed professional engineer for safety-critical calculations.
+---
+
+# Mechanical Engineering Fundamentals
+
+## Statics — forces in equilibrium
+
+**Conditions for static equilibrium:** Sum of all forces = 0; Sum of all moments = 0.
+Free body diagram: Isolate the body, draw all forces acting on it.
+Moment = Force × Perpendicular distance. Units: N·m or lb·ft.
+
+## Thermodynamics
+
+**First Law:** Energy cannot be created or destroyed; only converted.
+Q - W = ΔU (Heat added - Work done = Change in internal energy)
+**Second Law:** Heat flows spontaneously from hot to cold. Entropy of a closed system increases.
+**Efficiency of heat engine:** η = W/Q_H = (T_H - T_C)/T_H (Carnot, ideal maximum)
+**Key processes:** Isothermal (constant T), Adiabatic (no heat transfer), Isobaric (constant pressure), Isochoric (constant volume).
+
+## Material mechanics
+
+**Stress = Force/Area.** σ = F/A (Units: Pa or psi)
+**Strain = Deformation/Original length.** ε = ΔL/L (dimensionless)
+**Elastic modulus (Young's Modulus):** E = σ/ε (slope of linear stress-strain curve)
+Steel: ~200 GPa. Aluminum: ~70 GPa. Concrete: ~30 GPa.
+**Yield strength:** Stress at which permanent deformation begins.
+**Factor of safety:** Yield strength / Working stress. Typical: 2-4 for static loads.
+
+## Fluid mechanics
+
+**Bernoulli's principle:** P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant (along streamline, incompressible, inviscid)
+Faster flow = lower pressure. Explains lift, atomizers, carburetors.
+**Continuity equation:** A₁V₁ = A₂V₂ (conservation of mass in incompressible flow)
+**Reynolds number:** Re = ρvD/μ. Re < 2,300: laminar. Re > 4,000: turbulent.
+
+## Heat transfer
+
+**Conduction:** Q = kA(ΔT)/Δx (k = thermal conductivity, A = area, ΔT = temp diff, Δx = thickness)
+**Convection:** Q = hAΔT (h = convection coefficient)
+**Radiation:** Q = εσAT⁴ (σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, ε = emissivity)
+Thermal resistance analogy: Resistances in series add like electrical resistors.
+
+## Machine design
+
+**Shaft design:** Account for bending, torsion, and combined loading. Use von Mises criterion for combined stress.
+**Fatigue:** Cyclic loading causes failure below yield strength. S-N curve shows stress vs. cycles to failure.
+Endurance limit: Maximum stress for infinite life (~0.5 × ultimate tensile strength for steel).
+**Bearings:** Rolling element (ball, roller) for high speed. Sleeve/journal for heavy loads, low speed.
+**Gear design:** Pitch, module, pressure angle. Interference if too few teeth. Gear ratio = driven/driver teeth.
+
+Sources: MIT OCW 2.001 Mechanics, Beer & Johnston Mechanics of Materials (principles), Cengel Thermodynamics (principles)

package/skills/engineering/eng-project/LICENSE

@@ -1,21 +1,21 @@
-MIT License
-
-Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
-
-Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
-of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
-in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
-to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
-copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
-furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
-
-The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
-copies or substantial portions of the Software.
-
-THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
-IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
-FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
-AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
-LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
-OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
-SOFTWARE.
+MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.

package/skills/engineering/eng-project/SKILL.md

@@ -1,72 +1,72 @@
----
-watermark: ORIRO
-disable-model-invocation: true
-name: eng-project
-provider: ORIRO.ai
-copyright: Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
-description: >
-
-
-
-
-
-
-  Engineering project management — technical project planning, scope, estimation, risk, and stakeholder management for engineering projects.
-  Sources: MIT OCW, ASME principles, OSHA, engineering textbook fundamentals.
-  Consult a licensed professional engineer for safety-critical calculations.
----
-
-# Engineering Project Management
-
-## Engineering projects vs. general projects
-
-Engineering projects add: technical risk, design iterations, safety requirements, regulatory approvals, interface management between technical disciplines, long procurement lead times for custom components.
-
-## Work breakdown structure (WBS) for engineering
-
-Level 1: System
-Level 2: Subsystems (structural, propulsion, electrical, software, etc.)
-Level 3: Components / Work packages
-Each work package: one responsible engineer, defined deliverable, estimable, verifiable.
-
-## Engineering schedule
-
-**Gates/milestones:** PDR (Preliminary Design Review), CDR (Critical Design Review), test readiness review, acceptance review.
-Before each gate: specific deliverables must be complete and reviewed.
-
-**Lead time planning:** Custom parts often have 6-24 week lead times. Long-lead items on critical path delay everything.
-Order before design is 100% frozen if schedule is critical (accept some change risk).
-
-**Integration and test:** Always takes longer than planned. Never compress test — it's when you find problems.
-
-## Cost estimation for engineering
-
-**Analogous estimating:** Similar past project × scaling factor.
-**Parametric:** Cost as function of key parameter ($/kg, $/line of code, $/hour).
-**Bottom-up:** Sum all tasks × labor rates × hours.
-**Monte Carlo simulation:** Run thousands of scenarios with variable inputs. Provides probability distribution of cost/schedule.
-
-**Typical cost growth on complex engineering projects:** 20-40% over original estimate. Plan contingency accordingly.
-
-## Technical risk management
-
-**Technology readiness levels (TRLs):**
-TRL 1-3: Basic research, proof of concept.
-TRL 4-6: Lab/prototype demonstration.
-TRL 7-9: System-level demonstration through operational system.
-Avoid using TRL < 6 technology in critical path of schedule-critical programs.
-
-**Risk burn-down:** Track risks weekly. Risks should reduce in number and severity as design matures. Risks increasing late in program = warning sign.
-
-## Reviews and configuration management
-
-**Design reviews purpose:** Not to show off — to find problems early when cheap to fix.
-Changes become exponentially more expensive as project matures: 1× (design) → 10× (development) → 100× (test) → 1000× (production).
-
-**Configuration management:** Track and control all changes to technical baseline.
-Every change: Who approved it? What was changed? Why? What impact was assessed?
-Change control board (CCB): Reviews and approves changes.
-Without CM: No one knows what was actually built.
-
-Sources: PMI PMBOK (principles), NASA project management handbook (free public domain),
-DoD acquisition guidance, INCOSE SE Handbook, GAO Schedule Assessment Guide (free)
+---
+watermark: ORIRO
+disable-model-invocation: true
+name: eng-project
+provider: ORIRO.ai
+copyright: Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
+description: >
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  Engineering project management — technical project planning, scope, estimation, risk, and stakeholder management for engineering projects.
+  Sources: MIT OCW, ASME principles, OSHA, engineering textbook fundamentals.
+  Consult a licensed professional engineer for safety-critical calculations.
+---
+
+# Engineering Project Management
+
+## Engineering projects vs. general projects
+
+Engineering projects add: technical risk, design iterations, safety requirements, regulatory approvals, interface management between technical disciplines, long procurement lead times for custom components.
+
+## Work breakdown structure (WBS) for engineering
+
+Level 1: System
+Level 2: Subsystems (structural, propulsion, electrical, software, etc.)
+Level 3: Components / Work packages
+Each work package: one responsible engineer, defined deliverable, estimable, verifiable.
+
+## Engineering schedule
+
+**Gates/milestones:** PDR (Preliminary Design Review), CDR (Critical Design Review), test readiness review, acceptance review.
+Before each gate: specific deliverables must be complete and reviewed.
+
+**Lead time planning:** Custom parts often have 6-24 week lead times. Long-lead items on critical path delay everything.
+Order before design is 100% frozen if schedule is critical (accept some change risk).
+
+**Integration and test:** Always takes longer than planned. Never compress test — it's when you find problems.
+
+## Cost estimation for engineering
+
+**Analogous estimating:** Similar past project × scaling factor.
+**Parametric:** Cost as function of key parameter ($/kg, $/line of code, $/hour).
+**Bottom-up:** Sum all tasks × labor rates × hours.
+**Monte Carlo simulation:** Run thousands of scenarios with variable inputs. Provides probability distribution of cost/schedule.
+
+**Typical cost growth on complex engineering projects:** 20-40% over original estimate. Plan contingency accordingly.
+
+## Technical risk management
+
+**Technology readiness levels (TRLs):**
+TRL 1-3: Basic research, proof of concept.
+TRL 4-6: Lab/prototype demonstration.
+TRL 7-9: System-level demonstration through operational system.
+Avoid using TRL < 6 technology in critical path of schedule-critical programs.
+
+**Risk burn-down:** Track risks weekly. Risks should reduce in number and severity as design matures. Risks increasing late in program = warning sign.
+
+## Reviews and configuration management
+
+**Design reviews purpose:** Not to show off — to find problems early when cheap to fix.
+Changes become exponentially more expensive as project matures: 1× (design) → 10× (development) → 100× (test) → 1000× (production).
+
+**Configuration management:** Track and control all changes to technical baseline.
+Every change: Who approved it? What was changed? Why? What impact was assessed?
+Change control board (CCB): Reviews and approves changes.
+Without CM: No one knows what was actually built.
+
+Sources: PMI PMBOK (principles), NASA project management handbook (free public domain),
+DoD acquisition guidance, INCOSE SE Handbook, GAO Schedule Assessment Guide (free)

package/skills/engineering/eng-propulsion/LICENSE

@@ -1,21 +1,21 @@
-MIT License
-
-Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
-
-Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
-of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
-in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
-to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
-copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
-furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
-
-The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
-copies or substantial portions of the Software.
-
-THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
-IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
-FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
-AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
-LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
-OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
-SOFTWARE.
+MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.

package/skills/engineering/eng-propulsion/SKILL.md

@@ -1,133 +1,133 @@
----
-watermark: ORIRO
-disable-model-invocation: true
-name: eng-propulsion
-provider: ORIRO.ai
-copyright: Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
-description: >
-  Rocket propulsion — liquid and solid rocket engines, specific impulse, thrust,
-  nozzle design, propellant chemistry, electric propulsion, and engine cycles.
-  Activate for rocket engine design, propellant selection, thrust calculations,
-  nozzle design, or any propulsion question.
-  Sources: NASA SP-8120 (public domain), Sutton principles, MIT 16.50 OCW.
----
-
-# Rocket Propulsion
-
-## Fundamental performance parameters
-
-### Specific impulse (Isp)
-
-Isp = F / (ṁ × g₀) = Thrust / (mass flow rate × 9.81)
-Units: seconds. The universal measure of propellant efficiency.
-Higher Isp = more thrust per kg of propellant consumed.
-
-**Isp comparison:**
-Cold gas (N₂): ~70 s (attitude control only, very simple)
-Solid rocket (APCP): 250-280 s
-Liquid bipropellant (LOX/RP-1, kerosene): 300-350 s (sea level), 340-390 s (vacuum)
-LOX/LH2 (liquid hydrogen): 380-455 s (vacuum) — highest chemical Isp
-Ion thrusters (electric): 1,000-10,000 s (very low thrust, used for deep space)
-Hall-effect thrusters: 1,500-2,500 s
-
-### Thrust equation
-
-F = ṁ × Ve + (Pe − Pa) × Ae
-ṁ = mass flow rate (kg/s), Ve = exhaust velocity (m/s),
-Pe = exit pressure, Pa = ambient pressure, Ae = nozzle exit area.
-Optimum expansion: Pe = Pa. Overexpanded (Pe < Pa): shock in nozzle, efficiency loss. Underexpanded (Pe > Pa): plume shocks outside.
-
-### De Laval (converging-diverging) nozzle
-
-Flow accelerates to M=1 at throat, then continues to supersonic in diverging section.
-Critical area ratio at throat controls mass flow.
-Area ratio determines exit Mach number:
-Ae/A\* = (1/M) × [(2/(γ+1)) × (1 + (γ-1)/2 × M²)]^((γ+1)/(2(γ-1)))
-For LOX/LH2 at vacuum expansion ratio 77:1 → Ve ≈ 4,400 m/s → Isp ≈ 450 s.
-
-## Liquid rocket engines
-
-### Propellant combinations
-
-**LOX/LH2 (liquid oxygen / liquid hydrogen):**
-Isp vacuum ~455 s (Space Shuttle Main Engine, RS-25; RL-10B-2).
-Advantage: Highest Isp of chemical propellants.
-Disadvantage: LH2 density very low (70 kg/m³) — large tanks. LH2 at −253°C (20 K) — extreme cryogenic. Boil-off management critical.
-
-**LOX/RP-1 (Kerosene):**
-Isp vacuum ~350 s (Merlin, F-1, RD-180).
-Advantage: High density. RP-1 storable at room temperature. Well-understood.
-Disadvantage: Lower Isp than LH2. Coking (carbon deposits) in fuel-rich pre-burners.
-
-**LOX/LCH4 (Liquid methane):**
-Isp vacuum ~380 s (SpaceX Raptor, BE-4).
-Advantage: Higher Isp than RP-1. Better coking resistance than RP-1. Producible on Mars (Sabatier reaction: CO₂ + H₂ → CH₄ + H₂O). In situ resource utilization (ISRU) possibility.
-
-**NTO/UDMH (Nitrogen tetroxide / Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine):**
-Isp ~340 s. Hypergolic (ignites on contact — no ignition system needed).
-Storable at room temperature. Used for orbital maneuvers, spacecraft, missiles.
-Disadvantage: Highly toxic.
-
-**NTO/MMH:** Similar to NTO/UDMH. Used in Space Shuttle OMS/RCS, many spacecraft.
-
-### Engine cycles
-
-**Gas generator cycle (open cycle):**
-Small fraction of propellant burned to drive turbopumps. Exhaust dumped overboard.
-Efficiency loss from dumped exhaust. Simpler than staged combustion.
-Examples: F-1, Merlin 1D.
-
-**Staged combustion cycle (closed cycle):**
-Turbopump exhaust fed into main combustion chamber. Higher efficiency.
-Oxygen-rich: LOX drives turbopump → mixes with fuel in main chamber. (RD-180, RD-170 — very high Isp and chamber pressure)
-Fuel-rich: Fuel drives turbopump (most US engines: RS-25, RL-10).
-Full-flow staged combustion: Both fuel-rich AND oxidizer-rich pre-burners (Raptor). Maximum efficiency. Highest complexity.
-
-**Expander cycle:**
-Heat from nozzle/chamber regeneratively heats fuel → drives turbopump.
-No pre-burner needed. Very clean, efficient. Limited thrust (heat transfer limits mass flow).
-Examples: RL-10 (LH2 — works because H2 has excellent heat capacity).
-
-### Chamber pressure
-
-Higher Pc → higher expansion ratio possible → higher Isp.
-RS-25 SSME: 207 bar (3,000 psi) chamber pressure.
-SpaceX Raptor: 300+ bar (full-flow staged combustion).
-Higher pressure = better performance but harder seals, higher structural requirements.
-
-## Solid rocket motors
-
-**Composition:** Oxidizer (ammonium perchlorate, AP ~70%) + fuel (aluminum powder ~16%) + binder (HTPB) + additives.
-**Grain geometry:** Determines thrust vs. time profile.
-Star, wagon wheel, finocyl grains: near-constant thrust (progressive then regressive).
-End-burning: Very long, steady low thrust.
-**Isp:** ~250-280 s typical.
-**Advantages:** Simple (no pumps, valves). Storable. High reliability. Good for first stages.
-**Disadvantages:** Cannot throttle or shut down once lit. Lower Isp than liquid.
-Examples: Space Shuttle SRB, Ariane 5 P240, Minuteman III.
-
-## Electric propulsion
-
-### Ion thruster
-
-Xenon ionized, accelerated by electrostatic grids. Isp 3,000-10,000 s.
-Very low thrust (mN range). Excellent for deep space where time is available.
-Dawn, Hayabusa, Starlink (Hall thrusters).
-
-### Hall-effect thruster
-
-Electrons trapped in magnetic field ionize propellant. Isp 1,500-2,500 s.
-Higher thrust than ion engines. Widely used for satellite station-keeping and orbit raising.
-Power required: 100W to 100+ kW.
-
-### Trade: Chemical vs. electric
-
-Chemical: High thrust, fast burn, short mission segments.
-Electric: High Isp, very low thrust, long continuous burn. Ideal for deep space or satellite positioning.
-For human Mars missions: Chemical for Earth departure and Mars landing; electric for long cruise (if power available).
-
-Sources: NASA SP-8120 Solid Rocket Motor Metal Cases (public domain),
-NASA SP-8125 Solid Rocket Motor Nozzles (public domain),
-MIT OCW 16.50 Propulsion (CC-BY-NC-SA),
-Sutton and Biblarz "Rocket Propulsion Elements" (9th ed. principles),
-Huzel and Huang "Modern Engineering for Design of Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines" (principles)
+---
+watermark: ORIRO
+disable-model-invocation: true
+name: eng-propulsion
+provider: ORIRO.ai
+copyright: Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
+description: >
+  Rocket propulsion — liquid and solid rocket engines, specific impulse, thrust,
+  nozzle design, propellant chemistry, electric propulsion, and engine cycles.
+  Activate for rocket engine design, propellant selection, thrust calculations,
+  nozzle design, or any propulsion question.
+  Sources: NASA SP-8120 (public domain), Sutton principles, MIT 16.50 OCW.
+---
+
+# Rocket Propulsion
+
+## Fundamental performance parameters
+
+### Specific impulse (Isp)
+
+Isp = F / (ṁ × g₀) = Thrust / (mass flow rate × 9.81)
+Units: seconds. The universal measure of propellant efficiency.
+Higher Isp = more thrust per kg of propellant consumed.
+
+**Isp comparison:**
+Cold gas (N₂): ~70 s (attitude control only, very simple)
+Solid rocket (APCP): 250-280 s
+Liquid bipropellant (LOX/RP-1, kerosene): 300-350 s (sea level), 340-390 s (vacuum)
+LOX/LH2 (liquid hydrogen): 380-455 s (vacuum) — highest chemical Isp
+Ion thrusters (electric): 1,000-10,000 s (very low thrust, used for deep space)
+Hall-effect thrusters: 1,500-2,500 s
+
+### Thrust equation
+
+F = ṁ × Ve + (Pe − Pa) × Ae
+ṁ = mass flow rate (kg/s), Ve = exhaust velocity (m/s),
+Pe = exit pressure, Pa = ambient pressure, Ae = nozzle exit area.
+Optimum expansion: Pe = Pa. Overexpanded (Pe < Pa): shock in nozzle, efficiency loss. Underexpanded (Pe > Pa): plume shocks outside.
+
+### De Laval (converging-diverging) nozzle
+
+Flow accelerates to M=1 at throat, then continues to supersonic in diverging section.
+Critical area ratio at throat controls mass flow.
+Area ratio determines exit Mach number:
+Ae/A\* = (1/M) × [(2/(γ+1)) × (1 + (γ-1)/2 × M²)]^((γ+1)/(2(γ-1)))
+For LOX/LH2 at vacuum expansion ratio 77:1 → Ve ≈ 4,400 m/s → Isp ≈ 450 s.
+
+## Liquid rocket engines
+
+### Propellant combinations
+
+**LOX/LH2 (liquid oxygen / liquid hydrogen):**
+Isp vacuum ~455 s (Space Shuttle Main Engine, RS-25; RL-10B-2).
+Advantage: Highest Isp of chemical propellants.
+Disadvantage: LH2 density very low (70 kg/m³) — large tanks. LH2 at −253°C (20 K) — extreme cryogenic. Boil-off management critical.
+
+**LOX/RP-1 (Kerosene):**
+Isp vacuum ~350 s (Merlin, F-1, RD-180).
+Advantage: High density. RP-1 storable at room temperature. Well-understood.
+Disadvantage: Lower Isp than LH2. Coking (carbon deposits) in fuel-rich pre-burners.
+
+**LOX/LCH4 (Liquid methane):**
+Isp vacuum ~380 s (SpaceX Raptor, BE-4).
+Advantage: Higher Isp than RP-1. Better coking resistance than RP-1. Producible on Mars (Sabatier reaction: CO₂ + H₂ → CH₄ + H₂O). In situ resource utilization (ISRU) possibility.
+
+**NTO/UDMH (Nitrogen tetroxide / Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine):**
+Isp ~340 s. Hypergolic (ignites on contact — no ignition system needed).
+Storable at room temperature. Used for orbital maneuvers, spacecraft, missiles.
+Disadvantage: Highly toxic.
+
+**NTO/MMH:** Similar to NTO/UDMH. Used in Space Shuttle OMS/RCS, many spacecraft.
+
+### Engine cycles
+
+**Gas generator cycle (open cycle):**
+Small fraction of propellant burned to drive turbopumps. Exhaust dumped overboard.
+Efficiency loss from dumped exhaust. Simpler than staged combustion.
+Examples: F-1, Merlin 1D.
+
+**Staged combustion cycle (closed cycle):**
+Turbopump exhaust fed into main combustion chamber. Higher efficiency.
+Oxygen-rich: LOX drives turbopump → mixes with fuel in main chamber. (RD-180, RD-170 — very high Isp and chamber pressure)
+Fuel-rich: Fuel drives turbopump (most US engines: RS-25, RL-10).
+Full-flow staged combustion: Both fuel-rich AND oxidizer-rich pre-burners (Raptor). Maximum efficiency. Highest complexity.
+
+**Expander cycle:**
+Heat from nozzle/chamber regeneratively heats fuel → drives turbopump.
+No pre-burner needed. Very clean, efficient. Limited thrust (heat transfer limits mass flow).
+Examples: RL-10 (LH2 — works because H2 has excellent heat capacity).
+
+### Chamber pressure
+
+Higher Pc → higher expansion ratio possible → higher Isp.
+RS-25 SSME: 207 bar (3,000 psi) chamber pressure.
+SpaceX Raptor: 300+ bar (full-flow staged combustion).
+Higher pressure = better performance but harder seals, higher structural requirements.
+
+## Solid rocket motors
+
+**Composition:** Oxidizer (ammonium perchlorate, AP ~70%) + fuel (aluminum powder ~16%) + binder (HTPB) + additives.
+**Grain geometry:** Determines thrust vs. time profile.
+Star, wagon wheel, finocyl grains: near-constant thrust (progressive then regressive).
+End-burning: Very long, steady low thrust.
+**Isp:** ~250-280 s typical.
+**Advantages:** Simple (no pumps, valves). Storable. High reliability. Good for first stages.
+**Disadvantages:** Cannot throttle or shut down once lit. Lower Isp than liquid.
+Examples: Space Shuttle SRB, Ariane 5 P240, Minuteman III.
+
+## Electric propulsion
+
+### Ion thruster
+
+Xenon ionized, accelerated by electrostatic grids. Isp 3,000-10,000 s.
+Very low thrust (mN range). Excellent for deep space where time is available.
+Dawn, Hayabusa, Starlink (Hall thrusters).
+
+### Hall-effect thruster
+
+Electrons trapped in magnetic field ionize propellant. Isp 1,500-2,500 s.
+Higher thrust than ion engines. Widely used for satellite station-keeping and orbit raising.
+Power required: 100W to 100+ kW.
+
+### Trade: Chemical vs. electric
+
+Chemical: High thrust, fast burn, short mission segments.
+Electric: High Isp, very low thrust, long continuous burn. Ideal for deep space or satellite positioning.
+For human Mars missions: Chemical for Earth departure and Mars landing; electric for long cruise (if power available).
+
+Sources: NASA SP-8120 Solid Rocket Motor Metal Cases (public domain),
+NASA SP-8125 Solid Rocket Motor Nozzles (public domain),
+MIT OCW 16.50 Propulsion (CC-BY-NC-SA),
+Sutton and Biblarz "Rocket Propulsion Elements" (9th ed. principles),
+Huzel and Huang "Modern Engineering for Design of Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines" (principles)