scipy 1.16.2__cp313-cp313t-win_arm64.whl

scipy/linalg/_special_matrices.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1322 @@
+import math
+import warnings
+
+import numpy as np
+from numpy.lib.stride_tricks import as_strided
+from scipy._lib._util import _apply_over_batch
+
+
+__all__ = ['toeplitz', 'circulant', 'hankel',
+           'hadamard', 'leslie', 'kron', 'block_diag', 'companion',
+           'helmert', 'hilbert', 'invhilbert', 'pascal', 'invpascal', 'dft',
+           'fiedler', 'fiedler_companion', 'convolution_matrix']
+
+
+# -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+#  matrix construction functions
+# -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def toeplitz(c, r=None):
+    r"""
+    Construct a Toeplitz matrix.
+
+    The Toeplitz matrix has constant diagonals, with c as its first column
+    and r as its first row. If r is not given, ``r == conjugate(c)`` is
+    assumed.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    c : array_like
+        First column of the matrix.
+    r : array_like, optional
+        First row of the matrix. If None, ``r = conjugate(c)`` is assumed;
+        in this case, if c[0] is real, the result is a Hermitian matrix.
+        r[0] is ignored; the first row of the returned matrix is
+        ``[c[0], r[1:]]``.
+
+        .. warning::
+
+            Beginning in SciPy 1.17, multidimensional input will be treated as a batch,
+            not ``ravel``\ ed. To preserve the existing behavior, ``ravel`` arguments
+            before passing them to `toeplitz`.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    A : (len(c), len(r)) ndarray
+        The Toeplitz matrix. Dtype is the same as ``(c[0] + r[0]).dtype``.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    circulant : circulant matrix
+    hankel : Hankel matrix
+    solve_toeplitz : Solve a Toeplitz system.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The behavior when `c` or `r` is a scalar, or when `c` is complex and
+    `r` is None, was changed in version 0.8.0. The behavior in previous
+    versions was undocumented and is no longer supported.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import toeplitz
+    >>> toeplitz([1,2,3], [1,4,5,6])
+    array([[1, 4, 5, 6],
+           [2, 1, 4, 5],
+           [3, 2, 1, 4]])
+    >>> toeplitz([1.0, 2+3j, 4-1j])
+    array([[ 1.+0.j,  2.-3.j,  4.+1.j],
+           [ 2.+3.j,  1.+0.j,  2.-3.j],
+           [ 4.-1.j,  2.+3.j,  1.+0.j]])
+
+    """
+    c = np.asarray(c)
+    if r is None:
+        r = c.conjugate()
+    else:
+        r = np.asarray(r)
+
+    if c.ndim > 1 or r.ndim > 1:
+        msg = ("Beginning in SciPy 1.17, multidimensional input will be treated as a "
+               "batch, not `ravel`ed. To preserve the existing behavior and silence "
+               "this warning, `ravel` arguments before passing them to `toeplitz`.")
+        warnings.warn(msg, FutureWarning, stacklevel=2)
+
+    c, r = c.ravel(), r.ravel()
+    # Form a 1-D array containing a reversed c followed by r[1:] that could be
+    # strided to give us toeplitz matrix.
+    vals = np.concatenate((c[::-1], r[1:]))
+    out_shp = len(c), len(r)
+    n = vals.strides[0]
+    return as_strided(vals[len(c)-1:], shape=out_shp, strides=(-n, n)).copy()
+
+
+def circulant(c):
+    """
+    Construct a circulant matrix.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    c : (..., N,)  array_like
+        The first column(s) of the matrix. Multidimensional arrays are treated as a
+        batch: each slice along the last axis is the first column of an output matrix.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    A : (..., N, N) ndarray
+        A circulant matrix whose first column is given by `c`.  For batch input, each
+        slice of shape ``(N, N)`` along the last two dimensions of the output
+        corresponds with a slice of shape ``(N,)`` along the last dimension of the
+        input.
+
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    toeplitz : Toeplitz matrix
+    hankel : Hankel matrix
+    solve_circulant : Solve a circulant system.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    .. versionadded:: 0.8.0
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import circulant
+    >>> circulant([1, 2, 3])
+    array([[1, 3, 2],
+           [2, 1, 3],
+           [3, 2, 1]])
+
+    >>> circulant([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    array([[[1, 3, 2],
+            [2, 1, 3],
+            [3, 2, 1]],
+           [[4, 6, 5],
+            [5, 4, 6],
+            [6, 5, 4]]])
+    """
+    c = np.atleast_1d(c)
+    batch_shape, N = c.shape[:-1], c.shape[-1]
+    # Need to use `prod(batch_shape)` instead of `-1` in case array has zero size
+    c = c.reshape(math.prod(batch_shape), N) if batch_shape else c
+    # Form an extended array that could be strided to give circulant version
+    c_ext = np.concatenate((c[..., ::-1], c[..., :0:-1]), axis=-1).ravel()
+    L = c.shape[-1]
+    n = c_ext.strides[-1]
+    if c.ndim == 1:
+        A = as_strided(c_ext[L-1:], shape=(L, L), strides=(-n, n))
+    else:
+        m = c.shape[0]
+        A = as_strided(c_ext[L-1:], shape=(m, L, L), strides=(n*(2*L-1), -n, n))
+    return A.reshape(batch_shape + (N, N)).copy()
+
+
+def hankel(c, r=None):
+    """
+    Construct a Hankel matrix.
+
+    The Hankel matrix has constant anti-diagonals, with `c` as its
+    first column and `r` as its last row. If the first element of `r`
+    differs from the last element of `c`, the first element of `r` is
+    replaced by the last element of `c` to ensure that anti-diagonals
+    remain constant. If `r` is not given, then `r = zeros_like(c)` is
+    assumed.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    c : array_like
+        First column of the matrix. Whatever the actual shape of `c`, it
+        will be converted to a 1-D array.
+    r : array_like, optional
+        Last row of the matrix. If None, ``r = zeros_like(c)`` is assumed.
+        r[0] is ignored; the last row of the returned matrix is
+        ``[c[-1], r[1:]]``. Whatever the actual shape of `r`, it will be
+        converted to a 1-D array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    A : (len(c), len(r)) ndarray
+        The Hankel matrix. Dtype is the same as ``(c[0] + r[0]).dtype``.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    toeplitz : Toeplitz matrix
+    circulant : circulant matrix
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import hankel
+    >>> hankel([1, 17, 99])
+    array([[ 1, 17, 99],
+           [17, 99,  0],
+           [99,  0,  0]])
+    >>> hankel([1,2,3,4], [4,7,7,8,9])
+    array([[1, 2, 3, 4, 7],
+           [2, 3, 4, 7, 7],
+           [3, 4, 7, 7, 8],
+           [4, 7, 7, 8, 9]])
+
+    """
+    c = np.asarray(c).ravel()
+    if r is None:
+        r = np.zeros_like(c)
+    else:
+        r = np.asarray(r).ravel()
+    # Form a 1-D array of values to be used in the matrix, containing `c`
+    # followed by r[1:].
+    vals = np.concatenate((c, r[1:]))
+    # Stride on concatenated array to get hankel matrix
+    out_shp = len(c), len(r)
+    n = vals.strides[0]
+    return as_strided(vals, shape=out_shp, strides=(n, n)).copy()
+
+
+def hadamard(n, dtype=int):
+    """
+    Construct an Hadamard matrix.
+
+    Constructs an n-by-n Hadamard matrix, using Sylvester's
+    construction. `n` must be a power of 2.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n : int
+        The order of the matrix. `n` must be a power of 2.
+    dtype : dtype, optional
+        The data type of the array to be constructed.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    H : (n, n) ndarray
+        The Hadamard matrix.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    .. versionadded:: 0.8.0
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import hadamard
+    >>> hadamard(2, dtype=complex)
+    array([[ 1.+0.j,  1.+0.j],
+           [ 1.+0.j, -1.-0.j]])
+    >>> hadamard(4)
+    array([[ 1,  1,  1,  1],
+           [ 1, -1,  1, -1],
+           [ 1,  1, -1, -1],
+           [ 1, -1, -1,  1]])
+
+    """
+
+    # This function is a slightly modified version of the
+    # function contributed by Ivo in ticket #675.
+
+    if n < 1:
+        lg2 = 0
+    else:
+        lg2 = int(math.log(n, 2))
+    if 2 ** lg2 != n:
+        raise ValueError("n must be an positive integer, and n must be "
+                         "a power of 2")
+
+    H = np.array([[1]], dtype=dtype)
+
+    # Sylvester's construction
+    for i in range(0, lg2):
+        H = np.vstack((np.hstack((H, H)), np.hstack((H, -H))))
+
+    return H
+
+
+@_apply_over_batch(("f", 1), ("s", 1))
+def leslie(f, s):
+    """
+    Create a Leslie matrix.
+
+    Given the length n array of fecundity coefficients `f` and the length
+    n-1 array of survival coefficients `s`, return the associated Leslie
+    matrix.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    f : (N,) array_like
+        The "fecundity" coefficients.
+    s : (N-1,) array_like
+        The "survival" coefficients. The length of `s` must be one less
+        than the length of `f`, and it must be at least 1.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    L : (N, N) ndarray
+        The array is zero except for the first row,
+        which is `f`, and the first sub-diagonal, which is `s`.
+        The data-type of the array will be the data-type of
+        ``f[0]+s[0]``.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The Leslie matrix is used to model discrete-time, age-structured
+    population growth [1]_ [2]_. In a population with `n` age classes, two sets
+    of parameters define a Leslie matrix: the `n` "fecundity coefficients",
+    which give the number of offspring per-capita produced by each age
+    class, and the `n` - 1 "survival coefficients", which give the
+    per-capita survival rate of each age class.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] P. H. Leslie, On the use of matrices in certain population
+           mathematics, Biometrika, Vol. 33, No. 3, 183--212 (Nov. 1945)
+    .. [2] P. H. Leslie, Some further notes on the use of matrices in
+           population mathematics, Biometrika, Vol. 35, No. 3/4, 213--245
+           (Dec. 1948)
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import leslie
+    >>> leslie([0.1, 2.0, 1.0, 0.1], [0.2, 0.8, 0.7])
+    array([[ 0.1,  2. ,  1. ,  0.1],
+           [ 0.2,  0. ,  0. ,  0. ],
+           [ 0. ,  0.8,  0. ,  0. ],
+           [ 0. ,  0. ,  0.7,  0. ]])
+
+    """
+    f = np.atleast_1d(f)
+    s = np.atleast_1d(s)
+
+    if f.shape[-1] != s.shape[-1] + 1:
+        raise ValueError("Incorrect lengths for f and s. The length of s along "
+                         "the last axis must be one less than the length of f.")
+    if s.shape[-1] == 0:
+        raise ValueError("The length of s must be at least 1.")
+
+    n = f.shape[-1]
+    tmp = f[0] + s[0]
+    a = np.zeros((n, n), dtype=tmp.dtype)
+    a[0] = f
+    a[list(range(1, n)), list(range(0, n - 1))] = s
+    return a
+
+
+def kron(a, b):
+    """
+    Kronecker product.
+
+    .. deprecated:: 1.15.0
+        `kron` has been deprecated in favour of `numpy.kron` and will be
+        removed in SciPy 1.17.0.
+
+    The result is the block matrix::
+
+        a[0,0]*b    a[0,1]*b  ... a[0,-1]*b
+        a[1,0]*b    a[1,1]*b  ... a[1,-1]*b
+        ...
+        a[-1,0]*b   a[-1,1]*b ... a[-1,-1]*b
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    a : (M, N) ndarray
+        Input array
+    b : (P, Q) ndarray
+        Input array
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    A : (M*P, N*Q) ndarray
+        Kronecker product of `a` and `b`.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from numpy import array
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import kron
+    >>> kron(array([[1,2],[3,4]]), array([[1,1,1]]))
+    array([[1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2],
+           [3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4]])
+
+    """
+    msg = ("`kron` has been deprecated in favour of `numpy.kron` in SciPy"
+           " 1.15.0 and will be removed in SciPy 1.17.0.")
+    warnings.warn(msg, DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
+    # accommodate empty arrays
+    if a.size == 0 or b.size == 0:
+        m = a.shape[0] * b.shape[0]
+        n = a.shape[1] * b.shape[1]
+        return np.empty_like(a, shape=(m, n))
+
+    if not a.flags['CONTIGUOUS']:
+        a = np.reshape(a, a.shape)
+    if not b.flags['CONTIGUOUS']:
+        b = np.reshape(b, b.shape)
+    o = np.outer(a, b)
+    o = o.reshape(a.shape + b.shape)
+    return np.concatenate(np.concatenate(o, axis=1), axis=1)
+
+
+def block_diag(*arrs):
+    """
+    Create a block diagonal array from provided arrays.
+
+    For example, given 2-D inputs `A`, `B` and `C`, the output will have these
+    arrays arranged on the diagonal::
+
+        [[A, 0, 0],
+         [0, B, 0],
+         [0, 0, C]]
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    A, B, C, ... : array_like
+        Input arrays.  A 1-D array or array_like sequence of length ``n`` is
+        treated as a 2-D array with shape ``(1, n)``. Any dimensions before
+        the last two are treated as batch dimensions; see :ref:`linalg_batch`.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    D : ndarray
+        Array with `A`, `B`, `C`, ... on the diagonal of the last two
+        dimensions. `D` has the same dtype as the result type of the
+        inputs.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    If all the input arrays are square, the output is known as a
+    block diagonal matrix.
+
+    Empty sequences (i.e., array-likes of zero size) will not be ignored.
+    Noteworthy, both ``[]`` and ``[[]]`` are treated as matrices with shape
+    ``(1,0)``.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> import numpy as np
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import block_diag
+    >>> A = [[1, 0],
+    ...      [0, 1]]
+    >>> B = [[3, 4, 5],
+    ...      [6, 7, 8]]
+    >>> C = [[7]]
+    >>> P = np.zeros((2, 0), dtype='int32')
+    >>> block_diag(A, B, C)
+    array([[1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0],
+           [0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0],
+           [0, 0, 3, 4, 5, 0],
+           [0, 0, 6, 7, 8, 0],
+           [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 7]])
+    >>> block_diag(A, P, B, C)
+    array([[1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0],
+           [0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0],
+           [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0],
+           [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0],
+           [0, 0, 3, 4, 5, 0],
+           [0, 0, 6, 7, 8, 0],
+           [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 7]])
+    >>> block_diag(1.0, [2, 3], [[4, 5], [6, 7]])
+    array([[ 1.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.],
+           [ 0.,  2.,  3.,  0.,  0.],
+           [ 0.,  0.,  0.,  4.,  5.],
+           [ 0.,  0.,  0.,  6.,  7.]])
+
+    """
+    if arrs == ():
+        arrs = ([],)
+    arrs = [np.atleast_2d(a) for a in arrs]
+
+    batch_shapes = [a.shape[:-2] for a in arrs]
+    batch_shape = np.broadcast_shapes(*batch_shapes)
+    arrs = [np.broadcast_to(a, batch_shape + a.shape[-2:]) for a in arrs]
+    out_dtype = np.result_type(*[arr.dtype for arr in arrs])
+    block_shapes = np.array([a.shape[-2:] for a in arrs])
+    out = np.zeros(batch_shape + tuple(np.sum(block_shapes, axis=0)), dtype=out_dtype)
+
+    r, c = 0, 0
+    for i, (rr, cc) in enumerate(block_shapes):
+        out[..., r:r + rr, c:c + cc] = arrs[i]
+        r += rr
+        c += cc
+    return out
+
+
+def companion(a):
+    """
+    Create a companion matrix.
+
+    Create the companion matrix [1]_ associated with the polynomial whose
+    coefficients are given in `a`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    a : (..., N) array_like
+        1-D array of polynomial coefficients. The length of `a` must be
+        at least two, and ``a[0]`` must not be zero.
+        M-dimensional arrays are treated as a batch: each slice along the last
+        axis is a 1-D array of polynomial coefficients.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    c : (..., N-1, N-1) ndarray
+        For 1-D input, the first row of `c` is ``-a[1:]/a[0]``, and the first
+        sub-diagonal is all ones.  The data-type of the array is the same
+        as the data-type of ``1.0*a[0]``.
+        For batch input, each slice of shape ``(N-1, N-1)`` along the last two
+        dimensions of the output corresponds with a slice of shape ``(N,)``
+        along the last dimension of the input.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If any of the following are true: a) ``a.shape[-1] < 2``; b) ``a[..., 0] == 0``.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    .. versionadded:: 0.8.0
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] R. A. Horn & C. R. Johnson, *Matrix Analysis*.  Cambridge, UK:
+        Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp. 146-7.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import companion
+    >>> companion([1, -10, 31, -30])
+    array([[ 10., -31.,  30.],
+           [  1.,   0.,   0.],
+           [  0.,   1.,   0.]])
+
+    """
+    a = np.atleast_1d(a)
+    n = a.shape[-1]
+
+    if n < 2:
+        raise ValueError("The length of `a` along the last axis must be at least 2.")
+
+    if np.any(a[..., 0] == 0):
+        raise ValueError("The first coefficient(s) of `a` (i.e. elements "
+                         "of `a[..., 0]`) must not be zero.")
+
+    first_row = -a[..., 1:] / (1.0 * a[..., 0:1])
+    c = np.zeros(a.shape[:-1] + (n - 1, n - 1), dtype=first_row.dtype)
+    c[..., 0, :] = first_row
+    c[..., np.arange(1, n - 1), np.arange(0, n - 2)] = 1
+    return c
+
+
+def helmert(n, full=False):
+    """
+    Create an Helmert matrix of order `n`.
+
+    This has applications in statistics, compositional or simplicial analysis,
+    and in Aitchison geometry.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n : int
+        The size of the array to create.
+    full : bool, optional
+        If True the (n, n) ndarray will be returned.
+        Otherwise the submatrix that does not include the first
+        row will be returned.
+        Default: False.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    M : ndarray
+        The Helmert matrix.
+        The shape is (n, n) or (n-1, n) depending on the `full` argument.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import helmert
+    >>> helmert(5, full=True)
+    array([[ 0.4472136 ,  0.4472136 ,  0.4472136 ,  0.4472136 ,  0.4472136 ],
+           [ 0.70710678, -0.70710678,  0.        ,  0.        ,  0.        ],
+           [ 0.40824829,  0.40824829, -0.81649658,  0.        ,  0.        ],
+           [ 0.28867513,  0.28867513,  0.28867513, -0.8660254 ,  0.        ],
+           [ 0.2236068 ,  0.2236068 ,  0.2236068 ,  0.2236068 , -0.89442719]])
+
+    """
+    H = np.tril(np.ones((n, n)), -1) - np.diag(np.arange(n))
+    d = np.arange(n) * np.arange(1, n+1)
+    H[0] = 1
+    d[0] = n
+    H_full = H / np.sqrt(d)[:, np.newaxis]
+    if full:
+        return H_full
+    else:
+        return H_full[1:]
+
+
+def hilbert(n):
+    """
+    Create a Hilbert matrix of order `n`.
+
+    Returns the `n` by `n` array with entries `h[i,j] = 1 / (i + j + 1)`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n : int
+        The size of the array to create.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    h : (n, n) ndarray
+        The Hilbert matrix.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    invhilbert : Compute the inverse of a Hilbert matrix.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    .. versionadded:: 0.10.0
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import hilbert
+    >>> hilbert(3)
+    array([[ 1.        ,  0.5       ,  0.33333333],
+           [ 0.5       ,  0.33333333,  0.25      ],
+           [ 0.33333333,  0.25      ,  0.2       ]])
+
+    """
+    values = 1.0 / (1.0 + np.arange(2 * n - 1))
+    h = hankel(values[:n], r=values[n - 1:])
+    return h
+
+
+def invhilbert(n, exact=False):
+    """
+    Compute the inverse of the Hilbert matrix of order `n`.
+
+    The entries in the inverse of a Hilbert matrix are integers. When `n`
+    is greater than 14, some entries in the inverse exceed the upper limit
+    of 64 bit integers. The `exact` argument provides two options for
+    dealing with these large integers.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n : int
+        The order of the Hilbert matrix.
+    exact : bool, optional
+        If False, the data type of the array that is returned is np.float64,
+        and the array is an approximation of the inverse.
+        If True, the array is the exact integer inverse array. To represent
+        the exact inverse when n > 14, the returned array is an object array
+        of long integers. For n <= 14, the exact inverse is returned as an
+        array with data type np.int64.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    invh : (n, n) ndarray
+        The data type of the array is np.float64 if `exact` is False.
+        If `exact` is True, the data type is either np.int64 (for n <= 14)
+        or object (for n > 14). In the latter case, the objects in the
+        array will be long integers.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    hilbert : Create a Hilbert matrix.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    .. versionadded:: 0.10.0
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import invhilbert
+    >>> invhilbert(4)
+    array([[   16.,  -120.,   240.,  -140.],
+           [ -120.,  1200., -2700.,  1680.],
+           [  240., -2700.,  6480., -4200.],
+           [ -140.,  1680., -4200.,  2800.]])
+    >>> invhilbert(4, exact=True)
+    array([[   16,  -120,   240,  -140],
+           [ -120,  1200, -2700,  1680],
+           [  240, -2700,  6480, -4200],
+           [ -140,  1680, -4200,  2800]], dtype=int64)
+    >>> invhilbert(16)[7,7]
+    4.2475099528537506e+19
+    >>> invhilbert(16, exact=True)[7,7]
+    42475099528537378560
+
+    """
+    from scipy.special import comb
+    if exact:
+        if n > 14:
+            dtype = object
+        else:
+            dtype = np.int64
+    else:
+        dtype = np.float64
+    invh = np.empty((n, n), dtype=dtype)
+    for i in range(n):
+        for j in range(0, i + 1):
+            s = i + j
+            invh[i, j] = ((-1) ** s * (s + 1) *
+                          comb(n + i, n - j - 1, exact=exact) *
+                          comb(n + j, n - i - 1, exact=exact) *
+                          comb(s, i, exact=exact) ** 2)
+            if i != j:
+                invh[j, i] = invh[i, j]
+    return invh
+
+
+def pascal(n, kind='symmetric', exact=True):
+    """
+    Returns the n x n Pascal matrix.
+
+    The Pascal matrix is a matrix containing the binomial coefficients as
+    its elements.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n : int
+        The size of the matrix to create; that is, the result is an n x n
+        matrix.
+    kind : str, optional
+        Must be one of 'symmetric', 'lower', or 'upper'.
+        Default is 'symmetric'.
+    exact : bool, optional
+        If `exact` is True, the result is either an array of type
+        numpy.uint64 (if n < 35) or an object array of Python long integers.
+        If `exact` is False, the coefficients in the matrix are computed using
+        `scipy.special.comb` with ``exact=False``. The result will be a floating
+        point array, and the values in the array will not be the exact
+        coefficients, but this version is much faster than ``exact=True``.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    p : (n, n) ndarray
+        The Pascal matrix.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    invpascal
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_matrix for more information
+    about Pascal matrices.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 0.11.0
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import pascal
+    >>> pascal(4)
+    array([[ 1,  1,  1,  1],
+           [ 1,  2,  3,  4],
+           [ 1,  3,  6, 10],
+           [ 1,  4, 10, 20]], dtype=uint64)
+    >>> pascal(4, kind='lower')
+    array([[1, 0, 0, 0],
+           [1, 1, 0, 0],
+           [1, 2, 1, 0],
+           [1, 3, 3, 1]], dtype=uint64)
+    >>> pascal(50)[-1, -1]
+    25477612258980856902730428600
+    >>> from scipy.special import comb
+    >>> comb(98, 49, exact=True)
+    25477612258980856902730428600
+
+    """
+
+    from scipy.special import comb
+    if kind not in ['symmetric', 'lower', 'upper']:
+        raise ValueError("kind must be 'symmetric', 'lower', or 'upper'")
+
+    if exact:
+        if n >= 35:
+            L_n = np.empty((n, n), dtype=object)
+            L_n.fill(0)
+        else:
+            L_n = np.zeros((n, n), dtype=np.uint64)
+        for i in range(n):
+            for j in range(i + 1):
+                L_n[i, j] = comb(i, j, exact=True)
+    else:
+        L_n = comb(*np.ogrid[:n, :n])
+
+    if kind == 'lower':
+        p = L_n
+    elif kind == 'upper':
+        p = L_n.T
+    else:
+        p = np.dot(L_n, L_n.T)
+
+    return p
+
+
+def invpascal(n, kind='symmetric', exact=True):
+    """
+    Returns the inverse of the n x n Pascal matrix.
+
+    The Pascal matrix is a matrix containing the binomial coefficients as
+    its elements.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n : int
+        The size of the matrix to create; that is, the result is an n x n
+        matrix.
+    kind : str, optional
+        Must be one of 'symmetric', 'lower', or 'upper'.
+        Default is 'symmetric'.
+    exact : bool, optional
+        If `exact` is True, the result is either an array of type
+        ``numpy.int64`` (if `n` <= 35) or an object array of Python integers.
+        If `exact` is False, the coefficients in the matrix are computed using
+        `scipy.special.comb` with `exact=False`. The result will be a floating
+        point array, and for large `n`, the values in the array will not be the
+        exact coefficients.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    invp : (n, n) ndarray
+        The inverse of the Pascal matrix.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    pascal
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+
+    .. versionadded:: 0.16.0
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] "Pascal matrix", https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_matrix
+    .. [2] Cohen, A. M., "The inverse of a Pascal matrix", Mathematical
+           Gazette, 59(408), pp. 111-112, 1975.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import invpascal, pascal
+    >>> invp = invpascal(5)
+    >>> invp
+    array([[  5, -10,  10,  -5,   1],
+           [-10,  30, -35,  19,  -4],
+           [ 10, -35,  46, -27,   6],
+           [ -5,  19, -27,  17,  -4],
+           [  1,  -4,   6,  -4,   1]])
+
+    >>> p = pascal(5)
+    >>> p.dot(invp)
+    array([[ 1.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.],
+           [ 0.,  1.,  0.,  0.,  0.],
+           [ 0.,  0.,  1.,  0.,  0.],
+           [ 0.,  0.,  0.,  1.,  0.],
+           [ 0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  1.]])
+
+    An example of the use of `kind` and `exact`:
+
+    >>> invpascal(5, kind='lower', exact=False)
+    array([[ 1., -0.,  0., -0.,  0.],
+           [-1.,  1., -0.,  0., -0.],
+           [ 1., -2.,  1., -0.,  0.],
+           [-1.,  3., -3.,  1., -0.],
+           [ 1., -4.,  6., -4.,  1.]])
+
+    """
+    from scipy.special import comb
+
+    if kind not in ['symmetric', 'lower', 'upper']:
+        raise ValueError("'kind' must be 'symmetric', 'lower' or 'upper'.")
+
+    if kind == 'symmetric':
+        if exact:
+            if n > 34:
+                dt = object
+            else:
+                dt = np.int64
+        else:
+            dt = np.float64
+        invp = np.empty((n, n), dtype=dt)
+        for i in range(n):
+            for j in range(0, i + 1):
+                v = 0
+                for k in range(n - i):
+                    v += comb(i + k, k, exact=exact) * comb(i + k, i + k - j,
+                                                            exact=exact)
+                invp[i, j] = (-1)**(i - j) * v
+                if i != j:
+                    invp[j, i] = invp[i, j]
+    else:
+        # For the 'lower' and 'upper' cases, we computer the inverse by
+        # changing the sign of every other diagonal of the pascal matrix.
+        invp = pascal(n, kind=kind, exact=exact)
+        if invp.dtype == np.uint64:
+            # This cast from np.uint64 to int64 OK, because if `kind` is not
+            # "symmetric", the values in invp are all much less than 2**63.
+            invp = invp.view(np.int64)
+
+        # The toeplitz matrix has alternating bands of 1 and -1.
+        invp *= toeplitz((-1)**np.arange(n)).astype(invp.dtype)
+
+    return invp
+
+
+def dft(n, scale=None):
+    """
+    Discrete Fourier transform matrix.
+
+    Create the matrix that computes the discrete Fourier transform of a
+    sequence [1]_. The nth primitive root of unity used to generate the
+    matrix is exp(-2*pi*i/n), where i = sqrt(-1).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n : int
+        Size the matrix to create.
+    scale : str, optional
+        Must be None, 'sqrtn', or 'n'.
+        If `scale` is 'sqrtn', the matrix is divided by `sqrt(n)`.
+        If `scale` is 'n', the matrix is divided by `n`.
+        If `scale` is None (the default), the matrix is not normalized, and the
+        return value is simply the Vandermonde matrix of the roots of unity.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    m : (n, n) ndarray
+        The DFT matrix.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    When `scale` is None, multiplying a vector by the matrix returned by
+    `dft` is mathematically equivalent to (but much less efficient than)
+    the calculation performed by `scipy.fft.fft`.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 0.14.0
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] "DFT matrix", https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DFT_matrix
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> import numpy as np
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import dft
+    >>> np.set_printoptions(precision=2, suppress=True)  # for compact output
+    >>> m = dft(5)
+    >>> m
+    array([[ 1.  +0.j  ,  1.  +0.j  ,  1.  +0.j  ,  1.  +0.j  ,  1.  +0.j  ],
+           [ 1.  +0.j  ,  0.31-0.95j, -0.81-0.59j, -0.81+0.59j,  0.31+0.95j],
+           [ 1.  +0.j  , -0.81-0.59j,  0.31+0.95j,  0.31-0.95j, -0.81+0.59j],
+           [ 1.  +0.j  , -0.81+0.59j,  0.31-0.95j,  0.31+0.95j, -0.81-0.59j],
+           [ 1.  +0.j  ,  0.31+0.95j, -0.81+0.59j, -0.81-0.59j,  0.31-0.95j]])
+    >>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 0, 3])
+    >>> m @ x  # Compute the DFT of x
+    array([ 9.  +0.j  ,  0.12-0.81j, -2.12+3.44j, -2.12-3.44j,  0.12+0.81j])
+
+    Verify that ``m @ x`` is the same as ``fft(x)``.
+
+    >>> from scipy.fft import fft
+    >>> fft(x)     # Same result as m @ x
+    array([ 9.  +0.j  ,  0.12-0.81j, -2.12+3.44j, -2.12-3.44j,  0.12+0.81j])
+    """
+    if scale not in [None, 'sqrtn', 'n']:
+        raise ValueError("scale must be None, 'sqrtn', or 'n'; "
+                         f"{scale!r} is not valid.")
+
+    omegas = np.exp(-2j * np.pi * np.arange(n) / n).reshape(-1, 1)
+    m = omegas ** np.arange(n)
+    if scale == 'sqrtn':
+        m /= math.sqrt(n)
+    elif scale == 'n':
+        m /= n
+    return m
+
+
+def fiedler(a):
+    """Returns a symmetric Fiedler matrix
+
+    Given an sequence of numbers `a`, Fiedler matrices have the structure
+    ``F[i, j] = np.abs(a[i] - a[j])``, and hence zero diagonals and nonnegative
+    entries. A Fiedler matrix has a dominant positive eigenvalue and other
+    eigenvalues are negative. Although not valid generally, for certain inputs,
+    the inverse and the determinant can be derived explicitly as given in [1]_.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    a : (..., n,) array_like
+        Coefficient array. N-dimensional arrays are treated as a batch:
+        each slice along the last axis is a 1-D coefficient array.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    F : (..., n, n) ndarray
+        Fiedler matrix. For batch input, each slice of shape ``(n, n)``
+        along the last two dimensions of the output corresponds with a
+        slice of shape ``(n,)`` along the last dimension of the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    circulant, toeplitz
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+
+    .. versionadded:: 1.3.0
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] J. Todd, "Basic Numerical Mathematics: Vol.2 : Numerical Algebra",
+        1977, Birkhauser, :doi:`10.1007/978-3-0348-7286-7`
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> import numpy as np
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import det, inv, fiedler
+    >>> a = [1, 4, 12, 45, 77]
+    >>> n = len(a)
+    >>> A = fiedler(a)
+    >>> A
+    array([[ 0,  3, 11, 44, 76],
+           [ 3,  0,  8, 41, 73],
+           [11,  8,  0, 33, 65],
+           [44, 41, 33,  0, 32],
+           [76, 73, 65, 32,  0]])
+
+    The explicit formulas for determinant and inverse seem to hold only for
+    monotonically increasing/decreasing arrays. Note the tridiagonal structure
+    and the corners.
+
+    >>> Ai = inv(A)
+    >>> Ai[np.abs(Ai) < 1e-12] = 0.  # cleanup the numerical noise for display
+    >>> Ai
+    array([[-0.16008772,  0.16666667,  0.        ,  0.        ,  0.00657895],
+           [ 0.16666667, -0.22916667,  0.0625    ,  0.        ,  0.        ],
+           [ 0.        ,  0.0625    , -0.07765152,  0.01515152,  0.        ],
+           [ 0.        ,  0.        ,  0.01515152, -0.03077652,  0.015625  ],
+           [ 0.00657895,  0.        ,  0.        ,  0.015625  , -0.00904605]])
+    >>> det(A)
+    15409151.999999998
+    >>> (-1)**(n-1) * 2**(n-2) * np.diff(a).prod() * (a[-1] - a[0])
+    15409152
+
+    """
+    a = np.atleast_1d(a)
+
+    if a.ndim > 1:
+        return np.apply_along_axis(fiedler, -1, a)
+
+    if a.size == 0:
+        return np.array([], dtype=float)
+    elif a.size == 1:
+        return np.array([[0.]])
+    else:
+        return np.abs(a[:, None] - a)
+
+
+def fiedler_companion(a):
+    """ Returns a Fiedler companion matrix
+
+    Given a polynomial coefficient array ``a``, this function forms a
+    pentadiagonal matrix with a special structure whose eigenvalues coincides
+    with the roots of ``a``.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    a : (..., N) array_like
+        1-D array of polynomial coefficients in descending order with a nonzero
+        leading coefficient. For ``N < 2``, an empty array is returned.
+        N-dimensional arrays are treated as a batch: each slice along the last
+        axis is a 1-D array of polynomial coefficients.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    c : (..., N-1, N-1) ndarray
+        Resulting companion matrix. For batch input, each slice of shape
+        ``(N-1, N-1)`` along the last two dimensions of the output corresponds
+        with a slice of shape ``(N,)`` along the last dimension of the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    companion
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Similar to `companion`, each leading coefficient along the last axis of the
+    input should be nonzero.
+    If the leading coefficient is not 1, other coefficients are rescaled before
+    the array generation. To avoid numerical issues, it is best to provide a
+    monic polynomial.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 1.3.0
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] M. Fiedler, " A note on companion matrices", Linear Algebra and its
+        Applications, 2003, :doi:`10.1016/S0024-3795(03)00548-2`
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> import numpy as np
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import fiedler_companion, eigvals
+    >>> p = np.poly(np.arange(1, 9, 2))  # [1., -16., 86., -176., 105.]
+    >>> fc = fiedler_companion(p)
+    >>> fc
+    array([[  16.,  -86.,    1.,    0.],
+           [   1.,    0.,    0.,    0.],
+           [   0.,  176.,    0., -105.],
+           [   0.,    1.,    0.,    0.]])
+    >>> eigvals(fc)
+    array([7.+0.j, 5.+0.j, 3.+0.j, 1.+0.j])
+
+    """
+    a = np.atleast_1d(a)
+
+    if a.ndim > 1:
+        return np.apply_along_axis(fiedler_companion, -1, a)
+
+    if a.size <= 2:
+        if a.size == 2:
+            return np.array([[-(a/a[0])[-1]]])
+        return np.array([], dtype=a.dtype)
+
+    if a[0] == 0.:
+        raise ValueError('Leading coefficient is zero.')
+
+    a = a/a[0]
+    n = a.size - 1
+    c = np.zeros((n, n), dtype=a.dtype)
+    # subdiagonals
+    c[range(3, n, 2), range(1, n-2, 2)] = 1.
+    c[range(2, n, 2), range(1, n-1, 2)] = -a[3::2]
+    # superdiagonals
+    c[range(0, n-2, 2), range(2, n, 2)] = 1.
+    c[range(0, n-1, 2), range(1, n, 2)] = -a[2::2]
+    c[[0, 1], 0] = [-a[1], 1]
+
+    return c
+
+
+def convolution_matrix(a, n, mode='full'):
+    """
+    Construct a convolution matrix.
+
+    Constructs the Toeplitz matrix representing one-dimensional
+    convolution [1]_.  See the notes below for details.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    a : (..., m) array_like
+        The 1-D array to convolve. N-dimensional arrays are treated as a
+        batch: each slice along the last axis is a 1-D array to convolve.
+    n : int
+        The number of columns in the resulting matrix.  It gives the length
+        of the input to be convolved with `a`.  This is analogous to the
+        length of `v` in ``numpy.convolve(a, v)``.
+    mode : str
+        This is analogous to `mode` in ``numpy.convolve(v, a, mode)``.
+        It must be one of ('full', 'valid', 'same').
+        See below for how `mode` determines the shape of the result.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    A : (..., k, n) ndarray
+        The convolution matrix whose row count `k` depends on `mode`::
+
+            =======  =========================
+             mode    k
+            =======  =========================
+            'full'   m + n -1
+            'same'   max(m, n)
+            'valid'  max(m, n) - min(m, n) + 1
+            =======  =========================
+
+        For batch input, each slice of shape ``(k, n)`` along the last two
+        dimensions of the output corresponds with a slice of shape ``(m,)``
+        along the last dimension of the input.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    toeplitz : Toeplitz matrix
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The code::
+
+        A = convolution_matrix(a, n, mode)
+
+    creates a Toeplitz matrix `A` such that ``A @ v`` is equivalent to
+    using ``convolve(a, v, mode)``.  The returned array always has `n`
+    columns.  The number of rows depends on the specified `mode`, as
+    explained above.
+
+    In the default 'full' mode, the entries of `A` are given by::
+
+        A[i, j] == (a[i-j] if (0 <= (i-j) < m) else 0)
+
+    where ``m = len(a)``.  Suppose, for example, the input array is
+    ``[x, y, z]``.  The convolution matrix has the form::
+
+        [x, 0, 0, ..., 0, 0]
+        [y, x, 0, ..., 0, 0]
+        [z, y, x, ..., 0, 0]
+        ...
+        [0, 0, 0, ..., x, 0]
+        [0, 0, 0, ..., y, x]
+        [0, 0, 0, ..., z, y]
+        [0, 0, 0, ..., 0, z]
+
+    In 'valid' mode, the entries of `A` are given by::
+
+        A[i, j] == (a[i-j+m-1] if (0 <= (i-j+m-1) < m) else 0)
+
+    This corresponds to a matrix whose rows are the subset of those from
+    the 'full' case where all the coefficients in `a` are contained in the
+    row.  For input ``[x, y, z]``, this array looks like::
+
+        [z, y, x, 0, 0, ..., 0, 0, 0]
+        [0, z, y, x, 0, ..., 0, 0, 0]
+        [0, 0, z, y, x, ..., 0, 0, 0]
+        ...
+        [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, ..., x, 0, 0]
+        [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, ..., y, x, 0]
+        [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, ..., z, y, x]
+
+    In the 'same' mode, the entries of `A` are given by::
+
+        d = (m - 1) // 2
+        A[i, j] == (a[i-j+d] if (0 <= (i-j+d) < m) else 0)
+
+    The typical application of the 'same' mode is when one has a signal of
+    length `n` (with `n` greater than ``len(a)``), and the desired output
+    is a filtered signal that is still of length `n`.
+
+    For input ``[x, y, z]``, this array looks like::
+
+        [y, x, 0, 0, ..., 0, 0, 0]
+        [z, y, x, 0, ..., 0, 0, 0]
+        [0, z, y, x, ..., 0, 0, 0]
+        [0, 0, z, y, ..., 0, 0, 0]
+        ...
+        [0, 0, 0, 0, ..., y, x, 0]
+        [0, 0, 0, 0, ..., z, y, x]
+        [0, 0, 0, 0, ..., 0, z, y]
+
+    .. versionadded:: 1.5.0
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] "Convolution", https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convolution
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> import numpy as np
+    >>> from scipy.linalg import convolution_matrix
+    >>> A = convolution_matrix([-1, 4, -2], 5, mode='same')
+    >>> A
+    array([[ 4, -1,  0,  0,  0],
+           [-2,  4, -1,  0,  0],
+           [ 0, -2,  4, -1,  0],
+           [ 0,  0, -2,  4, -1],
+           [ 0,  0,  0, -2,  4]])
+
+    Compare multiplication by `A` with the use of `numpy.convolve`.
+
+    >>> x = np.array([1, 2, 0, -3, 0.5])
+    >>> A @ x
+    array([  2. ,   6. ,  -1. , -12.5,   8. ])
+
+    Verify that ``A @ x`` produced the same result as applying the
+    convolution function.
+
+    >>> np.convolve([-1, 4, -2], x, mode='same')
+    array([  2. ,   6. ,  -1. , -12.5,   8. ])
+
+    For comparison to the case ``mode='same'`` shown above, here are the
+    matrices produced by ``mode='full'`` and ``mode='valid'`` for the
+    same coefficients and size.
+
+    >>> convolution_matrix([-1, 4, -2], 5, mode='full')
+    array([[-1,  0,  0,  0,  0],
+           [ 4, -1,  0,  0,  0],
+           [-2,  4, -1,  0,  0],
+           [ 0, -2,  4, -1,  0],
+           [ 0,  0, -2,  4, -1],
+           [ 0,  0,  0, -2,  4],
+           [ 0,  0,  0,  0, -2]])
+
+    >>> convolution_matrix([-1, 4, -2], 5, mode='valid')
+    array([[-2,  4, -1,  0,  0],
+           [ 0, -2,  4, -1,  0],
+           [ 0,  0, -2,  4, -1]])
+    """
+    if n <= 0:
+        raise ValueError('n must be a positive integer.')
+
+    a = np.asarray(a)
+
+    if a.size == 0:
+        raise ValueError('len(a) must be at least 1.')
+
+    if mode not in ('full', 'valid', 'same'):
+        raise ValueError(
+            "'mode' argument must be one of ('full', 'valid', 'same')")
+
+    if a.ndim > 1:
+        return np.apply_along_axis(lambda a: convolution_matrix(a, n, mode), -1, a)
+
+    # create zero padded versions of the array
+    az = np.pad(a, (0, n-1), 'constant')
+    raz = np.pad(a[::-1], (0, n-1), 'constant')
+
+    if mode == 'same':
+        trim = min(n, len(a)) - 1
+        tb = trim//2
+        te = trim - tb
+        col0 = az[tb:len(az)-te]
+        row0 = raz[-n-tb:len(raz)-tb]
+    elif mode == 'valid':
+        tb = min(n, len(a)) - 1
+        te = tb
+        col0 = az[tb:len(az)-te]
+        row0 = raz[-n-tb:len(raz)-tb]
+    else:  # 'full'
+        col0 = az
+        row0 = raz[-n:]
+    return toeplitz(col0, row0)