passagemath-singular 10.6.31rc3__cp314-cp314-manylinux_2_27_x86_64.manylinux_2_28_x86_64.whl

sage_wheels/share/singular/LIB/tasks.lib

@@ -0,0 +1,1324 @@
+//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+version="version tasks.lib 4.1.2.0 Feb_2019 "; // $Id: 73d8eac8234a1252f978fc519f4538d9e1d778a7 $
+category="General purpose";
+info="
+LIBRARY:   tasks.lib  A parallel framework based on tasks
+
+AUTHOR:    Andreas Steenpass, e-mail: steenpass@mathematik.uni-kl.de
+
+OVERVIEW:
+This library provides a parallel framework based on tasks. It introduces a new
+Singular type @code{task}; an object of this type is a command (given by a
+string) applied to a list of arguments. Tasks can be computed in parallel via
+the procedures in this library and they can even be started recursively, i.e.
+from within other tasks.
+
+tasks.lib respects the limits for computational resources defined
+in @ref{resources_lib}, i.e., all tasks within the same Singular session will
+not use more computational resources than provided via resources.lib, even if
+tasks are started recursively.
+
+The Singular library @ref{parallel_lib} provides implementations of several
+parallel 'skeletons' based on tasks.lib.
+
+KEYWORDS:  parallelization; distributed computing; task
+
+SEE ALSO:  resources_lib, parallel_lib
+
+PROCEDURES:
+  createTask();    create a task
+  killTask();      kill a task
+  copyTask();      copy a task
+  compareTasks();  compare two tasks
+  printTask();     print a task
+  startTasks();    start tasks
+  stopTask();      stop a task
+  waitTasks();     wait for a certain number of tasks
+  waitAllTasks();  wait for all tasks
+  pollTask();      poll a task
+  getCommand();    get the command of a task
+  getArguments();  get the arguments of a task
+  getResult();     get the result of a task
+  getState();      get the state of a task
+";
+
+/*
+RATIONALE FOR DEVELOPERS
+
+The Singular type 'task'
+------------------------
+tasks.lib introduces a Singular type 'task' which makes use of a pointer-like
+model in order to avoid unnecessary copying of data. 'task' is defined as a
+newstruct whose only member is 'int index'. This index points to an entry in
+the lib-internal list 'tasks'. The elements of this list are of the type
+'internal_task' which is defined as a newstruct with the following members:
+int id         - the internal ID
+string command - the command
+list arguments - the arguments
+def result     - the result
+string state   - the current state, see 'The life cycle of a task'
+list links     - control handles, see 'Links'
+int linkID     - the ID of the control handles
+
+
+The life cycle of a task
+------------------------
+'uninitialized' --> 'created' --> 'started' --> 'completed'
+                                     | ^
+                                     v |
+                                  'stopped'
+
+The state of a task t is 'uninitialized' iff
+(t.index == 0) or (typeof(tasks[t.index]) != "internal_task").
+
+A task can be reset to 'uninitialized' by killTask() at any time.
+
+
+Assigned members for 'internal_task'
+------------------------------------
+For each state, the following members of an internal_task must be assigned:
+
+created:       command arguments        state
+started:    id command arguments        state links linkID
+stopped:       command arguments        state
+completed:     command arguments result state
+
+All other members should be wiped out.
+
+Local supervisors
+-----------------
+A call of 'startTasks(t(1..n));' for tasks t(1), ..., t(n) creates a child
+process which plays the role of a supervisor for these tasks. The computation
+of the tasks is done in child processes of the supervisor.
+
+The supervisor assigns an internal state to each task which is represented by
+an integer. The meaning of these integers and their relation to the global
+state of each task is as follows:
+
+internal state | meaning           | corresponding global state
+---------------|-------------------|---------------------------
+             0 | waiting           | started
+             1 | started           | started
+             2 | (result) computed | started
+             3 | (result) sent     | completed
+            -1 | stopped           | stopped
+
+Links
+-----
+The ssi link between the main process and the supervisor is named 'l(pid)'
+where pid is the PID of the main process. The links between the supervisor and
+its child processes are named 'll(pid)(1)', 'll(pid)(2)', ... where pid is the
+PID of the supervisor. The link between the child processes of the supervisor
+and the main process is named 'L(pid)' where pid is the PID of the main
+process. This link is only for sending the results to the main process and must
+not be used in the other direction!
+
+For any task t whose state is 'started', tasks[t.index].links is
+list(L(pid), l(pid)) where pid is the PID of the main process.
+
+Communication model
+-------------------
+stopTask() <--> supervisor
+    0, id -->
+
+waitTasks() <--> supervisor
+(demanded_task is an intvec containing the IDs of the tasks which are being
+waited for; ndemanded is the number of tasks that is being waited for.)
+    1, demanded_tasks, ndemanded -->
+    [receiving results]
+    1, 0:2, -1 -->
+    results_sent <--
+    [receiving remaining results]
+
+pollTask() <--> supervisor
+    2, id -->
+    state <--
+    [receive result if state == 2 (computed)]
+
+startTasks_child() <--> startTasks_grandchild()
+    [compute the result]
+    1, id <--
+    [wait until the result is requested]
+    1 -->
+    [send the result]
+    2 <--
+
+sending and receiving results:
+main process <--> supervisor <--> startTasks_grandchild()
+    [request the result, see above]
+    index, result  (main process <-- startTasks_grandchild())
+    3, id          (main process --> supervisor)
+*/
+
+LIB "resources.lib";
+
+static proc mod_init()
+{
+    /* initialize the semaphores */
+    if (!defined(Resources)) {
+        LIB "resources.lib";
+    }
+    // the number of processor cores
+    int sem_cores = Resources::sem_cores;
+    exportto(Tasks, sem_cores);
+    // the number of leaves in the parallel tree (not strict)
+    int sem_leaves = semaphore(system("--cpus")+10);
+    exportto(Tasks, sem_leaves);
+    // the number of processes waiting for sem_cores with low priority
+    int sem_queue = semaphore(2);
+    exportto(Tasks, sem_queue);
+
+    /* define the Singular type 'task' */
+    newstruct("task", "int index");
+    newstruct("internal_task", "int id, string command, list arguments,"
+        +"def result, string state, list links, int linkID");
+    system("install", "task", "=", createTask, 1);
+    system("install", "task", "==", compareTasks, 2);
+    system("install", "task", "print", printTask, 1);
+
+    /* define (lib-)global variables */
+    list tasks;     // the lib-internal list of tasks
+    exportto(Tasks, tasks);
+    int ntasks;     // the current maximal index in 'tasks'
+    exportto(Tasks, ntasks);
+    int nlinkIDs;   // the current maximal linkID
+    exportto(Tasks, nlinkIDs);
+}
+
+proc createTask(alias string command, alias list arguments)
+"USAGE:   createTask(command, arguments), command string, arguments list
+RETURN:   a task with the given command and arguments whose state is 'created'.
+NOTE:     't = command, arguments;' is a shortcut for
+          't = createTask(command, arguments);'.
+SEE ALSO: startTasks, getCommand, getArguments, getState, killTask, copyTask,
+          compareTasks, printTask
+EXAMPLE:  example createTask; shows an example"
+{
+    internal_task T;
+    ntasks++;
+    tasks[ntasks] = T;
+    tasks[ntasks].command = command;
+    tasks[ntasks].arguments = arguments;
+    tasks[ntasks].state = "created";
+    task t;
+    t.index = ntasks;
+    return(t);
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t = createTask("std", list(I));
+    // This is the same as:
+    // task t = "std", list(I);
+    t;
+    killTask(t);
+}
+
+proc killTask(task t)
+"USAGE:   killTask(t), t task
+RETURN:   nothing. If the state of t is 'started', then t is stopped first. The
+          internal data structures of t are erased and its state is set to
+          'uninitialized'.
+NOTE:     'killTask(t);' is not the same as 'kill t;'. The latter command does
+          not erase the internal data structures of t. Hence killTask() should
+          be called for any no longer needed task in order to free memory.
+SEE ALSO: stopTask, getState, createTask, printTask
+EXAMPLE:  example killTask; shows an example"
+{
+    if (t.index == 0) {
+        return();
+    }
+    if (typeof(tasks[t.index]) != "internal_task") {
+        return();
+    }
+    if (tasks[t.index].state == "started") {
+        stopTask(t);
+    }
+    tasks[t.index] = def(0);
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t = "std", list(I);
+    startTasks(t);
+    t;
+    killTask(t);
+    t;
+    getState(t);
+}
+
+proc copyTask(task t)
+"USAGE:   copyTask(t), t task
+RETURN:   a copy of t.
+NOTE:     'task t1 = copyTask(t2);' is not the same as 'task t1 = t2;'. After
+          the latter command, t1 points to the same object as t2; any changes
+          to t2 will also effect t1. In contrast to this, copyTask() creates a
+          new independent task.
+       @* A task whose state is 'started' cannot be copied.
+SEE ALSO: getCommand, getArguments, getResult, getState, createTask, killTask,
+          compareTasks, printTask
+EXAMPLE:  example copyTask; shows an example"
+{
+    task t_copy;
+    if (t.index == 0) {
+        return(t_copy);
+    }
+    if (typeof(tasks[t.index]) != "internal_task") {
+        return(t_copy);
+    }
+    if (tasks[t.index].state == "started") {
+        ERROR("cannot copy a task whose state is 'started'");
+    }
+    ntasks++;
+    tasks[ntasks] = tasks[t.index];
+    t_copy.index = ntasks;
+    return(t_copy);
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t1 = "std", list(I);
+    startTasks(t1);
+    waitAllTasks(t1);
+    task t2 = copyTask(t1);
+    killTask(t1);
+    t2;   // t2 survived
+    getResult(t2);
+    killTask(t2);
+}
+
+proc compareTasks(task t1, task t2)
+"USAGE:   compareTasks(t1, t2), t1, t2 tasks
+RETURN:   1, if t1 and t2 coincide;
+          0, otherwise.
+NOTE:     The arguments and the results of t1 and t2 are not compared.
+       @* 't1 == t2' is a shortcut for 'compareTasks(t1, t2)'.
+SEE ALSO: getCommand, getArguments, getResult, getState, copyTask, printTask
+EXAMPLE:  example compareTasks; shows an example"
+{
+    if (tasks[t1.index].id != tasks[t2.index].id) {
+        return(0);
+    }
+    if (tasks[t1.index].command != tasks[t2.index].command) {
+        return(0);
+    }
+    if (tasks[t1.index].state != tasks[t2.index].state) {
+        return(0);
+    }
+    if (tasks[t1.index].linkID != tasks[t2.index].linkID) {
+        return(0);
+    }
+    return(1);
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t1 = "std", list(I);
+    task t2 = "std", list(I);
+    compareTasks(t1, t2);
+    startTasks(t1);
+    waitAllTasks(t1);
+    t1 == t2;   // the same as compareTasks(t1, t2);
+    killTask(t1);
+    killTask(t2);
+    // The arguments and the result are not compared!
+    ideal J = x;
+    task t3 = "std", list(I);
+    task t4 = "std", list(J);
+    t3 == t4;
+    killTask(t3);
+    killTask(t4);
+}
+
+proc printTask(task t)
+"USAGE:   printTask(t), t task
+RETURN:   nothing. Prints information about t.
+NOTE:     'print(t);' and 't;' are shortcuts for 'printTask(t)'.
+SEE ALSO: getCommand, getArguments, getResult, getState, createTask, killTask
+EXAMPLE:  example printTask; shows an example"
+{
+    if (t.index == 0) {
+        "An uninitialized task";
+        return();
+    }
+    if (typeof(tasks[t.index]) != "internal_task") {
+        "An uninitialized task";
+        return();
+    }
+    "A task with the following properties:"+newline
+        +"command:          "+tasks[t.index].command+newline
+        +"no. of arguments: "+string(size(tasks[t.index].arguments))+newline
+        +"state:            "+tasks[t.index].state;
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t;
+    printTask(t);
+    t = "std", list(I);
+    t;   // the same as printTask(t);
+    startTasks(t);
+    waitAllTasks(t);
+    t;
+    killTask(t);
+}
+
+proc startTasks(list #)
+"USAGE:   startTasks(t1, t2, ...), t1, t2, ... tasks
+RETURN:   nothing. Starts the tasks t1, t2, ... and sets their states to
+          'started'.
+NOTE:     A task whose state is neither 'created' nor 'stopped' cannot be
+          started.
+       @* If startTasks() is applied to a task whose state is 'stopped', then
+          the computation of this task will be restarted from the beginning.
+       @* Tasks can be started from within other tasks. A started task should
+          not be accessed from within any task other than the one within which
+          it was started.
+       @* For each task, the start of its computation is subject to the
+          internal scheduling.
+SEE ALSO: stopTask, waitTasks, pollTask, getState, createTask, printTask
+EXAMPLE:  example startTasks; shows an example"
+{
+    int nargs = size(#);
+    if (nargs == 0) {
+        ERROR("missing argument");
+    }
+    int i;
+    for (i = nargs; i > 0; i--) {
+        if (typeof(#[i]) != "task") {
+            ERROR("argument not of type 'task' (argument no. "+string(i)+")");
+        }
+        if (#[i].index == 0) {
+            ERROR("cannot start an uninitialized task (task no. "
+                +string(i)+")");
+        }
+        if (typeof(tasks[#[i].index]) != "internal_task") {
+            ERROR("cannot start an uninitialized task (task no. "
+                +string(i)+")");
+        }
+        if (tasks[#[i].index].state != "created"
+            && tasks[#[i].index].state != "stopped") {
+            ERROR("cannot start a task whose state is not"+newline
+                +"'created' or 'stopped'");
+        }
+    }
+    for (i = nargs; i > 0; i--) {
+        tasks[#[i].index].id = i;   // has to be set before forking
+        tasks[#[i].index].state = "started";
+    }
+    int pid = system("pid");
+    link l(pid) = "ssi:fork";
+    open(l(pid));
+    write(l(pid), quote(startTasks_child(#, eval(pid))));
+    int port = read(l(pid));
+    link L(pid) = "ssi:connect localhost:"+string(port);
+    open(L(pid));
+    nlinkIDs++;
+    for (i = nargs; i > 0; i--) {
+        tasks[#[i].index].links = list(L(pid), l(pid));
+        tasks[#[i].index].linkID = nlinkIDs;
+    }
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t1 = "std", list(I);
+    task t2 = "slimgb", list(I);
+    startTasks(t1, t2);
+    waitAllTasks(t1, t2);
+    getResult(t1);
+    getResult(t2);
+    killTask(t1);
+    killTask(t2);
+}
+
+/* This procedure is started within the child after forking. */
+static proc startTasks_child(list localtasks, int pid_parent)
+{
+    int port = system("reserve", 1);
+    write(l(pid_parent), port);
+    link L(pid_parent) = system("reservedLink");
+    export(L(pid_parent));
+
+    int sem_write = semaphore(1);
+    int pid = system("pid");
+
+    int nlocaltasks = size(localtasks);
+    intvec state = 0:nlocaltasks;
+        // the internal state of each localtask (see rationale)
+    int nwaiting = nlocaltasks;
+        // the number of local tasks with internal state 0 (waiting)
+    int nfinished;
+        // the number of local tasks with internal state 3 (result sent) or
+        // -1 (stopped)
+    intvec queue = 1..nlocaltasks;
+    int next = 1;
+
+    list links;
+    links[nlocaltasks+1] = l(pid_parent);
+    intvec assignment = 0:nlocaltasks;
+        // the task with id = i is running in link no. assignment[i]
+    int nlinks;
+
+    // data sent by other processes
+    int code;
+    int id;
+    if (!defined(demanded_tasks)) {
+        intvec demanded_tasks;
+        int demanded_tasks_index = 1;
+        exportto(Tasks, demanded_tasks);
+        exportto(Tasks, demanded_tasks_index);
+    }
+    else {
+        demanded_tasks = 0;
+        demanded_tasks_index = 1;
+    }
+    int ndemanded = -1;
+
+    // internal counts
+    int granted_leaves;
+    int results_sent;
+
+    // auxiliary variables
+    intvec waiting_tasks;
+    int wait;
+    int deadlock;
+    int tmp;
+    int i;
+    int j;
+
+    while (nwaiting > 0) {
+        wait = 0;
+        if (nlinks == 0) {
+            wait = -1;
+            granted_leaves++;
+            while (-wait < nwaiting) {
+                if (system("semaphore", "try_acquire", sem_leaves) == 1) {
+                    wait--;
+                }
+                else {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        while (wait == 0) {
+            wait = waitfirst(links, 500);
+            if (wait == 0) {
+                while (-wait < nwaiting) {
+                    if (system("semaphore", "try_acquire", sem_leaves) == 1) {
+                        wait--;
+                    }
+                    else {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if (wait < 0) {   // open (-wait) new links
+            while (wait < 0) {
+                wait++;
+                nlinks++;
+                link ll(pid)(nlinks) = "ssi:fork";
+                open(ll(pid)(nlinks));
+                links[nlinks] = ll(pid)(nlinks);
+                write(links[nlinks],
+                    quote(startTasks_grandchild(
+                    eval(localtasks[queue[next]].index), eval(pid_parent),
+                    eval(pid), eval(nlinks), eval(sem_write))));
+                assignment[queue[next]] = nlinks;
+                state[queue[next]] = 1;
+                nwaiting--;
+                next++;
+            }
+            // wait == 0
+        }
+        if (wait > 0 && wait <= nlocaltasks) {
+            code = read(links[wait]);
+            if (code == 1) {   // result computed
+                id = read(links[wait]);
+                state[id] = 2;
+                if (ndemanded > 0 && removeDemanded(id)) {
+                    write(links[wait], 1);
+                    ndemanded--;
+                    results_sent++;
+                }
+            }
+            // code == 2: startTasks_grandchild() ended, do nothing
+        }
+        if (wait == nlocaltasks+1) {
+            code = read(l(pid_parent));
+            if (code == 0) {   // stopTask
+                id = read(l(pid_parent));
+                if (state[id] == 0) {   // waiting
+                    queue = give_priority(queue, intvec(id));
+                    next++;
+                }
+                if (state[id] == 1 || state[id] == 2) {  // started or computed
+                    close(links[assignment[id]]);
+                    open(links[assignment[id]]);
+                    write(links[assignment[id]],
+                        quote(startTasks_grandchild(
+                        eval(localtasks[queue[next]].index), eval(pid_parent),
+                        eval(pid), eval(assignment[id]), eval(sem_write))));
+                    assignment[queue[next]] = assignment[id];
+                    assignment[id] = 0;
+                    state[queue[next]] = 1;
+                    next++;
+                }
+                // state[id] == -1 (stopped) or state[id] == 3 (sent)
+                // should not happen
+                nwaiting--;
+                nfinished++;
+                state[id] = -1;
+            }
+            if (code == 1) {   // waitTasks
+                demanded_tasks = read(l(pid_parent));
+                demanded_tasks_index = size(demanded_tasks);
+                ndemanded = read(l(pid_parent));
+                if (ndemanded > demanded_tasks_index) {
+                    ndemanded = demanded_tasks_index;
+                }
+                if (demanded_tasks == 0 && ndemanded == -1) {
+                    write(l(pid_parent), results_sent);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                else {
+                    results_sent = 0;
+                }
+                demanded_tasks = demanded_tasks[demanded_tasks_index..1];
+                deadlock = 0;
+                waiting_tasks = 0:demanded_tasks_index;
+                j = 0;
+                for (i = demanded_tasks_index; i > 0; i--) {
+                    id = demanded_tasks[i];
+                    if (state[id] == 0) {   // waiting
+                        j++;
+                        waiting_tasks[j] = id;
+                        deadlock = 1;
+                    }
+                }
+                if (j > 0) {
+                    waiting_tasks = waiting_tasks[1..j];
+                    queue = queue[next..size(queue)];
+                    next = 1;
+                    queue = give_priority(queue, waiting_tasks);
+                    waiting_tasks = 0;
+                }
+                for (i = demanded_tasks_index; i > 0; i--) {
+                    id = demanded_tasks[i];
+                    if (state[id] == 1) {   // started
+                        deadlock = 0;
+                    }
+                    if (state[id] == 2) {   // computed
+                        write(links[assignment[id]], 1);
+                        tmp = removeDemanded(id);
+                        ndemanded--;
+                        results_sent++;
+                        deadlock = 0;
+                    }
+                }
+                if (deadlock) {
+                    granted_leaves++;
+                    nlinks++;
+                    link ll(pid)(nlinks) = "ssi:fork";
+                    open(ll(pid)(nlinks));
+                    links[nlinks] = ll(pid)(nlinks);
+                    write(links[nlinks],
+                        quote(startTasks_grandchild(
+                        eval(localtasks[queue[next]].index), eval(pid_parent),
+                        eval(pid), eval(nlinks), eval(sem_write))));
+                    assignment[queue[next]] = nlinks;
+                    state[queue[next]] = 1;
+                    nwaiting--;
+                    next++;
+                }
+            }
+            if (code == 2) {   // pollTask
+                id = read(l(pid_parent));
+                if (state[id] == 0) {   // waiting
+                    queue = queue[next..size(queue)];
+                    next = 1;
+                    queue = give_priority(queue, intvec(id));
+                }
+                if (state[id] == 2) {   // computed
+                    write(links[assignment[id]], 1);
+                }
+                write(l(pid_parent), state[id]);
+            }
+            if (code == 3) {   // got result
+                id = read(l(pid_parent));
+                write(links[assignment[id]],
+                    quote(startTasks_grandchild(
+                    eval(localtasks[queue[next]].index), eval(pid_parent),
+                    eval(pid), eval(assignment[id]), eval(sem_write))));
+                assignment[queue[next]] = assignment[id];
+                assignment[id] = 0;
+                state[queue[next]] = 1;
+                state[id] = 3;
+                nwaiting--;
+                nfinished++;
+                next++;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    while (nfinished < nlocaltasks || ndemanded != -1) {
+        wait = waitfirst(links);
+        if (wait <= nlocaltasks) {
+            code = read(links[wait]);
+            if (code == 1) {   // result computed
+                id = read(links[wait]);
+                state[id] = 2;
+                if (ndemanded > 0 && removeDemanded(id)) {
+                    write(links[wait], 1);
+                    ndemanded--;
+                    results_sent++;
+                }
+            }
+            // code == 2: startTasks_grandchild() ended, do nothing
+        }
+        if (wait == nlocaltasks+1) {
+            code = read(l(pid_parent));
+            if (code == 0) {   // stopTask
+                id = read(l(pid_parent));
+                if (state[id] == 1 || state[id] == 2) {  // started or computed
+                    close(links[assignment[id]]);
+                    if (nlinks > granted_leaves) {
+                        tmp = system("semaphore", "release", sem_leaves);
+                    }
+                    links[assignment[id]] = def(0);
+                    nlinks--;
+                    assignment[id] = 0;
+                    nfinished++;
+                }
+                // else: nothing to do
+                state[id] = -1;
+            }
+            if (code == 1) {   // waitTasks
+                demanded_tasks = read(l(pid_parent));
+                demanded_tasks_index = size(demanded_tasks);
+                ndemanded = read(l(pid_parent));
+                if (ndemanded > demanded_tasks_index) {
+                    ndemanded = demanded_tasks_index;
+                }
+                if (demanded_tasks == 0 && ndemanded == -1) {
+                    write(l(pid_parent), results_sent);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                else {
+                    results_sent = 0;
+                }
+                demanded_tasks = demanded_tasks[demanded_tasks_index..1];
+                for (i = demanded_tasks_index; i > 0; i--) {
+                    id = demanded_tasks[i];
+                    if (state[id] == 2) {   // computed
+                        write(links[assignment[id]], 1);
+                        tmp = removeDemanded(id);
+                        ndemanded--;
+                        results_sent++;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            if (code == 2) {   // pollTask
+                id = read(l(pid_parent));
+                if (state[id] == 2) {   // computed
+                    write(links[assignment[id]], 1);
+                }
+                write(l(pid_parent), state[id]);
+            }
+            if (code == 3) {   // got result
+                id = read(l(pid_parent));
+                if(typeof(links[assignment[id]])=="link")
+                {
+                  close(links[assignment[id]]);
+                }
+                if (nlinks > granted_leaves)
+                {
+                  tmp = system("semaphore", "release", sem_leaves);
+                }
+                links[assignment[id]] = def(0);
+                nlinks--;
+                assignment[id] = 0;
+                state[id] = 3;
+                nfinished++;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/* This procedure has to be started within the grandchildren after forking. */
+static proc startTasks_grandchild(int index, int pid_grandparent,
+    int pid_parent, int link_no, int sem_write)
+{
+    def result;
+    int tmp = system("semaphore", "acquire", sem_queue);
+    tmp = system("semaphore", "acquire", sem_cores);
+    tmp = system("semaphore", "release", sem_queue);
+    execute("result = "+tasks[index].command+"("
+        +argsToString("tasks[index].arguments", size(tasks[index].arguments))
+        +");");
+    tmp = system("semaphore", "release", sem_cores);
+    write(ll(pid_parent)(link_no), 1);
+    write(ll(pid_parent)(link_no), tasks[index].id);
+    tmp = read(ll(pid_parent)(link_no));
+    tmp = system("semaphore", "acquire", sem_write);
+    write(L(pid_grandparent), index);
+    write(L(pid_grandparent), result);
+    tmp = system("semaphore", "release", sem_write);
+    return(2);
+}
+
+/* Remove id from demanded_tasks and return 1, if id is an element of
+ * demanded_tasks; return 0, otherwise. Note:
+ * - demanded_tasks and demanded_tasks_index are (lib-)global objects
+ *   exported in startTasks_child().
+ * - demanded_tasks_index is used to avoid copying. It is defined to be
+ *   the greatest integer with demanded_tasks[demanded_tasks_index] != 0
+ *   and demanded_tasks[demanded_tasks_index+1] == 0 (if defined).
+ */
+static proc removeDemanded(alias int id)
+{
+    if (demanded_tasks[demanded_tasks_index] == id) {
+        demanded_tasks[demanded_tasks_index] = 0;
+        demanded_tasks_index--;
+        return(1);
+    }
+    int i;
+    for (i = demanded_tasks_index-1; i > 0; i--) {
+        if (demanded_tasks[i] == id) {
+            demanded_tasks[i..demanded_tasks_index]
+                = demanded_tasks[(i+1)..demanded_tasks_index], 0;
+            demanded_tasks_index--;
+            return(1);
+        }
+    }
+    return(0);
+}
+
+/* Move the elements in 'preferred' to the beginning of 'queue'. We may assume
+ * that
+ * - 'preferred' is a subset of 'queue';
+ * - the elements of 'preferred' are distinct and non-zero;
+ * - the elements of 'queue' are distinct and non-zero.
+ * For performance reasons, we may also assume that 'queue' and 'preferred' are
+ * more or less ordered in most cases. Note that queue has the format
+ * '0, indices, 0'.
+ */
+static proc give_priority(intvec queue, intvec preferred)
+{
+    int size_queue = size(queue);
+    int size_preferred = size(preferred);
+    if (size_queue == size_preferred) {
+        return(queue);
+    }
+    int index = size_queue;
+    int i;
+    int j;
+    for (i = size_preferred; i > 0; i--) {
+        for (j = size_queue; j > 0; j--) {
+            if (queue[index] == preferred[i]) {
+                queue[index] = 0;
+                break;
+            }
+            index--;
+            if (index == 0) {
+                index = size_queue;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    intvec not_preferred = 0:(size_queue-size_preferred);
+    index = 1;
+    for (i = 1; i <= size_queue; i++) {
+        if (queue[i]) {
+            not_preferred[index] = queue[i];
+            index++;
+        }
+    }
+    queue = preferred, not_preferred;
+    return(queue);
+}
+
+proc stopTask(task t)
+"USAGE:   stopTask(t), t task
+RETURN:   nothing. Stops the t and sets its state to 'stopped'.
+NOTE:     A task whose state is not 'started' cannot be stopped.
+       @* Intermediate results are discarded when a task is stopped.
+       @* killTask() should be called for any no longer needed task.
+SEE ALSO: startTasks, waitTasks, pollTask, getState, killTask, printTask
+EXAMPLE:  example stopTask; shows an example"
+{
+    if (t.index == 0) {
+        ERROR("cannot stop an uninitialized task");
+    }
+    if (typeof(tasks[t.index]) != "internal_task") {
+        ERROR("cannot stop an uninitialized task");
+    }
+    if (tasks[t.index].state != "started") {
+        ERROR("cannot stop a task whose state is not 'started'");
+    }
+    write(tasks[t.index].links[2], 0);
+    write(tasks[t.index].links[2], tasks[t.index].id);
+    tasks[t.index].id = 0;
+    tasks[t.index].links = list();
+    tasks[t.index].linkID = 0;
+    tasks[t.index].state = "stopped";
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t = "std", list(I);
+    startTasks(t);
+    stopTask(t);
+    t;
+    killTask(t);
+}
+
+proc waitTasks(list T, int N, list #)
+"USAGE:   waitTasks(T, N[, timeout]), T list of tasks, N int, timeout int
+RETURN:   an ordered list of the indices of those tasks which have been
+          successfully completed. The state of these tasks is set to
+          'completed'.
+       @* The procedure waits for N tasks to complete.
+       @* An optional timeout in ms can be provided. Default is 0 which
+          disables the timeout.
+NOTE:     A task whose state is neither 'started' nor 'completed' cannot be
+          waited for.
+       @* The result of any completed task can be accessed via @ref{getResult}.
+       @* The returned list may contain more than N entries if the computation
+          of some tasks has already finished and/or if several tasks finish
+          \"at the same time\". It may contain less than N entries in
+          the case of timeout or errors occurring.
+       @* Polling is guaranteed, i.e. the index of any task t for which
+          'pollTask(t);' would return 1 will appear in the returned list.
+SEE ALSO: startTasks, pollTask, getResult, getState, printTask
+EXAMPLE:  example waitTasks; shows an example"
+{
+    /* initialize the timer */
+    int oldtimerresolution = system("--ticks-per-sec");
+    system("--ticks-per-sec", 1000);
+    int starting_time = rtimer;
+
+    /* read optional parameters */
+    int timeout;
+    if (size(#) > 0) {
+        if (size(#) > 1 || typeof(#[1]) != "int") {
+            ERROR("wrong optional parameter");
+        }
+        timeout = #[1];
+    }
+
+    /* check for errors */
+    if (timeout < 0) {
+        ERROR("negative timeout");
+    }
+    int nargs = size(T);
+    if (nargs == 0) {
+        ERROR("missing task");
+    }
+    if (N < 1 || N > nargs) {
+        ERROR("wrong number of tasks to wait for");
+    }
+    int i;
+    for (i = nargs; i > 0; i--) {
+        if (typeof(T[i]) != "task") {
+            ERROR("element not of type 'task' (element no. "+string(i)+")");
+        }
+        if (T[i].index == 0) {
+            ERROR("cannot wait for an uninitialized task (task no. "+string(i)
+                +")");
+        }
+        if (typeof(tasks[T[i].index]) != "internal_task") {
+            ERROR("cannot wait for an uninitialized task (task no. "+string(i)
+                +")");
+        }
+        if (tasks[T[i].index].state != "started"
+            && tasks[T[i].index].state != "completed") {
+            ERROR("cannot wait for a task whose state is not"+newline
+                +"'started' or 'completed' (task no. "+string(i)+")");
+        }
+    }
+
+    /* sort the tasks */
+    int ncompleted;
+    list requests;
+    list links;
+    int sorted_in;
+    int j;
+    for (i = 1; i <= nargs; i++) {
+        if (tasks[T[i].index].state == "completed") {
+            ncompleted++;
+        }
+        else {   // tasks[T[i].index].state == "started"
+            sorted_in = 0;
+            for (j = size(requests); j > 0; j--) {
+                if (requests[j][1] == tasks[T[i].index].linkID) {
+                    requests[j][2][size(requests[j][2])+1] =
+                        tasks[T[i].index].id;
+                    sorted_in = 1;
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            if (!sorted_in) {
+                requests[size(requests)+1] = list(tasks[T[i].index].linkID,
+                    intvec(tasks[T[i].index].id),
+                    tasks[T[i].index].links[2]);
+                links[size(links)+1] = tasks[T[i].index].links[1];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /* send the requests */
+    for (j = size(requests); j > 0; j--) {
+        write(requests[j][3], 1);
+        write(requests[j][3], requests[j][2]);
+        write(requests[j][3], N-ncompleted);
+    }
+
+    /* wait for the results */
+    int wait;
+    int index;
+    int results_got;
+    int remaining_time;
+    int tmp;
+    while (ncompleted < N) {
+        wait = waitfirst(links, 0);
+        if (wait == 0) {
+            if (timeout == 0) {
+                tmp = system("semaphore", "release", sem_cores);
+                wait = waitfirst(links);
+                tmp = system("semaphore", "acquire", sem_cores);
+            }
+            else {
+                remaining_time = timeout-(rtimer-starting_time);
+                if (remaining_time < 0) {
+                    break;
+                }
+                else {
+                    tmp = system("semaphore", "release", sem_cores);
+                    wait = waitfirst(links, remaining_time);
+                    tmp = system("semaphore", "acquire", sem_cores);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if (wait < 1) {
+            break;
+        }
+        index = read(links[wait]);
+        tasks[index].result = read(links[wait]);
+        write(tasks[index].links[2], 3);
+        write(tasks[index].links[2], tasks[index].id);
+        tasks[index].id = 0;
+        tasks[index].links = list();
+        tasks[index].linkID = 0;
+        tasks[index].state = "completed";
+        ncompleted++;
+        results_got++;
+    }
+    if (wait == -1) {
+        ERROR("error in waitfirst()");
+    }
+
+    /* end communication process */
+    for (j = size(requests); j > 0; j--) {
+        write(requests[j][3], 1);
+        write(requests[j][3], 0);
+        write(requests[j][3], -1);
+    }
+    int results_sent;
+    for (j = size(requests); j > 0; j--) {
+        results_sent = results_sent + read(requests[j][3]);
+    }
+    while (results_sent > results_got) {
+        wait = waitfirst(links);
+        if (wait == -1) {
+            ERROR("error in waitfirst()");
+        }
+        index = read(links[wait]);
+        tasks[index].result = read(links[wait]);
+        write(tasks[index].links[2], 3);
+        write(tasks[index].links[2], tasks[index].id);
+        tasks[index].id = 0;
+        tasks[index].links = list();
+        tasks[index].linkID = 0;
+        tasks[index].state = "completed";
+        results_got++;
+    }
+
+    /* list completed tasks */
+    list completed;
+    completed[nargs+1] = 0;
+    j = 0;
+    for (i = 1; i <= nargs; i++) {
+        if (tasks[T[i].index].state == "completed") {
+            j++;
+            completed[j] = i;
+        }
+    }
+    completed[nargs+1] = def(0);
+
+    /* return the result */
+    system("--ticks-per-sec", oldtimerresolution);
+    return(completed);
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t1 = "std", list(I);
+    task t2 = "slimgb", list(I);
+    startTasks(t1, t2);
+    waitTasks(list(t1, t2), 2);   // wait for both tasks
+    getResult(t1);
+    getResult(t2);
+    killTask(t1);
+    killTask(t2);
+}
+
+proc waitAllTasks(list #)
+"USAGE:   waitAllTasks(t1, t2, ...), t1, t2, ... tasks
+RETURN:   nothing. Waits for all the tasks t1, t2, ... to complete. The state
+          of the tasks is set to 'completed'.
+NOTE:     A task whose state is neither 'started' nor 'completed' cannot be
+          waited for.
+       @* The result of any completed task can be accessed via @ref{getResult}.
+       @* 'waitAllTasks(t1, t2, ...);' is a shortcut for
+          'waitTasks(list(t1, t2, ...), size(list(t1, t2, ...)));'. Since
+          returning a list of the indices of the completed tasks does not make
+          sense in this case, nothing is returned.
+SEE ALSO: waitTasks, startTasks, pollTask, getResult, getState, printTask
+EXAMPLE:  example waitAllTasks; shows an example"
+{
+    list tmp = waitTasks(#, size(#));
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t1 = "std", list(I);
+    task t2 = "slimgb", list(I);
+    startTasks(t1, t2);
+    waitAllTasks(t1, t2);   // the same as 'waitTasks(list(t1, t2), 2);',
+                            // but without return value
+    getResult(t1);
+    getResult(t2);
+    killTask(t1);
+    killTask(t2);
+}
+
+proc pollTask(task t)
+"USAGE:   pollTask(t), t task
+RETURN:   1, if the computation of the task t has successfully finished;
+          0, otherwise.
+       @* The state of any task whose computation has successfully finished is
+          set to 'completed'.
+NOTE:     A task whose state is neither 'started' nor 'completed' cannot be
+          polled.
+       @* The result of any completed task can be accessed via @ref{getResult}.
+       @* pollTask() should return immediately. However, receiving the result
+          of the task may take some time.
+SEE ALSO: startTasks, waitTasks, getResult, getState, printTask
+EXAMPLE:  example pollTask; shows an example"
+{
+    if (t.index == 0) {
+        ERROR("cannot poll an uninitialized task");
+    }
+    if (typeof(tasks[t.index]) != "internal_task") {
+        ERROR("cannot poll an uninitialized task");
+    }
+    if (tasks[t.index].state != "started"
+        && tasks[t.index].state != "completed") {
+        ERROR("cannot poll a task whose state is not"+newline
+            +"'started' or 'completed'");
+    }
+    if (tasks[t.index].state == "completed") {
+        return(1);
+    }
+    // tasks[t.index].state == "started"
+    write(tasks[t.index].links[2], 2);
+    write(tasks[t.index].links[2], tasks[t.index].id);
+    int state = read(tasks[t.index].links[2]);
+    if (state == 0 || state == 1) {   // waiting or started
+        return(0);
+    }
+    if (state == 2) {   // computed
+        int index = read(tasks[t.index].links[1]);   // index == t.index
+        tasks[t.index].result = read(tasks[t.index].links[1]);
+        write(tasks[t.index].links[2], 3);
+        write(tasks[t.index].links[2], tasks[t.index].id);
+        tasks[t.index].id = 0;
+        tasks[t.index].links = list();
+        tasks[t.index].linkID = 0;
+        tasks[t.index].state = "completed";
+        return(1);
+    }
+    // state == -1 (stopped) or state == 3 (sent) should not happen
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t = "std", list(I);
+    startTasks(t);
+    waitAllTasks(t);
+    pollTask(t);   // task already completed
+    t;
+    getResult(t);
+    killTask(t);
+}
+
+proc getCommand(task t)
+"USAGE:   getCommand(t), t task
+RETURN:   a string, the command of t.
+NOTE:     This command cannot be applied to tasks whose state is
+          'uninitialized'.
+SEE ALSO: getArguments, getResult, getState, createTask, printTask
+EXAMPLE:  example getCommand; shows an example"
+{
+    if (t.index == 0) {
+        ERROR("cannot get command of an uninitialized task");
+    }
+    if (typeof(tasks[t.index]) != "internal_task") {
+        ERROR("cannot get command of an uninitialized task");
+    }
+    return(tasks[t.index].command);
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t = "std", list(I);
+    getCommand(t);
+    killTask(t);
+}
+
+proc getArguments(task t)
+"USAGE:   getArguments(t), t task
+RETURN:   a list, the arguments of t.
+NOTE:     This command cannot be applied to tasks whose state is
+          'uninitialized'.
+SEE ALSO: getCommand, getResult, getState, createTask, printTask
+EXAMPLE:  example getArguments; shows an example"
+{
+    if (t.index == 0) {
+        ERROR("cannot get arguments of an uninitialized task");
+    }
+    if (typeof(tasks[t.index]) != "internal_task") {
+        ERROR("cannot get arguments of an uninitialized task");
+    }
+    return(tasks[t.index].arguments);
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t = "std", list(I);
+    getArguments(t);
+    killTask(t);
+}
+
+proc getResult(task t)
+"USAGE:   getResult(t), t task
+RETURN:   the result of t.
+NOTE:     This command cannot be applied to tasks whose state is not
+          'completed'.
+SEE ALSO: getCommand, getArguments, getState, waitTasks, pollTask, printTask
+EXAMPLE:  example getResult; shows an example"
+{
+    if (t.index == 0) {
+        ERROR("cannot get result of an uninitialized task");
+    }
+    if (typeof(tasks[t.index]) != "internal_task") {
+        ERROR("cannot get result of an uninitialized task");
+    }
+    if (tasks[t.index].state != "completed") {
+        ERROR("cannot get result of a task which is not completed");
+    }
+    return(tasks[t.index].result);
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t = "std", list(I);
+    startTasks(t);
+    waitAllTasks(t);
+    getResult(t);
+    killTask(t);
+}
+
+proc getState(task t)
+"USAGE:   getState(t), t task
+RETURN:   a string, the state of t.
+SEE ALSO: getCommand, getArguments, getResult, printTask, createTask,
+          startTasks, stopTask, waitTasks, pollTask, killTask
+EXAMPLE:  example getState; shows an example"
+{
+    if (t.index == 0) {
+        return("uninitialized");
+    }
+    if (typeof(tasks[t.index]) != "internal_task") {
+        return("uninitialized");
+    }
+    return(tasks[t.index].state);
+}
+example
+{
+    "EXAMPLE:";
+    echo = 2;
+    ring R = 0, (x,y), dp;
+    ideal I = x9y2+x10, x2y7-y8;
+    task t = "std", list(I);
+    getState(t);
+    startTasks(t);
+    getState(t);
+    waitAllTasks(t);
+    getState(t);
+    killTask(t);
+    getState(t);
+}
+
+/ * construct the string "name[1], name[2], name[3], ..., name[length]" */
+static proc argsToString(string name, int length)
+{
+    string output;
+    if (length > 0) {
+        output = name+"[1]";
+    }
+    int i;
+    for (i = 2; i <= length; i++) {
+        output = output+", "+name+"["+string(i)+"]";
+    }
+    return(output);
+}