numpy 2.3.5__cp313-cp313-macosx_14_0_arm64.whl

numpy/_core/tests/test_stringdtype.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1814 @@
+import copy
+import itertools
+import os
+import pickle
+import sys
+import tempfile
+
+import pytest
+
+import numpy as np
+from numpy._core.tests._natype import get_stringdtype_dtype as get_dtype
+from numpy._core.tests._natype import pd_NA
+from numpy.dtypes import StringDType
+from numpy.testing import IS_PYPY, assert_array_equal
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def string_list():
+    return ["abc", "def", "ghi" * 10, "A¢☃€ 😊" * 100, "Abc" * 1000, "DEF"]
+
+
+# second copy for cast tests to do a cartesian product over dtypes
+@pytest.fixture(params=[True, False])
+def coerce2(request):
+    return request.param
+
+
+@pytest.fixture(
+    params=["unset", None, pd_NA, np.nan, float("nan"), "__nan__"],
+    ids=["unset", "None", "pandas.NA", "np.nan", "float('nan')", "string nan"],
+)
+def na_object2(request):
+    return request.param
+
+
+@pytest.fixture()
+def dtype2(na_object2, coerce2):
+    # explicit is check for pd_NA because != with pd_NA returns pd_NA
+    if na_object2 is pd_NA or na_object2 != "unset":
+        return StringDType(na_object=na_object2, coerce=coerce2)
+    else:
+        return StringDType(coerce=coerce2)
+
+
+def test_dtype_creation():
+    hashes = set()
+    dt = StringDType()
+    assert not hasattr(dt, "na_object") and dt.coerce is True
+    hashes.add(hash(dt))
+
+    dt = StringDType(na_object=None)
+    assert dt.na_object is None and dt.coerce is True
+    hashes.add(hash(dt))
+
+    dt = StringDType(coerce=False)
+    assert not hasattr(dt, "na_object") and dt.coerce is False
+    hashes.add(hash(dt))
+
+    dt = StringDType(na_object=None, coerce=False)
+    assert dt.na_object is None and dt.coerce is False
+    hashes.add(hash(dt))
+
+    assert len(hashes) == 4
+
+    dt = np.dtype("T")
+    assert dt == StringDType()
+    assert dt.kind == "T"
+    assert dt.char == "T"
+
+    hashes.add(hash(dt))
+    assert len(hashes) == 4
+
+
+def test_dtype_equality(dtype):
+    assert dtype == dtype
+    for ch in "SU":
+        assert dtype != np.dtype(ch)
+        assert dtype != np.dtype(f"{ch}8")
+
+
+def test_dtype_repr(dtype):
+    if not hasattr(dtype, "na_object") and dtype.coerce:
+        assert repr(dtype) == "StringDType()"
+    elif dtype.coerce:
+        assert repr(dtype) == f"StringDType(na_object={dtype.na_object!r})"
+    elif not hasattr(dtype, "na_object"):
+        assert repr(dtype) == "StringDType(coerce=False)"
+    else:
+        assert (
+            repr(dtype)
+            == f"StringDType(na_object={dtype.na_object!r}, coerce=False)"
+        )
+
+
+def test_create_with_na(dtype):
+    if not hasattr(dtype, "na_object"):
+        pytest.skip("does not have an na object")
+    na_val = dtype.na_object
+    string_list = ["hello", na_val, "world"]
+    arr = np.array(string_list, dtype=dtype)
+    assert str(arr) == "[" + " ".join([repr(s) for s in string_list]) + "]"
+    assert arr[1] is dtype.na_object
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("i", list(range(5)))
+def test_set_replace_na(i):
+    # Test strings of various lengths can be set to NaN and then replaced.
+    s_empty = ""
+    s_short = "0123456789"
+    s_medium = "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz"
+    s_long = "-=+" * 100
+    strings = [s_medium, s_empty, s_short, s_medium, s_long]
+    a = np.array(strings, StringDType(na_object=np.nan))
+    for s in [a[i], s_medium + s_short, s_short, s_empty, s_long]:
+        a[i] = np.nan
+        assert np.isnan(a[i])
+        a[i] = s
+        assert a[i] == s
+        assert_array_equal(a, strings[:i] + [s] + strings[i + 1:])
+
+
+def test_null_roundtripping():
+    data = ["hello\0world", "ABC\0DEF\0\0"]
+    arr = np.array(data, dtype="T")
+    assert data[0] == arr[0]
+    assert data[1] == arr[1]
+
+
+def test_string_too_large_error():
+    arr = np.array(["a", "b", "c"], dtype=StringDType())
+    with pytest.raises(OverflowError):
+        arr * (sys.maxsize + 1)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "data",
+    [
+        ["abc", "def", "ghi"],
+        ["🤣", "📵", "😰"],
+        ["🚜", "🙃", "😾"],
+        ["😹", "🚠", "🚌"],
+    ],
+)
+def test_array_creation_utf8(dtype, data):
+    arr = np.array(data, dtype=dtype)
+    assert str(arr) == "[" + " ".join(["'" + str(d) + "'" for d in data]) + "]"
+    assert arr.dtype == dtype
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "data",
+    [
+        [1, 2, 3],
+        [b"abc", b"def", b"ghi"],
+        [object, object, object],
+    ],
+)
+def test_scalars_string_conversion(data, dtype):
+    try:
+        str_vals = [str(d.decode('utf-8')) for d in data]
+    except AttributeError:
+        str_vals = [str(d) for d in data]
+    if dtype.coerce:
+        assert_array_equal(
+            np.array(data, dtype=dtype),
+            np.array(str_vals, dtype=dtype),
+        )
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+            np.array(data, dtype=dtype)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("strings"),
+    [
+        ["this", "is", "an", "array"],
+        ["€", "", "😊"],
+        ["A¢☃€ 😊", " A☃€¢😊", "☃€😊 A¢", "😊☃A¢ €"],
+    ],
+)
+def test_self_casts(dtype, dtype2, strings):
+    if hasattr(dtype, "na_object"):
+        strings = strings + [dtype.na_object]
+    elif hasattr(dtype2, "na_object"):
+        strings = strings + [""]
+    arr = np.array(strings, dtype=dtype)
+    newarr = arr.astype(dtype2)
+
+    if hasattr(dtype, "na_object") and not hasattr(dtype2, "na_object"):
+        assert newarr[-1] == str(dtype.na_object)
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError):
+            arr.astype(dtype2, casting="safe")
+    elif hasattr(dtype, "na_object") and hasattr(dtype2, "na_object"):
+        assert newarr[-1] is dtype2.na_object
+        arr.astype(dtype2, casting="safe")
+    elif hasattr(dtype2, "na_object"):
+        assert newarr[-1] == ""
+        arr.astype(dtype2, casting="safe")
+    else:
+        arr.astype(dtype2, casting="safe")
+
+    if hasattr(dtype, "na_object") and hasattr(dtype2, "na_object"):
+        na1 = dtype.na_object
+        na2 = dtype2.na_object
+        if (na1 is not na2 and
+             # check for pd_NA first because bool(pd_NA) is an error
+             ((na1 is pd_NA or na2 is pd_NA) or
+              # the second check is a NaN check, spelled this way
+              # to avoid errors from math.isnan and np.isnan
+              (na1 != na2 and not (na1 != na1 and na2 != na2)))):
+            with pytest.raises(TypeError):
+                arr[:-1] == newarr[:-1]
+            return
+    assert_array_equal(arr[:-1], newarr[:-1])
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("strings"),
+    [
+        ["this", "is", "an", "array"],
+        ["€", "", "😊"],
+        ["A¢☃€ 😊", " A☃€¢😊", "☃€😊 A¢", "😊☃A¢ €"],
+    ],
+)
+class TestStringLikeCasts:
+    def test_unicode_casts(self, dtype, strings):
+        arr = np.array(strings, dtype=np.str_).astype(dtype)
+        expected = np.array(strings, dtype=dtype)
+        assert_array_equal(arr, expected)
+
+        arr_as_U8 = expected.astype("U8")
+        assert_array_equal(arr_as_U8, np.array(strings, dtype="U8"))
+        assert_array_equal(arr_as_U8.astype(dtype), arr)
+        arr_as_U3 = expected.astype("U3")
+        assert_array_equal(arr_as_U3, np.array(strings, dtype="U3"))
+        assert_array_equal(
+            arr_as_U3.astype(dtype),
+            np.array([s[:3] for s in strings], dtype=dtype),
+        )
+
+    def test_void_casts(self, dtype, strings):
+        sarr = np.array(strings, dtype=dtype)
+        utf8_bytes = [s.encode("utf-8") for s in strings]
+        void_dtype = f"V{max(len(s) for s in utf8_bytes)}"
+        varr = np.array(utf8_bytes, dtype=void_dtype)
+        assert_array_equal(varr, sarr.astype(void_dtype))
+        assert_array_equal(varr.astype(dtype), sarr)
+
+    def test_bytes_casts(self, dtype, strings):
+        sarr = np.array(strings, dtype=dtype)
+        try:
+            utf8_bytes = [s.encode("ascii") for s in strings]
+            bytes_dtype = f"S{max(len(s) for s in utf8_bytes)}"
+            barr = np.array(utf8_bytes, dtype=bytes_dtype)
+            assert_array_equal(barr, sarr.astype(bytes_dtype))
+            assert_array_equal(barr.astype(dtype), sarr)
+            if dtype.coerce:
+                barr = np.array(utf8_bytes, dtype=dtype)
+                assert_array_equal(barr, sarr)
+                barr = np.array(utf8_bytes, dtype="O")
+                assert_array_equal(barr.astype(dtype), sarr)
+            else:
+                with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+                    np.array(utf8_bytes, dtype=dtype)
+        except UnicodeEncodeError:
+            with pytest.raises(UnicodeEncodeError):
+                sarr.astype("S20")
+
+
+def test_additional_unicode_cast(random_string_list, dtype):
+    arr = np.array(random_string_list, dtype=dtype)
+    # test that this short-circuits correctly
+    assert_array_equal(arr, arr.astype(arr.dtype))
+    # tests the casts via the comparison promoter
+    assert_array_equal(arr, arr.astype(random_string_list.dtype))
+
+
+def test_insert_scalar(dtype, string_list):
+    """Test that inserting a scalar works."""
+    arr = np.array(string_list, dtype=dtype)
+    scalar_instance = "what"
+    arr[1] = scalar_instance
+    assert_array_equal(
+        arr,
+        np.array(string_list[:1] + ["what"] + string_list[2:], dtype=dtype),
+    )
+
+
+comparison_operators = [
+    np.equal,
+    np.not_equal,
+    np.greater,
+    np.greater_equal,
+    np.less,
+    np.less_equal,
+]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("op", comparison_operators)
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("o_dtype", [np.str_, object, StringDType()])
+def test_comparisons(string_list, dtype, op, o_dtype):
+    sarr = np.array(string_list, dtype=dtype)
+    oarr = np.array(string_list, dtype=o_dtype)
+
+    # test that comparison operators work
+    res = op(sarr, sarr)
+    ores = op(oarr, oarr)
+    # test that promotion works as well
+    orres = op(sarr, oarr)
+    olres = op(oarr, sarr)
+
+    assert_array_equal(res, ores)
+    assert_array_equal(res, orres)
+    assert_array_equal(res, olres)
+
+    # test we get the correct answer for unequal length strings
+    sarr2 = np.array([s + "2" for s in string_list], dtype=dtype)
+    oarr2 = np.array([s + "2" for s in string_list], dtype=o_dtype)
+
+    res = op(sarr, sarr2)
+    ores = op(oarr, oarr2)
+    olres = op(oarr, sarr2)
+    orres = op(sarr, oarr2)
+
+    assert_array_equal(res, ores)
+    assert_array_equal(res, olres)
+    assert_array_equal(res, orres)
+
+    res = op(sarr2, sarr)
+    ores = op(oarr2, oarr)
+    olres = op(oarr2, sarr)
+    orres = op(sarr2, oarr)
+
+    assert_array_equal(res, ores)
+    assert_array_equal(res, olres)
+    assert_array_equal(res, orres)
+
+
+def test_isnan(dtype, string_list):
+    if not hasattr(dtype, "na_object"):
+        pytest.skip("no na support")
+    sarr = np.array(string_list + [dtype.na_object], dtype=dtype)
+    is_nan = isinstance(dtype.na_object, float) and np.isnan(dtype.na_object)
+    bool_errors = 0
+    try:
+        bool(dtype.na_object)
+    except TypeError:
+        bool_errors = 1
+    if is_nan or bool_errors:
+        # isnan is only true when na_object is a NaN
+        assert_array_equal(
+            np.isnan(sarr),
+            np.array([0] * len(string_list) + [1], dtype=np.bool),
+        )
+    else:
+        assert not np.any(np.isnan(sarr))
+
+
+def test_pickle(dtype, string_list):
+    arr = np.array(string_list, dtype=dtype)
+
+    with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile("wb", delete=False) as f:
+        pickle.dump([arr, dtype], f)
+
+    with open(f.name, "rb") as f:
+        res = pickle.load(f)
+
+    assert_array_equal(res[0], arr)
+    assert res[1] == dtype
+
+    os.remove(f.name)
+
+
+def test_stdlib_copy(dtype, string_list):
+    arr = np.array(string_list, dtype=dtype)
+
+    assert_array_equal(copy.copy(arr), arr)
+    assert_array_equal(copy.deepcopy(arr), arr)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "strings",
+    [
+        ["left", "right", "leftovers", "righty", "up", "down"],
+        [
+            "left" * 10,
+            "right" * 10,
+            "leftovers" * 10,
+            "righty" * 10,
+            "up" * 10,
+        ],
+        ["🤣🤣", "🤣", "📵", "😰"],
+        ["🚜", "🙃", "😾"],
+        ["😹", "🚠", "🚌"],
+        ["A¢☃€ 😊", " A☃€¢😊", "☃€😊 A¢", "😊☃A¢ €"],
+    ],
+)
+def test_sort(dtype, strings):
+    """Test that sorting matches python's internal sorting."""
+
+    def test_sort(strings, arr_sorted):
+        arr = np.array(strings, dtype=dtype)
+        na_object = getattr(arr.dtype, "na_object", "")
+        if na_object is None and None in strings:
+            with pytest.raises(
+                ValueError,
+                match="Cannot compare null that is not a nan-like value",
+            ):
+                np.argsort(arr)
+            argsorted = None
+        elif na_object is pd_NA or na_object != '':
+            argsorted = None
+        else:
+            argsorted = np.argsort(arr)
+        np.random.default_rng().shuffle(arr)
+        if na_object is None and None in strings:
+            with pytest.raises(
+                ValueError,
+                match="Cannot compare null that is not a nan-like value",
+            ):
+                arr.sort()
+        else:
+            arr.sort()
+            assert np.array_equal(arr, arr_sorted, equal_nan=True)
+        if argsorted is not None:
+            assert np.array_equal(argsorted, np.argsort(strings))
+
+    # make a copy so we don't mutate the lists in the fixture
+    strings = strings.copy()
+    arr_sorted = np.array(sorted(strings), dtype=dtype)
+    test_sort(strings, arr_sorted)
+
+    if not hasattr(dtype, "na_object"):
+        return
+
+    # make sure NAs get sorted to the end of the array and string NAs get
+    # sorted like normal strings
+    strings.insert(0, dtype.na_object)
+    strings.insert(2, dtype.na_object)
+    # can't use append because doing that with NA converts
+    # the result to object dtype
+    if not isinstance(dtype.na_object, str):
+        arr_sorted = np.array(
+            arr_sorted.tolist() + [dtype.na_object, dtype.na_object],
+            dtype=dtype,
+        )
+    else:
+        arr_sorted = np.array(sorted(strings), dtype=dtype)
+
+    test_sort(strings, arr_sorted)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "strings",
+    [
+        ["A¢☃€ 😊", " A☃€¢😊", "☃€😊 A¢", "😊☃A¢ €"],
+        ["A¢☃€ 😊", "", " ", " "],
+        ["", "a", "😸", "ááðfáíóåéë"],
+    ],
+)
+def test_nonzero(strings, na_object):
+    dtype = get_dtype(na_object)
+    arr = np.array(strings, dtype=dtype)
+    is_nonzero = np.array(
+        [i for i, item in enumerate(strings) if len(item) != 0])
+    assert_array_equal(arr.nonzero()[0], is_nonzero)
+
+    if na_object is not pd_NA and na_object == 'unset':
+        return
+
+    strings_with_na = np.array(strings + [na_object], dtype=dtype)
+    is_nan = np.isnan(np.array([dtype.na_object], dtype=dtype))[0]
+
+    if is_nan:
+        assert strings_with_na.nonzero()[0][-1] == 4
+    else:
+        assert strings_with_na.nonzero()[0][-1] == 3
+
+    # check that the casting to bool and nonzero give consistent results
+    assert_array_equal(strings_with_na[strings_with_na.nonzero()],
+                       strings_with_na[strings_with_na.astype(bool)])
+
+
+def test_where(string_list, na_object):
+    dtype = get_dtype(na_object)
+    a = np.array(string_list, dtype=dtype)
+    b = a[::-1]
+    res = np.where([True, False, True, False, True, False], a, b)
+    assert_array_equal(res, [a[0], b[1], a[2], b[3], a[4], b[5]])
+
+
+def test_fancy_indexing(string_list):
+    sarr = np.array(string_list, dtype="T")
+    assert_array_equal(sarr, sarr[np.arange(sarr.shape[0])])
+
+    inds = [
+        [True, True],
+        [0, 1],
+        ...,
+        np.array([0, 1], dtype='uint8'),
+    ]
+
+    lops = [
+        ['a' * 25, 'b' * 25],
+        ['', ''],
+        ['hello', 'world'],
+        ['hello', 'world' * 25],
+    ]
+
+    # see gh-27003 and gh-27053
+    for ind in inds:
+        for lop in lops:
+            a = np.array(lop, dtype="T")
+            assert_array_equal(a[ind], a)
+            rop = ['d' * 25, 'e' * 25]
+            for b in [rop, np.array(rop, dtype="T")]:
+                a[ind] = b
+                assert_array_equal(a, b)
+                assert a[0] == 'd' * 25
+
+    # see gh-29279
+    data = [
+        ["AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA"],
+        ["BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB"],
+        ["CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC"],
+        ["DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD"],
+    ]
+    sarr = np.array(data, dtype=np.dtypes.StringDType())
+    uarr = np.array(data, dtype="U30")
+    for ind in [[0], [1], [2], [3], [[0, 0]], [[1, 1, 3]], [[1, 1]]]:
+        assert_array_equal(sarr[ind], uarr[ind])
+
+
+def test_flatiter_indexing():
+    # see gh-29659
+    arr = np.array(['hello', 'world'], dtype='T')
+    arr.flat[:] = 9223372036854775
+    assert_array_equal(arr, np.array([9223372036854775] * 2, dtype='T'))
+
+
+def test_creation_functions():
+    assert_array_equal(np.zeros(3, dtype="T"), ["", "", ""])
+    assert_array_equal(np.empty(3, dtype="T"), ["", "", ""])
+
+    assert np.zeros(3, dtype="T")[0] == ""
+    assert np.empty(3, dtype="T")[0] == ""
+
+
+def test_concatenate(string_list):
+    sarr = np.array(string_list, dtype="T")
+    sarr_cat = np.array(string_list + string_list, dtype="T")
+
+    assert_array_equal(np.concatenate([sarr], axis=0), sarr)
+
+
+def test_resize_method(string_list):
+    sarr = np.array(string_list, dtype="T")
+    if IS_PYPY:
+        sarr.resize(len(string_list) + 3, refcheck=False)
+    else:
+        sarr.resize(len(string_list) + 3)
+    assert_array_equal(sarr, np.array(string_list + [''] * 3,  dtype="T"))
+
+
+def test_create_with_copy_none(string_list):
+    arr = np.array(string_list, dtype=StringDType())
+    # create another stringdtype array with an arena that has a different
+    # in-memory layout than the first array
+    arr_rev = np.array(string_list[::-1], dtype=StringDType())
+
+    # this should create a copy and the resulting array
+    # shouldn't share an allocator or arena with arr_rev, despite
+    # explicitly passing arr_rev.dtype
+    arr_copy = np.array(arr, copy=None, dtype=arr_rev.dtype)
+    np.testing.assert_array_equal(arr, arr_copy)
+    assert arr_copy.base is None
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Unable to avoid copy"):
+        np.array(arr, copy=False, dtype=arr_rev.dtype)
+
+    # because we're using arr's dtype instance, the view is safe
+    arr_view = np.array(arr, copy=None, dtype=arr.dtype)
+    np.testing.assert_array_equal(arr, arr)
+    np.testing.assert_array_equal(arr_view[::-1], arr_rev)
+    assert arr_view is arr
+
+
+def test_astype_copy_false():
+    orig_dt = StringDType()
+    arr = np.array(["hello", "world"], dtype=StringDType())
+    assert not arr.astype(StringDType(coerce=False), copy=False).dtype.coerce
+
+    assert arr.astype(orig_dt, copy=False).dtype is orig_dt
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "strings",
+    [
+        ["left", "right", "leftovers", "righty", "up", "down"],
+        ["🤣🤣", "🤣", "📵", "😰"],
+        ["🚜", "🙃", "😾"],
+        ["😹", "🚠", "🚌"],
+        ["A¢☃€ 😊", " A☃€¢😊", "☃€😊 A¢", "😊☃A¢ €"],
+    ],
+)
+def test_argmax(strings):
+    """Test that argmax/argmin matches what python calculates."""
+    arr = np.array(strings, dtype="T")
+    assert np.argmax(arr) == strings.index(max(strings))
+    assert np.argmin(arr) == strings.index(min(strings))
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "arrfunc,expected",
+    [
+        [np.sort, None],
+        [np.nonzero, (np.array([], dtype=np.int_),)],
+        [np.argmax, 0],
+        [np.argmin, 0],
+    ],
+)
+def test_arrfuncs_zeros(arrfunc, expected):
+    arr = np.zeros(10, dtype="T")
+    result = arrfunc(arr)
+    if expected is None:
+        expected = arr
+    assert_array_equal(result, expected, strict=True)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("strings", "cast_answer", "any_answer", "all_answer"),
+    [
+        [["hello", "world"], [True, True], True, True],
+        [["", ""], [False, False], False, False],
+        [["hello", ""], [True, False], True, False],
+        [["", "world"], [False, True], True, False],
+    ],
+)
+def test_cast_to_bool(strings, cast_answer, any_answer, all_answer):
+    sarr = np.array(strings, dtype="T")
+    assert_array_equal(sarr.astype("bool"), cast_answer)
+
+    assert np.any(sarr) == any_answer
+    assert np.all(sarr) == all_answer
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("strings", "cast_answer"),
+    [
+        [[True, True], ["True", "True"]],
+        [[False, False], ["False", "False"]],
+        [[True, False], ["True", "False"]],
+        [[False, True], ["False", "True"]],
+    ],
+)
+def test_cast_from_bool(strings, cast_answer):
+    barr = np.array(strings, dtype=bool)
+    assert_array_equal(barr.astype("T"), np.array(cast_answer, dtype="T"))
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("bitsize", [8, 16, 32, 64])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("signed", [True, False])
+def test_sized_integer_casts(bitsize, signed):
+    idtype = f"int{bitsize}"
+    if signed:
+        inp = [-(2**p - 1) for p in reversed(range(bitsize - 1))]
+        inp += [2**p - 1 for p in range(1, bitsize - 1)]
+    else:
+        idtype = "u" + idtype
+        inp = [2**p - 1 for p in range(bitsize)]
+    ainp = np.array(inp, dtype=idtype)
+    assert_array_equal(ainp, ainp.astype("T").astype(idtype))
+
+    # safe casting works
+    ainp.astype("T", casting="safe")
+
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError):
+        ainp.astype("T").astype(idtype, casting="safe")
+
+    oob = [str(2**bitsize), str(-(2**bitsize))]
+    with pytest.raises(OverflowError):
+        np.array(oob, dtype="T").astype(idtype)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+        np.array(["1", np.nan, "3"],
+                 dtype=StringDType(na_object=np.nan)).astype(idtype)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("typename", ["byte", "short", "int", "longlong"])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("signed", ["", "u"])
+def test_unsized_integer_casts(typename, signed):
+    idtype = f"{signed}{typename}"
+
+    inp = [1, 2, 3, 4]
+    ainp = np.array(inp, dtype=idtype)
+    assert_array_equal(ainp, ainp.astype("T").astype(idtype))
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "typename",
+    [
+        pytest.param(
+            "longdouble",
+            marks=pytest.mark.xfail(
+                np.dtypes.LongDoubleDType() != np.dtypes.Float64DType(),
+                reason="numpy lacks an ld2a implementation",
+                strict=True,
+            ),
+        ),
+        "float64",
+        "float32",
+        "float16",
+    ],
+)
+def test_float_casts(typename):
+    inp = [1.1, 2.8, -3.2, 2.7e4]
+    ainp = np.array(inp, dtype=typename)
+    assert_array_equal(ainp, ainp.astype("T").astype(typename))
+
+    inp = [0.1]
+    sres = np.array(inp, dtype=typename).astype("T")
+    res = sres.astype(typename)
+    assert_array_equal(np.array(inp, dtype=typename), res)
+    assert sres[0] == "0.1"
+
+    if typename == "longdouble":
+        # let's not worry about platform-dependent rounding of longdouble
+        return
+
+    fi = np.finfo(typename)
+
+    inp = [1e-324, fi.smallest_subnormal, -1e-324, -fi.smallest_subnormal]
+    eres = [0, fi.smallest_subnormal, -0, -fi.smallest_subnormal]
+    res = np.array(inp, dtype=typename).astype("T").astype(typename)
+    assert_array_equal(eres, res)
+
+    inp = [2e308, fi.max, -2e308, fi.min]
+    eres = [np.inf, fi.max, -np.inf, fi.min]
+    res = np.array(inp, dtype=typename).astype("T").astype(typename)
+    assert_array_equal(eres, res)
+
+
+def test_float_nan_cast_na_object():
+    # gh-28157
+    dt = np.dtypes.StringDType(na_object=np.nan)
+    arr1 = np.full((1,), fill_value=np.nan, dtype=dt)
+    arr2 = np.full_like(arr1, fill_value=np.nan)
+
+    assert arr1.item() is np.nan
+    assert arr2.item() is np.nan
+
+    inp = [1.2, 2.3, np.nan]
+    arr = np.array(inp).astype(dt)
+    assert arr[2] is np.nan
+    assert arr[0] == '1.2'
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "typename",
+    [
+        "csingle",
+        "cdouble",
+        pytest.param(
+            "clongdouble",
+            marks=pytest.mark.xfail(
+                np.dtypes.CLongDoubleDType() != np.dtypes.Complex128DType(),
+                reason="numpy lacks an ld2a implementation",
+                strict=True,
+            ),
+        ),
+    ],
+)
+def test_cfloat_casts(typename):
+    inp = [1.1 + 1.1j, 2.8 + 2.8j, -3.2 - 3.2j, 2.7e4 + 2.7e4j]
+    ainp = np.array(inp, dtype=typename)
+    assert_array_equal(ainp, ainp.astype("T").astype(typename))
+
+    inp = [0.1 + 0.1j]
+    sres = np.array(inp, dtype=typename).astype("T")
+    res = sres.astype(typename)
+    assert_array_equal(np.array(inp, dtype=typename), res)
+    assert sres[0] == "(0.1+0.1j)"
+
+
+def test_take(string_list):
+    sarr = np.array(string_list, dtype="T")
+    res = sarr.take(np.arange(len(string_list)))
+    assert_array_equal(sarr, res)
+
+    # make sure it also works for out
+    out = np.empty(len(string_list), dtype="T")
+    out[0] = "hello"
+    res = sarr.take(np.arange(len(string_list)), out=out)
+    assert res is out
+    assert_array_equal(sarr, res)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_out", [True, False])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "ufunc_name,func",
+    [
+        ("min", min),
+        ("max", max),
+    ],
+)
+def test_ufuncs_minmax(string_list, ufunc_name, func, use_out):
+    """Test that the min/max ufuncs match Python builtin min/max behavior."""
+    arr = np.array(string_list, dtype="T")
+    uarr = np.array(string_list, dtype=str)
+    res = np.array(func(string_list), dtype="T")
+    assert_array_equal(getattr(arr, ufunc_name)(), res)
+
+    ufunc = getattr(np, ufunc_name + "imum")
+
+    if use_out:
+        res = ufunc(arr, arr, out=arr)
+    else:
+        res = ufunc(arr, arr)
+
+    assert_array_equal(uarr, res)
+    assert_array_equal(getattr(arr, ufunc_name)(), func(string_list))
+
+
+def test_max_regression():
+    arr = np.array(['y', 'y', 'z'], dtype="T")
+    assert arr.max() == 'z'
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_out", [True, False])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "other_strings",
+    [
+        ["abc", "def" * 500, "ghi" * 16, "🤣" * 100, "📵", "😰"],
+        ["🚜", "🙃", "😾", "😹", "🚠", "🚌"],
+        ["🥦", "¨", "⨯", "∰ ", "⨌ ", "⎶ "],
+    ],
+)
+def test_ufunc_add(dtype, string_list, other_strings, use_out):
+    arr1 = np.array(string_list, dtype=dtype)
+    arr2 = np.array(other_strings, dtype=dtype)
+    result = np.array([a + b for a, b in zip(arr1, arr2)], dtype=dtype)
+
+    if use_out:
+        res = np.add(arr1, arr2, out=arr1)
+    else:
+        res = np.add(arr1, arr2)
+
+    assert_array_equal(res, result)
+
+    if not hasattr(dtype, "na_object"):
+        return
+
+    is_nan = isinstance(dtype.na_object, float) and np.isnan(dtype.na_object)
+    is_str = isinstance(dtype.na_object, str)
+    bool_errors = 0
+    try:
+        bool(dtype.na_object)
+    except TypeError:
+        bool_errors = 1
+
+    arr1 = np.array([dtype.na_object] + string_list, dtype=dtype)
+    arr2 = np.array(other_strings + [dtype.na_object], dtype=dtype)
+
+    if is_nan or bool_errors or is_str:
+        res = np.add(arr1, arr2)
+        assert_array_equal(res[1:-1], arr1[1:-1] + arr2[1:-1])
+        if not is_str:
+            assert res[0] is dtype.na_object and res[-1] is dtype.na_object
+        else:
+            assert res[0] == dtype.na_object + arr2[0]
+            assert res[-1] == arr1[-1] + dtype.na_object
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+            np.add(arr1, arr2)
+
+
+def test_ufunc_add_reduce(dtype):
+    values = ["a", "this is a long string", "c"]
+    arr = np.array(values, dtype=dtype)
+    out = np.empty((), dtype=dtype)
+
+    expected = np.array("".join(values), dtype=dtype)
+    assert_array_equal(np.add.reduce(arr), expected)
+
+    np.add.reduce(arr, out=out)
+    assert_array_equal(out, expected)
+
+
+def test_add_promoter(string_list):
+    arr = np.array(string_list, dtype=StringDType())
+    lresult = np.array(["hello" + s for s in string_list], dtype=StringDType())
+    rresult = np.array([s + "hello" for s in string_list], dtype=StringDType())
+
+    for op in ["hello", np.str_("hello"), np.array(["hello"])]:
+        assert_array_equal(op + arr, lresult)
+        assert_array_equal(arr + op, rresult)
+
+    # The promoter should be able to handle things if users pass `dtype=`
+    res = np.add("hello", string_list, dtype=StringDType)
+    assert res.dtype == StringDType()
+
+    # The promoter should not kick in if users override the input,
+    # which means arr is cast, this fails because of the unknown length.
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="cannot cast dtype"):
+        np.add(arr, "add", signature=("U", "U", None), casting="unsafe")
+
+    # But it must simply reject the following:
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=".*did not contain a loop"):
+        np.add(arr, "add", signature=(None, "U", None))
+
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=".*did not contain a loop"):
+        np.add("a", "b", signature=("U", "U", StringDType))
+
+
+def test_add_no_legacy_promote_with_signature():
+    # Possibly misplaced, but useful to test with string DType.  We check that
+    # if there is clearly no loop found, a stray `dtype=` doesn't break things
+    # Regression test for the bad error in gh-26735
+    # (If legacy promotion is gone, this can be deleted...)
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match=".*did not contain a loop"):
+        np.add("3", 6, dtype=StringDType)
+
+
+def test_add_promoter_reduce():
+    # Exact TypeError could change, but ensure StringDtype doesn't match
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="the resolved dtypes are not"):
+        np.add.reduce(np.array(["a", "b"], dtype="U"))
+
+    # On the other hand, using `dtype=T` in the *ufunc* should work.
+    np.add.reduce(np.array(["a", "b"], dtype="U"), dtype=np.dtypes.StringDType)
+
+
+def test_multiply_reduce():
+    # At the time of writing (NumPy 2.0) this is very limited (and rather
+    # ridiculous anyway).  But it works and actually makes some sense...
+    # (NumPy does not allow non-scalar initial values)
+    repeats = np.array([2, 3, 4])
+    val = "school-🚌"
+    res = np.multiply.reduce(repeats, initial=val, dtype=np.dtypes.StringDType)
+    assert res == val * np.prod(repeats)
+
+
+def test_multiply_two_string_raises():
+    arr = np.array(["hello", "world"], dtype="T")
+    with pytest.raises(np._core._exceptions._UFuncNoLoopError):
+        np.multiply(arr, arr)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("use_out", [True, False])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("other", [2, [2, 1, 3, 4, 1, 3]])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "other_dtype",
+    [
+        None,
+        "int8",
+        "int16",
+        "int32",
+        "int64",
+        "uint8",
+        "uint16",
+        "uint32",
+        "uint64",
+        "short",
+        "int",
+        "intp",
+        "long",
+        "longlong",
+        "ushort",
+        "uint",
+        "uintp",
+        "ulong",
+        "ulonglong",
+    ],
+)
+def test_ufunc_multiply(dtype, string_list, other, other_dtype, use_out):
+    """Test the two-argument ufuncs match python builtin behavior."""
+    arr = np.array(string_list, dtype=dtype)
+    if other_dtype is not None:
+        other_dtype = np.dtype(other_dtype)
+    try:
+        len(other)
+        result = [s * o for s, o in zip(string_list, other)]
+        other = np.array(other)
+        if other_dtype is not None:
+            other = other.astype(other_dtype)
+    except TypeError:
+        if other_dtype is not None:
+            other = other_dtype.type(other)
+        result = [s * other for s in string_list]
+
+    if use_out:
+        arr_cache = arr.copy()
+        lres = np.multiply(arr, other, out=arr)
+        assert_array_equal(lres, result)
+        arr[:] = arr_cache
+        assert lres is arr
+        arr *= other
+        assert_array_equal(arr, result)
+        arr[:] = arr_cache
+        rres = np.multiply(other, arr, out=arr)
+        assert rres is arr
+        assert_array_equal(rres, result)
+    else:
+        lres = arr * other
+        assert_array_equal(lres, result)
+        rres = other * arr
+        assert_array_equal(rres, result)
+
+    if not hasattr(dtype, "na_object"):
+        return
+
+    is_nan = np.isnan(np.array([dtype.na_object], dtype=dtype))[0]
+    is_str = isinstance(dtype.na_object, str)
+    bool_errors = 0
+    try:
+        bool(dtype.na_object)
+    except TypeError:
+        bool_errors = 1
+
+    arr = np.array(string_list + [dtype.na_object], dtype=dtype)
+
+    try:
+        len(other)
+        other = np.append(other, 3)
+        if other_dtype is not None:
+            other = other.astype(other_dtype)
+    except TypeError:
+        pass
+
+    if is_nan or bool_errors or is_str:
+        for res in [arr * other, other * arr]:
+            assert_array_equal(res[:-1], result)
+            if not is_str:
+                assert res[-1] is dtype.na_object
+            else:
+                try:
+                    assert res[-1] == dtype.na_object * other[-1]
+                except (IndexError, TypeError):
+                    assert res[-1] == dtype.na_object * other
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError):
+            arr * other
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError):
+            other * arr
+
+
+def test_findlike_promoters():
+    r = "Wally"
+    l = "Where's Wally?"
+    s = np.int32(3)
+    e = np.int8(13)
+    for dtypes in [("T", "U"), ("U", "T")]:
+        for function, answer in [
+            (np.strings.index, 8),
+            (np.strings.endswith, True),
+        ]:
+            assert answer == function(
+                np.array(l, dtype=dtypes[0]), np.array(r, dtype=dtypes[1]), s, e
+            )
+
+
+def test_strip_promoter():
+    arg = ["Hello!!!!", "Hello??!!"]
+    strip_char = "!"
+    answer = ["Hello", "Hello??"]
+    for dtypes in [("T", "U"), ("U", "T")]:
+        result = np.strings.strip(
+            np.array(arg, dtype=dtypes[0]),
+            np.array(strip_char, dtype=dtypes[1])
+        )
+        assert_array_equal(result, answer)
+        assert result.dtype.char == "T"
+
+
+def test_replace_promoter():
+    arg = ["Hello, planet!", "planet, Hello!"]
+    old = "planet"
+    new = "world"
+    answer = ["Hello, world!", "world, Hello!"]
+    for dtypes in itertools.product("TU", repeat=3):
+        if dtypes == ("U", "U", "U"):
+            continue
+        answer_arr = np.strings.replace(
+            np.array(arg, dtype=dtypes[0]),
+            np.array(old, dtype=dtypes[1]),
+            np.array(new, dtype=dtypes[2]),
+        )
+        assert_array_equal(answer_arr, answer)
+        assert answer_arr.dtype.char == "T"
+
+
+def test_center_promoter():
+    arg = ["Hello", "planet!"]
+    fillchar = "/"
+    for dtypes in [("T", "U"), ("U", "T")]:
+        answer = np.strings.center(
+            np.array(arg, dtype=dtypes[0]), 9, np.array(fillchar, dtype=dtypes[1])
+        )
+        assert_array_equal(answer, ["//Hello//", "/planet!/"])
+        assert answer.dtype.char == "T"
+
+
+DATETIME_INPUT = [
+    np.datetime64("1923-04-14T12:43:12"),
+    np.datetime64("1994-06-21T14:43:15"),
+    np.datetime64("2001-10-15T04:10:32"),
+    np.datetime64("NaT"),
+    np.datetime64("1995-11-25T16:02:16"),
+    np.datetime64("2005-01-04T03:14:12"),
+    np.datetime64("2041-12-03T14:05:03"),
+]
+
+
+TIMEDELTA_INPUT = [
+    np.timedelta64(12358, "s"),
+    np.timedelta64(23, "s"),
+    np.timedelta64(74, "s"),
+    np.timedelta64("NaT"),
+    np.timedelta64(23, "s"),
+    np.timedelta64(73, "s"),
+    np.timedelta64(7, "s"),
+]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "input_data, input_dtype",
+    [
+        (DATETIME_INPUT, "M8[s]"),
+        (TIMEDELTA_INPUT, "m8[s]")
+    ]
+)
+def test_datetime_timedelta_cast(dtype, input_data, input_dtype):
+
+    a = np.array(input_data, dtype=input_dtype)
+
+    has_na = hasattr(dtype, "na_object")
+    is_str = isinstance(getattr(dtype, "na_object", None), str)
+
+    if not has_na or is_str:
+        a = np.delete(a, 3)
+
+    sa = a.astype(dtype)
+    ra = sa.astype(a.dtype)
+
+    if has_na and not is_str:
+        assert sa[3] is dtype.na_object
+        assert np.isnat(ra[3])
+
+    assert_array_equal(a, ra)
+
+    if has_na and not is_str:
+        # don't worry about comparing how NaT is converted
+        sa = np.delete(sa, 3)
+        a = np.delete(a, 3)
+
+    if input_dtype.startswith("M"):
+        assert_array_equal(sa, a.astype("U"))
+    else:
+        # The timedelta to unicode cast produces strings
+        # that aren't round-trippable and we don't want to
+        # reproduce that behavior in stringdtype
+        assert_array_equal(sa, a.astype("int64").astype("U"))
+
+
+def test_nat_casts():
+    s = 'nat'
+    all_nats = itertools.product(*zip(s.upper(), s.lower()))
+    all_nats = list(map(''.join, all_nats))
+    NaT_dt = np.datetime64('NaT')
+    NaT_td = np.timedelta64('NaT')
+    for na_object in [np._NoValue, None, np.nan, 'nat', '']:
+        # numpy treats empty string and all case combinations of 'nat' as NaT
+        dtype = StringDType(na_object=na_object)
+        arr = np.array([''] + all_nats, dtype=dtype)
+        dt_array = arr.astype('M8[s]')
+        td_array = arr.astype('m8[s]')
+        assert_array_equal(dt_array, NaT_dt)
+        assert_array_equal(td_array, NaT_td)
+
+        if na_object is np._NoValue:
+            output_object = 'NaT'
+        else:
+            output_object = na_object
+
+        for arr in [dt_array, td_array]:
+            assert_array_equal(
+                arr.astype(dtype),
+                np.array([output_object] * arr.size, dtype=dtype))
+
+
+def test_nat_conversion():
+    for nat in [np.datetime64("NaT", "s"), np.timedelta64("NaT", "s")]:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="string coercion is disabled"):
+            np.array(["a", nat], dtype=StringDType(coerce=False))
+
+
+def test_growing_strings(dtype):
+    # growing a string leads to a heap allocation, this tests to make sure
+    # we do that bookkeeping correctly for all possible starting cases
+    data = [
+        "hello",  # a short string
+        "abcdefghijklmnopqestuvwxyz",  # a medium heap-allocated string
+        "hello" * 200,  # a long heap-allocated string
+    ]
+
+    arr = np.array(data, dtype=dtype)
+    uarr = np.array(data, dtype=str)
+
+    for _ in range(5):
+        arr = arr + arr
+        uarr = uarr + uarr
+
+    assert_array_equal(arr, uarr)
+
+
+def test_assign_medium_strings():
+    # see gh-29261
+    N = 9
+    src = np.array(
+        (
+            ['0' * 256] * 3 + ['0' * 255] + ['0' * 256] + ['0' * 255] +
+            ['0' * 256] * 2 + ['0' * 255]
+        ), dtype='T')
+    dst = np.array(
+        (
+            ['0' * 255] + ['0' * 256] * 2 + ['0' * 255] + ['0' * 256] +
+            ['0' * 255] + [''] * 5
+        ), dtype='T')
+
+    dst[1:N + 1] = src
+    assert_array_equal(dst[1:N + 1], src)
+
+
+UFUNC_TEST_DATA = [
+    "hello" * 10,
+    "Ae¢☃€ 😊" * 20,
+    "entry\nwith\nnewlines",
+    "entry\twith\ttabs",
+]
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def string_array(dtype):
+    return np.array(UFUNC_TEST_DATA, dtype=dtype)
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def unicode_array():
+    return np.array(UFUNC_TEST_DATA, dtype=np.str_)
+
+
+NAN_PRESERVING_FUNCTIONS = [
+    "capitalize",
+    "expandtabs",
+    "lower",
+    "lstrip",
+    "rstrip",
+    "splitlines",
+    "strip",
+    "swapcase",
+    "title",
+    "upper",
+]
+
+BOOL_OUTPUT_FUNCTIONS = [
+    "isalnum",
+    "isalpha",
+    "isdigit",
+    "islower",
+    "isspace",
+    "istitle",
+    "isupper",
+    "isnumeric",
+    "isdecimal",
+]
+
+UNARY_FUNCTIONS = [
+    "str_len",
+    "capitalize",
+    "expandtabs",
+    "isalnum",
+    "isalpha",
+    "isdigit",
+    "islower",
+    "isspace",
+    "istitle",
+    "isupper",
+    "lower",
+    "lstrip",
+    "rstrip",
+    "splitlines",
+    "strip",
+    "swapcase",
+    "title",
+    "upper",
+    "isnumeric",
+    "isdecimal",
+    "isalnum",
+    "islower",
+    "istitle",
+    "isupper",
+]
+
+UNIMPLEMENTED_VEC_STRING_FUNCTIONS = [
+    "capitalize",
+    "expandtabs",
+    "lower",
+    "splitlines",
+    "swapcase",
+    "title",
+    "upper",
+]
+
+ONLY_IN_NP_CHAR = [
+    "join",
+    "split",
+    "rsplit",
+    "splitlines"
+]
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("function_name", UNARY_FUNCTIONS)
+def test_unary(string_array, unicode_array, function_name):
+    if function_name in ONLY_IN_NP_CHAR:
+        func = getattr(np.char, function_name)
+    else:
+        func = getattr(np.strings, function_name)
+    dtype = string_array.dtype
+    sres = func(string_array)
+    ures = func(unicode_array)
+    if sres.dtype == StringDType():
+        ures = ures.astype(StringDType())
+    assert_array_equal(sres, ures)
+
+    if not hasattr(dtype, "na_object"):
+        return
+
+    is_nan = np.isnan(np.array([dtype.na_object], dtype=dtype))[0]
+    is_str = isinstance(dtype.na_object, str)
+    na_arr = np.insert(string_array, 0, dtype.na_object)
+
+    if function_name in UNIMPLEMENTED_VEC_STRING_FUNCTIONS:
+        if not is_str:
+            # to avoid these errors we'd need to add NA support to _vec_string
+            with pytest.raises((ValueError, TypeError)):
+                func(na_arr)
+        elif function_name == "splitlines":
+            assert func(na_arr)[0] == func(dtype.na_object)[()]
+        else:
+            assert func(na_arr)[0] == func(dtype.na_object)
+        return
+    if function_name == "str_len" and not is_str:
+        # str_len always errors for any non-string null, even NA ones because
+        # it has an integer result
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+            func(na_arr)
+        return
+    if function_name in BOOL_OUTPUT_FUNCTIONS:
+        if is_nan:
+            assert func(na_arr)[0] is np.False_
+        elif is_str:
+            assert func(na_arr)[0] == func(dtype.na_object)
+        else:
+            with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+                func(na_arr)
+        return
+    if not (is_nan or is_str):
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+            func(na_arr)
+        return
+    res = func(na_arr)
+    if is_nan and function_name in NAN_PRESERVING_FUNCTIONS:
+        assert res[0] is dtype.na_object
+    elif is_str:
+        assert res[0] == func(dtype.na_object)
+
+
+unicode_bug_fail = pytest.mark.xfail(
+    reason="unicode output width is buggy", strict=True
+)
+
+# None means that the argument is a string array
+BINARY_FUNCTIONS = [
+    ("add", (None, None)),
+    ("multiply", (None, 2)),
+    ("mod", ("format: %s", None)),
+    ("center", (None, 25)),
+    ("count", (None, "A")),
+    ("encode", (None, "UTF-8")),
+    ("endswith", (None, "lo")),
+    ("find", (None, "A")),
+    ("index", (None, "e")),
+    ("join", ("-", None)),
+    ("ljust", (None, 12)),
+    ("lstrip", (None, "A")),
+    ("partition", (None, "A")),
+    ("replace", (None, "A", "B")),
+    ("rfind", (None, "A")),
+    ("rindex", (None, "e")),
+    ("rjust", (None, 12)),
+    ("rsplit", (None, "A")),
+    ("rstrip", (None, "A")),
+    ("rpartition", (None, "A")),
+    ("split", (None, "A")),
+    ("strip", (None, "A")),
+    ("startswith", (None, "A")),
+    ("zfill", (None, 12)),
+]
+
+PASSES_THROUGH_NAN_NULLS = [
+    "add",
+    "center",
+    "ljust",
+    "multiply",
+    "replace",
+    "rjust",
+    "strip",
+    "lstrip",
+    "rstrip",
+    "replace"
+    "zfill",
+]
+
+NULLS_ARE_FALSEY = [
+    "startswith",
+    "endswith",
+]
+
+NULLS_ALWAYS_ERROR = [
+    "count",
+    "find",
+    "rfind",
+]
+
+SUPPORTS_NULLS = (
+    PASSES_THROUGH_NAN_NULLS +
+    NULLS_ARE_FALSEY +
+    NULLS_ALWAYS_ERROR
+)
+
+
+def call_func(func, args, array, sanitize=True):
+    if args == (None, None):
+        return func(array, array)
+    if args[0] is None:
+        if sanitize:
+            san_args = tuple(
+                np.array(arg, dtype=array.dtype) if isinstance(arg, str) else
+                arg for arg in args[1:]
+            )
+        else:
+            san_args = args[1:]
+        return func(array, *san_args)
+    if args[1] is None:
+        return func(args[0], array)
+    # shouldn't ever happen
+    assert 0
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("function_name, args", BINARY_FUNCTIONS)
+def test_binary(string_array, unicode_array, function_name, args):
+    if function_name in ONLY_IN_NP_CHAR:
+        func = getattr(np.char, function_name)
+    else:
+        func = getattr(np.strings, function_name)
+    sres = call_func(func, args, string_array)
+    ures = call_func(func, args, unicode_array, sanitize=False)
+    if not isinstance(sres, tuple) and sres.dtype == StringDType():
+        ures = ures.astype(StringDType())
+    assert_array_equal(sres, ures)
+
+    dtype = string_array.dtype
+    if function_name not in SUPPORTS_NULLS or not hasattr(dtype, "na_object"):
+        return
+
+    na_arr = np.insert(string_array, 0, dtype.na_object)
+    is_nan = np.isnan(np.array([dtype.na_object], dtype=dtype))[0]
+    is_str = isinstance(dtype.na_object, str)
+    should_error = not (is_nan or is_str)
+
+    if (
+        (function_name in NULLS_ALWAYS_ERROR and not is_str)
+        or (function_name in PASSES_THROUGH_NAN_NULLS and should_error)
+        or (function_name in NULLS_ARE_FALSEY and should_error)
+    ):
+        with pytest.raises((ValueError, TypeError)):
+            call_func(func, args, na_arr)
+        return
+
+    res = call_func(func, args, na_arr)
+
+    if is_str:
+        assert res[0] == call_func(func, args, na_arr[:1])
+    elif function_name in NULLS_ARE_FALSEY:
+        assert res[0] is np.False_
+    elif function_name in PASSES_THROUGH_NAN_NULLS:
+        assert res[0] is dtype.na_object
+    else:
+        # shouldn't ever get here
+        assert 0
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("function, expected", [
+    (np.strings.find, [[2, -1], [1, -1]]),
+    (np.strings.startswith, [[False, False], [True, False]])])
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("start, stop", [
+    (1, 4),
+    (np.int8(1), np.int8(4)),
+    (np.array([1, 1], dtype='u2'), np.array([4, 4], dtype='u2'))])
+def test_non_default_start_stop(function, start, stop, expected):
+    a = np.array([["--🐍--", "--🦜--"],
+                  ["-🐍---", "-🦜---"]], "T")
+    indx = function(a, "🐍", start, stop)
+    assert_array_equal(indx, expected)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("count", [2, np.int8(2), np.array([2, 2], 'u2')])
+def test_replace_non_default_repeat(count):
+    a = np.array(["🐍--", "🦜-🦜-"], "T")
+    result = np.strings.replace(a, "🦜-", "🦜†", count)
+    assert_array_equal(result, np.array(["🐍--", "🦜†🦜†"], "T"))
+
+
+def test_strip_ljust_rjust_consistency(string_array, unicode_array):
+    rjs = np.char.rjust(string_array, 1000)
+    rju = np.char.rjust(unicode_array, 1000)
+
+    ljs = np.char.ljust(string_array, 1000)
+    lju = np.char.ljust(unicode_array, 1000)
+
+    assert_array_equal(
+        np.char.lstrip(rjs),
+        np.char.lstrip(rju).astype(StringDType()),
+    )
+
+    assert_array_equal(
+        np.char.rstrip(ljs),
+        np.char.rstrip(lju).astype(StringDType()),
+    )
+
+    assert_array_equal(
+        np.char.strip(ljs),
+        np.char.strip(lju).astype(StringDType()),
+    )
+
+    assert_array_equal(
+        np.char.strip(rjs),
+        np.char.strip(rju).astype(StringDType()),
+    )
+
+
+def test_unset_na_coercion():
+    # a dtype instance with an unset na object is compatible
+    # with a dtype that has one set
+
+    # this test uses the "add" and "equal" ufunc but all ufuncs that
+    # accept more than one string argument and produce a string should
+    # behave this way
+    # TODO: generalize to more ufuncs
+    inp = ["hello", "world"]
+    arr = np.array(inp, dtype=StringDType(na_object=None))
+    for op_dtype in [None, StringDType(), StringDType(coerce=False),
+                     StringDType(na_object=None)]:
+        if op_dtype is None:
+            op = "2"
+        else:
+            op = np.array("2", dtype=op_dtype)
+        res = arr + op
+        assert_array_equal(res, ["hello2", "world2"])
+
+    # dtype instances with distinct explicitly set NA objects are incompatible
+    for op_dtype in [StringDType(na_object=pd_NA), StringDType(na_object="")]:
+        op = np.array("2", dtype=op_dtype)
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError):
+            arr + op
+
+    # comparisons only consider the na_object
+    for op_dtype in [None, StringDType(), StringDType(coerce=True),
+                     StringDType(na_object=None)]:
+        if op_dtype is None:
+            op = inp
+        else:
+            op = np.array(inp, dtype=op_dtype)
+        assert_array_equal(arr, op)
+
+    for op_dtype in [StringDType(na_object=pd_NA),
+                     StringDType(na_object=np.nan)]:
+        op = np.array(inp, dtype=op_dtype)
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError):
+            arr == op
+
+
+def test_repeat(string_array):
+    res = string_array.repeat(1000)
+    # Create an empty array with expanded dimension, and fill it.  Then,
+    # reshape it to the expected result.
+    expected = np.empty_like(string_array, shape=string_array.shape + (1000,))
+    expected[...] = string_array[:, np.newaxis]
+    expected = expected.reshape(-1)
+
+    assert_array_equal(res, expected, strict=True)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("tile", [1, 6, (2, 5)])
+def test_accumulation(string_array, tile):
+    """Accumulation is odd for StringDType but tests dtypes with references.
+    """
+    # Fill with mostly empty strings to not create absurdly big strings
+    arr = np.zeros_like(string_array, shape=(100,))
+    arr[:len(string_array)] = string_array
+    arr[-len(string_array):] = string_array
+
+    # Bloat size a bit (get above thresholds and test >1 ndim).
+    arr = np.tile(string_array, tile)
+
+    res = np.add.accumulate(arr, axis=0)
+    res_obj = np.add.accumulate(arr.astype(object), axis=0)
+    assert_array_equal(res, res_obj.astype(arr.dtype), strict=True)
+
+    if arr.ndim > 1:
+        res = np.add.accumulate(arr, axis=-1)
+        res_obj = np.add.accumulate(arr.astype(object), axis=-1)
+
+        assert_array_equal(res, res_obj.astype(arr.dtype), strict=True)
+
+
+class TestImplementation:
+    """Check that strings are stored in the arena when possible.
+
+    This tests implementation details, so should be adjusted if
+    the implementation changes.
+    """
+
+    @classmethod
+    def setup_class(cls):
+        cls.MISSING = 0x80
+        cls.INITIALIZED = 0x40
+        cls.OUTSIDE_ARENA = 0x20
+        cls.LONG = 0x10
+        cls.dtype = StringDType(na_object=np.nan)
+        cls.sizeofstr = cls.dtype.itemsize
+        sp = cls.dtype.itemsize // 2  # pointer size = sizeof(size_t)
+        # Below, size is not strictly correct, since it really uses
+        # 7 (or 3) bytes, but good enough for the tests here.
+        cls.view_dtype = np.dtype([
+            ('offset', f'u{sp}'),
+            ('size', f'u{sp // 2}'),
+            ('xsiz', f'V{sp // 2 - 1}'),
+            ('size_and_flags', 'u1'),
+        ] if sys.byteorder == 'little' else [
+            ('size_and_flags', 'u1'),
+            ('xsiz', f'V{sp // 2 - 1}'),
+            ('size', f'u{sp // 2}'),
+            ('offset', f'u{sp}'),
+        ])
+        cls.s_empty = ""
+        cls.s_short = "01234"
+        cls.s_medium = "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz"
+        cls.s_long = "-=+" * 100
+        cls.a = np.array(
+            [cls.s_empty, cls.s_short, cls.s_medium, cls.s_long],
+            cls.dtype)
+
+    def get_view(self, a):
+        # Cannot view a StringDType as anything else directly, since
+        # it has references. So, we use a stride trick hack.
+        from numpy.lib._stride_tricks_impl import DummyArray
+        interface = dict(a.__array_interface__)
+        interface['descr'] = self.view_dtype.descr
+        interface['typestr'] = self.view_dtype.str
+        return np.asarray(DummyArray(interface, base=a))
+
+    def get_flags(self, a):
+        return self.get_view(a)['size_and_flags'] & 0xf0
+
+    def is_short(self, a):
+        return self.get_flags(a) == self.INITIALIZED | self.OUTSIDE_ARENA
+
+    def is_on_heap(self, a):
+        return self.get_flags(a) == (self.INITIALIZED
+                                     | self.OUTSIDE_ARENA
+                                     | self.LONG)
+
+    def is_missing(self, a):
+        return self.get_flags(a) & self.MISSING == self.MISSING
+
+    def in_arena(self, a):
+        return (self.get_flags(a) & (self.INITIALIZED | self.OUTSIDE_ARENA)
+                == self.INITIALIZED)
+
+    def test_setup(self):
+        is_short = self.is_short(self.a)
+        length = np.strings.str_len(self.a)
+        assert_array_equal(is_short, (length > 0) & (length <= 15))
+        assert_array_equal(self.in_arena(self.a), [False, False, True, True])
+        assert_array_equal(self.is_on_heap(self.a), False)
+        assert_array_equal(self.is_missing(self.a), False)
+        view = self.get_view(self.a)
+        sizes = np.where(is_short, view['size_and_flags'] & 0xf,
+                         view['size'])
+        assert_array_equal(sizes, np.strings.str_len(self.a))
+        assert_array_equal(view['xsiz'][2:],
+                           np.void(b'\x00' * (self.sizeofstr // 4 - 1)))
+        # Check that the medium string uses only 1 byte for its length
+        # in the arena, while the long string takes 8 (or 4).
+        offsets = view['offset']
+        assert offsets[2] == 1
+        assert offsets[3] == 1 + len(self.s_medium) + self.sizeofstr // 2
+
+    def test_empty(self):
+        e = np.empty((3,), self.dtype)
+        assert_array_equal(self.get_flags(e), 0)
+        assert_array_equal(e, "")
+
+    def test_zeros(self):
+        z = np.zeros((2,), self.dtype)
+        assert_array_equal(self.get_flags(z), 0)
+        assert_array_equal(z, "")
+
+    def test_copy(self):
+        for c in [self.a.copy(), copy.copy(self.a), copy.deepcopy(self.a)]:
+            assert_array_equal(self.get_flags(c), self.get_flags(self.a))
+            assert_array_equal(c, self.a)
+            offsets = self.get_view(c)['offset']
+            assert offsets[2] == 1
+            assert offsets[3] == 1 + len(self.s_medium) + self.sizeofstr // 2
+
+    def test_arena_use_with_setting(self):
+        c = np.zeros_like(self.a)
+        assert_array_equal(self.get_flags(c), 0)
+        c[:] = self.a
+        assert_array_equal(self.get_flags(c), self.get_flags(self.a))
+        assert_array_equal(c, self.a)
+
+    def test_arena_reuse_with_setting(self):
+        c = self.a.copy()
+        c[:] = self.a
+        assert_array_equal(self.get_flags(c), self.get_flags(self.a))
+        assert_array_equal(c, self.a)
+
+    def test_arena_reuse_after_missing(self):
+        c = self.a.copy()
+        c[:] = np.nan
+        assert np.all(self.is_missing(c))
+        # Replacing with the original strings, the arena should be reused.
+        c[:] = self.a
+        assert_array_equal(self.get_flags(c), self.get_flags(self.a))
+        assert_array_equal(c, self.a)
+
+    def test_arena_reuse_after_empty(self):
+        c = self.a.copy()
+        c[:] = ""
+        assert_array_equal(c, "")
+        # Replacing with the original strings, the arena should be reused.
+        c[:] = self.a
+        assert_array_equal(self.get_flags(c), self.get_flags(self.a))
+        assert_array_equal(c, self.a)
+
+    def test_arena_reuse_for_shorter(self):
+        c = self.a.copy()
+        # A string slightly shorter than the shortest in the arena
+        # should be used for all strings in the arena.
+        c[:] = self.s_medium[:-1]
+        assert_array_equal(c, self.s_medium[:-1])
+        # first empty string in original was never initialized, so
+        # filling it in now leaves it initialized inside the arena.
+        # second string started as a short string so it can never live
+        # in the arena.
+        in_arena = np.array([True, False, True, True])
+        assert_array_equal(self.in_arena(c), in_arena)
+        # But when a short string is replaced, it will go on the heap.
+        assert_array_equal(self.is_short(c), False)
+        assert_array_equal(self.is_on_heap(c), ~in_arena)
+        # We can put the originals back, and they'll still fit,
+        # and short strings are back as short strings
+        c[:] = self.a
+        assert_array_equal(c, self.a)
+        assert_array_equal(self.in_arena(c), in_arena)
+        assert_array_equal(self.is_short(c), self.is_short(self.a))
+        assert_array_equal(self.is_on_heap(c), False)
+
+    def test_arena_reuse_if_possible(self):
+        c = self.a.copy()
+        # A slightly longer string will not fit in the arena for
+        # the medium string, but will fit for the longer one.
+        c[:] = self.s_medium + "±"
+        assert_array_equal(c, self.s_medium + "±")
+        in_arena_exp = np.strings.str_len(self.a) >= len(self.s_medium) + 1
+        # first entry started uninitialized and empty, so filling it leaves
+        # it in the arena
+        in_arena_exp[0] = True
+        assert not np.all(in_arena_exp == self.in_arena(self.a))
+        assert_array_equal(self.in_arena(c), in_arena_exp)
+        assert_array_equal(self.is_short(c), False)
+        assert_array_equal(self.is_on_heap(c), ~in_arena_exp)
+        # And once outside arena, it stays outside, since offset is lost.
+        # But short strings are used again.
+        c[:] = self.a
+        is_short_exp = self.is_short(self.a)
+        assert_array_equal(c, self.a)
+        assert_array_equal(self.in_arena(c), in_arena_exp)
+        assert_array_equal(self.is_short(c), is_short_exp)
+        assert_array_equal(self.is_on_heap(c), ~in_arena_exp & ~is_short_exp)
+
+    def test_arena_no_reuse_after_short(self):
+        c = self.a.copy()
+        # If we replace a string with a short string, it cannot
+        # go into the arena after because the offset is lost.
+        c[:] = self.s_short
+        assert_array_equal(c, self.s_short)
+        assert_array_equal(self.in_arena(c), False)
+        c[:] = self.a
+        assert_array_equal(c, self.a)
+        assert_array_equal(self.in_arena(c), False)
+        assert_array_equal(self.is_on_heap(c), self.in_arena(self.a))