snappy 3.2__cp310-cp310-macosx_10_12_x86_64.whl

snappy/exterior_to_link/mcomplex_with_memory.py

@@ -0,0 +1,162 @@
+from ..snap.t3mlite.simplex import *
+from ..snap.t3mlite.edge import Edge
+from ..snap.t3mlite.arrow import Arrow
+from ..snap.t3mlite.mcomplex import Mcomplex, VERBOSE, edge_and_arrow
+from ..snap.t3mlite.tetrahedron import Tetrahedron
+
+
+class McomplexWithMemory(Mcomplex):
+    """
+    A version of Mcomplex which remembers what Pachner moves have been
+    performed.  Also, Pachner moves have additional options over the
+    standard Mcomplex.
+
+    >>> M = McomplexWithMemory('dLQabccbcbv')  # S^3
+    >>> M.two_to_three(F0, M[0], must_succeed=True)
+    True
+    >>> assert M.eliminate_valence_three()
+    >>> M.move_memory
+    [('two_to_three', 6, 14, 0), ('three_to_two', 3, 7, 1)]
+    >>> a = M.Edges[1].get_arrow()
+    >>> assert M.zero_to_two(a, 4)
+    >>> assert M.eliminate_valence_two()
+    >>> M.move_memory[2:]
+    [('zero_to_two', 3, 7, 0, 4), ('two_to_zero', 3, 7, 3)]
+
+
+    >>> N = McomplexWithMemory('o9_24662')
+    >>> iso = N.isosig()
+    >>> e = [e for e in N.Edges if e.valence() == 4 and e.distinct()][0]
+    >>> a = e.get_arrow(); a
+    < E01 | F2 | tet2 >
+    >>> assert N.four_to_four(a)
+    >>> N.move_memory
+    [('four_to_four', 3, 11, 2)]
+    >>> N.rebuild(); N.isosig() != iso
+    True
+    >>> while len(N.move_memory) < 100:
+    ...     size = N.randomize()
+    >>> target = N.isosig()
+    >>> X = McomplexWithMemory('o9_24662')
+    >>> X.perform_moves(N.move_memory)
+    >>> assert X.isosig() == target
+    >>> X.name
+    'o9_24662'
+    """
+    def __init__(self, tetrahedron_list=None, two_zero_to_one_tet=True,
+                 invariant_tetrahedra=None):
+        if isinstance(tetrahedron_list, str):
+            self.name = tetrahedron_list
+        Mcomplex.__init__(self, tetrahedron_list)
+        self.two_zero_to_one_tet = two_zero_to_one_tet
+        if invariant_tetrahedra is None:
+            invariant_tetrahedra = []
+        self.invariant_tetrahedra = invariant_tetrahedra
+        self.move_memory = []
+
+    def _add_to_move_memory(self, move, arrow):
+        if hasattr(self, 'move_memory'):
+            T = arrow.Tetrahedron
+            tet_index = self.Tetrahedra.index(T)
+            self.move_memory.append((move, arrow.Edge, arrow.Face, tet_index))
+
+    def _relabel_tetrahedra(self):
+        for i, tet in enumerate(self):
+            tet.Index = i
+
+    def perform_moves(self, moves, tet_stop_num=0):
+        """
+        Assumes that three_to_two, two_to_three, etc. only rebuild the
+        edge classes after each move and that they accept arrows as
+        spec for the moves.
+        """
+        t = 0
+        for move, edge, face, tet_index in moves:
+            if len(self) <= tet_stop_num:
+                break
+            t = t+1
+            arrow = Arrow(edge, face, self[tet_index])
+            move_fn = getattr(self, move)
+            move_fn(arrow, must_succeed=True)
+            self._relabel_tetrahedra()
+        self.rebuild()
+
+    def _face_permits_two_to_three(self, a, b):
+        possible, reason = Mcomplex._face_permits_two_to_three(self, a, b)
+        if possible:
+            S, T = a.Tetrahedron, b.Tetrahedron
+            if (S in self.invariant_tetrahedra or T in self.invariant_tetrahedra):
+                return False, 'Move would effect invariant tets'
+        return possible, reason
+
+    def _two_to_three_move_hook(self, old_arrow, new_arrows):
+        self._add_to_move_memory('two_to_three', old_arrow)
+
+    def _edge_permits_three_to_two(self, edge):
+        possible, reason = Mcomplex._edge_permits_three_to_two(self, edge)
+        if possible:
+            if any(corner.Tetrahedron in self.invariant_tetrahedra
+               for corner in edge.Corners):
+                return False, 'Edge adjacent to fixed subcomplex'
+        return possible, reason
+
+    def _three_to_two_move_hook(self, old_arrow, new_arrows):
+        self._add_to_move_memory('three_to_two', old_arrow)
+
+    def _arrow_permits_two_to_zero(self, arrow):
+        possible, reason = Mcomplex._arrow_permits_two_to_zero(self, arrow)
+        if possible:
+            if len(self) == 3 and not self.two_zero_to_one_tet:
+                return False, '2->0 move to 1 tet manifold has been blocked'
+            if any(corner.Tetrahedron in self.invariant_tetrahedra
+                   for corner in arrow.axis().Corners):
+                return False, 'Edge adjacent to fixed subcomplex'
+        return possible, reason
+
+    def _two_to_zero_hook(self, old_arrow):
+        self._add_to_move_memory('two_to_zero', old_arrow)
+
+    def zero_to_two(self, arrow, gap):
+        success = Mcomplex.zero_to_two(self, arrow, gap)
+        if success and hasattr(self, 'move_memory'):
+            T = arrow.Tetrahedron
+            tet_index = self.Tetrahedra.index(T)
+            self.move_memory.append(
+                ('zero_to_two', arrow.Edge, arrow.Face, tet_index, gap))
+        return success
+
+    def _edge_permits_four_to_four(self, edge):
+        possible, reason = Mcomplex._edge_permits_four_to_four(self, edge)
+        if possible:
+            if any(corner.Tetrahedron in self.invariant_tetrahedra
+                   for corner in edge.Corners):
+                return False, 'Edge adjacent to fixed subcomplex'
+        return possible, reason
+
+    def _four_to_four_move_hook(self, old_arrow, new_arrows):
+        self._add_to_move_memory('four_to_four', old_arrow)
+
+    def easy_simplify(self):
+        """
+        >>> M = McomplexWithMemory('zLALvwvMwLzzAQPQQkbcbeijmoomvwuvust'
+        ...                        'wwytxtyxyahkswpmakguadppmrssxbkoxsi')
+        >>> N = M.copy()
+        >>> M.easy_simplify()
+        True
+        >>> len(M), len(M.move_memory)
+        (1, 25)
+        >>> M.rebuild(); M.isosig()
+        'bkaagj'
+
+        >>> N.invariant_tetrahedra = [N[1]]  # core solid torus
+        >>> N.easy_simplify()
+        True
+        >>> len(N), len(N.move_memory)
+        (15, 9)
+        """
+        return Mcomplex.easy_simplify(self)
+
+
+if __name__ == '__main__':
+    import doctest
+    print(doctest.testmod())

snappy/exterior_to_link/pl_utils.py

@@ -0,0 +1,491 @@
+"""
+The basic computation geometry predicates for points and segments in
+QQ^2 and QQ^3 that needed for PL links.
+
+The only nonstandard one is `can_straighten_bend`.
+"""
+from .rational_linear_algebra import Matrix, Vector2, Vector3, QQ, rational_sqrt
+
+
+def min_support(v):
+    """
+    >>> min_support(Vector3([0, 0, -1]))
+    2
+    """
+    for i, e in enumerate(v):
+        if e != 0:
+            return i
+    raise ValueError('Vector is 0')
+
+
+def cross_product(a, b):
+    return Vector3([a[1]*b[2] - a[2]*b[1], a[2]*b[0] - a[0]*b[2], a[0]*b[1] - a[1]*b[0]])
+
+
+def coplanar(a, b, c, d):
+    """
+    >>> vecs = Matrix([(1, 0, 1), (-1, 0, 2), (0, 1, 0), (1, 3, 0)])
+    >>> coplanar(*vecs.rows())
+    False
+    >>> coplanar(vecs[0], vecs[1], vecs[2], vecs[0])
+    True
+    """
+    return Matrix([b - a, c - a, d - a]).det() == 0
+
+
+def are_parallel(u, v):
+    """
+    >>> a = Vector3([1, 0, 0])
+    >>> b = Vector3([1, 1, 1])
+    >>> are_parallel(a, b)
+    False
+    >>> are_parallel(a, 2*a)
+    True
+    """
+    if u == 0 or v == 0:
+        return True
+    i = min_support(u)
+    if v[i] == 0:
+        return False
+    return u/u[i] == v/v[i]
+
+
+def colinear(u, v, w):
+    return are_parallel(v - u, w - u)
+
+
+def find_convex_combination(a, b, u):
+    """
+    >>> p = Vector2([0, 1])
+    >>> q = Vector2([1, 0])
+    >>> t = QQ(1)/5
+
+    This next awkward cast is required when using the PARI kernel
+    because of the permissive behavior of Gen.__mul__.
+
+    >>> r = Vector2((1 - t)*p + t*q)
+    >>> find_convex_combination(p, q, r)
+    1/5
+    >>> find_convex_combination(p, 3*p, 2*p)
+    1/2
+    """
+    if a == b:
+        raise ValueError('Segment is degenerate')
+    v, w = b - a, u - a
+    if not are_parallel(v, w):
+        raise ValueError('Point not on line')
+    i = min_support(v)
+    t = w[i]/v[i]
+    assert (1 - t)*a + t*b == u
+    return t
+
+
+def point_meets_interior_of_segment(u, ab):
+    """
+    >>> p = Vector3([1, 1, 0])
+    >>> q = Vector3([3, -1,0])
+    >>> a = Vector3([2, 0, 0])
+    >>> b = Vector3([0, 2, 0])
+    >>> c = Vector3([1, 0, 0])
+    >>> o = Vector3([0, 0, 0])
+    >>> point_meets_interior_of_segment(p, (a, b))
+    True
+    >>> point_meets_interior_of_segment(q, (a, b))
+    False
+    >>> point_meets_interior_of_segment(p, (b, c))
+    False
+    >>> point_meets_interior_of_segment(2*a/3, (a, c))
+    True
+    >>> point_meets_interior_of_segment(o, (a, b))
+    False
+    """
+    a, b = ab
+    if a == b:
+        raise ValueError('Segment is degenerate')
+    if not are_parallel(b - a, u - a):
+        return False
+    t = find_convex_combination(a, b, u)
+    return 0 < t < 1
+
+
+def is_pointy(a, b, c, threshold=QQ('3/4')):
+    """
+    Whether the angle (a, b, c) is less than pi/6.  This function is
+    not currently used by anything.
+
+    >>> p = Vector3([ 0, 0, 1])
+    >>> q = Vector3([10, 0, 1])
+    >>> r = Vector3([0, 10, 1])
+    >>> s = Vector3([9, 1, 1])
+    >>> t = Vector3([-9, 1, 1])
+    >>> is_pointy(t, p, q)
+    False
+    >>> is_pointy(q, p, r)
+    False
+    >>> is_pointy(p, q, r)
+    False
+    >>> is_pointy(s, p, q)
+    True
+    >>> is_pointy(q, p, q)
+    True
+    """
+    v = a - b
+    w = c - b
+    dot = v*w
+    if dot <= 0:
+        return False
+    norms = (v*v)*(w*w)
+    return dot**2/norms >= threshold
+
+
+def segments_meet_not_at_endpoint(ab, uv):
+    """
+    Does the interior of either segment meet any point of the other
+    one?
+
+    >>> p = Vector3([1, 1, 0])
+    >>> q = Vector3([3, -1,0])
+    >>> a = Vector3([2, 0, 0])
+    >>> b = Vector3([0, 2, 0])
+    >>> c = Vector3([1, 0, 0])
+    >>> o = Vector3([0, 0, 0])
+    >>> segments_meet_not_at_endpoint((p, 2*p), (2*p, 3*p))
+    False
+    >>> segments_meet_not_at_endpoint((p, 3*p), (2*p, 4*p))
+    True
+    >>> segments_meet_not_at_endpoint((p, 2*p), (3*p, q))
+    False
+    >>> segments_meet_not_at_endpoint((p, 3*p), (2*p, q))
+    True
+    >>> segments_meet_not_at_endpoint((-a, a), (b + c, -b + c))
+    True
+    >>> segments_meet_not_at_endpoint((-a, a), (a, -b + c))
+    False
+    >>> segments_meet_not_at_endpoint((o, a), (-p, p))
+    True
+    >>> segments_meet_not_at_endpoint((-p + q, p + q), (-a + q, a + q))
+    True
+
+    >>> b, c = Vector3([0, 0, 1]), Vector3([0, 1, 0])
+    >>> u, v = Vector3([-1, 0, 1]), Vector3([-1, 1, 2])/3
+    >>> segments_meet_not_at_endpoint((b, c), (u, v))
+    False
+    """
+    a, b = ab
+    u, v = uv
+    if a == b or u == v:
+        raise ValueError('Segment has no interior')
+    if not coplanar(a, b, u, v):
+        return False
+
+    # All four points lie in a common plane, first consider cases
+    # where (a, b, u) are colinear.
+    if colinear(a, b, u):
+        if colinear(a, b, v):
+            s = find_convex_combination(a, b, u)
+            t = find_convex_combination(a, b, v)
+            if s > t:
+                s, t = t, s
+            return not (t <= 0 or s >= 1)
+        else:
+            return point_meets_interior_of_segment(u, (a, b))
+    else:
+        if are_parallel(b - a, v - u):
+            # Since (a, b, u) are not colinear, these parallel lines
+            # are disjoint.
+            return False
+
+        # The lines containing ab and uv will meet in a unique point,
+        # so write it in terms of standard coordinates on the lines
+        # through (a, b) and (u, v).
+        M = Matrix([b - a, u - v]).transpose()
+        s, t = M.solve_right(u - a)
+
+        return ((0 < s < 1) and (0 <= t <= 1)) or ((0 <= s <= 1) and (0 < t < 1))
+
+
+def standardize_bend_matrix(a, b, c):
+    a, c = a - b, c - b
+    n = cross_product(a, c)
+    M = Matrix([a, c, n]).transpose().inverse()
+    return M
+
+
+def can_straighten_bend(arc, bend, check_embedded=True, bend_matrix=None):
+    """
+    Given a "bend" of three points (a, b, c) and an arc (u, v)
+    determine if we can isotope the PL arc (a, b, c) to (a, c) along
+    the triangle (a, b, c) without passing through (u, v).
+
+    >>> a = Vector3([-1, 0, 1])
+    >>> b = Vector3([ 0, 0, 1])
+    >>> c = Vector3([ 0, 1, 0])
+    >>> o = Vector3([ 0, 0, 0])
+    >>> u = Vector3([-1, 2, 1])
+    >>> can_straighten_bend((o, -a), (a, b, c))
+    True
+    >>> can_straighten_bend((o, c), (a, 2*a, 3*a))
+    True
+    >>> can_straighten_bend((o, c), (a, b, c))
+    True
+    >>> can_straighten_bend((a, (a + b + c)/3), (a, b, c))
+    False
+    >>> can_straighten_bend((c, (a + c)/2), (a, b, c))
+    False
+    >>> can_straighten_bend((c, a), (a, b, c))
+    False
+    >>> can_straighten_bend((o, u), (a, b, c))
+    False
+    >>> can_straighten_bend((a + b, a + c), (a, b, c))
+    True
+    >>> can_straighten_bend((o, a + c), (a, b, c))
+    False
+    >>> can_straighten_bend((a, c - b), (a, b, c))
+    True
+    >>> M = standardize_bend_matrix(a, b, c); M.det()
+    1/2
+    >>> can_straighten_bend((o, -a), (a, b, c), bend_matrix=M)
+    True
+    """
+    u, v = arc
+    a, b, c = bend
+    if hasattr(u, 'to_3d_point'):
+        u, v = u.to_3d_point(), v.to_3d_point()
+        a, b, c = a.to_3d_point(), b.to_3d_point(), c.to_3d_point()
+
+    if u == v or a == b or a == c or b == c:
+        raise ValueError('Input includes 0 length segments')
+
+    if check_embedded:
+        if (segments_meet_not_at_endpoint((a, b), (b, c)) or
+            segments_meet_not_at_endpoint((a, b), (u, v)) or
+            segments_meet_not_at_endpoint((b, c), (u, v)) or
+            point_meets_interior_of_segment(b, (u, v)) or
+            u == b or v == b):
+            raise ValueError('Input not embedded')
+
+    # Some quick tests to see if the arc is far from the bend
+    for i in range(3):
+        arc_cor = (u[i], v[i])
+        bend_cor = (a[i], b[i], c[i])
+        if max(arc_cor) < min(bend_cor) or min(arc_cor) > max(bend_cor):
+            return True
+
+    if colinear(a, b, c):
+        return True
+    # translate b to 0 and transform so a and c are e0 and 1:
+    if bend_matrix is None:
+        bend_matrix = standardize_bend_matrix(a, b, c)
+    a, c = Vector3([1, 0, 0]), Vector3([0, 1, 0])
+    u, v = bend_matrix*(u - b), bend_matrix*(v - b)
+
+    # If both u and v strictly to the same side of the plane
+    # containing the bend, then done.
+    if u[2] * v[2] > 0:
+        return True
+
+    if u[2] == v[2] == 0:
+        # The whole arc is in the plane, and we know it is disjoint
+        # from the bend except possibly at the endpoints.
+        #
+        # First check if this is a closed cycle.
+        if (u == a and v == c) or (u == c and v == a):
+            return False
+        # Check if the points are in this 2/3-open triangle.
+        u_in_tri = u[0] > 0 and u[1] > 0 and u[0] + u[1] <= 1
+        v_in_tri = v[0] > 0 and v[1] > 0 and v[0] + v[1] <= 1
+        return not (u_in_tri or v_in_tri)
+
+    # Now is a unique point of intersection of the arc with said
+    # plane, so find it.
+    t = u[2]/(u[2] - v[2])
+    p = (1 - t)*u + t*v
+    assert 0 <= t <= 1 and p[2] == 0
+    # 2/3 open triangle check
+    return not (p[0] > 0 and p[1] > 0 and p[0] + p[1] <= 1)
+
+
+def norm_sq(v):
+    return sum(x**2 for x in v)
+
+
+def pall_matrix(a, b, c, d):
+    """
+    For testing, here are all 3 x 3 rational orthogonal matrices,
+    which Pall parameterized by four integers.
+    """
+    n = a**2 + b**2 + c**2 + d**2
+    assert n % 2 == 1
+    entries = [[a**2 + b**2 - c**2 - d**2, 2*(-a*d + b*c), 2*(a*c + b*d)],
+               [2*(a*d + b*c), a**2 - b**2 + c**2 - d**2, 2*(-a*b + c*d)],
+               [2*(-a*c + b*d), 2*(a*b + c*d), a**2 - b**2 - c**2 + d**2]]
+    return Matrix([[e/QQ(n) for e in row] for row in entries])
+
+
+def arc_distance_sq_checked(arc_a0, arc_b0):
+    """
+    Check that all possible permutations of the data specifying the
+    arcs gives the same result, plus images under some orthogonal
+    transformations.
+    """
+    ans = arc_distance_sq(arc_a0, arc_b0)
+    arc_a1 = (arc_a0[1], arc_a0[0])
+    arc_b1 = (arc_b0[1], arc_b0[0])
+    mats = [pall_matrix(1, 0, 0, 0),
+            pall_matrix(1, -2, 3, 5),
+            pall_matrix(4, -1, 2, 2)]
+    for M in mats:
+        arc_a0 = (M*arc_a0[0], M*arc_a0[1])
+        arc_a1 = (M*arc_a1[0], M*arc_a1[1])
+        arc_b0 = (M*arc_b0[0], M*arc_b0[1])
+        arc_b1 = (M*arc_b1[0], M*arc_b1[1])
+        assert ans == arc_distance_sq(arc_a0, arc_b0)
+        assert ans == arc_distance_sq(arc_a0, arc_b1)
+        assert ans == arc_distance_sq(arc_a1, arc_b0)
+        assert ans == arc_distance_sq(arc_a1, arc_b1)
+        assert ans == arc_distance_sq(arc_b0, arc_a0)
+        assert ans == arc_distance_sq(arc_b0, arc_a1)
+        assert ans == arc_distance_sq(arc_b1, arc_a0)
+        assert ans == arc_distance_sq(arc_b1, arc_a1)
+    return ans
+
+
+def arc_distance_sq(arc_a, arc_b):
+    """
+    >>> o  = Vector3([0, 0, 0])
+    >>> a1 = Vector3([1, 0, 0])
+    >>> a2 = Vector3([2, 0, 0])
+    >>> a3 = Vector3([3, 0, 0])
+    >>> a4 = Vector3([4, 0, 0])
+    >>> b0 = Vector3([0, 2, 0])
+    >>> b1 = Vector3([1, 2, 0])
+    >>> b2 = Vector3([2, 2, 0])
+    >>> b3 = Vector3([3, 2, 0])
+    >>> b4 = Vector3([4, 2, 0])
+    >>> c1 = Vector3([0, 0, 1])
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([o, a1], [o, b0])
+    0
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([o, a1], [c1, a1 + c1])
+    1
+    >>> arc_b = [Vector3([1, 1, -1]), Vector3([1, 1, 1])]
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([-c1, c1], arc_b)
+    2
+
+    Now some cases were everything is on one line.
+
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([o, a3], [a1, a2])
+    0
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([o, a2], [a1, a3])
+    0
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([o, a1], [a3, a4])
+    4
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([o, a1], [a1/2, 2*a1])
+    0
+
+    Arcs are parallel but on distinct lines
+
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([b0, b1], [a3, a4])
+    8
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([b0, b4], [a2, a3])
+    4
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([b0, b1], [a1, a2])
+    4
+
+    Now some more generic cases
+
+    >>> half = 1/QQ(2)
+    >>> arc_b = [Vector3([0, 1, half]), Vector3([1, 0, half])]
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([o, c1], arc_b) == half
+    True
+    >>> arc_b = [Vector3([ 1, 1, 0]), Vector3([0, 1, 0])]
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([-a1, o], arc_b)
+    1
+    >>> arc_b = [Vector3([-1, 1, 0]), Vector3([2, 1, 0])]
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([o, a1], arc_b)
+    1
+    >>> arc_b = [Vector3([-1, -1, 1]), Vector3([1, 1, 1])]
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([-a1, a1], arc_b)
+    1
+    >>> arc_b = [Vector3([1, 0, 1]), Vector3([2, -1, 2])]
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([o, a2], arc_b)
+    1
+    >>> arc_b = [Vector3([1, 0, 1]), Vector3([2, -1, 3])]
+    >>> arc_distance_sq_checked([o, a2], arc_b)
+    1
+
+    """
+
+    # For general background on this question, see e.g.
+    #
+    #   V. Lumelsky, On fast computation of distance between line segments
+    #   https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-0190(85)90032-8
+    #
+    # See also
+    #
+    #  https://github.com/CGAL/cgal/blob/master/Distance_3/include/CGAL/Distance_3/Segment_3_Segment_3.h
+
+    a0, a1 = arc_a
+    b0, b1 = arc_b
+
+    u = a1 - a0
+    v = b1 - b0
+    w = a0 - b0
+
+    if are_parallel(u, v) and are_parallel(u, w):
+        # arc_a and arc_b are contained in a common line, so find the
+        # coordinates of the endpoints of arc_b with respect to arc_a.
+        U = Matrix([u]).transpose()
+        t0, t1 = U.solve_right(b0 - a0)[0], U.solve_right(b1 - a0)[0]
+        if t0 > t1:
+            t0, t1 = t1, t0
+        if t1 < 0:  # arc_b disjoint and to the left of arc_a
+            return t1**2 * norm_sq(u)
+        elif 1 < t0: # arc_b disjoint and to the right of arc_a
+            return (t0 - 1)**2 * norm_sq(u)
+        return 0 # arcs_overlap
+
+    # Now we solve for the closest point between the two lines
+    # generated by the arcs.
+
+    X = Matrix([[u*u, -u*v],
+                [u*v, -v*v]])
+    Y = Vector2([-u*w, -v*w])
+
+    if X.det() == 0:
+        # PARI doesn't like degenerate systems, but using that u and v
+        # are parallel so we can solve geometrically via a projection.
+        t, s = -(w*u)/norm_sq(u), 0
+    else:
+        t, s = X.solve_right(Y)
+
+    # If the closest points on the lines lie within the arcs, we're done.
+    if 0 <= t <= 1 and 0 <= s <= 1:
+        pA = a0 + Vector3(t*u)
+        pB = b0 + Vector3(s*v)
+        return norm_sq(pA - pB)
+
+    t = (b0-a0)*u/norm_sq(u)
+    s = (b1-a0)*u/norm_sq(u)
+    x = (a0-b0)*v/norm_sq(v)
+    y = (a1-b0)*v/norm_sq(v)
+
+    s = min(max(s, 0), 1)
+    t = min(max(t, 0), 1)
+    x = min(max(x, 0), 1)
+    y = min(max(y, 0), 1)
+
+    p = a0 + Vector3(t*u)
+    q = a0 + Vector3(s*u)
+    f = b0 + Vector3(x*v)
+    g = b0 + Vector3(y*v)
+
+    return min([norm_sq(p - b0), norm_sq(q - b1), norm_sq(f - a0), norm_sq(g - a1)])
+
+
+def arc_distance(arc_a, arc_b):
+    return rational_sqrt(arc_distance_sq(arc_a, arc_b))
+
+
+if __name__ == '__main__':
+    import doctest
+    print(doctest.testmod())