@crossbind/port-gdal-wasi 2.0.0-beta.50

package/dist/prebuilt/wasi-wasm32-st-release/share/man/man1/gdalwarp.1

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+.TH "GDALWARP" "1" "Aug 18, 2026" "" "GDAL"
+.SH NAME
+gdalwarp \- Image reprojection and warping utility.
+.SH SYNOPSIS
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+Usage: gdalwarp [\-\-help] [\-\-long\-usage] [\-\-help\-general]
+                [\-\-quiet] [\-overwrite] [\-of <output_format>]
+                [\-co <NAME>=<VALUE>]... [\-s_srs <srs_def>] [\-t_srs <srs_def>]
+                [[\-srcalpha]|[\-nosrcalpha]]
+                [\-dstalpha] [\-tr <xres> <yres>|square] [\-ts <width> <height>]
+                [\-te <xmin> <ymin> <xmax> <ymax>] [\-te_srs <srs_def>]
+                [\-r near|bilinear|cubic|cubicspline|lanczos|average|rms|mode|min|max|med|q1|q3|sum]
+                [\-ot Byte|Int8|[U]Int{16|32|64}|CInt{16|32}|[C]Float{32|64}]
+                <src_dataset_name>... <dst_dataset_name>
+
+Advanced options:
+                [\-wo <NAME>=<VALUE>]... [\-multi] [\-s_coord_epoch <epoch>]
+                [\-t_coord_epoch <epoch>] [\-ct <string>]
+                [[\-tps]|[\-rpc]|[\-geoloc]]
+                [\-order <1|2|3>] [\-refine_gcps <tolerance> [<minimum_gcps>]]
+                [\-to <NAME>=<VALUE>]... [\-et <err_threshold>]
+                [\-wm <memory_in_mb>] [\-srcnodata \(dq<value>[ <value>]...\(dq]
+                [\-dstnodata \(dq<value>[ <value>]...\(dq] [\-tap]
+                [\-wt Byte|Int8|[U]Int{16|32|64}|CInt{16|32}|[C]Float{32|64}]
+                [\-cutline <datasource>|<WKT>] [\-cutline_srs <srs_def>]
+                [\-cwhere <expression>]
+                [[\-cl <layername>]|[\-csql <query>]]
+                [\-cblend <distance>] [\-crop_to_cutline] [\-nomd]
+                [\-cvmd <meta_conflict_value>] [\-setci] [\-oo <NAME>=<VALUE>]...
+                [\-doo <NAME>=<VALUE>]... [\-ovr <level>|AUTO|AUTO\-<n>|NONE]
+                [[\-vshift]|[\-novshiftgrid]]
+                [\-if <format>]... [\-srcband <band>]... [\-dstband <band>]...
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.SH DESCRIPTION
+.sp
+The \fBgdalwarp\fP utility is an image mosaicing, reprojection and warping
+utility. The program can reproject to any supported projection,
+and can also apply GCPs stored with the image if the image is \(dqraw\(dq
+with control information.
+.sp
+\fBTIP:\fP
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+Equivalent in new \(dqgdal\(dq command line interface:
+.INDENT 0.0
+.IP \(bu 2
+\fI\%gdal raster reproject\fP for reprojection
+.IP \(bu 2
+\fI\%gdal raster update\fP to update the content of a raster with another one
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-\-help
+Show this help message and exit
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-\-help\-general
+Gives a brief usage message for the generic GDAL commandline options and exit.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-q, \-\-quiet
+Suppress progress messages and other non\-error output.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-b <n>
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-srcband <n>
+Added in version 3.7.
+
+.sp
+Specify an input band number to warp (between 1 and the number of bands
+of the source dataset).
+.sp
+This option is used to warp a subset of the input bands. All input bands
+are used when it is not specified.
+.sp
+This option may be repeated multiple times to select several input bands.
+The order in which bands are specified will be the order in which they
+appear in the output dataset (unless \fI\%\-dstband\fP is specified).
+.sp
+The alpha band should not be specified in the list, as it will be
+automatically retrieved (unless \fI\%\-nosrcalpha\fP is specified).
+.sp
+The following invocation will warp an input datasets with bands ordered as
+Blue, Green, Red, NearInfraRed in an output dataset with bands ordered as
+Red, Green, Blue.
+.INDENT 7.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+gdalwarp in_bgrn.tif out_rgb.tif \-b 3 \-b 2 \-b 1 \-overwrite
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-dstband <n>
+Added in version 3.7.
+
+.sp
+Specify the output band number in which to warp. In practice, this option
+is only useful when updating an existing dataset, e.g to warp one band at
+at time.
+.INDENT 7.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+gdal_create \-if in_red.tif \-bands 3 out_rgb.tif
+gdalwarp in_red.tif out_rgb.tif \-srcband 1 \-dstband 1
+gdalwarp in_green.tif out_rgb.tif \-srcband 1 \-dstband 2
+gdalwarp in_blue.tif out_rgb.tif \-srcband 1 \-dstband 3
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.sp
+If \fI\%\-srcband\fP is specified, there must be as many occurrences of
+\fI\%\-dstband\fP as there are of \fI\%\-srcband\fP\&.
+.sp
+The output alpha band should not be specified, as it will be automatically
+created if the input dataset has an alpha band, or if \fI\%\-dstalpha\fP
+is specified.
+.sp
+If \fI\%\-dstband\fP is not specified, then
+\fB\-dstband 1 \-dstband 2 ... \-dstband N\fP is assumed where N is the number
+of input bands (specified explicitly either with \fI\%\-srcband\fP or
+implicitly)
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-s_srs <srs def>
+Set source spatial reference. If not specified the SRS found in the input
+dataset will be used.
+.sp
+The coordinate reference systems that can be passed are anything supported by the
+OGRSpatialReference.SetFromUserInput() call, which includes EPSG Projected,
+Geographic or Compound CRS (i.e. EPSG:4296), a well known text (WKT) CRS definition,
+PROJ.4 declarations, or the name of a .prj file containing a WKT CRS definition.
+.sp
+If the SRS has an explicit vertical datum that points to a geoid grid, and the input dataset is a
+single band dataset, a vertical correction will be applied to the values of the
+dataset.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-s_coord_epoch <epoch>
+Added in version 3.4.
+
+.sp
+Assign a coordinate epoch, linked with the source SRS. Useful when the
+source SRS is a dynamic CRS. Only taken into account if \fI\%\-s_srs\fP
+is used.
+.sp
+Before PROJ 9.4, \fI\%\-s_coord_epoch\fP and \fI\%\-t_coord_epoch\fP were
+mutually exclusive, due to lack of support for transformations between two dynamic CRS.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-t_srs <srs_def>
+Set target spatial reference.
+.sp
+A source SRS must be available for reprojection to occur. The source SRS
+will be by default the one found in the input dataset when it is available,
+or as overridden by the user with \fI\%\-s_srs\fP
+.sp
+The coordinate reference systems that can be passed are anything supported by the
+OGRSpatialReference.SetFromUserInput() call, which includes EPSG Projected,
+Geographic or Compound CRS (i.e. EPSG:4296), a well known text (WKT) CRS definition,
+PROJ.4 declarations, or the name of a .prj file containing a WKT CRS definition.
+.sp
+If the SRS has an explicit vertical datum that points to a geoid grid, and the input dataset is a
+single band dataset, a vertical correction will be applied to the values of the
+dataset.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-t_coord_epoch <epoch>
+Added in version 3.4.
+
+.sp
+Assign a coordinate epoch, linked with the target SRS. Useful when the
+target SRS is a dynamic CRS. Only taken into account if \fI\%\-t_srs\fP
+is used.
+.sp
+Before PROJ 9.4, \fI\%\-s_coord_epoch\fP and \fI\%\-t_coord_epoch\fP were
+mutually exclusive, due to lack of support for transformations between two dynamic CRS.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-ct <string>
+A PROJ string (single step operation or multiple step string
+starting with +proj=pipeline), a WKT2 string describing a CoordinateOperation,
+or a \fI\%urn:ogc:def:coordinateOperation:EPSG::XXXX\fP URN overriding the default
+transformation from the source to the target CRS.
+.sp
+It must take into account the axis order of the source and target CRS, that
+is typically include a \fBstep proj=axisswap order=2,1\fP at the beginning of
+the pipeline if the source CRS has northing/easting axis order, and/or at
+the end of the pipeline if the target CRS has northing/easting axis order.
+.sp
+When creating a new output file, using \fI\%\-t_srs\fP is still necessary
+to have the target CRS written in the metadata of the output file,
+but the parameters of the CoordinateOperation will override those of the
+standard transformation.
+.sp
+Added in version 3.0.
+
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-to <NAME>=<VALUE>
+Set a transformer option suitable to pass to \fI\%GDALCreateGenImgProjTransformer2()\fP\&.
+See \fI\%GDALCreateRPCTransformerV2()\fP for RPC specific options.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-vshift
+Force the use of vertical shift. This option is generally not necessary,
+except when using an explicit coordinate transformation (\fI\%\-ct\fP),
+and not specifying an explicit source and target SRS.
+.sp
+Added in version 3.4.
+
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-novshift
+Disable the use of vertical shift when one of the source or target SRS has
+an explicit vertical datum, and the input dataset is a single band dataset.
+.sp
+\fBNOTE:\fP
+.INDENT 7.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+this option was named \fB\-novshiftgrid\fP until GDAL 3.3.
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.sp
+Added in version 3.4.
+
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-order <n>
+order of polynomial used for warping (1 to 3). The default is to select
+a polynomial order based on the number of GCPs.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-tps
+Force use of Thin Plate Spline transformer based on available GCPs.
+.sp
+\fBWARNING:\fP
+.INDENT 7.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+Using a Thin Plate Spline transformer with more than a few
+thousand GCPs requires significant RAM usage (at least \fBnumGCPs\fP * \fBnumGCPs\fP * 8 bytes)
+and processing time.
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-rpc
+Force use of RPCs.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-geoloc
+Force use of Geolocation Arrays.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-et <err_threshold>
+Error threshold for transformation approximation, expressed as a number of
+source pixels. Defaults to 0.125 pixels unless the \fBRPC_DEM\fP transformer
+option is specified, in which case an exact transformer, i.e.
+\fBerr_threshold=0\fP, will be used.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-refine_gcps <tolerance> [<minimum_gcps>]
+Refines the GCPs by automatically eliminating outliers.
+Outliers will be eliminated until minimum_gcps are left or when no outliers can be detected.
+The tolerance is passed to adjust when a GCP will be eliminated.
+Note that GCP refinement only works with polynomial interpolation.
+The tolerance is in pixel units if no projection is available, otherwise it is in SRS units.
+If minimum_gcps is not provided, the minimum GCPs according to the polynomial model is used.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-te <xmin> <ymin> <xmax> <ymax>
+Set georeferenced extents of output file to be created (in target SRS by
+default, or in the SRS specified with \fI\%\-te_srs\fP)
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-te_srs <srs_def>
+Specifies the SRS in
+which to interpret the coordinates given with \-te. The <srs_def> may
+be any of the usual GDAL/OGR forms, complete WKT, PROJ.4, EPSG:n or a file
+containing the WKT.
+This must not be confused with \-t_srs which is the target SRS of the output
+dataset. \fI\%\-te_srs\fP is a convenience e.g. when knowing the output coordinates in a
+geodetic long/lat SRS, but still wanting a result in a projected coordinate system.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-tr <xres> <yres> | \-tr square
+Set output file resolution (in target georeferenced units).
+.sp
+If not specified (or not deduced from \-te and \-ts), gdalwarp will, in the
+general case, generate an output raster with xres=yres.
+.sp
+Starting with GDAL 3.7, if neither \fI\%\-tr\fP nor \fI\%\-ts\fP are specified,
+that no reprojection is involved (including taking into account geolocation arrays
+or RPC), the resolution of the source file(s) will be preserved (in previous
+version, an output raster with xres=yres was always generated).
+It is possible to ask square pixels to still be generated, by specifying
+\fBsquare\fP as the value for \fI\%\-tr\fP\&.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-tap
+(target aligned pixels) align the coordinates of the extent of the output
+file to the values of the \fI\%\-tr\fP, such that the aligned extent
+includes the minimum extent (edges lines/columns that are detected as
+blank, before actual warping, will be removed starting with GDAL 3.8).
+Alignment means that xmin / resx, ymin / resy,
+xmax / resx and ymax / resy are integer values. It does not necessarily
+mean that the output grid aligns with the input grid.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-ts <width> <height>
+Set output file size in pixels and lines. If width or height is set to 0,
+the other dimension will be guessed from the computed resolution. Note that
+\fI\%\-ts\fP cannot be used with \fI\%\-tr\fP
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-ovr <level>|AUTO|AUTO\-<n>|NONE
+To specify which overview level of source files must be used. The default choice,
+AUTO, will select the overview level whose resolution is the closest to the
+target resolution. Specify an integer value (0\-based, i.e. 0=1st overview level)
+to select a particular level. Specify AUTO\-n where n is an integer greater or
+equal to 1, to select an overview level below the AUTO one. Or specify NONE to
+force the base resolution to be used (can be useful if overviews have been
+generated with a low quality resampling method, and the warping is done using a
+higher quality resampling method).
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-wo <NAME>=<VALUE>
+Set a warp option.  The \fI\%GDALWarpOptions::papszWarpOptions\fP docs show all options.
+Multiple \fI\%\-wo\fP options may be listed.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-ot <type>
+Force the output image bands to have a specific data type supported by the
+driver, which may be one of the following: \fBByte\fP, \fBInt8\fP, \fBUInt16\fP,
+\fBInt16\fP, \fBUInt32\fP, \fBInt32\fP, \fBUInt64\fP, \fBInt64\fP, \fBFloat32\fP, \fBFloat64\fP, \fBCInt16\fP,
+\fBCInt32\fP, \fBCFloat32\fP or \fBCFloat64\fP\&.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-wt <type>
+Working pixel data type. The data type of pixels in the source image and
+destination image buffers.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-r <resampling_method>
+Resampling method to use. Available methods are:
+.sp
+\fBnear\fP: nearest neighbour resampling (default for non\-COG drivers, fastest algorithm, worst interpolation quality).
+.sp
+\fBbilinear\fP: bilinear resampling.
+.sp
+\fBcubic\fP: cubic resampling (default for COG driver).
+.sp
+\fBcubicspline\fP: cubic spline resampling.
+.sp
+\fBlanczos\fP: Lanczos windowed sinc resampling.
+.sp
+\fBaverage\fP: average resampling, computes the weighted average of all non\-NODATA contributing pixels.
+.sp
+\fBrms\fP root mean square / quadratic mean of all non\-NODATA contributing pixels (GDAL >= 3.3)
+.sp
+\fBmode\fP: mode resampling, selects the value which appears most often of all the sampled points. In the case of ties, the first value identified as the mode will be selected.
+.sp
+\fBmax\fP: maximum resampling, selects the maximum value from all non\-NODATA contributing pixels.
+.sp
+\fBmin\fP: minimum resampling, selects the minimum value from all non\-NODATA contributing pixels.
+.sp
+\fBmed\fP: median resampling, selects the median value of all non\-NODATA contributing pixels.
+.sp
+\fBq1\fP: first quartile resampling, selects the first quartile value of all non\-NODATA contributing pixels.
+.sp
+\fBq3\fP: third quartile resampling, selects the third quartile value of all non\-NODATA contributing pixels.
+.sp
+\fBsum\fP: compute the weighted sum of all non\-NODATA contributing pixels (since GDAL 3.1)
+.sp
+\fBNOTE:\fP
+.INDENT 7.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+When downsampling is performed (use of \fI\%\-tr\fP or \fI\%\-ts\fP), existing
+overviews (either internal/implicit or external ones) on the source image
+will be used by default by selecting the closest overview to the desired output
+resolution.
+The resampling method used to create those overviews is generally not the one you
+specify through the \fI\%\-r\fP option. Some formats, like JPEG2000, can contain
+significant outliers due to how wavelet compression works. It might thus be useful in
+those situations to use the \fI\%\-ovr\fP \fBNONE\fP option to prevent existing overviews to
+be used.
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-srcnodata \(dq<value>[ <value>]...\(dq
+Set nodata masking values for input bands (different values can be supplied
+for each band). If more than one value is supplied all values should be quoted
+to keep them together as a single operating system argument.
+Masked values will not be used in interpolation (details given in \fI\%Nodata / source validity mask handling\fP)
+.sp
+Use a value of \fBNone\fP to ignore intrinsic nodata settings on the source dataset.
+.sp
+When this option is set to a non\-\fBNone\fP value, it causes the \fBUNIFIED_SRC_NODATA\fP
+warping option (see \fI\%GDALWarpOptions::papszWarpOptions\fP) to be
+set to \fBYES\fP, if it is not explicitly set.
+.sp
+If \fB\-srcnodata\fP is not explicitly set, but the source dataset has nodata values,
+they will be taken into account, with \fBUNIFIED_SRC_NODATA\fP at \fBPARTIAL\fP
+by default.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-dstnodata \(dq<value>[ <value>]...\(dq
+Set nodata values
+for output bands (different values can be supplied for each band).  If more
+than one value is supplied all values should be quoted to keep them together
+as a single operating system argument.  New files will be initialized to this
+value and if possible the nodata value will be recorded in the output
+file. Use a value of \fBNone\fP to ensure that nodata is not defined.
+If this argument is not used then nodata values will be copied from the source dataset.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-srcalpha
+Force the last band of a source image to be
+considered as a source alpha band.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-nosrcalpha
+Prevent the alpha band of a source image to be
+considered as such (it will be warped as a regular band)
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-dstalpha
+Create an output alpha band to identify nodata (unset/transparent) pixels.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-wm <memory_in_mb>
+Set the amount of memory that the
+warp API is allowed to use for caching.
+Defaults to 64 MB.
+Since GDAL 3.10, the value can be specified either as a fixed amount of
+memory (e.g., \fB\-wm 200MB\fP, \fB\-wm 1G\fP) or as a percentage of usable
+RAM (\fB\-wm 10%\fP).
+In earlier versions, or if a unit is not specified, the value is interpreted as being
+in megabytes if the value is less than 10000. For values >=10000, it is
+interpreted as bytes.
+.sp
+The warper will total up the memory required to hold the input and output
+image arrays and any auxiliary masking arrays and if they are larger than
+the \(dqwarp memory\(dq allowed it will subdivide the chunk into smaller chunks
+and try again.
+.sp
+If the \-wm value is very small there is some extra overhead in doing many
+small chunks so setting it larger is better but it is a matter of
+diminishing returns.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-multi
+Use multithreaded warping implementation.
+Two threads will be used to process chunks of image and perform
+input/output operation simultaneously. Note that computation is not
+multithreaded itself. To do that, you can use the \fI\%\-wo\fP NUM_THREADS=val/ALL_CPUS
+option, which can be combined with \fI\%\-multi\fP
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-if <format>
+Format/driver name to be attempted to open the input file(s). It is generally
+not necessary to specify it, but it can be used to skip automatic driver
+detection, when it fails to select the appropriate driver.
+This option can be repeated several times to specify several candidate drivers.
+Note that it does not force those drivers to open the dataset. In particular,
+some drivers have requirements on file extensions.
+.sp
+Added in version 3.2.
+
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-of <format>
+Select the output format. If not specified, the format is guessed from the
+extension. Use the short format name.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-co <NAME>=<VALUE>
+Many formats have one or more optional creation options that can be
+used to control particulars about the file created. For instance,
+the GeoTIFF driver supports creation options to control compression,
+and whether the file should be tiled.
+.sp
+The creation options available vary by format driver, and some
+simple formats have no creation options at all. A list of options
+supported for a format can be listed with the
+\fI\%\-\-format\fP
+command line option but the documentation for the format is the
+definitive source of information on driver creation options.
+See \fI\%Raster drivers\fP format
+specific documentation for legal creation options for each format.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-cutline <datasource>|<WKT>
+Enable use of a blend cutline from the name of a vector dataset.
+Starting with GDAL 3.9, a WKT geometry string starting with POLYGON or
+MULTIPOLYGON can also be specified.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-cutline_srs <srs_def>
+Added in version 3.9.
+
+.sp
+Sets or overrides the SRS of the cutline.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-cl <layername>
+Select the named layer from the cutline datasource.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-cwhere <expression>
+Restrict desired cutline features based on attribute query.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-csql <query>
+Select cutline features using an SQL query instead of from a layer with \fI\%\-cl\fP\&.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-cblend <distance>
+Set a blend distance to use to blend over cutlines (in pixels).
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-crop_to_cutline
+Crop the extent of the target dataset to the extent of the cutline.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-overwrite
+Overwrite the target dataset if it already exists. Overwriting must be understood
+here as deleting and recreating the file from scratch. Note that if this option
+is \fInot\fP specified and the output file already exists, it will be updated in
+place.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-nomd
+Do not copy metadata. Without this option, dataset and band metadata
+(as well as some band information) will be copied from the first source dataset.
+Items that differ between source datasets will be set to * (see \fI\%\-cvmd\fP option).
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-cvmd <meta_conflict_value>
+Value to set metadata items that conflict between source datasets
+(default is \(dq*\(dq). Use \(dq\(dq to remove conflicting items.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-setci
+Set the color interpretation of the bands of the target dataset from
+the source dataset.
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-oo <NAME>=<VALUE>
+Dataset open option (format specific)
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B \-doo <NAME>=<VALUE>
+Output dataset open option (format specific)
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B <src_dataset_name>
+The source file name(s).
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.TP
+.B <dst_dataset_name>
+The destination file name.
+.UNINDENT
+.SH OVERVIEW
+.sp
+\fBgdalwarp\fP transforms images between different coordinate reference
+systems and spatial resolutions.
+.sp
+First, \fBgdalwarp\fP must determine the extent and resolution of the
+output, if these have not been specified using \fI\%\-te\fP and \fI\%\-tr\fP\&.
+These are determined by transforming a sample of points from the source CRS to
+the destination CRS. Details of the procedure can be found in the documentation
+for \fI\%GDALSuggestedWarpOutput()\fP\&. If multiple inputs are provided to
+\fBgdalwarp\fP, the output extent will be calculated to cover all of them,
+at a resolution consistent with the highest\-resolution input.
+.sp
+Once the dimensions of the output image have been determined,
+\fBgdalwarp\fP divides the output image into chunks that can be processed
+independently within the amount of memory specified by \fI\%\-wm\fP\&.
+\fBgdalwarp\fP then iterates over scanlines in these chunks, and for each
+output pixel determines a rectangular region of source pixels that contribute
+to the value of the output pixel. The dimensions of this rectangular region
+are typically determined by estimating the relative scales of the source and
+destination raster, but can be manually specified (see documentation of the
+\fBXSCALE\fP parameter in \fI\%GDALWarpOptions::papszWarpOptions\fP).
+Because the source region is a simple rectangle, it is not possible for an
+output pixel to be associated with source pixels from both sides of the
+antimeridian or pole (when transforming from geographic coordinates).
+.sp
+The rectangular region of source pixels is then provided to a function that
+performs the resampling algorithm selected with \fI\%\-r\fP\&.  Depending on the
+resampling algorithm and relative scales of the source and destination rasters,
+source pixels may be weighted either according to the approximate fraction of
+the source pixel that is covered by the destination pixel (e.g., \(dqmean\(dq and
+\(dqsum\(dq resampling), or by horizontal and vertical Cartesian distances between
+the center of the source pixel and the center of the target pixel (e.g.,
+bilinear or cubic spline resampling). In the latter case, the relative weight
+of an individual source pixel is determined by the product of the weights
+determined for its row and column; the diagonal Cartesian distance is not
+calculated.
+.SH MULTIPLE INPUT FILES
+.sp
+When multiple inputs are provided to \fBgdalwarp\fP, they are processed
+independently in the order they are listed. This may introduce edge effects
+near the boundaries of the input files, because output pixel values will be
+derived from the final input only. To avoid this, non\-overlapping input
+files may first be combined into a \fI\%VRT file\fP (e.g., using
+\fI\%gdalbuildvrt\fP). This will allow \fBgdalwarp\fP to use pixels
+from all inputs when calculating output pixel values.
+.SH WRITING TO AN EXISTING FILE
+.sp
+Mosaicing into an existing output file is supported if the output file already
+exists. The spatial extent of the existing file will not be modified to
+accommodate new data, so you may have to remove it in that case, or use the
+\fI\%\-overwrite\fP option.
+.sp
+Polygon cutlines may be used as a mask to restrict the area of the destination
+file that may be updated, including blending.  If the OGR layer containing the
+cutline features has no explicit SRS, the cutline features are assumed to be in
+the SRS of the destination file. When writing to a not yet existing target
+dataset, its extent will be the one of the original raster unless \fI\%\-te\fP
+or \fI\%\-crop_to_cutline\fP are specified.
+.SH NODATA / SOURCE VALIDITY MASK HANDLING
+.sp
+Invalid values in source pixels, either identified through a nodata value
+metadata set on the source band, a mask band, an alpha band or the use of
+\fI\%\-srcnodata\fP will not be used in interpolation.
+The details of how it is taken into account depends on the resampling kernel:
+.INDENT 0.0
+.IP \(bu 2
+for nearest resampling, for each target pixel, the coordinate of its center
+is projected back to source coordinates and the source pixel containing that
+coordinate is identified. If this source pixel is invalid, the target pixel
+is considered as nodata.
+.IP \(bu 2
+for bilinear, cubic, cubicspline and lanczos, for each target pixel, the
+coordinate of its center is projected back to source coordinates and a
+corresponding source pixel is identified. If this source pixel is invalid, the
+target pixel is considered as nodata (in this case, valid pixels within the
+kernel radius would not be considered).
+Given that those resampling kernels have a non\-null kernel radius, this source
+pixel is just one among other several source pixels, and it might be possible
+that there are invalid values in those other contributing source pixels.
+The weights used to take into account those invalid values will be set to zero
+to ignore them.
+.IP \(bu 2
+for the other resampling methods, source pixels contributing to the target pixel
+are ignored if invalid. Only the valid ones are taken into account. If there are
+none, the target pixel is considered as nodata.
+.UNINDENT
+.sp
+If using \fI\%\-srcnodata\fP for multiple images with different invalid
+values, you need to either (a) pre\-process them to have the same to\-be\-ignored
+value, or (b) set the nodata flag for each file. Use (b) if you need to preserve
+the original values for some reason, for example:
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+# for this image we want to ignore black (0)
+gdalwarp \-srcnodata 0 \-dstnodata 0 orig\-ignore\-black.tif black\-nodata.tif
+
+# and now we want to ignore white (0)
+gdalwarp \-srcnodata 255 \-dstnodata 255 orig\-ignore\-white.tif white\-nodata.tif
+
+# and finally ignore a particular blue\-grey (RGB 125 125 150)
+gdalwarp \-srcnodata \(dq125 125 150\(dq \-dstnodata \(dq125 125 150\(dq orig\-ignore\-grey.tif grey\-nodata.tif
+
+# now we can mosaic them all and not worry about nodata parameters
+gdalwarp black\-nodata.tif grey\-nodata.tif white\-nodata.tif final\-mosaic.tif
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.SH APPROXIMATE TRANSFORMATION
+.sp
+By default \fBgdalwarp\fP uses a linear approximator for the
+transformations with a permitted error of 0.125 pixels in the source dataset.
+For each processing chunk, the approximator precisely transforms three points
+per output scanline (the start, middle, and end) from a row and column in the
+output dataset to a row and column in the source dataset.
+It then compares a linear approximation of the center point coordinates to the
+precisely transformed value.
+If the sum of the horizontal and vertical errors is less than the error
+threshold then the remaining source points are approximated using linear
+interpolation between the start and middle point, and between the middle and
+end point.
+If the error exceeds the threshold, the scanline is split into two sections and
+the approximator is recursively applied to each section until the error is less
+than the threshold or all points have been exactly computed.
+.sp
+Note that a processing chunk does not necessarily correspond to a whole destination
+scanline. If the output dataset is tiled, its shape will typically be one or
+several tiles. The \fBOPTIMIZE_SIZE\fP warping option and the value of the \fI\%\-wm\fP
+option can also influence the shape of the processing chunk. Consequently, for
+a single (non\-zero) value of the error threshold,
+the linear approximation might result in slightly different values in coordinate
+transformation, but all of them within the permitted error.
+.sp
+The error threshold (in source dataset pixels) can be controlled with the gdalwarp
+\fI\%\-et\fP switch. If you want to compare a true pixel\-by\-pixel reprojection
+use \fI\%\-et 0\fP which disables this approximator entirely.
+.SH VERTICAL TRANSFORMATION
+.sp
+While gdalwarp is most commonly used to perform coordinate transformations in the 2D
+space, it can also perform vertical transformations. Vertical transformations are
+automatically performed when the following two conditions are met:
+.INDENT 0.0
+.IP \(bu 2
+at least one of the source or target CRS has an explicit vertical CRS
+(as part of a compound CRS) or is a 3D (generally geographic) CRS, and
+.IP \(bu 2
+the raster has a single band
+.UNINDENT
+.sp
+This mode can also be forced by using the \fI\%\-vshift\fP (this is
+essentially useful when the CRS involved are not explicitly 3D, but a
+transformation pipeline is specified with \fI\%\-ct\fP), or disabled with
+\fI\%\-novshift\fP\&.
+.sp
+When a vertical transformation is involved, typically a shift value read in a
+geoid grid will be applied. This may require such grid(s) to be installed, or
+PROJ networking capabilities to be enabled. Consult \X'tty: link https://proj.org'\fI\%PROJ\fP\X'tty: link'
+documentation for more details. In addition to a shift, the raster values may
+be multiplied by a factor to take into account vertical unit changes.
+In priority, the value returned by \fI\%GDALRasterBand::GetUnitType()\fP is
+used. The following values are currently recognized: \fBm\fP, \fBmetre\fP, \fBmetre\fP,
+\fBft\fP, \fBfoot\fP, \fBUS survey foot\fP\&. If there is no defined unit type at the
+band level, the vertical unit of the source CRS is used. The vertical unit of
+the target CRS is also used to determine that conversion factor. The conversion
+factor may be overridden by setting the \fBMULT_FACTOR_VERTICAL_SHIFT\fP warping
+option with \fI\%\-wo\fP\&. For example \fB\-wo MULT_FACTOR_VERTICAL_SHIFT=1\fP to
+disable any vertical unit change.
+.SH MEMORY USAGE
+.sp
+Adding RAM will almost certainly increase the speed of \fBgdalwarp\fP\&.
+That\(aqs not at all the same as saying that it is worth it, or that the speed
+increase will be significant. Disks are the slowest part of the process.  By
+default \fBgdalwarp\fP won\(aqt take much advantage of RAM. Using the flag
+\fI\%\-wm 500\fP will operate on 500MB chunks at a time which is better than
+the default. The warp memory specified by \fI\%\-wm\fP is shared among all
+threads, so it is especially beneficial to increase this value when running
+\fBgdalwarp\fP with \fI\%\-wo NUM_THREADS\fP (or its equivalent
+\fI\%GDAL_NUM_THREADS\fP) greater than 1.
+.sp
+Increasing the I/O block cache size may also help. This can be done by
+setting the \fI\%GDAL_CACHEMAX\fP configuration like:
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+gdalwarp \-\-config GDAL_CACHEMAX 500 \-wm 500 ...
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.sp
+This uses 500MB of RAM for read/write caching, and 500MB of RAM for working
+buffers during the warp. Beyond that it is doubtful more memory will make a
+substantial difference.
+.sp
+Check CPU usage while \fBgdalwarp\fP is running. If it is substantially
+less than 100% then you know things are IO bound. Otherwise they are CPU bound.
+The \fB\-\-debug\fP option may also provide useful information. For instance, after
+running the following:
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+gdalwarp \-\-debug on abc.tif def.tif
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.sp
+a message like the following will be output:
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+GDAL: 224 block reads on 32 block band 1 of utm.tif
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.sp
+In this case it is saying that band 1 of \fButm.tif\fP has 32 blocks, but
+that 224 block reads were done, implying that lots of data was having to be
+re\-read, presumably because of a limited IO cache. You will also see messages
+like:
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+GDAL: GDALWarpKernel()::GWKNearestNoMasksByte()
+Src=0,0,512x512 Dst=0,0,512x512
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.sp
+The Src/Dst windows show you the \(dqchunk size\(dq being used. In this case my whole
+image which is very small. If you find things are being broken into a lot of
+chunks increasing \fI\%\-wm\fP may help somewhat.
+.sp
+But far more important than memory are ensuring you are going through an
+optimized path in the warper. If you ever see it reporting
+\fBGDALWarpKernel()::GWKGeneralCase()\fP you know things will be relatively slow.
+Basically, the fastest situations are nearest neighbour resampling on 8bit data
+without nodata or alpha masking in effect.
+.SH COMPRESSED OUTPUT
+.sp
+In some cases, the output of \fBgdalwarp\fP may be much larger than the
+original, even if the same compression algorithm is used. By default,
+\fBgdalwarp\fP operates on chunks that are not necessarily aligned with
+the boundaries of the blocks/tiles/strips of the output format, so this might
+cause repeated compression/decompression of partial blocks, leading to lost
+space in the output format.
+.sp
+The situation can be improved by using the \fBOPTIMIZE_SIZE\fP warping option
+(\fI\%\-wo OPTIMIZE_SIZE=YES\fP), but note that depending on the source and
+target projections, it might also significantly slow down the warping process.
+.sp
+Another possibility is to use \fBgdalwarp\fP without compression and then
+follow up with \fBgdal_translate\fP with compression:
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+gdalwarp infile tempfile.tif ...options...
+gdal_translate tempfile.tif outfile.tif \-co compress=lzw ...etc.
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.sp
+Alternatively, you can use a VRT file as the output format of \fBgdalwarp\fP\&. The
+VRT file is just an XML file that will be created immediately. The
+\fBgdal_translate\fP operations will be of course a bit slower as it will do the
+real warping operation.
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+gdalwarp \-of VRT infile tempfile.vrt ...options...
+gdal_translate tempfile.vrt outfile.tif \-co compress=lzw ...etc.
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.SH FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
+.sp
+Q1. Why does the quality of the output looks so bad (no anti\-aliasing)?
+.sp
+Did you specify a resampling method, with \fI\%\-r\fP, other than the
+default nearest neighbour?
+.sp
+Q2. Why do I get slightly different results whether the output dataset is tiled or not?
+.sp
+This is related to the fact that an approximate coordinate transformation is
+used by default to speed\-up computation. If you want to get the same results
+whether the output is tiled or not, set \fI\%\-et\fP to zero.
+Note, however, that this will only work for relatively small images; other factors
+can still result in different result. See following question (Q3).
+.sp
+Q3. Why do I observe artifacts, that look like resolution changes and are aligned
+with rectangular areas of the output raster, when warping sufficiently large
+rasters, particularly in areas where the reprojection involves significant
+deformation and only with non\-nearest resampling ?
+.sp
+The warping engine operates on rectangular areas of the output
+dataset (generally aligned with tile boundaries for a compressed tile dataset).
+.sp
+During reprojection, a single source pixel does not generally correspond to a
+single output pixel. The resampling method must therefore properly account for this
+and compute a ratio between the number of source and target pixels in the
+horizontal (X) and vertical (Y) directions. These ratios are computed per warping
+chunk. This maximizes the local quality of the warping but has the downside of
+creating visual discontinuities between warping chunks.
+.sp
+If you favor a seamless result, you may manually specify the
+XSCALE and YSCALE warping options with \fI\%\-wo\fP\&.
+The XSCALE (resp. YSCALE) value is the ratio expressing the resampling factor,
+i.e. the number of destination pixels per source pixel, along the
+horizontal (resp. vertical) axis. It equals to one for no resampling, is
+below one for downsampling, and above one for upsampling.
+.SH EXAMPLES
+.INDENT 0.0
+.IP \(bu 2
+Basic transformation:
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+gdalwarp \-t_srs EPSG:4326 input.tif output.tif
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.IP \(bu 2
+For instance, an eight bit spot scene stored in GeoTIFF with
+control points mapping the corners to lat/long could be warped to a UTM
+projection with a command like this:
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+gdalwarp \-t_srs \(aq+proj=utm +zone=11 +datum=WGS84\(aq \-overwrite raw_spot.tif utm11.tif
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.IP \(bu 2
+For instance, the second channel of an ASTER image stored in HDF with
+control points mapping the corners to lat/long could be warped to a UTM
+projection with a command like this:
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+gdalwarp \-overwrite HDF4_SDS:ASTER_L1B:\(dqpg\-PR1B0000\-2002031402_100_001\(dq:2 \e
+    pg\-PR1B0000\-2002031402_100_001_2.tif
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.IP \(bu 2
+To apply a cutline on a un\-georeferenced image and clip from pixel (220,60) to pixel (1160,690):
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+gdalwarp \-overwrite \-to SRC_METHOD=NO_GEOTRANSFORM \-to DST_METHOD=NO_GEOTRANSFORM \e
+    \-te 220 60 1160 690 \-cutline cutline.csv in.png out.tif
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.sp
+where cutline.csv content is like:
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+id,WKT
+1,\(dqPOLYGON((....))\(dq
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.IP \(bu 2
+To transform a DEM from geoid elevations (using EGM96) to WGS84 ellipsoidal heights:
+.UNINDENT
+.INDENT 0.0
+.INDENT 3.5
+.sp
+.EX
+gdalwarp \-overwrite in_dem.tif out_dem.tif \-s_srs EPSG:4326+5773 \-t_srs EPSG:4979
+.EE
+.UNINDENT
+.UNINDENT
+.SH RETURN STATUS CODE
+.sp
+The program returns status code 0 in case of success, and non\-zero in case of
+error (non\-blocking errors emitted as warnings are considered as a successful
+execution).
+.SH C API
+.sp
+This utility is also callable from C with \fI\%GDALWarp()\fP\&.
+.SH AUTHOR
+Frank Warmerdam <warmerdam@pobox.com>, Silke Reimer <silke@intevation.de>
+.SH COPYRIGHT
+1998-2026
+.\" Generated by docutils manpage writer.
+.