scipy 1.16.2__cp313-cp313-win_arm64.whl

scipy/spatial/transform/tests/test_rotation.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2569 @@
+import math
+
+import pytest
+
+import numpy as np
+from numpy.testing import assert_equal
+from scipy.spatial.transform import Rotation, Slerp
+from scipy.stats import special_ortho_group
+from itertools import permutations, product
+from scipy._lib._array_api import (
+    xp_assert_equal,
+    is_numpy,
+    is_lazy_array,
+    xp_vector_norm,
+    xp_assert_close,
+    eager_warns,
+    xp_default_dtype
+)
+import scipy._lib.array_api_extra as xpx
+
+import pickle
+import copy
+
+
+pytestmark = pytest.mark.skip_xp_backends(np_only=True)
+
+
+def basis_vec(axis):
+    if axis == 'x':
+        return [1, 0, 0]
+    elif axis == 'y':
+        return [0, 1, 0]
+    elif axis == 'z':
+        return [0, 0, 1]
+
+
+def rotation_to_xp(r: Rotation, xp):
+    return Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r.as_quat()))
+
+
+def test_init_non_array():
+    Rotation((0, 0, 0, 1))
+    Rotation([0, 0, 0, 1])
+
+
+def test_generic_quat_matrix(xp):
+    x = xp.asarray([[3.0, 4, 0, 0], [5, 12, 0, 0]])
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(x)
+    expected_quat = x / xp.asarray([[5.0], [13.0]])
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+
+
+def test_from_single_1d_quaternion(xp):
+    x = xp.asarray([3.0, 4, 0, 0])
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(x)
+    expected_quat = x / 5
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+
+
+def test_from_single_2d_quaternion(xp):
+    x = xp.asarray([[3.0, 4, 0, 0]])
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(x)
+    expected_quat = x / 5
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+
+
+def test_from_quat_scalar_first(xp):
+    rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
+
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([1, 0, 0, 0]), scalar_first=True)
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_matrix(), xp.eye(3), rtol=1e-15, atol=1e-16)
+
+    q = xp.tile(xp.asarray([1, 0, 0, 0]), (10, 1))
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(q, scalar_first=True)
+    xp_assert_close(
+        r.as_matrix(), xp.tile(xp.eye(3), (10, 1, 1)), rtol=1e-15, atol=1e-16
+    )
+
+    q = xp.asarray(rng.randn(100, 4))
+    q /= xp_vector_norm(q, axis=1)[:, None]
+    for i in range(q.shape[0]):  # Array API conforming loop
+        qi = q[i, ...]
+        r = Rotation.from_quat(qi, scalar_first=True)
+        xp_assert_close(xp.roll(r.as_quat(), 1), qi, rtol=1e-15)
+
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(q, scalar_first=True)
+    xp_assert_close(xp.roll(r.as_quat(), 1, axis=1), q, rtol=1e-15)
+
+
+def test_from_quat_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single rotation
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(r_expected.as_quat().tolist())
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # Multiple rotations
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(3, rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(r_expected.as_quat().tolist())
+    assert np.all(r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12))
+
+
+def test_from_quat_int_dtype(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([1, 0, 0, 0]))
+    assert r.as_quat().dtype == xp_default_dtype(xp)
+
+
+def test_as_quat_scalar_first(xp):
+    rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
+
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('xyz', xp.zeros(3))
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(scalar_first=True), xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0, 0]),
+                    rtol=1e-15, atol=1e-16)
+
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('xyz', xp.zeros((10, 3)))
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(scalar_first=True),
+                    xp.tile(xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0, 0]), (10, 1)),
+                    rtol=1e-15, atol=1e-16)
+
+    q = xp.asarray(rng.randn(100, 4))
+    q /= xp_vector_norm(q, axis=1)[:, None]
+    for i in range(q.shape[0]):  # Array API conforming loop
+        qi = q[i, ...]
+        r = Rotation.from_quat(qi)
+        xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(scalar_first=True), xp.roll(qi, 1),
+                        rtol=1e-15)
+
+        xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(canonical=True, scalar_first=True),
+                        xp.roll(r.as_quat(canonical=True), 1),
+                        rtol=1e-15)
+
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(q)
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(scalar_first=True), xp.roll(q, 1, axis=1),
+                    rtol=1e-15)
+
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(canonical=True, scalar_first=True),
+                    xp.roll(r.as_quat(canonical=True), 1, axis=1), rtol=1e-15)
+
+
+def test_from_square_quat_matrix(xp):
+    # Ensure proper norm array broadcasting
+    x = xp.asarray([
+        [3.0, 0, 0, 4],
+        [5, 0, 12, 0],
+        [0, 0, 0, 1],
+        [-1, -1, -1, 1],
+        [0, 0, 0, -1],  # Check double cover
+        [-1, -1, -1, -1]  # Check double cover
+        ])
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(x)
+    expected_quat = x / xp.asarray([[5.0], [13], [1], [2], [1], [2]])
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+
+
+def test_quat_double_to_canonical_single_cover(xp):
+    x = xp.asarray([
+        [-1.0, 0, 0, 0],
+        [0, -1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, -1, 0],
+        [0, 0, 0, -1],
+        [-1, -1, -1, -1]
+        ])
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(x)
+    expected_quat = xp.abs(x) / xp_vector_norm(x, axis=1)[:, None]
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(canonical=True), expected_quat)
+
+
+def test_quat_double_cover(xp):
+    # See the Rotation.from_quat() docstring for scope of the quaternion
+    # double cover property.
+    # Check from_quat and as_quat(canonical=False)
+    q = xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, -1])
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(q)
+    xp_assert_equal(q, r.as_quat(canonical=False))
+    # Check composition and inverse
+    q = xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0, 1])/math.sqrt(2)  # 90 deg rotation about x
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(q)
+    r3 = r*r*r
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(canonical=False)*math.sqrt(2),
+                    xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0, 1]))
+    xp_assert_close(r.inv().as_quat(canonical=False)*math.sqrt(2),
+                    xp.asarray([-1.0, 0, 0, 1]))
+    xp_assert_close(r3.as_quat(canonical=False)*math.sqrt(2),
+                    xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0, -1]))
+    xp_assert_close(r3.inv().as_quat(canonical=False)*math.sqrt(2),
+                    xp.asarray([-1.0, 0, 0, -1]))
+
+    # More sanity checks
+    xp_assert_close((r*r.inv()).as_quat(canonical=False),
+                    xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]), atol=2e-16)
+    xp_assert_close((r3*r3.inv()).as_quat(canonical=False),
+                    xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]), atol=2e-16)
+    xp_assert_close((r*r3).as_quat(canonical=False),
+                    xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, -1]), atol=2e-16)
+    xp_assert_close((r.inv() * r3.inv()).as_quat(canonical=False),
+                    xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, -1]), atol=2e-16)
+
+
+def test_from_quat_wrong_shape(xp):
+    # Wrong shape 1d array
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `quat` to have shape'):
+        Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([1, 2, 3]))
+
+    # Wrong shape 2d array
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `quat` to have shape'):
+        Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([
+            [1, 2, 3, 4, 5],
+            [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
+            ]))
+
+    # 3d array
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `quat` to have shape'):
+        Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([
+            [[1, 2, 3, 4]],
+            [[4, 5, 6, 7]]
+            ]))
+
+
+def test_zero_norms_from_quat(xp):
+    x = xp.asarray([
+            [3, 4, 0, 0],
+            [0, 0, 0, 0],
+            [5, 0, 12, 0]
+            ])
+    if is_lazy_array(x):
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(Rotation.from_quat(x).as_quat()[1, ...]))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+            Rotation.from_quat(x)
+
+
+def test_as_matrix_single_1d_quaternion(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1])
+    mat = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_matrix()
+    # mat.shape == (3,3) due to 1d input
+    xp_assert_close(mat, xp.eye(3))
+
+
+def test_as_matrix_single_2d_quaternion(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([[0, 0, 1, 1]])
+    mat = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_matrix()
+    assert_equal(mat.shape, (1, 3, 3))
+    expected_mat = xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, -1, 0],
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, 1]
+        ])
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], expected_mat)
+
+
+def test_as_matrix_from_square_input(xp):
+    quats = xp.asarray([
+            [0, 0, 1, 1],
+            [0, 1, 0, 1],
+            [0, 0, 0, 1],
+            [0, 0, 0, -1]
+            ])
+    mat = Rotation.from_quat(quats).as_matrix()
+    assert_equal(mat.shape, (4, 3, 3))
+
+    expected0 = xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, -1, 0],
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, 1]
+        ])
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], expected0)
+
+    expected1 = xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, 0, 1],
+        [0, 1, 0],
+        [-1, 0, 0]
+        ])
+    xp_assert_close(mat[1, ...], expected1)
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[2, ...], xp.eye(3))
+    xp_assert_close(mat[3, ...], xp.eye(3))
+
+
+def test_as_matrix_from_generic_input(xp):
+    quats = xp.asarray([
+            [0, 0, 1, 1],
+            [0, 1, 0, 1],
+            [1, 2, 3, 4]
+            ])
+    mat = Rotation.from_quat(quats).as_matrix()
+    assert_equal(mat.shape, (3, 3, 3))
+
+    expected0 = xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, -1, 0],
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, 1]
+        ])
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], expected0)
+
+    expected1 = xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, 0, 1],
+        [0, 1, 0],
+        [-1, 0, 0]
+        ])
+    xp_assert_close(mat[1, ...], expected1)
+
+    expected2 = xp.asarray([
+        [0.4, -2, 2.2],
+        [2.8, 1, 0.4],
+        [-1, 2, 2]
+        ]) / 3
+    xp_assert_close(mat[2, ...], expected2)
+
+
+def test_from_single_2d_matrix(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray([
+            [0, 0, 1],
+            [1, 0, 0],
+            [0, 1, 0]
+            ])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_quat(), expected_quat)
+
+
+def test_from_single_3d_matrix(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray([[
+        [0, 0, 1],
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 1, 0],
+        ]])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([[0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5]])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_quat(), expected_quat)
+
+
+def test_from_matrix_calculation(xp):
+    atol = 1e-8
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([1.0, 1, 6, 1]) / math.sqrt(39)
+    mat = xp.asarray([
+            [-0.8974359, -0.2564103, 0.3589744],
+            [0.3589744, -0.8974359, 0.2564103],
+            [0.2564103, 0.3589744, 0.8974359]
+            ])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_quat(), expected_quat, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(xp.reshape(mat, (1, 3, 3))).as_quat(),
+                    xp.reshape(expected_quat, (1, 4)),
+                    atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_matrix_calculation_pipeline(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray(special_ortho_group.rvs(3, size=10, random_state=0))
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix(), mat)
+
+
+def test_from_matrix_ortho_output(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    mat = xp.asarray(rnd.random_sample((100, 3, 3)))
+    dets = xp.linalg.det(mat)
+    for i in range(dets.shape[0]):
+        # Make sure we have a right-handed rotation matrix
+        if dets[i] < 0:
+            mat = xpx.at(mat)[i, ...].set(-mat[i, ...])
+    ortho_mat = Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix()
+
+    mult_result = xp.matmul(ortho_mat, xp.matrix_transpose(ortho_mat))
+
+    eye3d = xp.zeros((100, 3, 3)) + xp.eye(3)
+    xp_assert_close(mult_result, eye3d, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_from_matrix_normalize(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray([
+        [1, 1, 0],
+        [0, 1, 0],
+        [0, 0, 1]])
+    expected = xp.asarray([[ 0.894427, 0.447214, 0.0],
+                           [-0.447214, 0.894427, 0.0],
+                           [ 0.0,      0.0,      1.0]])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix(), expected, atol=1e-6)
+
+    mat = xp.asarray([
+        [0,  -0.5, 0  ],
+        [0.5, 0  , 0  ],
+        [0,   0  , 0.5]])
+    expected = xp.asarray([[0.0, -1, 0],
+                           [  1,  0, 0],
+                           [  0,  0, 1]])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix(), expected, atol=1e-6)
+
+
+def test_from_matrix_non_positive_determinant(xp):
+    mat = xp.eye(3)
+    mat = xpx.at(mat)[0, 0].set(0)
+    if is_lazy_array(mat):
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix()))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Non-positive determinant"):
+            Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+
+    mat = xpx.at(mat)[0, 0].set(-1)
+    if is_lazy_array(mat):
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix()))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Non-positive determinant"):
+            Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+
+
+def test_from_matrix_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single rotation
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(r_expected.as_matrix().tolist())
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
+    
+    # Multiple rotations
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(3, rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(r_expected.as_matrix().tolist())
+    assert np.all(r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12))
+
+
+def test_from_matrix_int_dtype(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1]])
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+    assert r.as_quat().dtype == xp_default_dtype(xp)
+
+
+def test_from_1d_single_rotvec(xp):
+    atol = 1e-7
+    rotvec = xp.asarray([1, 0, 0])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([0.4794255, 0, 0, 0.8775826])
+    result = Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec)
+    xp_assert_close(result.as_quat(), expected_quat, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_from_2d_single_rotvec(xp):
+    atol = 1e-7
+    rotvec = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0]])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([[0.4794255, 0, 0, 0.8775826]])
+    result = Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec)
+    xp_assert_close(result.as_quat(), expected_quat, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_from_generic_rotvec(xp):
+    atol = 1e-7
+    rotvec = xp.asarray([
+            [1, 2, 2],
+            [1, -1, 0.5],
+            [0, 0, 0]])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([
+        [0.3324983, 0.6649967, 0.6649967, 0.0707372],
+        [0.4544258, -0.4544258, 0.2272129, 0.7316889],
+        [0, 0, 0, 1]
+        ])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec).as_quat(), expected_quat, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_from_rotvec_small_angle(xp):
+    rotvec = xp.asarray([
+        [5e-4 / math.sqrt(3), -5e-4 / math.sqrt(3), 5e-4 / math.sqrt(3)],
+        [0.2, 0.3, 0.4],
+        [0, 0, 0]
+        ])
+
+    quat = Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec).as_quat()
+    # cos(theta/2) ~~ 1 for small theta
+    xp_assert_close(quat[0, 3], xp.asarray(1.0)[()])
+    # sin(theta/2) / theta ~~ 0.5 for small theta
+    xp_assert_close(quat[0, :3], rotvec[0, ...] * 0.5)
+
+    xp_assert_close(quat[1, 3], xp.asarray(0.9639685)[()])
+    xp_assert_close(quat[1, :3],
+            xp.asarray([
+                0.09879603932153465,
+                0.14819405898230198,
+                0.19759207864306931]))
+
+    xp_assert_equal(quat[2, ...], xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]))
+
+
+def test_from_rotvec_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single rotation
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_rotvec(r_expected.as_rotvec().tolist())
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # Multiple rotations
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(3, rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_rotvec(r_expected.as_rotvec().tolist())
+    assert np.all(r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12))
+
+
+def test_from_rotvec_int_dtype(xp):
+    rotvec = xp.asarray([1, 0, 0])
+    r = Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec)
+    assert r.as_quat().dtype == xp_default_dtype(xp)
+
+
+def test_degrees_from_rotvec(xp):
+    rotvec1 = xp.asarray([1 / 3 ** (1/3)] * 3)
+    rot1 = Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec1, degrees=True)
+    quat1 = rot1.as_quat()
+
+    # deg2rad is not implemented in Array API -> / 180 * xp.pi
+    rotvec2 = xp.asarray(rotvec1 / 180 * xp.pi)
+    rot2 = Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec2)
+    quat2 = rot2.as_quat()
+
+    xp_assert_close(quat1, quat2)
+
+
+def test_malformed_1d_from_rotvec(xp):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `rot_vec` to have shape'):
+        Rotation.from_rotvec(xp.asarray([1, 2]))
+
+
+def test_malformed_2d_from_rotvec(xp):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `rot_vec` to have shape'):
+        Rotation.from_rotvec(xp.asarray([
+            [1, 2, 3, 4],
+            [5, 6, 7, 8]
+            ]))
+
+
+def test_as_generic_rotvec(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([
+            [1, 2, -1, 0.5],
+            [1, -1, 1, 0.0003],
+            [0, 0, 0, 1]
+            ])
+    quat /= xp_vector_norm(quat, axis=-1, keepdims=True)
+
+    rotvec = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_rotvec()
+    angle = xp_vector_norm(rotvec, axis=-1)
+
+    xp_assert_close(quat[:, 3], xp.cos(angle / 2))
+    xp_assert_close(xp.linalg.cross(rotvec, quat[:, :3]), xp.zeros((3, 3)), atol=1e-15)
+
+
+def test_as_rotvec_single_1d_input(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([1, 2, -3, 2])
+    expected_rotvec = xp.asarray([0.5772381, 1.1544763, -1.7317144])
+
+    actual_rotvec = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_rotvec()
+
+    assert_equal(actual_rotvec.shape, (3,))
+    xp_assert_close(actual_rotvec, expected_rotvec)
+
+
+def test_as_rotvec_single_2d_input(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([[1, 2, -3, 2]])
+    expected_rotvec = xp.asarray([[0.5772381, 1.1544763, -1.7317144]])
+
+    actual_rotvec = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_rotvec()
+
+    assert_equal(actual_rotvec.shape, (1, 3))
+    xp_assert_close(actual_rotvec, expected_rotvec)
+
+
+def test_as_rotvec_degrees(xp):
+    # x->y, y->z, z->x
+    mat = xp.asarray([[0, 0, 1], [1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]])
+    rot = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+    rotvec = rot.as_rotvec(degrees=True)
+    angle = xp_vector_norm(rotvec, axis=-1)
+    xp_assert_close(angle, xp.asarray(120.0)[()])
+    xp_assert_close(rotvec[0], rotvec[1])
+    xp_assert_close(rotvec[1], rotvec[2])
+
+
+def test_rotvec_calc_pipeline(xp):
+    # Include small angles
+    rotvec = xp.asarray([
+        [0, 0, 0],
+        [1, -1, 2],
+        [-3e-4, 3.5e-4, 7.5e-5]
+        ])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec).as_rotvec(), rotvec)
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec, degrees=True).as_rotvec(degrees=True),
+                    rotvec)
+
+
+def test_from_1d_single_mrp(xp):
+    mrp = xp.asarray([0, 0, 1.0])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 1, 0])
+    result = Rotation.from_mrp(mrp)
+    xp_assert_close(result.as_quat(), expected_quat, atol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_from_2d_single_mrp(xp):
+    mrp = xp.asarray([[0, 0, 1.0]])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([[0.0, 0, 1, 0]])
+    result = Rotation.from_mrp(mrp)
+    xp_assert_close(result.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+
+
+def test_from_mrp_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single rotation
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_mrp(r_expected.as_mrp().tolist())
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # Multiple rotations
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(3, rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_mrp(r_expected.as_mrp().tolist())
+    assert np.all(r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12))
+
+
+def test_from_mrp_int_dtype(xp):
+    mrp = xp.asarray([0, 0, 1])
+    r = Rotation.from_mrp(mrp)
+    assert r.as_quat().dtype == xp_default_dtype(xp)
+
+
+def test_from_generic_mrp(xp):
+    mrp = xp.asarray([
+        [1, 2, 2],
+        [1, -1, 0.5],
+        [0, 0, 0]])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([
+        [0.2, 0.4, 0.4, -0.8],
+        [0.61538462, -0.61538462, 0.30769231, -0.38461538],
+        [0, 0, 0, 1]])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_mrp(mrp).as_quat(), expected_quat)
+
+
+def test_malformed_1d_from_mrp(xp):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `mrp` to have shape'):
+        Rotation.from_mrp(xp.asarray([1, 2]))
+
+
+def test_malformed_2d_from_mrp(xp):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `mrp` to have shape'):
+        Rotation.from_mrp(xp.asarray([
+            [1, 2, 3, 4],
+            [5, 6, 7, 8]
+            ]))
+
+
+def test_as_generic_mrp(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([
+        [1, 2, -1, 0.5],
+        [1, -1, 1, 0.0003],
+        [0, 0, 0, 1]])
+    quat /= xp_vector_norm(quat, axis=1)[:, None]
+
+    expected_mrp = xp.asarray([
+        [0.33333333, 0.66666667, -0.33333333],
+        [0.57725028, -0.57725028, 0.57725028],
+        [0, 0, 0]])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_mrp(), expected_mrp)
+
+
+def test_past_180_degree_rotation(xp):
+    # ensure that a > 180 degree rotation is returned as a <180 rotation in MRPs
+    # in this case 270 should be returned as -90
+    expected_mrp = xp.asarray([-math.tan(xp.pi / 2 / 4), 0.0, 0])
+    xp_assert_close(
+        Rotation.from_euler('xyz', xp.asarray([270, 0, 0]), degrees=True).as_mrp(),
+        expected_mrp,
+    )
+
+
+def test_as_mrp_single_1d_input(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([1, 2, -3, 2])
+    expected_mrp = xp.asarray([0.16018862, 0.32037724, -0.48056586])
+
+    actual_mrp = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_mrp()
+
+    assert_equal(actual_mrp.shape, (3,))
+    xp_assert_close(actual_mrp, expected_mrp)
+
+
+def test_as_mrp_single_2d_input(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([[1, 2, -3, 2]])
+    expected_mrp = xp.asarray([[0.16018862, 0.32037724, -0.48056586]])
+
+    actual_mrp = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_mrp()
+
+    assert_equal(actual_mrp.shape, (1, 3))
+    xp_assert_close(actual_mrp, expected_mrp)
+
+
+def test_mrp_calc_pipeline(xp):
+    actual_mrp = xp.asarray([
+        [0, 0, 0],
+        [1, -1, 2],
+        [0.41421356, 0, 0],
+        [0.1, 0.2, 0.1]])
+    expected_mrp = xp.asarray([
+        [0, 0, 0],
+        [-0.16666667, 0.16666667, -0.33333333],
+        [0.41421356, 0, 0],
+        [0.1, 0.2, 0.1]])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_mrp(actual_mrp).as_mrp(), expected_mrp)
+
+
+def test_from_euler_single_rotation(xp):
+    quat = Rotation.from_euler("z", xp.asarray(90), degrees=True).as_quat()
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 1, 1]) / math.sqrt(2)
+    xp_assert_close(quat, expected_quat)
+
+
+def test_single_intrinsic_extrinsic_rotation(xp):
+    extrinsic = Rotation.from_euler('z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True).as_matrix()
+    intrinsic = Rotation.from_euler('Z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True).as_matrix()
+    xp_assert_close(extrinsic, intrinsic)
+
+
+def test_from_euler_rotation_order(xp):
+    # Intrinsic rotation is same as extrinsic with order reversed
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    a = xp.asarray(rnd.randint(low=0, high=180, size=(6, 3)))
+    b = xp.flip(a, axis=-1)
+    x = Rotation.from_euler('xyz', a, degrees=True).as_quat()
+    y = Rotation.from_euler('ZYX', b, degrees=True).as_quat()
+    xp_assert_close(x, y)
+
+
+def test_from_euler_elementary_extrinsic_rotation(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    # Simple test to check if extrinsic rotations are implemented correctly
+    mat = Rotation.from_euler('zx', xp.asarray([90, 90]), degrees=True).as_matrix()
+    expected_mat = xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, -1, 0],
+        [0, 0, -1],
+        [1, 0, 0]
+    ])
+    xp_assert_close(mat, expected_mat, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_from_euler_intrinsic_rotation_312(xp):
+    atol = 1e-7
+    angles = xp.asarray([
+        [30, 60, 45],
+        [30, 60, 30],
+        [45, 30, 60]
+        ])
+    mat = Rotation.from_euler('ZXY', angles, degrees=True).as_matrix()
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], xp.asarray([
+        [0.3061862, -0.2500000, 0.9185587],
+        [0.8838835, 0.4330127, -0.1767767],
+        [-0.3535534, 0.8660254, 0.3535534]
+    ]), atol=atol)
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[1, ...], xp.asarray([
+        [0.5334936, -0.2500000, 0.8080127],
+        [0.8080127, 0.4330127, -0.3995191],
+        [-0.2500000, 0.8660254, 0.4330127]
+    ]), atol=atol)
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[2, ...], xp.asarray([
+        [0.0473672, -0.6123725, 0.7891491],
+        [0.6597396, 0.6123725, 0.4355958],
+        [-0.7500000, 0.5000000, 0.4330127]
+    ]), atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_from_euler_intrinsic_rotation_313(xp):
+    angles = xp.asarray([
+        [30, 60, 45],
+        [30, 60, 30],
+        [45, 30, 60]
+        ])
+    mat = Rotation.from_euler('ZXZ', angles, degrees=True).as_matrix()
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], xp.asarray([
+        [0.43559574, -0.78914913, 0.4330127],
+        [0.65973961, -0.04736717, -0.750000],
+        [0.61237244, 0.61237244, 0.500000]
+    ]))
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[1, ...], xp.asarray([
+        [0.6250000, -0.64951905, 0.4330127],
+        [0.64951905, 0.1250000, -0.750000],
+        [0.4330127, 0.750000, 0.500000]
+    ]))
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[2, ...], xp.asarray([
+        [-0.1767767, -0.91855865, 0.35355339],
+        [0.88388348, -0.30618622, -0.35355339],
+        [0.4330127, 0.25000000, 0.8660254]
+    ]))
+
+
+def test_from_euler_extrinsic_rotation_312(xp):
+    angles = xp.asarray([
+        [30, 60, 45],
+        [30, 60, 30],
+        [45, 30, 60]
+        ])
+    mat = Rotation.from_euler('zxy', angles, degrees=True).as_matrix()
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], xp.asarray([
+        [0.91855865, 0.1767767, 0.35355339],
+        [0.25000000, 0.4330127, -0.8660254],
+        [-0.30618622, 0.88388348, 0.35355339]
+    ]))
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[1, ...], xp.asarray([
+        [0.96650635, -0.0580127, 0.2500000],
+        [0.25000000, 0.4330127, -0.8660254],
+        [-0.0580127, 0.89951905, 0.4330127]
+    ]))
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[2, ...], xp.asarray([
+        [0.65973961, -0.04736717, 0.7500000],
+        [0.61237244, 0.61237244, -0.5000000],
+        [-0.43559574, 0.78914913, 0.4330127]
+    ]))
+
+
+def test_from_euler_extrinsic_rotation_313(xp):
+    angles = xp.asarray([
+        [30, 60, 45],
+        [30, 60, 30],
+        [45, 30, 60]
+        ])
+    mat = Rotation.from_euler('zxz', angles, degrees=True).as_matrix()
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], xp.asarray([
+        [0.43559574, -0.65973961, 0.61237244],
+        [0.78914913, -0.04736717, -0.61237244],
+        [0.4330127, 0.75000000, 0.500000]
+    ]))
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[1, ...], xp.asarray([
+        [0.62500000, -0.64951905, 0.4330127],
+        [0.64951905, 0.12500000, -0.750000],
+        [0.4330127, 0.75000000, 0.500000]
+    ]))
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat[2, ...], xp.asarray([
+        [-0.1767767, -0.88388348, 0.4330127],
+        [0.91855865, -0.30618622, -0.250000],
+        [0.35355339, 0.35355339, 0.8660254]
+    ]))
+
+
+def test_from_euler_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    order = "xyz"
+    # Single rotation
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_euler(order, r_expected.as_euler(order).tolist())
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # Multiple rotations
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(3, rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_euler(order, r_expected.as_euler(order).tolist())
+    assert np.all(r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12))
+
+
+def test_from_euler_scalar():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    deg = rng.uniform(low=-180, high=180)
+    r_expected = Rotation.from_euler("x", deg, degrees=True)
+    r = Rotation.from_euler("x", float(deg), degrees=True)
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("seq_tuple", permutations("xyz"))
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("intrinsic", (False, True))
+def test_as_euler_asymmetric_axes(xp, seq_tuple, intrinsic):
+    # helper function for mean error tests
+    def test_stats(error, mean_max, rms_max):
+        mean = xp.mean(error, axis=0)
+        std = xp.std(error, axis=0)
+        rms = xp.hypot(mean, std)
+        assert xp.all(xp.abs(mean) < mean_max)
+        assert xp.all(rms < rms_max)
+
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    n = 1000
+    angles = np.empty((n, 3))
+    angles[:, 0] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles[:, 1] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi / 2, high=np.pi / 2, size=(n,))
+    angles[:, 2] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles = xp.asarray(angles)
+
+    seq = "".join(seq_tuple)
+    if intrinsic:
+        # Extrinsic rotation (wrt to global world) at lower case
+        # intrinsic (WRT the object itself) lower case.
+        seq = seq.upper()
+    rotation = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles)
+    angles_quat = rotation.as_euler(seq)
+    # TODO: Why are we using _as_euler_from_matrix here? As a sanity check? It is not
+    # part of the public API and should not be used anywhere else
+    angles_mat = rotation._as_euler_from_matrix(seq)
+    xp_assert_close(angles, angles_quat, atol=0, rtol=1e-12)
+    xp_assert_close(angles, angles_mat, atol=0, rtol=1e-12)
+    test_stats(angles_quat - angles, 1e-15, 1e-14)
+    test_stats(angles_mat - angles, 1e-15, 1e-14)
+
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("seq_tuple", permutations("xyz"))
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("intrinsic", (False, True))
+def test_as_euler_symmetric_axes(xp, seq_tuple, intrinsic):
+    # helper function for mean error tests
+    def test_stats(error, mean_max, rms_max):
+        mean = xp.mean(error, axis=0)
+        std = xp.std(error, axis=0)
+        rms = xp.hypot(mean, std)
+        assert xp.all(xp.abs(mean) < mean_max)
+        assert xp.all(rms < rms_max)
+
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    n = 1000
+    angles = np.empty((n, 3))
+    angles[:, 0] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles[:, 1] = rnd.uniform(low=0, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles[:, 2] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles = xp.asarray(angles)
+
+    # Rotation of the form A/B/A are rotation around symmetric axes
+    seq = "".join([seq_tuple[0], seq_tuple[1], seq_tuple[0]])
+    if intrinsic:
+        seq = seq.upper()
+    rotation = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles)
+    angles_quat = rotation.as_euler(seq)
+    # TODO: Same as before: Remove _as_euler_from_matrix?
+    angles_mat = rotation._as_euler_from_matrix(seq)
+    xp_assert_close(angles, angles_quat, atol=0, rtol=1e-13)
+    xp_assert_close(angles, angles_mat, atol=0, rtol=1e-9)
+    test_stats(angles_quat - angles, 1e-16, 1e-14)
+    test_stats(angles_mat - angles, 1e-15, 1e-13)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("seq_tuple", permutations("xyz"))
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("intrinsic", (False, True))
+def test_as_euler_degenerate_asymmetric_axes(xp, seq_tuple, intrinsic):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    # Since we cannot check for angle equality, we check for rotation matrix
+    # equality
+    angles = xp.asarray([
+        [45, 90, 35],
+        [35, -90, 20],
+        [35, 90, 25],
+        [25, -90, 15]])
+
+    seq = "".join(seq_tuple)
+    if intrinsic:
+        # Extrinsic rotation (wrt to global world) at lower case
+        # Intrinsic (WRT the object itself) upper case.
+        seq = seq.upper()
+    rotation = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles, degrees=True)
+    mat_expected = rotation.as_matrix()
+
+    # We can only warn on non-lazy backends because we'd need to condition on traced
+    # booleans
+    with eager_warns(mat_expected, UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
+        angle_estimates = rotation.as_euler(seq, degrees=True)
+    mat_estimated = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angle_estimates, degrees=True).as_matrix()
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat_expected, mat_estimated, atol=atol)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("seq_tuple", permutations("xyz"))
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("intrinsic", (False, True))
+def test_as_euler_degenerate_symmetric_axes(xp, seq_tuple, intrinsic):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    # Since we cannot check for angle equality, we check for rotation matrix
+    # equality
+    angles = xp.asarray([
+        [15, 0, 60],
+        [35, 0, 75],
+        [60, 180, 35],
+        [15, -180, 25]])
+
+    # Rotation of the form A/B/A are rotation around symmetric axes
+    seq = "".join([seq_tuple[0], seq_tuple[1], seq_tuple[0]])
+    if intrinsic:
+        # Extrinsic rotation (wrt to global world) at lower case
+        # Intrinsic (WRT the object itself) upper case.
+        seq = seq.upper()
+    rotation = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles, degrees=True)
+    mat_expected = rotation.as_matrix()
+
+    # We can only warn on non-lazy backends
+    with eager_warns(mat_expected, UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
+        angle_estimates = rotation.as_euler(seq, degrees=True)
+    mat_estimated = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angle_estimates, degrees=True).as_matrix()
+
+    xp_assert_close(mat_expected, mat_estimated, atol=atol)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("seq_tuple", permutations("xyz"))
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("intrinsic", (False, True))
+def test_as_euler_degenerate_compare_algorithms(xp, seq_tuple, intrinsic):
+    # this test makes sure that both algorithms are doing the same choices
+    # in degenerate cases
+
+    # asymmetric axes
+    angles = xp.asarray([
+        [45, 90, 35],
+        [35, -90, 20],
+        [35, 90, 25],
+        [25, -90, 15]])
+
+    seq = "".join(seq_tuple)
+    if intrinsic:
+        # Extrinsic rotation (wrt to global world at lower case
+        # Intrinsic (WRT the object itself) upper case.
+        seq = seq.upper()
+
+    rot = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles, degrees=True)
+    with eager_warns(rot, UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
+        estimates_matrix = rot._as_euler_from_matrix(seq, degrees=True)
+        estimates_quat = rot.as_euler(seq, degrees=True)
+    xp_assert_close(
+        estimates_matrix[:, [0, 2]], estimates_quat[:, [0, 2]], atol=0, rtol=1e-12
+    )
+    xp_assert_close(estimates_matrix[:, 1], estimates_quat[:, 1], atol=0, rtol=1e-7)
+
+    # symmetric axes
+    # Absolute error tolerance must be looser to directly compare the results
+    # from both algorithms, because of numerical loss of precision for the
+    # method _as_euler_from_matrix near a zero angle value
+
+    angles = xp.asarray([
+        [15, 0, 60],
+        [35, 0, 75],
+        [60, 180, 35],
+        [15, -180, 25]])
+
+    idx = angles[:, 1] == 0  # find problematic angles indices
+
+    # Rotation of the form A/B/A are rotation around symmetric axes
+    seq = "".join([seq_tuple[0], seq_tuple[1], seq_tuple[0]])
+    if intrinsic:
+        # Extrinsic rotation (wrt to global world) at lower case
+        # Intrinsic (WRT the object itself) upper case.
+        seq = seq.upper()
+
+    rot = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles, degrees=True)
+    with eager_warns(rot, UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
+        estimates_matrix = rot._as_euler_from_matrix(seq, degrees=True)
+    with eager_warns(rot, UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
+        estimates_quat = rot.as_euler(seq, degrees=True)
+    xp_assert_close(
+        estimates_matrix[:, [0, 2]], estimates_quat[:, [0, 2]], atol=0, rtol=1e-12
+    )
+
+    xp_assert_close(
+        estimates_matrix[~idx, 1], estimates_quat[~idx, 1], atol=0, rtol=1e-7
+    )
+
+    xp_assert_close(
+        estimates_matrix[idx, 1], estimates_quat[idx, 1], atol=1e-6
+    )  # problematic, angles[1] = 0
+
+
+def test_inv(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    n = 10
+    # preserve use of old random_state during SPEC 7 transition
+    p = Rotation.random(num=n, random_state=rnd)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
+    q = p.inv()
+
+    p_mat = p.as_matrix()
+    q_mat = q.as_matrix()
+    result1 = xp.asarray(np.einsum("...ij,...jk->...ik", p_mat, q_mat))
+    result2 = xp.asarray(np.einsum("...ij,...jk->...ik", q_mat, p_mat))
+
+    eye3d = xp.empty((n, 3, 3))
+    eye3d = xpx.at(eye3d)[..., :3, :3].set(xp.eye(3))
+
+    xp_assert_close(result1, eye3d, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(result2, eye3d, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_inv_single_rotation(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
+    p = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
+    q = p.inv()
+
+    p_mat = p.as_matrix()
+    q_mat = q.as_matrix()
+    res1 = np.dot(p_mat, q_mat)
+    res2 = np.dot(q_mat, p_mat)
+
+    eye = xp.eye(3)
+
+    xp_assert_close(res1, eye, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(res2, eye, atol=atol)
+
+    x = Rotation.random(num=1, rng=rng)
+    x = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(x.as_quat()))
+    y = x.inv()
+
+    x_matrix = x.as_matrix()
+    y_matrix = y.as_matrix()
+    result1 = xp.linalg.matmul(x_matrix, y_matrix)
+    result2 = xp.linalg.matmul(y_matrix, x_matrix)
+
+    eye3d = xp.empty((1, 3, 3))
+    eye3d = xpx.at(eye3d)[..., :3, :3].set(xp.eye(3))
+
+    xp_assert_close(result1, eye3d, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(result2, eye3d, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_identity_magnitude(xp):
+    n = 10
+    r = Rotation.identity(n)
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r.as_quat()))
+    expected = xp.zeros(n)
+    xp_assert_close(r.magnitude(), expected)
+    xp_assert_close(r.inv().magnitude(), expected)
+
+
+def test_single_identity_magnitude(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.identity().as_quat()))
+    assert r.magnitude() == 0
+    assert r.inv().magnitude() == 0
+
+
+def test_identity_invariance(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    n = 10
+    p = Rotation.random(n, rng=0)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
+    q = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.identity(n).as_quat()))
+    result = p * q
+    xp_assert_close(p.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
+
+    result = result * p.inv()
+    xp_assert_close(result.magnitude(), xp.zeros(n), atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_single_identity_invariance(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    n = 10
+    p = Rotation.random(n, rng=0)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
+
+    q = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.identity().as_quat()))
+    result = p * q
+    xp_assert_close(p.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
+
+    result = result * p.inv()
+    xp_assert_close(result.magnitude(), xp.zeros(n), atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_magnitude(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.eye(4))
+    result = r.magnitude()
+    xp_assert_close(result, xp.asarray([xp.pi, xp.pi, xp.pi, 0]))
+
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(-xp.eye(4))
+    result = r.magnitude()
+    xp_assert_close(result, xp.asarray([xp.pi, xp.pi, xp.pi, 0]))
+
+
+def test_magnitude_single_rotation(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.eye(4))
+    result1 = r[0].magnitude()
+    xp_assert_close(result1, xp.pi)
+
+    result2 = r[3].magnitude()
+    xp_assert_close(result2, 0.0)
+
+
+def test_approx_equal(xp):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
+    p = Rotation.random(10, rng=rng)
+    q = Rotation.random(10, rng=rng)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
+    q = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(q.as_quat()))
+    r = p * q.inv()
+    r_mag = r.magnitude()
+    atol = xp.asarray(np.median(r_mag))  # ensure we get mix of Trues and Falses
+    xp_assert_equal(p.approx_equal(q, atol), (r_mag < atol))
+
+
+@pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
+def test_approx_equal_single_rotation(xp):
+    # also tests passing single argument to approx_equal
+    p = Rotation.from_rotvec(xp.asarray([0, 0, 1e-9]))  # less than default atol of 1e-8
+    q = Rotation.from_quat(xp.eye(4))
+    assert p.approx_equal(q[3])
+    assert not p.approx_equal(q[0])
+
+    # test passing atol and using degrees
+    assert not p.approx_equal(q[3], atol=1e-10)
+    assert not p.approx_equal(q[3], atol=1e-8, degrees=True)
+    with pytest.warns(UserWarning, match="atol must be set"):
+        assert p.approx_equal(q[3], degrees=True)
+
+
+def test_mean(xp):
+    axes = xp.concat((-xp.eye(3), xp.eye(3)))
+    axes = np.concatenate((-np.eye(3), np.eye(3)))
+    thetas = xp.linspace(0, xp.pi / 2, 100)
+    for t in thetas:
+        r = Rotation.from_rotvec(t * axes)
+        xp_assert_close(r.mean().magnitude(), 0.0, atol=1e-10)
+
+
+def test_weighted_mean(xp):
+    # test that doubling a weight is equivalent to including a rotation twice.
+    axes = xp.asarray([[0.0, 0, 0], [1, 0, 0], [1, 0, 0]])
+    thetas = xp.linspace(0, xp.pi / 2, 100)
+    for t in thetas:
+        rw = Rotation.from_rotvec(t * axes[:2, ...])
+        mw = rw.mean(weights=[1, 2])
+
+        r = Rotation.from_rotvec(t * axes)
+        m = r.mean()
+        xp_assert_close((m * mw.inv()).magnitude(), 0.0, atol=1e-10)
+
+
+def test_mean_invalid_weights(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.eye(4))
+    if is_lazy_array(r.as_quat()):
+        m = r.mean(weights=-xp.ones(4))
+        assert all(xp.isnan(m._quat))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="non-negative"):
+            r.mean(weights=-xp.ones(4))
+
+
+def test_reduction_no_indices(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]))
+    result = r.reduce(return_indices=False)
+    assert isinstance(result, Rotation)
+
+
+def test_reduction_none_indices(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]))
+    result = r.reduce(return_indices=True)
+    assert type(result) is tuple
+    assert len(result) == 3
+
+    reduced, left_best, right_best = result
+    assert left_best is None
+    assert right_best is None
+
+
+def test_reduction_scalar_calculation(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
+    l = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(5, rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(10, rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(7, rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    reduced, left_best, right_best = p.reduce(l, r, return_indices=True)
+
+    # Loop implementation of the vectorized calculation in Rotation.reduce
+    scalars = np.zeros((len(l), len(p), len(r)))
+    for i, li in enumerate(l):
+        for j, pj in enumerate(p):
+            for k, rk in enumerate(r):
+                scalars[i, j, k] = np.abs((li * pj * rk).as_quat()[3])
+    scalars = np.reshape(np.moveaxis(scalars, 1, 0), (scalars.shape[1], -1))
+
+    max_ind = np.argmax(np.reshape(scalars, (len(p), -1)), axis=1)
+    left_best_check = xp.asarray(max_ind // len(r))
+    right_best_check = xp.asarray(max_ind % len(r))
+    assert xp.all(left_best == left_best_check)
+    assert xp.all(right_best == right_best_check)
+
+    reduced_check = l[left_best_check] * p * r[right_best_check]
+    mag = (reduced.inv() * reduced_check).magnitude()
+    xp_assert_close(mag, xp.zeros(len(p)), atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_apply_single_rotation_single_point(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray([
+        [0, -1, 0],
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, 1]
+    ])
+    r_1d = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+    r_2d = Rotation.from_matrix(xp.expand_dims(mat, axis=0))
+
+    v_1d = xp.asarray([1.0, 2, 3])
+    v_2d = xp.expand_dims(v_1d, axis=0)
+    v1d_rotated = xp.asarray([-2.0, 1, 3])
+    v2d_rotated = xp.expand_dims(v1d_rotated, axis=0)
+
+    xp_assert_close(r_1d.apply(v_1d), v1d_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r_1d.apply(v_2d), v2d_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r_2d.apply(v_1d), v2d_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r_2d.apply(v_2d), v2d_rotated)
+
+    v1d_inverse = xp.asarray([2.0, -1, 3])
+    v2d_inverse = xp.expand_dims(v1d_inverse, axis=0)
+
+    xp_assert_close(r_1d.apply(v_1d, inverse=True), v1d_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r_1d.apply(v_2d, inverse=True), v2d_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r_2d.apply(v_1d, inverse=True), v2d_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r_2d.apply(v_2d, inverse=True), v2d_inverse)
+
+
+def test_apply_single_rotation_multiple_points(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray([
+        [0, -1, 0],
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, 1]
+    ])
+    r1 = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+    r2 = Rotation.from_matrix(xp.expand_dims(mat, axis=0))
+
+    v = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    v_rotated = xp.asarray([[-2.0, 1, 3], [-5, 4, 6]])
+
+    xp_assert_close(r1.apply(v), v_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r2.apply(v), v_rotated)
+
+    v_inverse = xp.asarray([[2.0, -1, 3], [5, -4, 6]])
+
+    xp_assert_close(r1.apply(v, inverse=True), v_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r2.apply(v, inverse=True), v_inverse)
+
+
+def test_apply_multiple_rotations_single_point(xp):
+    mat = np.empty((2, 3, 3))
+    mat[0] = np.array([
+        [0, -1, 0],
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, 1]
+    ])
+    mat[1] = np.array([
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, -1],
+        [0, 1, 0]
+    ])
+    mat = xp.asarray(mat)
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+
+    v1 = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3])
+    v2 = xp.expand_dims(v1, axis=0)
+
+    v_rotated = xp.asarray([[-2.0, 1, 3], [1, -3, 2]])
+
+    xp_assert_close(r.apply(v1), v_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r.apply(v2), v_rotated)
+
+    v_inverse = xp.asarray([[2.0, -1, 3], [1, 3, -2]])
+
+    xp_assert_close(r.apply(v1, inverse=True), v_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r.apply(v2, inverse=True), v_inverse)
+
+
+def test_apply_multiple_rotations_multiple_points(xp):
+    mat = np.empty((2, 3, 3))
+    mat[0] = np.array([
+        [0, -1, 0],
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, 1]
+    ])
+    mat[1] = np.array([
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, -1],
+        [0, 1, 0]
+    ])
+    mat = xp.asarray(mat)
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+
+    v = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    v_rotated = xp.asarray([[-2.0, 1, 3], [4, -6, 5]])
+    xp_assert_close(r.apply(v), v_rotated)
+
+    v_inverse = xp.asarray([[2.0, -1, 3], [4, 6, -5]])
+    xp_assert_close(r.apply(v, inverse=True), v_inverse)
+
+
+def test_apply_shapes(xp):
+    vector0 = xp.asarray([1.0, 2.0, 3.0])
+    vector1 = xp.asarray([vector0])
+    vector2 = xp.asarray([vector0, vector0])
+    matrix0 = xp.eye(3)
+    matrix1 = xp.asarray([matrix0])
+    matrix2 = xp.asarray([matrix0, matrix0])
+
+    for m, v in product([matrix0, matrix1, matrix2], [vector0, vector1, vector2]):
+        r = Rotation.from_matrix(m)
+        shape = v.shape
+        if not r.single and (v.shape == (3,) or v.shape == (1, 3)):
+            shape = (len(r), 3)
+        x = r.apply(v)
+        assert x.shape == shape
+        x = r.apply(v, inverse=True)
+        assert x.shape == shape
+
+
+def test_apply_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single vector
+    r = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    t = rng.uniform(-100, 100, size=(3,))
+    v = r.apply(t.tolist())
+    v_expected = r.apply(t)
+    xp_assert_close(v, v_expected, atol=1e-12)
+    # Multiple vectors
+    t = rng.uniform(-100, 100, size=(2, 3))
+    v = r.apply(t.tolist())
+    v_expected = r.apply(t)
+    xp_assert_close(v, v_expected, atol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_getitem(xp):
+    mat = np.empty((2, 3, 3))
+    mat[0] = np.array([
+        [0, -1, 0],
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, 1]
+    ])
+    mat[1] = np.array([
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, -1],
+        [0, 1, 0]
+    ])
+    mat = xp.asarray(mat)
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+
+    xp_assert_close(r[0].as_matrix(), mat[0], atol=1e-15)
+    xp_assert_close(r[1].as_matrix(), mat[1, ...], atol=1e-15)
+    xp_assert_close(r[:-1].as_matrix(), xp.expand_dims(mat[0, ...], axis=0), atol=1e-15)
+
+
+def test_getitem_single(xp):
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match='not subscriptable'):
+        Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1]))[0]
+
+
+def test_getitem_array_like():
+    mat = np.array([[[0.0, -1, 0],
+                     [1, 0, 0],
+                     [0, 0, 1]],
+                    [[1, 0, 0],
+                     [0, 0, -1],
+                     [0, 1, 0]]])
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+    xp_assert_close(r[[0]].as_matrix(), mat[[0]], atol=1e-15)
+    xp_assert_close(r[[0, 1]].as_matrix(), mat[[0, 1]], atol=1e-15)
+
+
+def test_setitem_single(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1]))
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match='not subscriptable'):
+        r[0] = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1]))
+
+
+def test_setitem_slice(xp):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
+    r1 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(10, rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    r2 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(5, rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    r1[1:6] = r2
+    xp_assert_equal(r1[1:6].as_quat(), r2.as_quat())
+
+
+def test_setitem_integer(xp):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
+    r1 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(10, rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    r2 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    r1[1] = r2
+    xp_assert_equal(r1[1].as_quat(), r2.as_quat())
+
+
+def test_setitem_wrong_type(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(10, rng=0).as_quat()))
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match='Rotation object'):
+        r[0] = 1
+
+
+def test_n_rotations(xp):
+    mat = np.empty((2, 3, 3))
+    mat[0] = np.array([
+        [0, -1, 0],
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, 1]
+    ])
+    mat[1] = np.array([
+        [1, 0, 0],
+        [0, 0, -1],
+        [0, 1, 0]
+    ])
+    mat = xp.asarray(mat)
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+
+    assert_equal(len(r), 2)
+    assert_equal(len(r[:-1]), 1)
+
+
+def test_random_rotation_shape():
+    # No xp testing since random rotations are always using NumPy
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
+    assert_equal(Rotation.random(rng=rng).as_quat().shape, (4,))
+    assert_equal(Rotation.random(None, rng=rng).as_quat().shape, (4,))
+
+    assert_equal(Rotation.random(1, rng=rng).as_quat().shape, (1, 4))
+    assert_equal(Rotation.random(5, rng=rng).as_quat().shape, (5, 4))
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_no_rotation(xp):
+    x = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    y = xp.asarray(x, copy=True)
+
+    r, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(x, y)
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_matrix(), xp.eye(3), atol=1e-12)
+    xp_assert_close(rssd, xp.asarray(0.0)[()], check_shape=False, atol=1e-6)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_no_noise(xp):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(14697284569885399755764481408308808739)
+    c = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    b = xp.asarray(rng.normal(size=(5, 3)))
+    a = c.apply(b)
+
+    est, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
+    xp_assert_close(c.as_quat(), est.as_quat())
+    xp_assert_close(rssd, xp.asarray(0.0)[()], check_shape=False, atol=1e-7)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_improper_rotation(xp):
+    # Tests correct logic for issue #10444
+    x = xp.asarray([[0.89299824, -0.44372674, 0.0752378],
+                    [0.60221789, -0.47564102, -0.6411702]])
+    y = xp.asarray([[0.02386536, -0.82176463, 0.5693271],
+                    [-0.27654929, -0.95191427, -0.1318321]])
+
+    est, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(x, y)
+    xp_assert_close(x, est.apply(y), atol=1e-6)
+    xp_assert_close(rssd, xp.asarray(0.0)[()], check_shape=False, atol=1e-7)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_rssd_sensitivity(xp):
+    rssd_expected = xp.asarray(0.141421356237308)[()]
+    sens_expected = xp.asarray([[0.2, 0. , 0.],
+                                [0. , 1.5, 1.],
+                                [0. , 1. , 1.]])
+    atol = 1e-6
+    a = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 1]])
+    b = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [1, 1.1, 0], [1, 0.9, 0]])
+    rot, rssd, sens = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, return_sensitivity=True)
+    xp_assert_close(rssd, rssd_expected, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(sens, sens_expected, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_scaled_weights(xp):
+    n = 10
+    a = xp.asarray(Rotation.random(n, rng=0).apply([1, 0, 0]))
+    b = xp.asarray(Rotation.random(n, rng=1).apply([1, 0, 0]))
+    scale = 2
+
+    est1, rssd1, cov1 = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, xp.ones(n), True)
+    est2, rssd2, cov2 = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, scale * xp.ones(n), True)
+
+    xp_assert_close(est1.as_matrix(), est2.as_matrix())
+    xp_assert_close(math.sqrt(scale) * rssd1, rssd2, atol=1e-6)
+    xp_assert_close(cov1, cov2)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_noise(xp):
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
+    n_vectors = 100
+    rot = rotation_to_xp(Rotation.random(rng=rng), xp)
+    vectors = xp.asarray(rng.normal(size=(n_vectors, 3)))
+    result = rot.apply(vectors)
+
+    # The paper adds noise as independently distributed angular errors
+    sigma = np.deg2rad(1)
+    tolerance = 1.5 * sigma
+    noise = Rotation.from_rotvec(
+        xp.asarray(rng.normal(
+            size=(n_vectors, 3),
+            scale=sigma
+        ))
+    )
+
+    # Attitude errors must preserve norm. Hence apply individual random
+    # rotations to each vector.
+    noisy_result = noise.apply(result)
+
+    est, rssd, cov = Rotation.align_vectors(noisy_result, vectors,
+                                            return_sensitivity=True)
+
+    # Use rotation compositions to find out closeness
+    error_vector = (rot * est.inv()).as_rotvec()
+    xp_assert_close(error_vector[0], xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=tolerance)
+    xp_assert_close(error_vector[1], xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=tolerance)
+    xp_assert_close(error_vector[2], xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=tolerance)
+
+    # Check error bounds using covariance matrix
+    cov *= sigma
+    xp_assert_close(cov[0, 0], xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=tolerance)
+    xp_assert_close(cov[1, 1], xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=tolerance)
+    xp_assert_close(cov[2, 2], xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=tolerance)
+
+    rssd_check = xp.sum((noisy_result - est.apply(vectors)) ** 2) ** 0.5
+    xp_assert_close(rssd, rssd_check, check_shape=False)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_invalid_input(xp):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected input `a` to have shape"):
+        a, b = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3, 4]), xp.asarray([1, 2, 3])
+        Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected input `b` to have shape"):
+        a, b = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3]), xp.asarray([1, 2, 3, 4])
+        Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected inputs `a` and `b` "
+                                         "to have same shapes"):
+        a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]])
+        Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                       match="Expected `weights` to be 1 dimensional"):
+        a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]])
+        weights = xp.asarray([[1]])
+        Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                       match="Expected `weights` to have number of values"):
+        a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+        weights = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3])
+        Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights)
+
+    a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]])
+    weights = xp.asarray([-1])
+    if is_lazy_array(weights):
+        r, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(r.as_quat())), "Quaternion should be nan"
+        assert xp.isnan(rssd), "RSSD should be nan"
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                           match="`weights` may not contain negative values"):
+            Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights)
+
+    a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    weights = xp.asarray([xp.inf, xp.inf])
+    if is_lazy_array(weights):
+        r, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(r.as_quat())), "Quaternion should be nan"
+        assert xp.isnan(rssd), "RSSD should be nan"
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                           match="Only one infinite weight is allowed"):
+            Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights)
+
+    a, b = xp.asarray([[0, 0, 0]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]])
+    if is_lazy_array(a):
+        r, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(r.as_quat())), "Quaternion should be nan"
+        assert xp.isnan(rssd), "RSSD should be nan"
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                           match="Cannot align zero length primary vectors"):
+            Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
+
+    a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    weights = xp.asarray([xp.inf, 1])
+    if is_lazy_array(a):
+        r, rssd, sens = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights, return_sensitivity=True)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(sens)), "Sensitivity matrix should be nan"
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                           match="Cannot return sensitivity matrix"):
+            Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights, return_sensitivity=True)
+
+    a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]])
+    if is_lazy_array(a):
+        r, rssd, sens = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, return_sensitivity=True)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(sens)), "Sensitivity matrix should be nan"
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                        match="Cannot return sensitivity matrix"):
+                        Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, return_sensitivity=True)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_align_constrain(xp):
+    # Align the primary +X B axis with the primary +Y A axis, and rotate about
+    # it such that the +Y B axis (residual of the [1, 1, 0] secondary b vector)
+    # is aligned with the +Z A axis (residual of the [0, 1, 1] secondary a
+    # vector)
+    atol = 1e-12
+    b = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [1, 1, 0]])
+    a = xp.asarray([[0.0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 1]])
+    m_expected = xp.asarray([[0.0, 0, 1],
+                             [1, 0, 0],
+                             [0, 1, 0]])
+    R, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=xp.asarray([xp.inf, 1]))
+    xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(R.apply(b), a, atol=atol)  # Pri and sec align exactly
+    assert xpx.isclose(rssd, 0.0, atol=atol, xp=xp)
+
+    # Do the same but with an inexact secondary rotation
+    b = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [1, 2, 0]])
+    rssd_expected = 1.0
+    R, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=xp.asarray([xp.inf, 1]))
+    xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(R.apply(b)[0, ...], a[0, ...], atol=atol)  # Only pri aligns exactly
+    assert xpx.isclose(rssd, rssd_expected, atol=atol, xp=xp)
+    a_expected = xp.asarray([[0.0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 2]])
+    xp_assert_close(R.apply(b), a_expected, atol=atol)
+
+    # Check random vectors
+    b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [-2, 3, -1]])
+    a = xp.asarray([[-1.0, 3, 2], [1, -1, 2]])
+    rssd_expected = 1.3101595297515016
+    R, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=xp.asarray([xp.inf, 1]))
+    xp_assert_close(R.apply(b)[0, ...], a[0, ...], atol=atol)  # Only pri aligns exactly
+    assert xpx.isclose(rssd, rssd_expected, atol=atol, xp=xp)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_near_inf(xp):
+    # align_vectors should return near the same result for high weights as for
+    # infinite weights. rssd will be different with floating point error on the
+    # exactly aligned vector being multiplied by a large non-infinite weight
+    n = 100
+    mats = []
+    for i in range(6):
+        mats.append(Rotation.random(n, rng=10 + i).as_matrix())
+
+    for i in range(n):
+        # Get random pairs of 3-element vectors
+        a = xp.asarray([1 * mats[0][i][0], 2 * mats[1][i][0]])
+        b = xp.asarray([3 * mats[2][i][0], 4 * mats[3][i][0]])
+
+        R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[1e10, 1])
+        R2, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[xp.inf, 1])
+        xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), R2.as_matrix(), atol=1e-4)
+
+    for i in range(n):
+        # Get random triplets of 3-element vectors
+        a = xp.asarray([1*mats[0][i][0], 2*mats[1][i][0], 3*mats[2][i][0]])
+        b = xp.asarray([4*mats[3][i][0], 5*mats[4][i][0], 6*mats[5][i][0]])
+
+        R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[1e10, 2, 1])
+        R2, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[xp.inf, 2, 1])
+        xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), R2.as_matrix(), atol=1e-4)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_parallel(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    a = xp.asarray([[1.0, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]])
+    b = xp.asarray([[0.0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 0]])
+    m_expected = xp.asarray([[0.0, 1, 0],
+                             [-1, 0, 0],
+                             [0, 0, 1]])
+    R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[xp.inf, 1])
+    xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
+    R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a[0, ...], b[0, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(R.apply(b[0, ...]), a[0, ...], atol=atol)
+
+    b = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [1, 0, 0]])
+    m_expected = xp.asarray([[1.0, 0, 0],
+                             [0, 1, 0],
+                             [0, 0, 1]])
+    R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[xp.inf, 1])
+    xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
+    R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a[0, ...], b[0, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(R.apply(b[0, ...]), a[0, ...], atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_antiparallel(xp):
+    # Test exact 180 deg rotation
+    atol = 1e-12
+    as_to_test = np.array([[[1.0, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]],
+                           [[0, 1, 0], [1, 0, 0]],
+                           [[0, 0, 1], [0, 1, 0]]])
+
+    bs_to_test = [[-a[0], a[1]] for a in as_to_test]
+    for a, b in zip(as_to_test, bs_to_test):
+        a, b = xp.asarray(a), xp.asarray(b)
+        R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[xp.inf, 1])
+        xp_assert_close(R.magnitude(), xp.pi, atol=atol)
+        xp_assert_close(R.apply(b[0, ...]), a[0, ...], atol=atol)
+
+    # Test exact rotations near 180 deg
+    Rs = Rotation.random(100, rng=0)
+    dRs = Rotation.from_rotvec(Rs.as_rotvec()*1e-4)  # scale down to small angle
+    a = [[ 1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]]
+    b = [[-1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]]
+    as_to_test = []
+    for dR in dRs:
+        as_to_test.append(np.array([dR.apply(a[0]), a[1]]))
+    for a in as_to_test:
+        a, b = xp.asarray(a), xp.asarray(b)
+        R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[xp.inf, 1])
+        R2, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[1e10, 1])
+        xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), R2.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_primary_only(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
+    mats_a = Rotation.random(100, rng=0).as_matrix()
+    mats_b = Rotation.random(100, rng=1).as_matrix()
+
+    for mat_a, mat_b in zip(mats_a, mats_b):
+        # Get random 3-element unit vectors
+        a = xp.asarray(mat_a[0])
+        b = xp.asarray(mat_b[0])
+
+        # Compare to align_vectors with primary only
+        R, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
+        xp_assert_close(R.apply(b), a, atol=atol)
+        assert np.isclose(rssd, 0, atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    c = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    b = rng.normal(size=(5, 3))
+    a = c.apply(b)
+
+    est_expected, rssd_expected = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
+    est, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a.tolist(), b.tolist())
+    xp_assert_close(est_expected.as_quat(), est.as_quat())
+    xp_assert_close(rssd, rssd_expected)
+
+
+def test_repr_single_rotation(xp):
+    q = xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1])
+    actual = repr(Rotation.from_quat(q))
+    if is_numpy(xp):
+        expected = """\
+Rotation.from_matrix(array([[1., 0., 0.],
+                            [0., 1., 0.],
+                            [0., 0., 1.]]))"""
+        assert actual == expected
+    else:
+        assert actual.startswith("Rotation.from_matrix(")
+
+
+def test_repr_rotation_sequence(xp):
+    q = xp.asarray([[0.0, 1, 0, 1], [0, 0, 1, 1]]) / math.sqrt(2)
+    actual = f"{Rotation.from_quat(q)!r}"
+    if is_numpy(xp):
+        expected = """\
+Rotation.from_matrix(array([[[ 0.,  0.,  1.],
+                             [ 0.,  1.,  0.],
+                             [-1.,  0.,  0.]],
+                     
+                            [[ 0., -1.,  0.],
+                             [ 1.,  0.,  0.],
+                             [ 0.,  0.,  1.]]]))"""
+        assert actual == expected
+    else:
+        assert actual.startswith("Rotation.from_matrix(")
+
+
+def test_slerp(xp):
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+
+    key_rots = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4))))
+    key_quats = key_rots.as_quat()
+
+    key_times = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
+    interpolator = Slerp(key_times, key_rots)
+    assert isinstance(interpolator.times, type(xp.asarray(0)))
+
+    times = [0, 0.5, 0.25, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.75, 3, 3.25, 3.60, 4]
+    interp_rots = interpolator(times)
+    interp_quats = interp_rots.as_quat()
+
+    # Dot products are affected by sign of quaternions
+    mask = (interp_quats[:, -1] < 0)[:, None]
+    interp_quats = xp.where(mask, -interp_quats, interp_quats)
+    # Checking for quaternion equality, perform same operation
+    mask = (key_quats[:, -1] < 0)[:, None]
+    key_quats = xp.where(mask, -key_quats, key_quats)
+
+    # Equality at keyframes, including both endpoints
+    xp_assert_close(interp_quats[0, ...], key_quats[0, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(interp_quats[3, ...], key_quats[1, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(interp_quats[5, ...], key_quats[2, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(interp_quats[7, ...], key_quats[3, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(interp_quats[10, ...], key_quats[4, ...])
+
+    # Constant angular velocity between keyframes. Check by equating
+    # cos(theta) between quaternion pairs with equal time difference.
+    cos_theta1 = xp.sum(interp_quats[0, ...] * interp_quats[2, ...])
+    cos_theta2 = xp.sum(interp_quats[2, ...] * interp_quats[1, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(cos_theta1, cos_theta2)
+
+    cos_theta4 = xp.sum(interp_quats[3, ...] * interp_quats[4, ...])
+    cos_theta5 = xp.sum(interp_quats[4, ...] * interp_quats[5, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(cos_theta4, cos_theta5)
+
+    # theta1: 0 -> 0.25, theta3 : 0.5 -> 1
+    # Use double angle formula for double the time difference
+    cos_theta3 = xp.sum(interp_quats[1, ...] * interp_quats[3, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(cos_theta3, 2 * (cos_theta1**2) - 1)
+
+    # Miscellaneous checks
+    assert_equal(len(interp_rots), len(times))
+
+
+def test_slerp_rot_is_rotation(xp):
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="must be a `Rotation` instance"):
+        r = xp.asarray([[1,2,3,4],
+                        [0,0,0,1]])
+        t = xp.asarray([0, 1])
+        Slerp(t, r)
+
+
+SLERP_EXCEPTION_MESSAGE = "must be a sequence of at least 2 rotations"
+
+
+def test_slerp_single_rot(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([[1.0, 2, 3, 4]]))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=SLERP_EXCEPTION_MESSAGE):
+        Slerp([1], r)
+
+
+def test_slerp_rot_len0(xp):
+    r = Rotation.random()
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r.as_quat()))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=SLERP_EXCEPTION_MESSAGE):
+        Slerp([], r)
+
+
+def test_slerp_rot_len1(xp):
+    r = Rotation.random(1)
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r.as_quat()))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=SLERP_EXCEPTION_MESSAGE):
+        Slerp([1], r)
+
+
+def test_slerp_time_dim_mismatch(xp):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                       match="times to be specified in a 1 dimensional array"):
+        rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+        r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(2, 4))))
+        t = xp.asarray([[1],
+                        [2]])
+        Slerp(t, r)
+
+
+def test_slerp_num_rotations_mismatch(xp):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="number of rotations to be equal to "
+                                         "number of timestamps"):
+        rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+        r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4))))
+        t = xp.arange(7)
+        Slerp(t, r)
+
+
+def test_slerp_equal_times(xp):
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    q = xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4)))
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(q)
+    t = [0, 1, 2, 2, 4]
+    if is_lazy_array(q):
+        s = Slerp(t, r)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(s.times))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="strictly increasing order"):
+            Slerp(t, r)
+
+
+def test_slerp_decreasing_times(xp):
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    q = xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4)))
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(q)
+    t = [0, 1, 3, 2, 4]
+    if is_lazy_array(q):
+        s = Slerp(t, r)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(s.times))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="strictly increasing order"):
+            Slerp(t, r)
+
+
+def test_slerp_call_time_dim_mismatch(xp):
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4))))
+    t = xp.arange(5)
+    s = Slerp(t, r)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                       match="`times` must be at most 1-dimensional."):
+        interp_times = xp.asarray([[3.5],
+                                   [4.2]])
+        s(interp_times)
+
+
+def test_slerp_call_time_out_of_range(xp):
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4))))
+    t = xp.arange(5) + 1
+    s = Slerp(t, r)
+
+    times_low = xp.asarray([0, 1, 2])
+    times_high = xp.asarray([1, 2, 6])
+    if is_lazy_array(times_low):
+        q = s(times_low).as_quat()
+        in_range = xp.logical_and(times_low >= xp.min(t), times_low <= xp.max(t))
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(q[~in_range, ...]))
+        assert xp.all(~xp.isnan(q[in_range, ...]))
+        q = s(times_high).as_quat()
+        in_range = xp.logical_and(times_high >= xp.min(t), times_high <= xp.max(t))
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(q[~in_range, ...]))
+        assert xp.all(~xp.isnan(q[in_range, ...]))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="times must be within the range"):
+            s(times_low)
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="times must be within the range"):
+            s(times_high)
+
+
+def test_slerp_call_scalar_time(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('X', xp.asarray([0, 80]), degrees=True)
+    s = Slerp([0, 1], r)
+
+    r_interpolated = s(0.25)
+    r_interpolated_expected = Rotation.from_euler('X', xp.asarray(20), degrees=True)
+
+    delta = r_interpolated * r_interpolated_expected.inv()
+
+    assert xp.allclose(delta.magnitude(), 0, atol=1e-16)
+
+
+def test_multiplication_stability(xp):
+    qs = Rotation.random(50, rng=0)
+    qs = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(qs.as_quat()))
+    rs = Rotation.random(1000, rng=1)
+    rs = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rs.as_quat()))
+    expected = xp.ones(len(rs))
+    for q in qs:
+        rs *= q * rs
+        xp_assert_close(xp_vector_norm(rs.as_quat(), axis=1), expected)
+
+
+def test_pow(xp):
+    atol = 1e-14
+    p = Rotation.random(10, rng=0)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
+    p_inv = p.inv()
+    # Test the short-cuts and other integers
+    for n in [-5, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 5]:
+        # Test accuracy
+        q = p ** n
+        r = Rotation.identity(10)
+        r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r.as_quat()))
+        for _ in range(abs(n)):
+            if n > 0:
+                r = r * p
+            else:
+                r = r * p_inv
+        ang = (q * r.inv()).magnitude()
+        assert xp.all(ang < atol)
+
+        # Test shape preservation
+        r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1]))
+        assert (r**n).as_quat().shape == (4,)
+        r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([[0, 0, 0, 1]]))
+        assert (r**n).as_quat().shape == (1, 4)
+
+    # Large angle fractional
+    for n in [-1.5, -0.5, -0.0, 0.0, 0.5, 1.5]:
+        q = p ** n
+        r = Rotation.from_rotvec(n * p.as_rotvec())
+        xp_assert_close(q.as_quat(), r.as_quat(), atol=atol)
+
+    # Small angle
+    p = Rotation.from_rotvec(xp.asarray([1e-12, 0, 0]))
+    n = 3
+    q = p ** n
+    r = Rotation.from_rotvec(n * p.as_rotvec())
+    xp_assert_close(q.as_quat(), r.as_quat(), atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_pow_errors(xp):
+    p = Rotation.random(rng=0)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
+    with pytest.raises(NotImplementedError, match='modulus not supported'):
+        pow(p, 1, 1)
+
+
+def test_rotation_within_numpy_array():
+    # TODO: Do we want to support this for all Array API frameworks?
+    single = Rotation.random(rng=0)
+    multiple = Rotation.random(2, rng=1)
+
+    array = np.array(single)
+    assert_equal(array.shape, ())
+
+    array = np.array(multiple)
+    assert_equal(array.shape, (2,))
+    xp_assert_close(array[0].as_matrix(), multiple[0].as_matrix())
+    xp_assert_close(array[1].as_matrix(), multiple[1].as_matrix())
+
+    array = np.array([single])
+    assert_equal(array.shape, (1,))
+    assert_equal(array[0], single)
+
+    array = np.array([multiple])
+    assert_equal(array.shape, (1, 2))
+    xp_assert_close(array[0, 0].as_matrix(), multiple[0].as_matrix())
+    xp_assert_close(array[0, 1].as_matrix(), multiple[1].as_matrix())
+
+    array = np.array([single, multiple], dtype=object)
+    assert_equal(array.shape, (2,))
+    assert_equal(array[0], single)
+    assert_equal(array[1], multiple)
+
+    array = np.array([multiple, multiple, multiple])
+    assert_equal(array.shape, (3, 2))
+
+
+def test_pickling(xp):
+    # Note: Array API makes no provision for arrays to be pickleable, so
+    # it's OK to skip this test for the backends that don't support it
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, math.sin(np.pi/4), math.cos(np.pi/4)]))
+    pkl = pickle.dumps(r)
+    unpickled = pickle.loads(pkl)
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_matrix(), unpickled.as_matrix(), atol=1e-15)
+
+
+def test_deepcopy(xp):
+    # Note: Array API makes no provision for arrays to support the `__copy__`
+    # protocol, so it's OK to skip this test for the backends that don't
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, math.sin(np.pi/4), math.cos(np.pi/4)]))
+    r1 = copy.deepcopy(r)
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_matrix(), r1.as_matrix(), atol=1e-15)
+
+
+def test_as_euler_contiguous():
+    # The Array API does not specify contiguous arrays, so we can only check for NumPy
+    r = Rotation.from_quat([0, 0, 0, 1])
+    e1 = r.as_euler('xyz')  # extrinsic euler rotation
+    e2 = r.as_euler('XYZ')  # intrinsic
+    assert e1.flags['C_CONTIGUOUS'] is True
+    assert e2.flags['C_CONTIGUOUS'] is True
+    assert all(i >= 0 for i in e1.strides)
+    assert all(i >= 0 for i in e2.strides)
+
+
+def test_concatenate(xp):
+    rotation = Rotation.random(10, rng=0)
+    rotation = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rotation.as_quat()))
+    sizes = [1, 2, 3, 1, 3]
+    starts = [0] + list(np.cumsum(sizes))
+    split = [rotation[i:i + n] for i, n in zip(starts, sizes)]
+    result = Rotation.concatenate(split)
+    xp_assert_equal(rotation.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
+
+    # Test Rotation input for multiple rotations
+    result = Rotation.concatenate(rotation)
+    xp_assert_equal(rotation.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
+
+    # Test that a copy is returned
+    assert rotation is not result
+
+    # Test Rotation input for single rotations
+    rot = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.identity().as_quat()))
+    result = Rotation.concatenate(rot)
+    xp_assert_equal(rot.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
+
+
+def test_concatenate_wrong_type(xp):
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match='Rotation objects only'):
+        rot = Rotation(xp.asarray(Rotation.identity().as_quat()))
+        Rotation.concatenate([rot, 1, None])
+
+
+# Regression test for gh-16663
+def test_len_and_bool(xp):
+    rotation_multi_one = Rotation(xp.asarray([[0, 0, 0, 1]]))
+    rotation_multi = Rotation(xp.asarray([[0, 0, 0, 1], [0, 0, 0, 1]]))
+    rotation_single = Rotation(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1]))
+
+    assert len(rotation_multi_one) == 1
+    assert len(rotation_multi) == 2
+    with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="Single rotation has no len()."):
+        len(rotation_single)
+
+    # Rotation should always be truthy. See gh-16663
+    assert rotation_multi_one
+    assert rotation_multi
+    assert rotation_single
+
+
+def test_from_davenport_single_rotation(xp):
+    axis = xp.asarray([0, 0, 1])
+    quat = Rotation.from_davenport(axis, 'extrinsic', 90,
+                                   degrees=True).as_quat()
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 1, 1]) / math.sqrt(2)
+    xp_assert_close(quat, expected_quat)
+
+
+def test_from_davenport_one_or_two_axes(xp):
+    ez = xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 1])
+    ey = xp.asarray([0.0, 1, 0])
+
+    # Single rotation, single axis, axes.shape == (3, )
+    rot = Rotation.from_rotvec(ez * xp.pi/4)
+    rot_dav = Rotation.from_davenport(ez, 'e', xp.pi/4)
+    xp_assert_close(rot.as_quat(canonical=True),
+                    rot_dav.as_quat(canonical=True))
+
+    # Single rotation, single axis, axes.shape == (1, 3)
+    axes = xp.reshape(ez, (1, 3))  # Torch can't create tensors from xp.asarray([ez])
+    rot = Rotation.from_rotvec(axes * xp.pi/4)
+    rot_dav = Rotation.from_davenport(axes, 'e', [xp.pi/4])
+    xp_assert_close(rot.as_quat(canonical=True),
+                    rot_dav.as_quat(canonical=True))
+
+    # Single rotation, two axes, axes.shape == (2, 3)
+    axes = xp.stack([ez, ey], axis=0)
+    rot = Rotation.from_rotvec(axes * xp.asarray([[xp.pi/4], [xp.pi/6]]))
+    rot = rot[0] * rot[1]
+    axes_dav = xp.stack([ey, ez], axis=0)
+    rot_dav = Rotation.from_davenport(axes_dav, 'e', [xp.pi/6, xp.pi/4])
+    xp_assert_close(rot.as_quat(canonical=True),
+                    rot_dav.as_quat(canonical=True))
+
+    # Two rotations, single axis, axes.shape == (3, )
+    axes = xp.stack([ez, ez], axis=0)
+    rot = Rotation.from_rotvec(axes * xp.asarray([[xp.pi/6], [xp.pi/4]]))
+    axes_dav = xp.reshape(ez, (1, 3))
+    rot_dav = Rotation.from_davenport(axes_dav, 'e', [xp.pi/6, xp.pi/4])
+    xp_assert_close(rot.as_quat(canonical=True),
+                    rot_dav.as_quat(canonical=True))
+
+
+def test_from_davenport_invalid_input(xp):
+    ez = [0, 0, 1]
+    ey = [0, 1, 0]
+    ezy = [0, 1, 1]
+    # We can only raise in non-lazy frameworks.
+    axes = xp.asarray([ez, ezy])
+    if is_lazy_array(axes):
+        q = Rotation.from_davenport(axes, 'e', [0, 0]).as_quat()
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(q))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="must be orthogonal"):
+            Rotation.from_davenport(axes, 'e', [0, 0])
+    axes = xp.asarray([ez, ey, ezy])
+    if is_lazy_array(axes):
+        q = Rotation.from_davenport(axes, 'e', [0, 0, 0]).as_quat()
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(q))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="must be orthogonal"):
+            Rotation.from_davenport(axes, 'e', [0, 0, 0])
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="order should be"):
+        Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray([ez]), 'xyz', [0])
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected `angles`"):
+        Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray([ez, ey, ez]), 'e', [0, 1, 2, 3])
+
+
+def test_from_davenport_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single rotation
+    e1 = np.array([1, 0, 0])
+    e2 = np.array([0, 1, 0])
+    e3 = np.array([0, 0, 1])
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    angles = r_expected.as_davenport([e1, e2, e3], 'e')
+    r = Rotation.from_davenport([e1, e2, e3], 'e', angles.tolist())
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # Multiple rotations
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(2, rng=rng)
+    angles = r_expected.as_davenport([e1, e2, e3], 'e')
+    r = Rotation.from_davenport([e1, e2, e3], 'e', angles.tolist())
+    assert np.all(r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12))
+
+
+def test_as_davenport(xp):
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    n = 100
+    angles = np.empty((n, 3))
+    angles[:, 0] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles_middle = rnd.uniform(low=0, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles[:, 2] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    lambdas = rnd.uniform(low=0, high=np.pi, size=(20,))
+
+    e1 = xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0])
+    e2 = xp.asarray([0.0, 1, 0])
+
+    for lamb in lambdas:
+        e3 = xp.asarray(Rotation.from_rotvec(lamb*e2).apply(e1))
+        ax_lamb = xp.stack([e1, e2, e3], axis=0)
+        angles[:, 1] = angles_middle - lamb
+        for order in ['extrinsic', 'intrinsic']:
+            ax = ax_lamb if order == "intrinsic" else xp.flip(ax_lamb, axis=0)
+            rot = Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order, angles)
+            angles_dav = rot.as_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order)
+            xp_assert_close(angles_dav, xp.asarray(angles))
+
+
+@pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
+def test_as_davenport_degenerate(xp):
+    # Since we cannot check for angle equality, we check for rotation matrix
+    # equality
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    n = 5
+    angles = np.empty((n, 3))
+
+    # symmetric sequences
+    angles[:, 0] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles_middle = [rnd.choice([0, np.pi]) for i in range(n)]
+    angles[:, 2] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    lambdas = rnd.uniform(low=0, high=np.pi, size=(5,))
+
+    e1 = xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0])
+    e2 = xp.asarray([0.0, 1, 0])
+
+    for lamb in lambdas:
+        e3 = xp.asarray(Rotation.from_rotvec(lamb*e2).apply(e1))
+        ax_lamb = xp.stack([e1, e2, e3], axis=0)
+        angles[:, 1] = angles_middle - lamb
+        for order in ['extrinsic', 'intrinsic']:
+            ax = ax_lamb if order == 'intrinsic' else ax_lamb[::-1]
+            rot = Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order, angles)
+            with eager_warns(rot, UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
+                angles_dav = rot.as_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order)
+            mat_expected = rot.as_matrix()
+            rot_estimated = Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order, angles_dav)
+            mat_estimated = rot_estimated.as_matrix()
+            xp_assert_close(mat_expected, mat_estimated, atol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_compare_from_davenport_from_euler(xp):
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    n = 100
+    angles = np.empty((n, 3))
+
+    # symmetric sequences
+    angles[:, 0] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles[:, 1] = rnd.uniform(low=0, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles[:, 2] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    for order in ['extrinsic', 'intrinsic']:
+        for seq_tuple in permutations('xyz'):
+            seq = ''.join([seq_tuple[0], seq_tuple[1], seq_tuple[0]])
+            ax = [basis_vec(i) for i in seq]
+            if order == 'intrinsic':
+                seq = seq.upper()
+            eul = Rotation.from_euler(seq, xp.asarray(angles))
+            dav = Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order, xp.asarray(angles))
+            xp_assert_close(eul.as_quat(canonical=True), dav.as_quat(canonical=True),
+                            rtol=1e-12)
+
+    # asymmetric sequences
+    angles[:, 1] -= np.pi / 2
+    for order in ['extrinsic', 'intrinsic']:
+        for seq_tuple in permutations('xyz'):
+            seq = ''.join(seq_tuple)
+            ax = [basis_vec(i) for i in seq]
+            if order == 'intrinsic':
+                seq = seq.upper()
+            eul = Rotation.from_euler(seq, xp.asarray(angles))
+            dav = Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order, xp.asarray(angles))
+            xp_assert_close(eul.as_quat(), dav.as_quat(), rtol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_compare_as_davenport_as_euler(xp):
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    n = 100
+    angles = np.empty((n, 3))
+
+    # symmetric sequences
+    angles[:, 0] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles[:, 1] = rnd.uniform(low=0, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles[:, 2] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    for order in ['extrinsic', 'intrinsic']:
+        for seq_tuple in permutations('xyz'):
+            seq = ''.join([seq_tuple[0], seq_tuple[1], seq_tuple[0]])
+            ax = [basis_vec(i) for i in seq]
+            if order == 'intrinsic':
+                seq = seq.upper()
+            rot = Rotation.from_euler(seq, xp.asarray(angles))
+            eul = rot.as_euler(seq)
+            dav = rot.as_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order)
+            xp_assert_close(eul, dav, rtol=1e-12)
+
+    # asymmetric sequences
+    angles[:, 1] -= np.pi / 2
+    for order in ['extrinsic', 'intrinsic']:
+        for seq_tuple in permutations('xyz'):
+            seq = ''.join(seq_tuple)
+            ax = [basis_vec(i) for i in seq]
+            if order == 'intrinsic':
+                seq = seq.upper()
+            rot = Rotation.from_euler(seq, xp.asarray(angles))
+            eul = rot.as_euler(seq)
+            dav = rot.as_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order)
+            xp_assert_close(eul, dav, rtol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_construction(xp):
+    r = Rotation.random(num=0)
+    assert len(r) == 0
+
+    r_ide = Rotation.identity(num=0)
+    assert len(r_ide) == 0
+
+    r_get = Rotation.random(num=3)[[]]
+    assert len(r_get) == 0
+
+    r_quat = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    assert len(r_quat) == 0
+
+    r_matrix = Rotation.from_matrix(xp.zeros((0, 3, 3)))
+    assert len(r_matrix) == 0
+
+    r_euler = Rotation.from_euler("xyz", xp.zeros((0, 3)))
+    assert len(r_euler) == 0
+
+    r_vec = Rotation.from_rotvec(xp.zeros((0, 3)))
+    assert len(r_vec) == 0
+
+    r_dav = Rotation.from_davenport(xp.eye(3), "extrinsic", xp.zeros((0, 3)))
+    assert len(r_dav) == 0
+
+    r_mrp = Rotation.from_mrp(xp.zeros((0, 3)))
+    assert len(r_mrp) == 0
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_representation(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    assert r.as_quat().shape == (0, 4)
+    assert r.as_matrix().shape == (0, 3, 3)
+    assert r.as_euler("xyz").shape == (0, 3)
+    assert r.as_rotvec().shape == (0, 3)
+    assert r.as_mrp().shape == (0, 3)
+    assert r.as_davenport(xp.eye(3), "extrinsic").shape == (0, 3)
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_array_rotation(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+
+    v = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3])
+    v_rotated = r.apply(v)
+    assert v_rotated.shape == (0, 3)
+
+    v0 = xp.zeros((0, 3))
+    v0_rot = r.apply(v0)
+    assert v0_rot.shape == (0, 3)
+
+    v2 = xp.ones((2, 3))
+    with pytest.raises(
+        ValueError, match="Expected equal numbers of rotations and vectors"):
+        r.apply(v2)
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_multiplication(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+
+    r_single = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]))
+    r_mult_left = r * r_single
+    assert len(r_mult_left) == 0
+
+    r_mult_right = r_single * r
+    assert len(r_mult_right) == 0
+
+    r0 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    r_mult = r * r0
+    assert len(r_mult) == 0
+
+    msg_rotation_error = "Expected equal number of rotations"
+    r2 = Rotation.random(2)
+    r2 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r2.as_quat()))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=msg_rotation_error):
+        r0 * r2
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=msg_rotation_error):
+        r2 * r0
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_concatentation(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+
+    r0 = Rotation.concatenate([r, r])
+    assert len(r0) == 0
+
+    r1 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]))
+    r1 = r.concatenate([r1, r])
+    assert len(r1) == 1
+
+    r3 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(3).as_quat()))
+    r3 = r.concatenate([r3, r])
+    assert len(r3) == 3
+
+    r4 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(4).as_quat()))
+    r4 = r.concatenate([r, r4])
+    r4 = r.concatenate([r, r4])
+    assert len(r4) == 4
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_power(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    for pp in [-1.5, -1, 0, 1, 1.5]:
+        pow0 = r**pp
+        assert len(pow0) == 0
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_inverse(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    r_inv = r.inv()
+    assert len(r_inv) == 0
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_magnitude(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    magnitude = r.magnitude()
+    assert magnitude.shape == (0,)
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_mean(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Mean of an empty rotation set is undefined."):
+        r.mean()
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_approx_equal(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    r0 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    assert r.approx_equal(r0).shape == (0,)
+    r1 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]))
+    assert r.approx_equal(r1).shape == (0,)
+    r2 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random().as_quat()))
+    assert r2.approx_equal(r).shape == (0,)
+
+    approx_msg = "Expected equal number of rotations"
+    r3 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(2).as_quat()))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=approx_msg):
+        r.approx_equal(r3)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=approx_msg):
+        r3.approx_equal(r)
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_get_set(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+
+    r_get = r[xp.asarray([], dtype=xp.bool)]
+    assert len(r_get) == 0
+
+    r_slice = r[:0]
+    assert len(r_slice) == 0
+
+    with pytest.raises(IndexError):
+        r[xp.asarray([0])]
+
+    with pytest.raises(IndexError):
+        r[xp.asarray([True])]
+
+    with pytest.raises(IndexError):
+        r[0] = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1]))
+
+
+def test_boolean_indexes(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(3).as_quat()))
+
+    r0 = r[xp.asarray([False, False, False])]
+    assert len(r0) == 0
+
+    r1 = r[xp.asarray([False, True, False])]
+    assert len(r1) == 1
+
+    r3 = r[xp.asarray([True, True, True])]
+    assert len(r3) == 3
+
+    with pytest.raises(IndexError):
+        r[xp.asarray([True, True])]