pygeodesy 24.3.24__py2.py3-none-any.whl

pygeodesy/formy.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1818 @@
+
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+
+u'''Formulary of basic geodesy functions and approximations.
+'''
+# make sure int/int division yields float quotient, see .basics
+from __future__ import division as _; del _  # PYCHOK semicolon
+
+# from pygeodesy.cartesianBase import CartesianBase  # _MODS
+from pygeodesy.constants import EPS, EPS0, EPS1, PI, PI2, PI3, PI_2, R_M, \
+                               _umod_PI2, float0_, isnon0, remainder, \
+                               _0_0, _0_125, _0_25, _0_5, _1_0, _2_0, _4_0, \
+                               _32_0, _90_0, _180_0, _360_0
+from pygeodesy.datums import Datum, Ellipsoid, _ellipsoidal_datum, \
+                            _mean_radius, _spherical_datum, _WGS84,  _EWGS84
+# from pygeodesy.ellipsoids import Ellipsoid, _EWGS84  # from .datums
+from pygeodesy.errors import IntersectionError, LimitError, limiterrors, \
+                            _TypeError, _ValueError, _xattr, _xError, \
+                            _xkwds, _xkwds_pop2
+from pygeodesy.fmath import euclid, hypot, hypot2, sqrt0
+from pygeodesy.fsums import fsumf_
+from pygeodesy.interns import NN, _delta_, _distant_, _inside_, _SPACE_, _too_
+from pygeodesy.lazily import _ALL_LAZY, _ALL_MODS as _MODS
+from pygeodesy.named import _NamedTuple, _xnamed,  Fmt, unstr
+from pygeodesy.namedTuples import Bearing2Tuple, Distance4Tuple, Intersection3Tuple, \
+                                  LatLon2Tuple, PhiLam2Tuple, Vector3Tuple
+# from pygeodesy.streprs import Fmt, unstr  # from .named
+# from pygeodesy.triaxials import _hartzell2  # _MODS
+from pygeodesy.units import _isHeight, _isRadius, Bearing, Degrees_, Distance, \
+                             Distance_, Height, Lam_, Lat, Lon, Meter_,  Phi_, \
+                             Radians, Radians_, Radius, Radius_, Scalar, _100km
+from pygeodesy.utily import acos1, atan2b, atan2d, degrees2m, _loneg, m2degrees, \
+                            tan_2, sincos2, sincos2_, sincos2d_, _Wrap
+# from pygeodesy.vector3d import _otherV3d  # _MODS
+# from pygeodesy.vector3dBase import _xyz_y_z3  # _MODS
+# from pygeodesy import ellipsoidalExact, ellipsoidalKarney, vector3d, \
+#                       sphericalNvector, sphericalTrigonometry  # _MODS
+
+from contextlib import contextmanager
+from math import asin, atan, atan2, cos, degrees, fabs, radians, sin, sqrt  # pow
+
+__all__ = _ALL_LAZY.formy
+__version__ = '24.02.18'
+
+_RADIANS2 = (PI / _180_0)**2  # degrees- to radians-squared
+_ratio_   = 'ratio'
+_xline_   = 'xline'
+
+
+def _anti2(a, b, n_2, n, n2):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for C{antipode} and C{antipode_}.
+    '''
+    r = remainder(a, n) if fabs(a) > n_2 else a
+    if r == a:
+        r = -r
+        b += n
+    if fabs(b) > n:
+        b = remainder(b, n2)
+    return float0_(r, b)
+
+
+def antipode(lat, lon, name=NN):
+    '''Return the antipode, the point diametrically opposite
+       to a given point in C{degrees}.
+
+       @arg lat: Latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon: Longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg name: Optional name (C{str}).
+
+       @return: A L{LatLon2Tuple}C{(lat, lon)}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{antipode_} and L{normal} and U{Geosphere
+             <https://CRAN.R-Project.org/web/packages/geosphere/geosphere.pdf>}.
+    '''
+    return LatLon2Tuple(*_anti2(lat, lon, _90_0, _180_0, _360_0), name=name)
+
+
+def antipode_(phi, lam, name=NN):
+    '''Return the antipode, the point diametrically opposite
+       to a given point in C{radians}.
+
+       @arg phi: Latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam: Longitude (C{radians}).
+       @kwarg name: Optional name (C{str}).
+
+       @return: A L{PhiLam2Tuple}C{(phi, lam)}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{antipode} and L{normal_} and U{Geosphere
+             <https://CRAN.R-Project.org/web/packages/geosphere/geosphere.pdf>}.
+    '''
+    return PhiLam2Tuple(*_anti2(phi, lam, PI_2, PI, PI2), name=name)
+
+
+def bearing(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, **final_wrap):
+    '''Compute the initial or final bearing (forward or reverse
+       azimuth) between a (spherical) start and end point.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg final_wrap: Optional keyword arguments for function
+                          L{pygeodesy.bearing_}.
+
+       @return: Initial or final bearing (compass C{degrees360}) or
+                zero if start and end point coincide.
+    '''
+    r = bearing_(Phi_(lat1=lat1), Lam_(lon1=lon1),
+                 Phi_(lat2=lat2), Lam_(lon2=lon2), **final_wrap)
+    return degrees(r)
+
+
+def bearing_(phi1, lam1, phi2, lam2, final=False, wrap=False):
+    '''Compute the initial or final bearing (forward or reverse azimuth)
+       between a (spherical) start and end point.
+
+       @arg phi1: Start latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam1: Start longitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi2: End latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam2: End longitude (C{radians}).
+       @kwarg final: Return final bearing if C{True}, initial otherwise (C{bool}).
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll B{C{phi2}} and
+                    B{C{lam2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Initial or final bearing (compass C{radiansPI2}) or zero if start
+                and end point coincide.
+
+       @see: U{Bearing<https://www.Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong.html>}, U{Course
+             between two points<https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform147.htm#Crs>} and
+             U{Bearing Between Two Points<https://web.Archive.org/web/20020630205931/
+             https://MathForum.org/library/drmath/view/55417.html>}.
+    '''
+    db, phi2, lam2 = _Wrap.philam3(lam1, phi2, lam2, wrap)
+    if final:  # swap plus PI
+        phi1, lam1, phi2, lam2, db = phi2, lam2, phi1, lam1, -db
+        r = PI3
+    else:
+        r = PI2
+    sa1, ca1, sa2, ca2, sdb, cdb = sincos2_(phi1, phi2, db)
+
+    x = ca1 * sa2 - sa1 * ca2 * cdb
+    y = sdb * ca2
+    return _umod_PI2(atan2(y, x) + r)  # .utily.wrapPI2
+
+
+def _bearingTo2(p1, p2, wrap=False):  # for points.ispolar, sphericalTrigonometry.areaOf
+    '''(INTERNAL) Compute initial and final bearing.
+    '''
+    try:  # for LatLon_ and ellipsoidal LatLon
+        return p1.bearingTo2(p2, wrap=wrap)
+    except AttributeError:
+        pass
+    # XXX spherical version, OK for ellipsoidal ispolar?
+    t = p1.philam + p2.philam
+    return Bearing2Tuple(degrees(bearing_(*t, final=False, wrap=wrap)),
+                         degrees(bearing_(*t, final=True,  wrap=wrap)),
+                         name=_bearingTo2.__name__)
+
+
+def compassAngle(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, adjust=True, wrap=False):
+    '''Return the angle from North for the direction vector M{(lon2 - lon1,
+       lat2 - lat1)} between two points.
+
+       Suitable only for short, not near-polar vectors up to a few hundred
+       Km or Miles.  Use function L{pygeodesy.bearing} for longer vectors.
+
+       @arg lat1: From latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: From longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: To latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: To longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg adjust: Adjust the longitudinal delta by the cosine of the
+                      mean latitude (C{bool}).
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll B{C{lat2}}
+                    and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Compass angle from North (C{degrees360}).
+
+       @note: Courtesy of Martin Schultz.
+
+       @see: U{Local, flat earth approximation
+             <https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform.htm#flat>}.
+    '''
+    d_lon, lat2, lon2 = _Wrap.latlon3(lon1, lat2, lon2, wrap)
+    if adjust:  # scale delta lon
+        d_lon *= _scale_deg(lat1, lat2)
+    return atan2b(d_lon, lat2 - lat1)
+
+
+def cosineAndoyerLambert(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=_WGS84, wrap=False):
+    '''Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the U{Andoyer-Lambert
+       <https://books.google.com/books?id=x2UiAQAAIAAJ>} correction of the U{Law of
+       Cosines<https://www.Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong.html#cosine-law>} formula.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg datum: Datum (L{Datum}) or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid},
+                     L{Ellipsoid2} or L{a_f2Tuple}) to use.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll
+                    B{C{lat2}} and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as the B{C{datum}}'s
+                ellipsoid axes or C{radians} if B{C{datum}} is C{None}).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{datum}}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{cosineAndoyerLambert_}, L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert},
+             L{cosineLaw}, L{equirectangular}, L{euclidean}, L{flatLocal}/L{hubeny},
+             L{flatPolar}, L{haversine}, L{thomas} and L{vincentys} and method
+             L{Ellipsoid.distance2}.
+    '''
+    return _dE(cosineAndoyerLambert_, datum, wrap, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2)
+
+
+def cosineAndoyerLambert_(phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=_WGS84):
+    '''Compute the I{angular} distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the U{Andoyer-Lambert
+       <https://books.google.com/books?id=x2UiAQAAIAAJ>} correction of the U{Law of
+       Cosines<https://www.Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong.html#cosine-law>} formula.
+
+       @arg phi2: End latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi1: Start latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam21: Longitudinal delta, M{end-start} (C{radians}).
+       @kwarg datum: Datum (L{Datum}) or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid},
+                     L{Ellipsoid2} or L{a_f2Tuple}) to use.
+
+       @return: Angular distance (C{radians}).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{datum}}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{cosineAndoyerLambert}, L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_},
+             L{cosineLaw_}, L{equirectangular_}, L{euclidean_}, L{flatLocal_}/L{hubeny_},
+             L{flatPolar_}, L{haversine_}, L{thomas_} and L{vincentys_} and U{Geodesy-PHP
+             <https://GitHub.com/jtejido/geodesy-php/blob/master/src/Geodesy/Distance/
+             AndoyerLambert.php>}.
+    '''
+    s2, c2, s1, c1, r, c21 = _sincosa6(phi2, phi1, lam21)
+    if isnon0(c1) and isnon0(c2):
+        E = _ellipsoidal(datum, cosineAndoyerLambert_)
+        if E.f:  # ellipsoidal
+            r2 = atan2(E.b_a * s2, c2)
+            r1 = atan2(E.b_a * s1, c1)
+            s2, c2, s1, c1 = sincos2_(r2, r1)
+            r = acos1(s1 * s2 + c1 * c2 * c21)
+            if r:
+                sr, _, sr_2, cr_2 = sincos2_(r, r * _0_5)
+                if isnon0(sr_2) and isnon0(cr_2):
+                    s  = (sr + r) * ((s1 - s2) / sr_2)**2
+                    c  = (sr - r) * ((s1 + s2) / cr_2)**2
+                    r += (c  - s) * E.f * _0_125
+    return r
+
+
+def cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=_WGS84, wrap=False):
+    '''Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the U{Forsythe-Andoyer-Lambert
+       <https://www2.UNB.Ca/gge/Pubs/TR77.pdf>} correction of the U{Law of Cosines
+       <https://www.Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong.html#cosine-law>} formula.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg datum: Datum (L{Datum}) or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid},
+                     L{Ellipsoid2} or L{a_f2Tuple}) to use.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll
+                    B{C{lat2}} and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as the B{C{datum}}'s
+                ellipsoid axes or C{radians} if B{C{datum}} is C{None}).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{datum}}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert},
+             L{cosineLaw}, L{equirectangular}, L{euclidean}, L{flatLocal}/L{hubeny},
+             L{flatPolar}, L{haversine}, L{thomas} and L{vincentys} and method
+             L{Ellipsoid.distance2}.
+    '''
+    return _dE(cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_, datum, wrap, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2)
+
+
+def cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_(phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=_WGS84):
+    '''Compute the I{angular} distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the
+       U{Forsythe-Andoyer-Lambert<https://www2.UNB.Ca/gge/Pubs/TR77.pdf>} correction of
+       the U{Law of Cosines<https://www.Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong.html#cosine-law>}
+       formula.
+
+       @arg phi2: End latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi1: Start latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam21: Longitudinal delta, M{end-start} (C{radians}).
+       @kwarg datum: Datum (L{Datum}) or ellipsoid to use (L{Ellipsoid},
+                     L{Ellipsoid2} or L{a_f2Tuple}).
+
+       @return: Angular distance (C{radians}).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{datum}}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert_},
+             L{cosineLaw_}, L{equirectangular_}, L{euclidean_}, L{flatLocal_}/L{hubeny_},
+             L{flatPolar_}, L{haversine_}, L{thomas_} and L{vincentys_} and U{Geodesy-PHP
+             <https://GitHub.com/jtejido/geodesy-php/blob/master/src/Geodesy/
+             Distance/ForsytheCorrection.php>}.
+    '''
+    s2, c2, s1, c1, r, _ = _sincosa6(phi2, phi1, lam21)
+    if r and isnon0(c1) and isnon0(c2):
+        E = _ellipsoidal(datum, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_)
+        if E.f:  # ellipsoidal
+            sr, cr, s2r, _ = sincos2_(r, r * 2)
+            if isnon0(sr) and fabs(cr) < EPS1:
+                s = (s1 + s2)**2 / (1 + cr)
+                t = (s1 - s2)**2 / (1 - cr)
+                x = s + t
+                y = s - t
+
+                s =  8 * r**2 / sr
+                a = 64 * r  + s * cr * 2  # 16 * r**2 / tan(r)
+                d = 48 * sr + s  # 8 * r**2 / tan(r)
+                b = -2 * d
+                e = 30 * s2r
+                c = fsumf_(30 * r, e * _0_5, s * cr)  # 8 * r**2 / tan(r)
+                t = fsumf_( a * x, e * y**2, b * y, -c * x**2, d * x * y)
+
+                r += fsumf_(-r * x, 3 * y * sr, t * E.f / _32_0) * E.f * _0_25
+    return r
+
+
+def cosineLaw(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=R_M, wrap=False):
+    '''Compute the distance between two points using the U{spherical Law of Cosines
+       <https://www.Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong.html#cosine-law>} formula.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg radius: Mean earth radius (C{meter}), datum (L{Datum})
+                      or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid}, L{Ellipsoid2} or
+                      L{a_f2Tuple}) to use.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and B{C{lat2}}
+                    and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as B{C{radius}} or the
+                ellipsoid or datum axes).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{radius}}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{cosineLaw_}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert},
+             L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert}, L{equirectangular}, L{euclidean},
+             L{flatLocal}/L{hubeny}, L{flatPolar}, L{haversine}, L{thomas} and
+             L{vincentys} and method L{Ellipsoid.distance2}.
+
+       @note: See note at function L{vincentys_}.
+    '''
+    return _dS(cosineLaw_, radius, wrap, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2)
+
+
+def cosineLaw_(phi2, phi1, lam21):
+    '''Compute the I{angular} distance between two points using the U{spherical Law of
+       Cosines<https://www.Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong.html#cosine-law>} formula.
+
+       @arg phi2: End latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi1: Start latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam21: Longitudinal delta, M{end-start} (C{radians}).
+
+       @return: Angular distance (C{radians}).
+
+       @see: Functions L{cosineLaw}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert_},
+             L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_}, L{equirectangular_},
+             L{euclidean_}, L{flatLocal_}/L{hubeny_}, L{flatPolar_},
+             L{haversine_}, L{thomas_} and L{vincentys_}.
+
+       @note: See note at function L{vincentys_}.
+    '''
+    return _sincosa6(phi2, phi1, lam21)[4]
+
+
+def _d3(wrap, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for _dE, _dS and _eA.
+    '''
+    if wrap:
+        d_lon, lat2, _ = _Wrap.latlon3(lon1, lat2, lon2, wrap)
+        return radians(lat2), Phi_(lat1=lat1), radians(d_lon)
+    else:  # for backward compaibility
+        return Phi_(lat2=lat2), Phi_(lat1=lat1), Phi_(d_lon=lon2 - lon1)
+
+
+def _dE(func_, earth, *wrap_lls):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for ellipsoidal distances.
+    '''
+    E = _ellipsoidal(earth, func_)
+    r =  func_(*_d3(*wrap_lls), datum=E)
+    return r * E.a
+
+
+def _dS(func_, radius, *wrap_lls, **adjust):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for spherical distances.
+    '''
+    r = func_(*_d3(*wrap_lls), **adjust)
+    if radius is not R_M:
+        _, lat1, _, lat2, _ = wrap_lls
+        radius = _mean_radius(radius, lat1, lat2)
+    return r * radius
+
+
+def _eA(excess_, radius, *wrap_lls):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for spherical excess or area.
+    '''
+    r = excess_(*_d3(*wrap_lls))
+    if radius:
+        _, lat1, _, lat2, _ = wrap_lls
+        r *= _mean_radius(radius, lat1, lat2)**2
+    return r
+
+
+def _ellipsoidal(earth, where):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for distances.
+    '''
+    return _EWGS84 if earth in (_WGS84, _EWGS84)   else (
+             earth if isinstance(earth, Ellipsoid) else
+            (earth if isinstance(earth, Datum)     else  # PYCHOK indent
+            _ellipsoidal_datum(earth, name=where.__name__)).ellipsoid)
+
+
+def equirectangular(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=R_M, **adjust_limit_wrap):
+    '''Compute the distance between two points using the U{Equirectangular Approximation
+       / Projection<https://www.Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong.html#equirectangular>}.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg radius: Mean earth radius (C{meter}), datum (L{Datum})
+                      or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid}, L{Ellipsoid2} or
+                      L{a_f2Tuple}).
+       @kwarg adjust_limit_wrap: Optional keyword arguments for
+                     function L{equirectangular_}.
+
+       @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as B{C{radius}} or
+                the ellipsoid or datum axes).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{radius}}.
+
+       @see: Function L{equirectangular_} for more details, the
+             available B{C{options}}, errors, restrictions and other,
+             approximate or accurate distance functions.
+    '''
+    d = sqrt(equirectangular_(Lat(lat1=lat1), Lon(lon1=lon1),
+                              Lat(lat2=lat2), Lon(lon2=lon2),
+                            **adjust_limit_wrap).distance2)  # PYCHOK 4 vs 2-3
+    return degrees2m(d, radius=_mean_radius(radius, lat1, lat2))
+
+
+def _equirectangular(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, **adjust_limit_wrap):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for the L{frechet._FrecherMeterRadians}
+       and L{hausdorff._HausdorffMeterRedians} classes.
+    '''
+    return equirectangular_(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, **adjust_limit_wrap).distance2 * _RADIANS2
+
+
+def equirectangular_(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, adjust=True, limit=45, wrap=False):
+    '''Compute the distance between two points using the U{Equirectangular Approximation
+       / Projection<https://www.Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong.html#equirectangular>}.
+
+       This approximation is valid for short distance of several hundred Km
+       or Miles, see the B{C{limit}} keyword argument and L{LimitError}.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg adjust: Adjust the wrapped, unrolled longitudinal delta
+                      by the cosine of the mean latitude (C{bool}).
+       @kwarg limit: Optional limit for lat- and longitudinal deltas
+                     (C{degrees}) or C{None} or C{0} for unlimited.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll B{C{lat2}}
+                    and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: A L{Distance4Tuple}C{(distance2, delta_lat, delta_lon,
+                unroll_lon2)} in C{degrees squared}.
+
+       @raise LimitError: If the lat- and/or longitudinal delta exceeds the
+                          B{C{-limit..limit}} range and L{pygeodesy.limiterrors}
+                          set to C{True}.
+
+       @see: U{Local, flat earth approximation
+             <https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform.htm#flat>}, functions
+             L{equirectangular}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert},
+             L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert}, L{cosineLaw}, L{euclidean},
+             L{flatLocal}/L{hubeny}, L{flatPolar}, L{haversine}, L{thomas}
+             and L{vincentys} and methods L{Ellipsoid.distance2},
+             C{LatLon.distanceTo*} and C{LatLon.equirectangularTo}.
+    '''
+    d_lon,  lat2, ulon2 = _Wrap.latlon3(lon1, lat2, lon2, wrap)
+    d_lat = lat2 - lat1
+
+    if limit and limit > 0 and limiterrors():
+        d = max(fabs(d_lat), fabs(d_lon))
+        if d > limit:
+            t = _SPACE_(_delta_, Fmt.PAREN_g(d), Fmt.exceeds_limit(limit))
+            s =  unstr(equirectangular_, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2,
+                                         limit=limit, wrap=wrap)
+            raise LimitError(s, txt=t)
+
+    if adjust:  # scale delta lon
+        d_lon *= _scale_deg(lat1, lat2)
+
+    d2 = hypot2(d_lat, d_lon)  # degrees squared!
+    return Distance4Tuple(d2, d_lat, d_lon, ulon2 - lon2)
+
+
+def euclidean(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=R_M, adjust=True, wrap=False):
+    '''Approximate the C{Euclidean} distance between two (spherical) points.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg radius: Mean earth radius (C{meter}), datum (L{Datum})
+                      or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid}, L{Ellipsoid2} or
+                      L{a_f2Tuple}) to use.
+       @kwarg adjust: Adjust the longitudinal delta by the cosine of
+                      the mean latitude (C{bool}).
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll B{C{lat2}}
+                    and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as B{C{radius}} or the
+                ellipsoid or datum axes).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{radius}}.
+
+       @see: U{Distance between two (spherical) points
+             <https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform.htm#Dist>}, functions L{euclid},
+             L{euclidean_}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert}, L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert},
+             L{cosineLaw}, L{equirectangular}, L{flatLocal}/L{hubeny}, L{flatPolar},
+             L{haversine}, L{thomas} and L{vincentys} and methods L{Ellipsoid.distance2},
+             C{LatLon.distanceTo*} and C{LatLon.equirectangularTo}.
+    '''
+    return _dS(euclidean_, radius, wrap, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, adjust=adjust)
+
+
+def euclidean_(phi2, phi1, lam21, adjust=True):
+    '''Approximate the I{angular} C{Euclidean} distance between two (spherical) points.
+
+       @arg phi2: End latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi1: Start latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam21: Longitudinal delta, M{end-start} (C{radians}).
+       @kwarg adjust: Adjust the longitudinal delta by the cosine
+                      of the mean latitude (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Angular distance (C{radians}).
+
+       @see: Functions L{euclid}, L{euclidean}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert_},
+             L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_}, L{cosineLaw_}, L{equirectangular_},
+             L{flatLocal_}/L{hubeny_}, L{flatPolar_}, L{haversine_}, L{thomas_}
+             and L{vincentys_}.
+    '''
+    if adjust:
+        lam21 *= _scale_rad(phi2, phi1)
+    return euclid(phi2 - phi1, lam21)
+
+
+def excessAbc_(A, b, c):
+    '''Compute the I{spherical excess} C{E} of a (spherical) triangle from two sides
+       and the included (small) angle.
+
+       @arg A: An interior triangle angle (C{radians}).
+       @arg b: Frist adjacent triangle side (C{radians}).
+       @arg c: Second adjacent triangle side (C{radians}).
+
+       @return: Spherical excess (C{radians}).
+
+       @raise UnitError: Invalid B{C{A}}, B{C{b}} or B{C{c}}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{excessGirard_}, L{excessLHuilier_} and U{Spherical
+             trigonometry<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry>}.
+    '''
+    A = Radians_(A=A)
+    b = Radians_(b=b) * _0_5
+    c = Radians_(c=c) * _0_5
+
+    sA, cA, sb, cb, sc, cc = sincos2_(A, b, c)
+    return atan2(sA * sb * sc, cb * cc + cA * sb * sc) * _2_0
+
+
+def excessCagnoli_(a, b, c):
+    '''Compute the I{spherical excess} C{E} of a (spherical) triangle using U{Cagnoli's
+       <https://Zenodo.org/record/35392>} (D.34) formula.
+
+       @arg a: First triangle side (C{radians}).
+       @arg b: Second triangle side (C{radians}).
+       @arg c: Third triangle side (C{radians}).
+
+       @return: Spherical excess (C{radians}).
+
+       @raise UnitError: Invalid B{C{a}}, B{C{b}} or B{C{c}}.
+
+       @see: Function L{excessLHuilier_} and U{Spherical trigonometry
+             <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry>}.
+    '''
+    a = Radians_(a=a)
+    b = Radians_(b=b)
+    c = Radians_(c=c)
+
+    s  =  fsumf_(a, b, c) * _0_5
+    _s =  sin
+    r  = _s(s) * _s(s - a) * _s(s - b) * _s(s - c)
+    c  =  cos(a * _0_5) * cos(b * _0_5) * cos(c * _0_5)
+    r  =  asin(sqrt(r) * _0_5 / c) if c and r > 0 else _0_0
+    return Radians(Cagnoli=r * _2_0)
+
+
+def excessGirard_(A, B, C):
+    '''Compute the I{spherical excess} C{E} of a (spherical) triangle using U{Girard's
+       <https://MathWorld.Wolfram.com/GirardsSphericalExcessFormula.html>} formula.
+
+       @arg A: First interior triangle angle (C{radians}).
+       @arg B: Second interior triangle angle (C{radians}).
+       @arg C: Third interior triangle angle (C{radians}).
+
+       @return: Spherical excess (C{radians}).
+
+       @raise UnitError: Invalid B{C{A}}, B{C{B}} or B{C{C}}.
+
+       @see: Function L{excessLHuilier_} and U{Spherical trigonometry
+             <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry>}.
+    '''
+    return Radians(Girard=fsumf_(Radians_(A=A),
+                                 Radians_(B=B),
+                                 Radians_(C=C), -PI))
+
+
+def excessLHuilier_(a, b, c):
+    '''Compute the I{spherical excess} C{E} of a (spherical) triangle using U{L'Huilier's
+       <https://MathWorld.Wolfram.com/LHuiliersTheorem.html>}'s Theorem.
+
+       @arg a: First triangle side (C{radians}).
+       @arg b: Second triangle side (C{radians}).
+       @arg c: Third triangle side (C{radians}).
+
+       @return: Spherical excess (C{radians}).
+
+       @raise UnitError: Invalid B{C{a}}, B{C{b}} or B{C{c}}.
+
+       @see: Function L{excessCagnoli_}, L{excessGirard_} and U{Spherical
+             trigonometry<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry>}.
+    '''
+    a = Radians_(a=a)
+    b = Radians_(b=b)
+    c = Radians_(c=c)
+
+    s  =  fsumf_(a, b, c) * _0_5
+    _t =  tan_2
+    r  = _t(s) * _t(s - a) * _t(s - b) * _t(s - c)
+    r  =  atan(sqrt(r)) if r > 0 else _0_0
+    return Radians(LHuilier=r * _4_0)
+
+
+def excessKarney(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=R_M, wrap=False):
+    '''Compute the surface area of a (spherical) quadrilateral bounded by a
+       segment of a great circle, two meridians and the equator using U{Karney's
+       <https://MathOverflow.net/questions/97711/the-area-of-spherical-polygons>}
+       method.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg radius: Mean earth radius (C{meter}), datum (L{Datum})
+                      or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid}, L{Ellipsoid2} or
+                      L{a_f2Tuple}) or C{None}.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll
+                    B{C{lat2}} and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Surface area, I{signed} (I{square} C{meter} or the same units as
+                B{C{radius}} I{squared}) or the I{spherical excess} (C{radians})
+                if C{B{radius}=0} or C{None}.
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{radius}}.
+
+       @raise UnitError: Invalid B{C{lat2}} or B{C{lat1}}.
+
+       @raise ValueError: Semi-circular longitudinal delta.
+
+       @see: Functions L{excessKarney_} and L{excessQuad}.
+    '''
+    return _eA(excessKarney_, radius, wrap, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2)
+
+
+def excessKarney_(phi2, phi1, lam21):
+    '''Compute the I{spherical excess} C{E} of a (spherical) quadrilateral bounded by
+       a segment of a great circle, two meridians and the equator using U{Karney's
+       <https://MathOverflow.net/questions/97711/the-area-of-spherical-polygons>}
+       method.
+
+       @arg phi2: End latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi1: Start latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam21: Longitudinal delta, M{end-start} (C{radians}).
+
+       @return: Spherical excess, I{signed} (C{radians}).
+
+       @raise ValueError: Semi-circular longitudinal delta B{C{lam21}}.
+
+       @see: Function L{excessKarney} and U{Area of a spherical polygon
+       <https://MathOverflow.net/questions/97711/the-area-of-spherical-polygons>}.
+    '''
+    # from: Veness <https://www.Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong.html>  Area
+    # method due to Karney: for each edge of the polygon,
+    #
+    #                 tan(Δλ / 2) · (tan(φ1 / 2) + tan(φ2 / 2))
+    #    tan(E / 2) = -----------------------------------------
+    #                           1 +  tan(φ1 / 2) · tan(φ2 / 2)
+    #
+    # where E is the spherical excess of the trapezium obtained by extending
+    # the edge to the equator-circle vector for each edge (see also ***).
+    _t =  tan_2
+    t2 = _t(phi2)
+    t1 = _t(phi1)
+    t  = _t(lam21, lam21=None)
+    return Radians(Karney=atan2(t * (t1 + t2),
+                             _1_0 + (t1 * t2)) * _2_0)
+
+
+# ***) Original post no longer available, following is a copy of the main part
+# <http://OSGeo-org.1560.x6.Nabble.com/Area-of-a-spherical-polygon-td3841625.html>
+#
+# The area of a polygon on a (unit) sphere is given by the spherical excess
+#
+#    A = 2 * pi - sum(exterior angles)
+#
+# However this is badly conditioned if the polygon is small.  In this case, use
+#
+#    A = sum(S12{i, i+1}) over the edges of the polygon
+#
+# where S12 is the area of the quadrilateral bounded by an edge of the polygon,
+# two meridians and the equator, i.e. with vertices (phi1, lambda1), (phi2,
+# lambda2), (0, lambda1) and (0, lambda2).  S12 is given by
+#
+#    tan(S12 / 2) = tan(lambda21 / 2) * (tan(phi1 / 2) + tan(phi2 / 2)) /
+#                                       (tan(phi1 / 2) * tan(phi2 / 2) + 1)
+#
+#                 = tan(lambda21 / 2) * tanh((Lamb(phi1) + Lamb(phi2)) / 2)
+#
+# where lambda21 = lambda2 - lambda1 and Lamb(x) is the Lambertian (or the
+# inverse Gudermannian) function
+#
+#    Lambertian(x) = asinh(tan(x)) = atanh(sin(x)) = 2 * atanh(tan(x / 2))
+#
+# Notes: The formula for S12 is exact, except that...
+#      - it is indeterminate if an edge is a semi-circle
+#      - the formula for A applies only if the polygon does not include a pole
+#        (if it does, then add +/- 2 * pi to the result)
+#      - in the limit of small phi and lambda, S12 reduces to the trapezoidal
+#        formula, S12 = (lambda2 - lambda1) * (phi1 + phi2) / 2
+#      - I derived this result from the equation for the area of a spherical
+#        triangle in terms of two edges and the included angle given by, e.g.
+#        U{Todhunter, I. - Spherical Trigonometry (1871), Sec. 103, Eq. (2)
+#        <http://Books.Google.com/books?id=3uBHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA71>}
+#      - I would be interested to know if this formula for S12 is already known
+#      - Charles Karney
+
+
+def excessQuad(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=R_M, wrap=False):
+    '''Compute the surface area of a (spherical) quadrilateral bounded by a segment
+       of a great circle, two meridians and the equator.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg radius: Mean earth radius (C{meter}), datum (L{Datum})
+                      or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid}, L{Ellipsoid2} or
+                      L{a_f2Tuple}) or C{None}.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll
+                    B{C{lat2}} and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Surface area, I{signed} (I{square} C{meter} or the same units as
+                B{C{radius}} I{squared}) or the I{spherical excess} (C{radians})
+                if C{B{radius}=0} or C{None}.
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{radius}}.
+
+       @raise UnitError: Invalid B{C{lat2}} or B{C{lat1}}.
+
+       @see: Function L{excessQuad_} and L{excessKarney}.
+    '''
+    return _eA(excessQuad_, radius, wrap, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2)
+
+
+def excessQuad_(phi2, phi1, lam21):
+    '''Compute the I{spherical excess} C{E} of a (spherical) quadrilateral bounded
+       by a segment of a great circle, two meridians and the equator.
+
+       @arg phi2: End latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi1: Start latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam21: Longitudinal delta, M{end-start} (C{radians}).
+
+       @return: Spherical excess, I{signed} (C{radians}).
+
+       @see: Function L{excessQuad} and U{Spherical trigonometry
+             <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry>}.
+    '''
+    s = sin((phi2 + phi1) * _0_5)
+    c = cos((phi2 - phi1) * _0_5)
+    return Radians(Quad=atan2(tan_2(lam21) * s, c) * _2_0)
+
+
+def flatLocal(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=_WGS84, scaled=True, wrap=False):
+    '''Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using
+       the U{ellipsoidal Earth to plane projection<https://WikiPedia.org/
+       wiki/Geographical_distance#Ellipsoidal_Earth_projected_to_a_plane>}
+       aka U{Hubeny<https://www.OVG.AT/de/vgi/files/pdf/3781/>} formula.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg datum: Datum (L{Datum}) or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid},
+                     L{Ellipsoid2} or L{a_f2Tuple}) to use.
+       @kwarg scaled: Scale prime_vertical by C{cos(B{phi})} (C{bool}),
+                      see method L{pygeodesy.Ellipsoid.roc2_}.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll
+                    B{C{lat2}} and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as the B{C{datum}}'s
+                ellipsoid axes).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{datum}}.
+
+       @note: The meridional and prime_vertical radii of curvature
+              are taken and scaled at the mean of both latitude.
+
+       @see: Functions L{flatLocal_} or L{hubeny_}, L{cosineLaw}, L{flatPolar},
+             L{cosineAndoyerLambert}, L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert},
+             L{equirectangular}, L{euclidean}, L{haversine}, L{thomas},
+             L{vincentys}, method L{Ellipsoid.distance2} and U{local, flat
+             earth approximation<https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform.htm#flat>}.
+    '''
+    E = _ellipsoidal(datum, flatLocal)
+    return E._hubeny_2(*_d3(wrap, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2),
+                       scaled=scaled, squared=False) * E.a
+
+hubeny = flatLocal  # PYCHOK for Karl Hubeny
+
+
+def flatLocal_(phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=_WGS84, scaled=True):
+    '''Compute the I{angular} distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using
+       the U{ellipsoidal Earth to plane projection<https://WikiPedia.org/
+       wiki/Geographical_distance#Ellipsoidal_Earth_projected_to_a_plane>}
+       aka U{Hubeny<https://www.OVG.AT/de/vgi/files/pdf/3781/>} formula.
+
+       @arg phi2: End latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi1: Start latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam21: Longitudinal delta, M{end-start} (C{radians}).
+       @kwarg datum: Datum (L{Datum}) or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid},
+                     L{Ellipsoid2} or L{a_f2Tuple}) to use.
+       @kwarg scaled: Scale prime_vertical by C{cos(B{phi})} (C{bool}),
+                      see method L{pygeodesy.Ellipsoid.roc2_}.
+
+       @return: Angular distance (C{radians}).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{datum}}.
+
+       @note: The meridional and prime_vertical radii of curvature
+              are taken and scaled I{at the mean of both latitude}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{flatLocal} or L{hubeny}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert_},
+             L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_}, L{cosineLaw_}, L{flatPolar_},
+             L{equirectangular_}, L{euclidean_}, L{haversine_}, L{thomas_}
+             and L{vincentys_} and U{local, flat earth approximation
+             <https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform.htm#flat>}.
+    '''
+    E = _ellipsoidal(datum, flatLocal_)
+    return E._hubeny_2(phi2, phi1, lam21, scaled=scaled, squared=False)
+
+hubeny_ = flatLocal_  # PYCHOK for Karl Hubeny
+
+
+def flatPolar(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=R_M, wrap=False):
+    '''Compute the distance between two (spherical) points using
+       the U{polar coordinate flat-Earth <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/
+       Geographical_distance#Polar_coordinate_flat-Earth_formula>}
+       formula.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg radius: Mean earth radius (C{meter}), datum (L{Datum})
+                      or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid}, L{Ellipsoid2} or
+                      L{a_f2Tuple}) to use.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and B{C{lat2}}
+                    and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as B{C{radius}} or the
+                ellipsoid or datum axes).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{radius}}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{flatPolar_}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert},
+             L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert},L{cosineLaw},
+             L{flatLocal}/L{hubeny}, L{equirectangular},
+             L{euclidean}, L{haversine}, L{thomas} and
+             L{vincentys}.
+    '''
+    return _dS(flatPolar_, radius, wrap, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2)
+
+
+def flatPolar_(phi2, phi1, lam21):
+    '''Compute the I{angular} distance between two (spherical) points
+       using the U{polar coordinate flat-Earth<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/
+       Geographical_distance#Polar_coordinate_flat-Earth_formula>}
+       formula.
+
+       @arg phi2: End latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi1: Start latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam21: Longitudinal delta, M{end-start} (C{radians}).
+
+       @return: Angular distance (C{radians}).
+
+       @see: Functions L{flatPolar}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert_},
+             L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_}, L{cosineLaw_},
+             L{equirectangular_}, L{euclidean_}, L{flatLocal_}/L{hubeny_},
+             L{haversine_}, L{thomas_} and L{vincentys_}.
+    '''
+    a = fabs(PI_2 - phi1)  # co-latitude
+    b = fabs(PI_2 - phi2)  # co-latitude
+    if a < b:
+        a, b = b, a
+    if a < EPS0:
+        a = _0_0
+    elif b > 0:
+        b  = b / a  # /= chokes PyChecker
+        c  = b * cos(lam21) * _2_0
+        c  = fsumf_(_1_0, b**2, -fabs(c))
+        a *= sqrt0(c)
+    return a
+
+
+def _hartzell(pov, los, earth, **kwds):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for C{CartesianBase.hartzell} and C{LatLonBase.hartzell}.
+    '''
+    if earth is None:
+        earth =  pov.datum
+    else:
+        earth = _spherical_datum(earth, name=hartzell.__name__)
+        pov   =  pov.toDatum(earth)
+    h = pov.height
+    if h < 0:  # EPS0
+        t = _SPACE_(Fmt.PARENSPACED(height=h), _inside_)
+        raise IntersectionError(pov=pov, earth=earth, txt=t)
+    return hartzell(pov, los=los, earth=earth, **kwds) if h > 0 else pov  # EPS0
+
+
+def hartzell(pov, los=False, earth=_WGS84, name=NN, **LatLon_and_kwds):
+    '''Compute the intersection of the earth's surface and a Line-Of-Sight from
+       a Point-Of-View in space.
+
+       @arg pov: Point-Of-View outside the earth (C{LatLon}, C{Cartesian},
+                 L{Ecef9Tuple} or L{Vector3d}).
+       @kwarg los: Line-Of-Sight, I{direction} to earth (L{Los}, L{Vector3d}),
+                   C{True} for the I{normal, plumb} onto the surface or
+                   C{False} or C{None} to point to the center of the earth.
+       @kwarg earth: The earth model (L{Datum}, L{Ellipsoid}, L{Ellipsoid2},
+                     L{a_f2Tuple} or a C{scalar} earth radius in C{meter}).
+       @kwarg name: Optional name (C{str}).
+       @kwarg LatLon_and_kwds: Optional C{B{LatLon}=None} class to return the
+                               intersection plus additional C{LatLon} keyword
+                               arguments, include B{C{datum}} if different
+                               from B{C{earth}}.
+
+       @return: The intersection (L{Vector3d}, B{C{pov}}'s C{cartesian type} or
+                the given B{C{LatLon}} instance) with attribute C{heigth} set
+                to the distance to the B{C{pov}}.
+
+       @raise IntersectionError: Invalid B{C{pov}} or B{C{pov}} inside the earth or
+                                 invalid B{C{los}} or B{C{los}} points outside or
+                                 away from the earth.
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{earth}}, C{ellipsoid} or C{datum}.
+
+       @see: Class L{Los}, functions L{tyr3d} and L{hartzell4} and methods
+             L{Ellipsoid.hartzell4} and any C{Cartesian.hartzell} and C{LatLon.hartzell}.
+    '''
+    n = hartzell.__name__
+    D = earth if isinstance(earth, Datum) else _spherical_datum(earth, name=n)
+    try:
+        r, h, i = _MODS.triaxials._hartzell3(pov, los, D.ellipsoid._triaxial)
+
+        r = _xnamed(r, name or n)
+        C = _MODS.cartesianBase.CartesianBase
+        if LatLon_and_kwds:
+            c = C(r, datum=D, name=r.name)
+            r = c.toLatLon(**_xkwds(LatLon_and_kwds, height=h))
+        elif isinstance(r, C):
+            r.height = h
+        if i:
+            r._iteration = i
+    except Exception as x:
+        raise IntersectionError(pov=pov, los=los, earth=earth, cause=x, **LatLon_and_kwds)
+    return r
+
+
+def haversine(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=R_M, wrap=False):
+    '''Compute the distance between two (spherical) points using the
+       U{Haversine<https://www.Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong.html>}
+       formula.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg radius: Mean earth radius (C{meter}), datum (L{Datum})
+                      or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid}, L{Ellipsoid2} or
+                      L{a_f2Tuple}) to use.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll
+                    B{C{lat2}} and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as B{C{radius}}).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{radius}}.
+
+       @see: U{Distance between two (spherical) points
+             <https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform.htm#Dist>}, functions
+             L{cosineLaw}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert}, L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert},
+             L{equirectangular}, L{euclidean}, L{flatLocal}/L{hubeny}, L{flatPolar},
+             L{thomas} and L{vincentys} and methods L{Ellipsoid.distance2},
+             C{LatLon.distanceTo*} and C{LatLon.equirectangularTo}.
+
+       @note: See note at function L{vincentys_}.
+    '''
+    return _dS(haversine_, radius, wrap, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2)
+
+
+def haversine_(phi2, phi1, lam21):
+    '''Compute the I{angular} distance between two (spherical) points
+       using the U{Haversine<https://www.Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong.html>}
+       formula.
+
+       @arg phi2: End latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi1: Start latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam21: Longitudinal delta, M{end-start} (C{radians}).
+
+       @return: Angular distance (C{radians}).
+
+       @see: Functions L{haversine}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert_},
+             L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_}, L{cosineLaw_},
+             L{equirectangular_}, L{euclidean_}, L{flatLocal_}/L{hubeny_},
+             L{flatPolar_}, L{thomas_} and L{vincentys_}.
+
+       @note: See note at function L{vincentys_}.
+    '''
+    def _hsin(rad):
+        return sin(rad * _0_5)**2
+
+    h = _hsin(phi2 - phi1) + cos(phi1) * cos(phi2) * _hsin(lam21)  # haversine
+    return atan2(sqrt0(h), sqrt0(_1_0 - h)) * _2_0  # == asin(sqrt(h)) * 2
+
+
+def heightOf(angle, distance, radius=R_M):
+    '''Determine the height above the (spherical) earth' surface after
+       traveling along a straight line at a given tilt.
+
+       @arg angle: Tilt angle above horizontal (C{degrees}).
+       @arg distance: Distance along the line (C{meter} or same units as
+                      B{C{radius}}).
+       @kwarg radius: Optional mean earth radius (C{meter}).
+
+       @return: Height (C{meter}, same units as B{C{distance}} and B{C{radius}}).
+
+       @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{angle}}, B{C{distance}} or B{C{radius}}.
+
+       @see: U{MultiDop geog_lib.GeogBeamHt<https://GitHub.com/NASA/MultiDop>}
+             (U{Shapiro et al. 2009, JTECH
+             <https://Journals.AMetSoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2009JTECHA1256.1>}
+             and U{Potvin et al. 2012, JTECH
+             <https://Journals.AMetSoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JTECH-D-11-00019.1>}).
+    '''
+    r = h = Radius(radius)
+    d = fabs(Distance(distance))
+    if d > h:
+        d, h = h, d
+
+    if d > EPS0:  # and h > EPS0
+        d = d / h  # /= h chokes PyChecker
+        s = sin(Phi_(angle=angle, clip=_180_0))
+        s = fsumf_(_1_0, s * d * _2_0, d**2)
+        if s > 0:
+            return h * sqrt(s) - r
+
+    raise _ValueError(angle=angle, distance=distance, radius=radius)
+
+
+def heightOrthometric(h_ll, N):
+    '''Get the I{orthometric} height B{H}, the height above the geoid, earth surface.
+
+       @arg h_ll: The height above the ellipsoid (C{meter}) or an I{ellipsoidal}
+                  location (C{LatLon} with a C{height} or C{h} attribute).
+       @arg N: The I{geoid} height (C{meter}), the height of the geoid above the
+               ellipsoid at the same B{C{h_ll}} location.
+
+       @return: I{Orthometric} height C{B{H} = B{h} - B{N}} (C{meter}, same units
+                as B{C{h}} and B{C{N}}).
+
+       @see: U{Ellipsoid, Geoid, and Othometric Heights<https://www.NGS.NOAA.gov/
+             GEOID/PRESENTATIONS/2007_02_24_CCPS/Roman_A_PLSC2007notes.pdf>}, page
+             6 and module L{pygeodesy.geoids}.
+    '''
+    h = h_ll if _isHeight(h_ll) else _xattr(h_ll, height=_xattr(h_ll, h=0))
+    return Height(H=Height(h=h) - Height(N=N))
+
+
+def horizon(height, radius=R_M, refraction=False):
+    '''Determine the distance to the horizon from a given altitude
+       above the (spherical) earth.
+
+       @arg height: Altitude (C{meter} or same units as B{C{radius}}).
+       @kwarg radius: Optional mean earth radius (C{meter}).
+       @kwarg refraction: Consider atmospheric refraction (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as B{C{height}} and B{C{radius}}).
+
+       @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{height}} or B{C{radius}}.
+
+       @see: U{Distance to horizon<https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform.htm#Horizon>}.
+    '''
+    h, r = Height(height), Radius(radius)
+    if min(h, r) < 0:
+        raise _ValueError(height=height, radius=radius)
+
+    d2 = ((r * 2.415750694528) if refraction else  # 2.0 / 0.8279
+          fsumf_(r, r, h)) * h
+    return sqrt0(d2)
+
+
+class _idllmn6(object):  # see also .geodesicw._wargs, .latlonBase._toCartesian3, .vector2d._numpy
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for C{intersection2} and C{intersections2}.
+    '''
+    @contextmanager  # <https://www.Python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343/> Examples
+    def __call__(self, datum, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, small, wrap, s, **kwds):
+        try:
+            if wrap:
+                _, lat2, lon2 = _Wrap.latlon3(lon1, lat2, lon2, wrap)
+                kwds = _xkwds(kwds, wrap=wrap)  # for _xError
+            m = small if small is _100km else Meter_(small=small)
+            n = (intersections2 if s else intersection2).__name__
+            if datum is None or euclidean(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2) < m:
+                d, m = None, _MODS.vector3d
+                _i   = m._intersects2 if s else m._intersect3d3
+            elif _isRadius(datum) and datum < 0 and not s:
+                d = _spherical_datum(-datum, name=n)
+                m = _MODS.sphericalNvector
+                _i = m.intersection
+            else:
+                d = _spherical_datum(datum, name=n)
+                if d.isSpherical:
+                    m = _MODS.sphericalTrigonometry
+                    _i = m._intersects2 if s else m._intersect
+                elif d.isEllipsoidal:
+                    try:
+                        if d.ellipsoid.geodesic:
+                            pass
+                        m = _MODS.ellipsoidalKarney
+                    except ImportError:
+                        m = _MODS.ellipsoidalExact
+                    _i = m._intersections2 if s else m._intersection3  # ellispoidalBaseDI
+                else:
+                    raise _TypeError(datum=datum)
+            yield _i, d, lat2, lon2, m, n
+
+        except (TypeError, ValueError) as x:
+            raise _xError(x, lat1=lat1, lon1=lon1, datum=datum,
+                             lat2=lat2, lon2=lon2, small=small, **kwds)
+
+_idllmn6 = _idllmn6()  # PYCHOK singleton
+
+
+def intersection2(lat1, lon1, bearing1,
+                  lat2, lon2, bearing2, datum=None, wrap=False, small=_100km):  # was=True
+    '''I{Conveniently} compute the intersection of two lines each defined
+       by a (geodetic) point and a bearing from North, using either ...
+
+       1) L{vector3d.intersection3d3} for B{C{small}} distances (below 100 Km
+       or about 0.88 degrees) or if I{no} B{C{datum}} is specified, or ...
+
+       2) L{sphericalTrigonometry.intersection} for a spherical B{C{datum}}
+       or a C{scalar B{datum}} representing the earth radius, conventionally
+       in C{meter} or ...
+
+       3) L{sphericalNvector.intersection} if B{C{datum}} is a I{negative}
+       C{scalar}, (negative) earth radius, conventionally in C{meter} or ...
+
+       4) L{ellipsoidalKarney.intersection3} for an ellipsoidal B{C{datum}}
+       and if I{Karney}'s U{geographiclib<https://PyPI.org/project/geographiclib>}
+       is installed, otherwise ...
+
+       5) L{ellipsoidalExact.intersection3}, provided B{C{datum}} is ellipsoidal.
+
+       @arg lat1: Latitude of the first point (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Longitude of the first point (C{degrees}).
+       @arg bearing1: Bearing at the first point (compass C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: Latitude of the second point (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: Longitude of the second point (C{degrees}).
+       @arg bearing2: Bearing at the second point (compass C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg datum: Optional datum (L{Datum}) or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid},
+                     L{Ellipsoid2} or L{a_f2Tuple}) or C{scalar} earth
+                     radius (C{meter}, same units as B{C{radius1}} and
+                     B{C{radius2}}) or C{None}.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll B{C{lat2}}
+                    and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+       @kwarg small: Upper limit for small distances (C{meter}).
+
+       @return: A L{LatLon2Tuple}C{(lat, lon)} with the lat- and
+                longitude of the intersection point.
+
+       @raise IntersectionError: Ambiguous or infinite intersection
+                                 or colinear, parallel or otherwise
+                                 non-intersecting lines.
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{datum}}.
+
+       @raise UnitError: Invalid B{C{lat1}}, B{C{lon1}}, B{C{bearing1}},
+                         B{C{lat2}}, B{C{lon2}} or B{C{bearing2}}.
+
+       @see: Method L{RhumbLine.intersection2}.
+
+       @note: The returned intersections may be near-antipodal.
+    '''
+    b1 = Bearing(bearing1=bearing1)
+    b2 = Bearing(bearing2=bearing2)
+    with _idllmn6(datum, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2,
+                  small, wrap, False, bearing1=b1, bearing2=b2) as t:
+        _i, d, lat2, lon2, m, n = t
+        if d is None:
+            t, _, _ = _i(m.Vector3d(lon1, lat1, 0), b1,
+                         m.Vector3d(lon2, lat2, 0), b2, useZ=False)
+            t = LatLon2Tuple(t.y, t.x, name=n)
+
+        else:
+            t = _i(m.LatLon(lat1, lon1, datum=d), b1,
+                   m.LatLon(lat2, lon2, datum=d), b2, height=0, wrap=False)
+            if isinstance(t, Intersection3Tuple):  # ellipsoidal
+                t, _, _ = t
+            t = LatLon2Tuple(t.lat, t.lon, name=n)
+    return t
+
+
+def intersections2(lat1, lon1, radius1,
+                   lat2, lon2, radius2, datum=None, wrap=False, small=_100km):  # was=True
+    '''I{Conveniently} compute the intersections of two circles each defined
+       by a (geodetic) center point and a radius, using either ...
+
+       1) L{vector3d.intersections2} for B{C{small}} distances (below 100 Km
+       or about 0.88 degrees) or if I{no} B{C{datum}} is specified, or ...
+
+       2) L{sphericalTrigonometry.intersections2} for a spherical B{C{datum}}
+       or a C{scalar B{datum}} representing the earth radius, conventionally
+       in C{meter} or ...
+
+       3) L{ellipsoidalKarney.intersections2} for an ellipsoidal B{C{datum}}
+       and if I{Karney}'s U{geographiclib<https://PyPI.org/project/geographiclib>}
+       is installed, otherwise ...
+
+       4) L{ellipsoidalExact.intersections2}, provided B{C{datum}} is ellipsoidal.
+
+       @arg lat1: Latitude of the first circle center (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Longitude of the first circle center (C{degrees}).
+       @arg radius1: Radius of the first circle (C{meter}, conventionally).
+       @arg lat2: Latitude of the second circle center (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: Longitude of the second circle center (C{degrees}).
+       @arg radius2: Radius of the second circle (C{meter}, same units as B{C{radius1}}).
+       @kwarg datum: Optional datum (L{Datum}) or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid},
+                     L{Ellipsoid2} or L{a_f2Tuple}) or C{scalar} earth
+                     radius (C{meter}, same units as B{C{radius1}} and
+                     B{C{radius2}}) or C{None}.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll B{C{lat2}}
+                    and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+       @kwarg small: Upper limit for small distances (C{meter}).
+
+       @return: 2-Tuple of the intersection points, each a
+                L{LatLon2Tuple}C{(lat, lon)}.  For abutting circles, the
+                points are the same instance, aka the I{radical center}.
+
+       @raise IntersectionError: Concentric, antipodal, invalid or
+                                 non-intersecting circles or no
+                                 convergence.
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{datum}}.
+
+       @raise UnitError: Invalid B{C{lat1}}, B{C{lon1}}, B{C{radius1}},
+                         B{C{lat2}}, B{C{lon2}} or B{C{radius2}}.
+    '''
+    r1 = Radius_(radius1=radius1)
+    r2 = Radius_(radius2=radius2)
+    with _idllmn6(datum, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2,
+                  small, wrap, True, radius1=r1, radius2=r2) as t:
+        _i, d, lat2, lon2, m, n = t
+        if d is None:
+            r1 = m2degrees(r1, radius=R_M, lat=lat1)
+            r2 = m2degrees(r2, radius=R_M, lat=lat2)
+
+            def _V2T(x, y, _, **unused):  # _ == z unused
+                return LatLon2Tuple(y, x, name=n)
+
+            t = _i(m.Vector3d(lon1, lat1, 0), r1,
+                   m.Vector3d(lon2, lat2, 0), r2, sphere=False,
+                     Vector=_V2T)
+        else:
+            def _LL2T(lat, lon, **unused):
+                return LatLon2Tuple(lat, lon, name=n)
+
+            t = _i(m.LatLon(lat1, lon1, datum=d), r1,
+                   m.LatLon(lat2, lon2, datum=d), r2,
+                     LatLon=_LL2T, height=0, wrap=False)
+    return t
+
+
+def isantipode(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, eps=EPS):
+    '''Check whether two points are I{antipodal}, on diametrically
+       opposite sides of the earth.
+
+       @arg lat1: Latitude of one point (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Longitude of one point (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: Latitude of the other point (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: Longitude of the other point (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg eps: Tolerance for near-equality (C{degrees}).
+
+       @return: C{True} if points are antipodal within the
+                B{C{eps}} tolerance, C{False} otherwise.
+
+       @see: Functions L{isantipode_} and L{antipode}.
+    '''
+    return (fabs(lat1 + lat2) <= eps and
+            fabs(lon1 + lon2) <= eps) or _isequalTo(
+            normal(lat1, lon1), antipode(lat2, lon2), eps)
+
+
+def isantipode_(phi1, lam1, phi2, lam2, eps=EPS):
+    '''Check whether two points are I{antipodal}, on diametrically
+       opposite sides of the earth.
+
+       @arg phi1: Latitude of one point (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam1: Longitude of one point (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi2: Latitude of the other point (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam2: Longitude of the other point (C{radians}).
+       @kwarg eps: Tolerance for near-equality (C{radians}).
+
+       @return: C{True} if points are antipodal within the
+                B{C{eps}} tolerance, C{False} otherwise.
+
+       @see: Functions L{isantipode} and L{antipode_}.
+    '''
+    return (fabs(phi1 + phi2) <= eps and
+            fabs(lam1 + lam2) <= eps) or _isequalTo_(
+            normal_(phi1, lam1), antipode_(phi2, lam2), eps)
+
+
+def _isequalTo(p1, p2, eps=EPS):
+    '''Compare 2 point lat-/lons ignoring C{class}.
+    '''
+    return (fabs(p1.lat - p2.lat) <= eps and
+            fabs(p1.lon - p2.lon) <= eps) if eps else (p1.latlon == p2.latlon)
+
+
+def _isequalTo_(p1, p2, eps=EPS):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Compare 2 point phi-/lams ignoring C{class}.
+    '''
+    return (fabs(p1.phi - p2.phi) <= eps and
+            fabs(p1.lam - p2.lam) <= eps) if eps else (p1.philam == p2.philam)
+
+
+def isnormal(lat, lon, eps=0):
+    '''Check whether B{C{lat}} I{and} B{C{lon}} are within their
+       respective I{normal} range in C{degrees}.
+
+       @arg lat: Latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon: Longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg eps: Optional tolerance C{degrees}).
+
+       @return: C{True} if C{(abs(B{lat}) + B{eps}) <= 90} and
+                C{(abs(B{lon}) + B{eps}) <= 180}, C{False} othwerwise.
+
+       @see: Functions L{isnormal_} and L{normal}.
+    '''
+    return (_90_0 - fabs(lat)) >= eps and _loneg(fabs(lon)) >= eps
+
+
+def isnormal_(phi, lam, eps=0):
+    '''Check whether B{C{phi}} I{and} B{C{lam}} are within their
+       respective I{normal} range in C{radians}.
+
+       @arg phi: Latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam: Longitude (C{radians}).
+       @kwarg eps: Optional tolerance C{radians}).
+
+       @return: C{True} if C{(abs(B{phi}) + B{eps}) <= PI/2} and
+                C{(abs(B{lam}) + B{eps}) <= PI}, C{False} othwerwise.
+
+       @see: Functions L{isnormal} and L{normal_}.
+    '''
+    return (PI_2 - fabs(phi)) >= eps and (PI - fabs(lam)) >= eps
+
+
+def latlon2n_xyz(lat, lon, name=NN):
+    '''Convert lat-, longitude to C{n-vector} (I{normal} to the
+       earth's surface) X, Y and Z components.
+
+       @arg lat: Latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon: Longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg name: Optional name (C{str}).
+
+       @return: A L{Vector3Tuple}C{(x, y, z)}.
+
+       @see: Function L{philam2n_xyz}.
+
+       @note: These are C{n-vector} x, y and z components,
+              I{NOT} geocentric ECEF x, y and z coordinates!
+    '''
+    return _2n_xyz(name, *sincos2d_(lat, lon))
+
+
+def _normal2(a, b, n_2, n, n2):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for C{normal} and C{normal_}.
+    '''
+    if fabs(b) > n:
+        b = remainder(b, n2)
+    if fabs(a) > n_2:
+        r = remainder(a, n)
+        if r != a:
+            a  = -r
+            b -=  n if b > 0 else -n
+    return float0_(a, b)
+
+
+def normal(lat, lon, name=NN):
+    '''Normalize a lat- I{and} longitude pair in C{degrees}.
+
+       @arg lat: Latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon: Longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg name: Optional name (C{str}).
+
+       @return: L{LatLon2Tuple}C{(lat, lon)} with C{abs(lat) <= 90}
+                and C{abs(lon) <= 180}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{normal_} and L{isnormal}.
+    '''
+    return LatLon2Tuple(*_normal2(lat, lon, _90_0, _180_0, _360_0),
+                          name=name or normal.__name__)
+
+
+def normal_(phi, lam, name=NN):
+    '''Normalize a lat- I{and} longitude pair in C{radians}.
+
+       @arg phi: Latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam: Longitude (C{radians}).
+       @kwarg name: Optional name (C{str}).
+
+       @return: L{PhiLam2Tuple}C{(phi, lam)} with C{abs(phi) <= PI/2}
+                and C{abs(lam) <= PI}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{normal} and L{isnormal_}.
+    '''
+    return PhiLam2Tuple(*_normal2(phi, lam, PI_2, PI, PI2),
+                          name=name or normal_.__name__)
+
+
+def _2n_xyz(name, sa, ca, sb, cb):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for C{latlon2n_xyz} and C{philam2n_xyz}.
+    '''
+    # Kenneth Gade eqn 3, but using right-handed
+    # vector x -> 0°E,0°N, y -> 90°E,0°N, z -> 90°N
+    return Vector3Tuple(ca * cb, ca * sb, sa, name=name)
+
+
+def n_xyz2latlon(x, y, z, name=NN):
+    '''Convert C{n-vector} components to lat- and longitude in C{degrees}.
+
+       @arg x: X component (C{scalar}).
+       @arg y: Y component (C{scalar}).
+       @arg z: Z component (C{scalar}).
+       @kwarg name: Optional name (C{str}).
+
+       @return: A L{LatLon2Tuple}C{(lat, lon)}.
+
+       @see: Function L{n_xyz2philam}.
+    '''
+    return LatLon2Tuple(atan2d(z, hypot(x, y)), atan2d(y, x), name=name)
+
+
+def n_xyz2philam(x, y, z, name=NN):
+    '''Convert C{n-vector} components to lat- and longitude in C{radians}.
+
+       @arg x: X component (C{scalar}).
+       @arg y: Y component (C{scalar}).
+       @arg z: Z component (C{scalar}).
+       @kwarg name: Optional name (C{str}).
+
+       @return: A L{PhiLam2Tuple}C{(phi, lam)}.
+
+       @see: Function L{n_xyz2latlon}.
+    '''
+    return PhiLam2Tuple(atan2(z, hypot(x, y)), atan2(y, x), name=name)
+
+
+def _opposes(d, m, n, n2):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for C{opposing} and C{opposing_}.
+    '''
+    d = d % n2  # -20 % 360 == 340, -1 % PI2 == PI2 - 1
+    return False if d < m or d > (n2 - m) else (
+           True if (n - m) < d < (n  + m) else None)
+
+
+def opposing(bearing1, bearing2, margin=_90_0):
+    '''Compare the direction of two bearings given in C{degrees}.
+
+       @arg bearing1: First bearing (compass C{degrees}).
+       @arg bearing2: Second bearing (compass C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg margin: Optional, interior angle bracket (C{degrees}).
+
+       @return: C{True} if both bearings point in opposite, C{False} if
+                in similar or C{None} if in I{perpendicular} directions.
+
+       @see: Function L{opposing_}.
+    '''
+    m = Degrees_(margin=margin, low=EPS0, high=_90_0)
+    return _opposes(bearing2 - bearing1, m, _180_0, _360_0)
+
+
+def opposing_(radians1, radians2, margin=PI_2):
+    '''Compare the direction of two bearings given in C{radians}.
+
+       @arg radians1: First bearing (C{radians}).
+       @arg radians2: Second bearing (C{radians}).
+       @kwarg margin: Optional, interior angle bracket (C{radians}).
+
+       @return: C{True} if both bearings point in opposite, C{False} if
+                in similar or C{None} if in perpendicular directions.
+
+       @see: Function L{opposing}.
+    '''
+    m = Radians_(margin=margin, low=EPS0, high=PI_2)
+    return _opposes(radians2 - radians1, m, PI, PI2)
+
+
+def philam2n_xyz(phi, lam, name=NN):
+    '''Convert lat-, longitude to C{n-vector} (I{normal} to the
+       earth's surface) X, Y and Z components.
+
+       @arg phi: Latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam: Longitude (C{radians}).
+       @kwarg name: Optional name (C{str}).
+
+       @return: A L{Vector3Tuple}C{(x, y, z)}.
+
+       @see: Function L{latlon2n_xyz}.
+
+       @note: These are C{n-vector} x, y and z components,
+              I{NOT} geocentric ECEF x, y and z coordinates!
+    '''
+    return _2n_xyz(name, *sincos2_(phi, lam))
+
+
+def _radical2(d, r1, r2):  # in .ellipsoidalBaseDI, .sphericalTrigonometry, .vector3d
+    # (INTERNAL) See C{radical2} below
+    # assert d > EPS0
+    r = fsumf_(_1_0, (r1 / d)**2, -(r2 / d)**2) * _0_5
+    return Radical2Tuple(max(_0_0, min(_1_0, r)), r * d)
+
+
+def radical2(distance, radius1, radius2):
+    '''Compute the I{radical ratio} and I{radical line} of two
+       U{intersecting circles<https://MathWorld.Wolfram.com/
+       Circle-CircleIntersection.html>}.
+
+       The I{radical line} is perpendicular to the axis thru the
+       centers of the circles at C{(0, 0)} and C{(B{distance}, 0)}.
+
+       @arg distance: Distance between the circle centers (C{scalar}).
+       @arg radius1: Radius of the first circle (C{scalar}).
+       @arg radius2: Radius of the second circle (C{scalar}).
+
+       @return: A L{Radical2Tuple}C{(ratio, xline)} where C{0.0 <=
+                ratio <= 1.0} and C{xline} is along the B{C{distance}}.
+
+       @raise IntersectionError: The B{C{distance}} exceeds the sum
+                                 of B{C{radius1}} and B{C{radius2}}.
+
+       @raise UnitError: Invalid B{C{distance}}, B{C{radius1}} or
+                         B{C{radius2}}.
+
+       @see: U{Circle-Circle Intersection
+             <https://MathWorld.Wolfram.com/Circle-CircleIntersection.html>}.
+    '''
+    d  = Distance_(distance, low=_0_0)
+    r1 = Radius_(radius1=radius1)
+    r2 = Radius_(radius2=radius2)
+    if d > (r1 + r2):
+        raise IntersectionError(distance=d, radius1=r1, radius2=r2,
+                                            txt=_too_(_distant_))
+    return _radical2(d, r1, r2) if d > EPS0 else \
+            Radical2Tuple(_0_5, _0_0)
+
+
+class Radical2Tuple(_NamedTuple):
+    '''2-Tuple C{(ratio, xline)} of the I{radical} C{ratio} and
+       I{radical} C{xline}, both C{scalar} and C{0.0 <= ratio <= 1.0}
+    '''
+    _Names_ = (_ratio_, _xline_)
+    _Units_ = ( Scalar,  Scalar)
+
+
+def _radistance(inst):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Helper for the L{frechet._FrecherMeterRadians}
+       and L{hausdorff._HausdorffMeterRedians} classes.
+    '''
+    wrap_, kwds_ = _xkwds_pop2(inst._kwds, wrap=False)
+    func_ = inst._func_
+    try:  # calling lower-overhead C{func_}
+        func_(0, _0_25, _0_5, **kwds_)
+        wrap_ = _Wrap._philamop(wrap_)
+    except TypeError:
+        return inst.distance
+
+    def _philam(p):
+        try:
+            return p.phi, p.lam
+        except AttributeError:  # no .phi or .lam
+            return radians(p.lat), radians(p.lon)
+
+    def _func_wrap(point1, point2):
+        phi1, lam1 = wrap_(*_philam(point1))
+        phi2, lam2 = wrap_(*_philam(point2))
+        return func_(phi2, phi1, lam2 - lam1, **kwds_)
+
+    inst._units = inst._units_
+    return _func_wrap
+
+
+def _scale_deg(lat1, lat2):  # degrees
+    # scale factor cos(mean of lats) for delta lon
+    m = fabs(lat1 + lat2) * _0_5
+    return cos(radians(m)) if m < 90 else _0_0
+
+
+def _scale_rad(phi1,  phi2):  # radians, by .frechet, .hausdorff, .heights
+    # scale factor cos(mean of phis) for delta lam
+    m = fabs(phi1 + phi2) * _0_5
+    return cos(m) if m < PI_2 else _0_0
+
+
+def _sincosa6(phi2, phi1, lam21):  # [4] in cosineLaw
+    '''(INTERNAL) C{sin}es, C{cos}ines and C{acos}ine.
+    '''
+    s2, c2, s1, c1, _, c21 = sincos2_(phi2, phi1, lam21)
+    return s2, c2, s1, c1, acos1(s1 * s2 + c1 * c2 * c21), c21
+
+
+def thomas(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=_WGS84, wrap=False):
+    '''Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using
+       U{Thomas'<https://apps.DTIC.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/703541.pdf>}
+       formula.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg datum: Datum (L{Datum}) or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid},
+                     L{Ellipsoid2} or L{a_f2Tuple}) to use.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll
+                    B{C{lat2}} and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as the B{C{datum}}'s
+                ellipsoid axes).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{datum}}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{thomas_}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert}, L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert},
+             L{cosineLaw}, L{equirectangular}, L{euclidean}, L{flatLocal}/L{hubeny},
+             L{flatPolar}, L{haversine}, L{vincentys} and method L{Ellipsoid.distance2}.
+    '''
+    return _dE(thomas_, datum, wrap, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2)
+
+
+def thomas_(phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=_WGS84):
+    '''Compute the I{angular} distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using
+       U{Thomas'<https://apps.DTIC.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/703541.pdf>}
+       formula.
+
+       @arg phi2: End latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi1: Start latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam21: Longitudinal delta, M{end-start} (C{radians}).
+       @kwarg datum: Datum or ellipsoid to use (L{Datum}, L{Ellipsoid},
+                     L{Ellipsoid2} or L{a_f2Tuple}).
+
+       @return: Angular distance (C{radians}).
+
+       @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{datum}}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{thomas}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert_},
+             L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_}, L{cosineLaw_},
+             L{equirectangular_}, L{euclidean_}, L{flatLocal_}/L{hubeny_},
+             L{flatPolar_}, L{haversine_} and L{vincentys_} and U{Geodesy-PHP
+             <https://GitHub.com/jtejido/geodesy-php/blob/master/src/Geodesy/
+             Distance/ThomasFormula.php>}.
+    '''
+    s2, c2, s1, c1, r, _ = _sincosa6(phi2, phi1, lam21)
+    if r and isnon0(c1) and isnon0(c2):
+        E = _ellipsoidal(datum, thomas_)
+        if E.f:
+            r1 = atan2(E.b_a * s1, c1)
+            r2 = atan2(E.b_a * s2, c2)
+
+            j = (r2 + r1) * _0_5
+            k = (r2 - r1) * _0_5
+            sj, cj, sk, ck, h, _ = sincos2_(j, k, lam21 * _0_5)
+
+            h =  fsumf_(sk**2, (ck * h)**2, -(sj * h)**2)
+            u = _1_0 - h
+            if isnon0(u) and isnon0(h):
+                r = atan(sqrt0(h / u)) * 2  # == acos(1 - 2 * h)
+                sr, cr = sincos2(r)
+                if isnon0(sr):
+                    u = 2 * (sj * ck)**2 / u
+                    h = 2 * (sk * cj)**2 / h
+                    x = u + h
+                    y = u - h
+
+                    s = r / sr
+                    e = 4 * s**2
+                    d = 2 * cr
+                    a = e * d
+                    b = 2 * r
+                    c = s - (a - d) * _0_5
+                    f = E.f * _0_25
+
+                    t  = fsumf_(a * x, -b * y, c * x**2, -d * y**2, e * x * y)
+                    r -= fsumf_(s * x, -y, -t * f * _0_25) * f * sr
+    return r
+
+
+def vincentys(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=R_M, wrap=False):
+    '''Compute the distance between two (spherical) points using
+       U{Vincenty's<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Great-circle_distance>}
+       spherical formula.
+
+       @arg lat1: Start latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon1: Start longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lat2: End latitude (C{degrees}).
+       @arg lon2: End longitude (C{degrees}).
+       @kwarg radius: Mean earth radius (C{meter}), datum (L{Datum})
+                      or ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid}, L{Ellipsoid2} or
+                      L{a_f2Tuple}) to use.
+       @kwarg wrap: If C{True}, wrap or I{normalize} and unroll
+                    B{C{lat2}} and B{C{lon2}} (C{bool}).
+
+       @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as B{C{radius}}).
+
+       @raise UnitError: Invalid B{C{radius}}.
+
+       @see: Functions L{vincentys_}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert},
+             L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert},L{cosineLaw}, L{equirectangular},
+             L{euclidean}, L{flatLocal}/L{hubeny}, L{flatPolar},
+             L{haversine} and L{thomas} and methods L{Ellipsoid.distance2},
+             C{LatLon.distanceTo*} and C{LatLon.equirectangularTo}.
+
+       @note: See note at function L{vincentys_}.
+    '''
+    return _dS(vincentys_, radius, wrap, lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2)
+
+
+def vincentys_(phi2, phi1, lam21):
+    '''Compute the I{angular} distance between two (spherical) points using
+       U{Vincenty's<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Great-circle_distance>}
+       spherical formula.
+
+       @arg phi2: End latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg phi1: Start latitude (C{radians}).
+       @arg lam21: Longitudinal delta, M{end-start} (C{radians}).
+
+       @return: Angular distance (C{radians}).
+
+       @see: Functions L{vincentys}, L{cosineAndoyerLambert_},
+             L{cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_}, L{cosineLaw_},
+             L{equirectangular_}, L{euclidean_}, L{flatLocal_}/L{hubeny_},
+             L{flatPolar_}, L{haversine_} and L{thomas_}.
+
+       @note: Functions L{vincentys_}, L{haversine_} and L{cosineLaw_}
+              produce equivalent results, but L{vincentys_} is suitable
+              for antipodal points and slightly more expensive (M{3 cos,
+              3 sin, 1 hypot, 1 atan2, 6 mul, 2 add}) than L{haversine_}
+              (M{2 cos, 2 sin, 2 sqrt, 1 atan2, 5 mul, 1 add}) and
+              L{cosineLaw_} (M{3 cos, 3 sin, 1 acos, 3 mul, 1 add}).
+    '''
+    s1, c1, s2, c2, s21, c21 = sincos2_(phi1, phi2, lam21)
+
+    c = c2 * c21
+    x = s1 * s2 + c1 * c
+    y = c1 * s2 - s1 * c
+    return atan2(hypot(c2 * s21, y), x)
+
+# **) MIT License
+#
+# Copyright (C) 2016-2024 -- mrJean1 at Gmail -- All Rights Reserved.
+#
+# Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a
+# copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"),
+# to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation
+# the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense,
+# and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the
+# Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+#
+# The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
+# in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+#
+# THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS
+# OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+# FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL
+# THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR
+# OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE,
+# ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR
+# OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.