pygeodesy 24.3.24__py2.py3-none-any.whl

pygeodesy/ellipsoids.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2476 @@
+
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+
+u'''Ellipsoidal and spherical earth models.
+
+Classes L{a_f2Tuple}, L{Ellipsoid} and L{Ellipsoid2}, an L{Ellipsoids} registry and
+2 dozen functions to convert I{equatorial} radius, I{polar} radius, I{eccentricities},
+I{flattenings} and I{inverse flattening}.
+
+See module L{datums} for L{Datum} and L{Transform} information and other details.
+
+Following is the list of predefined L{Ellipsoid}s, all instantiated lazily.
+
+@var Ellipsoids.Airy1830: Ellipsoid(name='Airy1830', a=6377563.396, b=6356256.90923729, f_=299.3249646, f=0.00334085, f2=0.00335205, n=0.00167322, e=0.08167337, e2=0.00667054, e21=0.99332946, e22=0.00671533, e32=0.00334643, A=6366914.60892522, L=10001126.0807165, R1=6370461.23374576, R2=6370459.65470808, R3=6370453.30994572, Rbiaxial=6366919.065224, Rtriaxial=6372243.45317691)
+@var Ellipsoids.AiryModified: Ellipsoid(name='AiryModified', a=6377340.189, b=6356034.44793853, f_=299.3249646, f=0.00334085, f2=0.00335205, n=0.00167322, e=0.08167337, e2=0.00667054, e21=0.99332946, e22=0.00671533, e32=0.00334643, A=6366691.77461988, L=10000776.05340819, R1=6370238.27531284, R2=6370236.69633043, R3=6370230.35179013, Rbiaxial=6366696.2307627, Rtriaxial=6372020.43236847)
+@var Ellipsoids.ATS1977: Ellipsoid(name='ATS1977', a=6378135, b=6356750.30492159, f_=298.257, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181922, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367447.14116695, L=10001962.58040571, R1=6371006.7683072, R2=6371005.17780873, R3=6370998.78689182, Rbiaxial=6367451.62986519, Rtriaxial=6372795.55363648)
+@var Ellipsoids.Australia1966: Ellipsoid(name='Australia1966', a=6378160, b=6356774.71919531, f_=298.25, f=0.00335289, f2=0.00336417, n=0.00167926, e=0.08182018, e2=0.00669454, e21=0.99330546, e22=0.00673966, e32=0.00335851, A=6367471.84853228, L=10002001.39064442, R1=6371031.5730651, R2=6371029.9824858, R3=6371023.59124344, Rbiaxial=6367476.337459, Rtriaxial=6372820.40754721)
+@var Ellipsoids.Bessel1841: Ellipsoid(name='Bessel1841', a=6377397.155, b=6356078.962818, f_=299.1528128, f=0.00334277, f2=0.00335398, n=0.00167418, e=0.08169683, e2=0.00667437, e21=0.99332563, e22=0.00671922, e32=0.00334836, A=6366742.52023395, L=10000855.76443237, R1=6370291.09093933, R2=6370289.51012659, R3=6370283.15821523, Rbiaxial=6366746.98155108, Rtriaxial=6372074.29334012)
+@var Ellipsoids.BesselModified: Ellipsoid(name='BesselModified', a=6377492.018, b=6356173.5087127, f_=299.1528128, f=0.00334277, f2=0.00335398, n=0.00167418, e=0.08169683, e2=0.00667437, e21=0.99332563, e22=0.00671922, e32=0.00334836, A=6366837.22474766, L=10001004.52593463, R1=6370385.84823756, R2=6370384.26740131, R3=6370377.91539546, Rbiaxial=6366841.68613115, Rtriaxial=6372169.07716325)
+@var Ellipsoids.CGCS2000: Ellipsoid(name='CGCS2000', a=6378137, b=6356752.31414036, f_=298.2572221, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181919, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367449.14577105, L=10001965.72923046, R1=6371008.77138012, R2=6371007.18088352, R3=6371000.78997414, Rbiaxial=6367453.63446401, Rtriaxial=6372797.55593326)
+@var Ellipsoids.Clarke1866: Ellipsoid(name='Clarke1866', a=6378206.4, b=6356583.8, f_=294.97869821, f=0.00339008, f2=0.00340161, n=0.00169792, e=0.08227185, e2=0.00676866, e21=0.99323134, e22=0.00681478, e32=0.00339582, A=6367399.68916978, L=10001888.04298286, R1=6370998.86666667, R2=6370997.240633, R3=6370990.70659881, Rbiaxial=6367404.2783313, Rtriaxial=6372807.62791066)
+@var Ellipsoids.Clarke1880: Ellipsoid(name='Clarke1880', a=6378249.145, b=6356514.86954978, f_=293.465, f=0.00340756, f2=0.00341921, n=0.00170669, e=0.0824834, e2=0.00680351, e21=0.99319649, e22=0.00685012, e32=0.00341337, A=6367386.64398051, L=10001867.55164747, R1=6371004.38651659, R2=6371002.74366963, R3=6370996.1419165, Rbiaxial=6367391.2806777, Rtriaxial=6372822.52526083)
+@var Ellipsoids.Clarke1880IGN: Ellipsoid(name='Clarke1880IGN', a=6378249.2, b=6356515, f_=293.46602129, f=0.00340755, f2=0.0034192, n=0.00170668, e=0.08248326, e2=0.00680349, e21=0.99319651, e22=0.00685009, e32=0.00341336, A=6367386.73667336, L=10001867.69724907, R1=6371004.46666667, R2=6371002.82383112, R3=6370996.22212395, Rbiaxial=6367391.37333829, Rtriaxial=6372822.59907505)
+@var Ellipsoids.Clarke1880Mod: Ellipsoid(name='Clarke1880Mod', a=6378249.145, b=6356514.96639549, f_=293.46630766, f=0.00340755, f2=0.0034192, n=0.00170668, e=0.08248322, e2=0.00680348, e21=0.99319652, e22=0.00685009, e32=0.00341335, A=6367386.69236201, L=10001867.62764496, R1=6371004.4187985, R2=6371002.77596616, R3=6370996.17427195, Rbiaxial=6367391.32901784, Rtriaxial=6372822.5494103)
+@var Ellipsoids.CPM1799: Ellipsoid(name='CPM1799', a=6375738.7, b=6356671.92557493, f_=334.39, f=0.00299052, f2=0.00299949, n=0.0014975, e=0.07727934, e2=0.0059721, e21=0.9940279, e22=0.00600798, e32=0.00299499, A=6366208.88184784, L=10000017.52721564, R1=6369383.10852498, R2=6369381.8434158, R3=6369376.76247022, Rbiaxial=6366212.45090321, Rtriaxial=6370977.3559758)
+@var Ellipsoids.Delambre1810: Ellipsoid(name='Delambre1810', a=6376428, b=6355957.92616372, f_=311.5, f=0.00321027, f2=0.00322061, n=0.00160772, e=0.08006397, e2=0.00641024, e21=0.99358976, e22=0.0064516, e32=0.00321543, A=6366197.07684334, L=9999998.98395793, R1=6369604.64205457, R2=6369603.18419749, R3=6369597.32739068, Rbiaxial=6366201.19059818, Rtriaxial=6371316.64722284)
+@var Ellipsoids.Engelis1985: Ellipsoid(name='Engelis1985', a=6378136.05, b=6356751.32272154, f_=298.2566, f=0.00335282, f2=0.0033641, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181928, e2=0.00669439, e21=0.99330561, e22=0.00673951, e32=0.00335844, A=6367448.17507971, L=10001964.20447208, R1=6371007.80757385, R2=6371006.21707085, R3=6370999.82613573, Rbiaxial=6367452.66379074, Rtriaxial=6372796.59560563)
+@var Ellipsoids.Everest1969: Ellipsoid(name='Everest1969', a=6377295.664, b=6356094.667915, f_=300.8017, f=0.00332445, f2=0.00333554, n=0.00166499, e=0.08147298, e2=0.00663785, e21=0.99336215, e22=0.0066822, e32=0.00332998, A=6366699.57839501, L=10000788.3115495, R1=6370228.665305, R2=6370227.10178537, R3=6370220.81951618, Rbiaxial=6366703.99082487, Rtriaxial=6372002.02812501)
+@var Ellipsoids.Everest1975: Ellipsoid(name='Everest1975', a=6377299.151, b=6356098.14512013, f_=300.8017255, f=0.00332445, f2=0.00333554, n=0.00166499, e=0.08147298, e2=0.00663785, e21=0.99336215, e22=0.0066822, e32=0.00332997, A=6366703.06049924, L=10000793.78122603, R1=6370232.14904004, R2=6370230.58551983, R3=6370224.30324826, Rbiaxial=6366707.47293076, Rtriaxial=6372005.51267879)
+@var Ellipsoids.Fisher1968: Ellipsoid(name='Fisher1968', a=6378150, b=6356768.33724438, f_=298.3, f=0.00335233, f2=0.00336361, n=0.00167898, e=0.08181333, e2=0.00669342, e21=0.99330658, e22=0.00673853, e32=0.00335795, A=6367463.65604381, L=10001988.52191361, R1=6371022.77908146, R2=6371021.18903735, R3=6371014.79995035, Rbiaxial=6367468.14345752, Rtriaxial=6372811.30979281)
+@var Ellipsoids.GEM10C: Ellipsoid(name='GEM10C', a=6378137, b=6356752.31424783, f_=298.2572236, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181919, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367449.14582474, L=10001965.7293148, R1=6371008.77141594, R2=6371007.18091936, R3=6371000.79001005, Rbiaxial=6367453.63451765, Rtriaxial=6372797.55596006)
+@var Ellipsoids.GPES: Ellipsoid(name='GPES', a=6378135, b=6378135, f_=0, f=0, f2=0, n=0, e=0, e2=0, e21=1, e22=0, e32=0, A=6378135, L=10018751.02980197, R1=6378135, R2=6378135, R3=6378135, Rbiaxial=6378135, Rtriaxial=6378135)
+@var Ellipsoids.GRS67: Ellipsoid(name='GRS67', a=6378160, b=6356774.51609071, f_=298.24716743, f=0.00335292, f2=0.0033642, n=0.00167928, e=0.08182057, e2=0.00669461, e21=0.99330539, e22=0.00673973, e32=0.00335854, A=6367471.74706533, L=10002001.2312605, R1=6371031.50536357, R2=6371029.91475409, R3=6371023.52339015, Rbiaxial=6367476.23607738, Rtriaxial=6372820.3568989)
+@var Ellipsoids.GRS80: Ellipsoid(name='GRS80', a=6378137, b=6356752.31414035, f_=298.2572221, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181919, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367449.14577104, L=10001965.72923046, R1=6371008.77138012, R2=6371007.18088351, R3=6371000.78997414, Rbiaxial=6367453.634464, Rtriaxial=6372797.55593326)
+@var Ellipsoids.Helmert1906: Ellipsoid(name='Helmert1906', a=6378200, b=6356818.16962789, f_=298.3, f=0.00335233, f2=0.00336361, n=0.00167898, e=0.08181333, e2=0.00669342, e21=0.99330658, e22=0.00673853, e32=0.00335795, A=6367513.57227074, L=10002066.93013953, R1=6371072.7232093, R2=6371071.13315272, R3=6371064.74401563, Rbiaxial=6367518.05971963, Rtriaxial=6372861.26794141)
+@var Ellipsoids.IAU76: Ellipsoid(name='IAU76', a=6378140, b=6356755.28815753, f_=298.257, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181922, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367452.13278844, L=10001970.4212264, R1=6371011.76271918, R2=6371010.17221946, R3=6371003.78129754, Rbiaxial=6367456.6214902, Rtriaxial=6372800.54945074)
+@var Ellipsoids.IERS1989: Ellipsoid(name='IERS1989', a=6378136, b=6356751.30156878, f_=298.257, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181922, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367448.13949125, L=10001964.14856985, R1=6371007.76718959, R2=6371006.17669088, R3=6370999.78577297, Rbiaxial=6367452.62819019, Rtriaxial=6372796.55279934)
+@var Ellipsoids.IERS1992TOPEX: Ellipsoid(name='IERS1992TOPEX', a=6378136.3, b=6356751.61659215, f_=298.25722356, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181919, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367448.44699641, L=10001964.63159783, R1=6371008.07219738, R2=6371006.48170097, R3=6371000.09079236, Rbiaxial=6367452.93568883, Rtriaxial=6372796.85654541)
+@var Ellipsoids.IERS2003: Ellipsoid(name='IERS2003', a=6378136.6, b=6356751.85797165, f_=298.25642, f=0.00335282, f2=0.0033641, n=0.00167922, e=0.0818193, e2=0.0066944, e21=0.9933056, e22=0.00673951, e32=0.00335844, A=6367448.71771058, L=10001965.05683465, R1=6371008.35265722, R2=6371006.76215217, R3=6371000.37120877, Rbiaxial=6367453.20642742, Rtriaxial=6372797.14192686)
+@var Ellipsoids.Intl1924: Ellipsoid(name='Intl1924', a=6378388, b=6356911.94612795, f_=297, f=0.003367, f2=0.00337838, n=0.00168634, e=0.08199189, e2=0.00672267, e21=0.99327733, e22=0.00676817, e32=0.00337267, A=6367654.50005758, L=10002288.29898944, R1=6371229.31537598, R2=6371227.71133444, R3=6371221.26587487, Rbiaxial=6367659.02704315, Rtriaxial=6373025.77129687)
+@var Ellipsoids.Intl1967: Ellipsoid(name='Intl1967', a=6378157.5, b=6356772.2, f_=298.24961539, f=0.0033529, f2=0.00336418, n=0.00167926, e=0.08182023, e2=0.00669455, e21=0.99330545, e22=0.00673967, e32=0.00335852, A=6367469.33894446, L=10001997.44859308, R1=6371029.06666667, R2=6371027.47608389, R3=6371021.08482752, Rbiaxial=6367473.827881, Rtriaxial=6372817.9027631)
+@var Ellipsoids.Krassovski1940: Ellipsoid(name='Krassovski1940', a=6378245, b=6356863.01877305, f_=298.3, f=0.00335233, f2=0.00336361, n=0.00167898, e=0.08181333, e2=0.00669342, e21=0.99330658, e22=0.00673853, e32=0.00335795, A=6367558.49687498, L=10002137.49754285, R1=6371117.67292435, R2=6371116.08285656, R3=6371109.69367439, Rbiaxial=6367562.98435553, Rtriaxial=6372906.23027515)
+@var Ellipsoids.Krassowsky1940: Ellipsoid(name='Krassowsky1940', a=6378245, b=6356863.01877305, f_=298.3, f=0.00335233, f2=0.00336361, n=0.00167898, e=0.08181333, e2=0.00669342, e21=0.99330658, e22=0.00673853, e32=0.00335795, A=6367558.49687498, L=10002137.49754285, R1=6371117.67292435, R2=6371116.08285656, R3=6371109.69367439, Rbiaxial=6367562.98435553, Rtriaxial=6372906.23027515)
+@var Ellipsoids.Maupertuis1738: Ellipsoid(name='Maupertuis1738', a=6397300, b=6363806.28272251, f_=191, f=0.0052356, f2=0.00526316, n=0.00262467, e=0.10219488, e2=0.01044379, e21=0.98955621, e22=0.01055402, e32=0.00524931, A=6380564.13011837, L=10022566.69846922, R1=6386135.42757417, R2=6386131.54144847, R3=6386115.8862823, Rbiaxial=6380575.11882818, Rtriaxial=6388943.03218495)
+@var Ellipsoids.Mercury1960: Ellipsoid(name='Mercury1960', a=6378166, b=6356784.28360711, f_=298.3, f=0.00335233, f2=0.00336361, n=0.00167898, e=0.08181333, e2=0.00669342, e21=0.99330658, e22=0.00673853, e32=0.00335795, A=6367479.62923643, L=10002013.61254591, R1=6371038.76120237, R2=6371037.17115427, R3=6371030.78205124, Rbiaxial=6367484.1166614, Rtriaxial=6372827.29640037)
+@var Ellipsoids.Mercury1968Mod: Ellipsoid(name='Mercury1968Mod', a=6378150, b=6356768.33724438, f_=298.3, f=0.00335233, f2=0.00336361, n=0.00167898, e=0.08181333, e2=0.00669342, e21=0.99330658, e22=0.00673853, e32=0.00335795, A=6367463.65604381, L=10001988.52191361, R1=6371022.77908146, R2=6371021.18903735, R3=6371014.79995035, Rbiaxial=6367468.14345752, Rtriaxial=6372811.30979281)
+@var Ellipsoids.NWL1965: Ellipsoid(name='NWL1965', a=6378145, b=6356759.76948868, f_=298.25, f=0.00335289, f2=0.00336417, n=0.00167926, e=0.08182018, e2=0.00669454, e21=0.99330546, e22=0.00673966, e32=0.00335851, A=6367456.87366841, L=10001977.86818326, R1=6371016.58982956, R2=6371014.999254, R3=6371008.60802667, Rbiaxial=6367461.36258457, Rtriaxial=6372805.42010473)
+@var Ellipsoids.OSU86F: Ellipsoid(name='OSU86F', a=6378136.2, b=6356751.51693008, f_=298.2572236, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181919, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367448.3471653, L=10001964.47478349, R1=6371007.97231003, R2=6371006.38181364, R3=6370999.99090513, Rbiaxial=6367452.83585765, Rtriaxial=6372796.75662978)
+@var Ellipsoids.OSU91A: Ellipsoid(name='OSU91A', a=6378136.3, b=6356751.6165948, f_=298.2572236, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181919, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367448.44699773, L=10001964.63159991, R1=6371008.07219827, R2=6371006.48170186, R3=6371000.09079324, Rbiaxial=6367452.93569015, Rtriaxial=6372796.85654607)
+@var Ellipsoids.Plessis1817: Ellipsoid(name='Plessis1817', a=6376523, b=6355862.93325557, f_=308.64, f=0.00324002, f2=0.00325055, n=0.00162264, e=0.08043347, e2=0.00646954, e21=0.99353046, e22=0.00651167, e32=0.00324527, A=6366197.15710739, L=9999999.11003639, R1=6369636.31108519, R2=6369634.82608583, R3=6369628.85999668, Rbiaxial=6366201.34758009, Rtriaxial=6371364.26393357)
+@var Ellipsoids.PZ90: Ellipsoid(name='PZ90', a=6378136, b=6356751.36174571, f_=298.2578393, f=0.0033528, f2=0.00336408, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181911, e2=0.00669437, e21=0.99330563, e22=0.00673948, e32=0.00335842, A=6367448.16955443, L=10001964.19579298, R1=6371007.78724857, R2=6371006.1967588, R3=6370999.80587691, Rbiaxial=6367452.65822809, Rtriaxial=6372796.56780569)
+@var Ellipsoids.SGS85: Ellipsoid(name='SGS85', a=6378136, b=6356751.30156878, f_=298.257, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181922, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367448.13949125, L=10001964.14856985, R1=6371007.76718959, R2=6371006.17669087, R3=6370999.78577297, Rbiaxial=6367452.62819019, Rtriaxial=6372796.55279934)
+@var Ellipsoids.SoAmerican1969: Ellipsoid(name='SoAmerican1969', a=6378160, b=6356774.71919531, f_=298.25, f=0.00335289, f2=0.00336417, n=0.00167926, e=0.08182018, e2=0.00669454, e21=0.99330546, e22=0.00673966, e32=0.00335851, A=6367471.84853228, L=10002001.39064442, R1=6371031.5730651, R2=6371029.98248581, R3=6371023.59124344, Rbiaxial=6367476.337459, Rtriaxial=6372820.40754721)
+@var Ellipsoids.Sphere: Ellipsoid(name='Sphere', a=6371008.771415, b=6371008.771415, f_=0, f=0, f2=0, n=0, e=0, e2=0, e21=1, e22=0, e32=0, A=6371008.771415, L=10007557.17611675, R1=6371008.771415, R2=6371008.771415, R3=6371008.771415, Rbiaxial=6371008.771415, Rtriaxial=6371008.771415)
+@var Ellipsoids.SphereAuthalic: Ellipsoid(name='SphereAuthalic', a=6371000, b=6371000, f_=0, f=0, f2=0, n=0, e=0, e2=0, e21=1, e22=0, e32=0, A=6371000, L=10007543.39801029, R1=6371000, R2=6371000, R3=6371000, Rbiaxial=6371000, Rtriaxial=6371000)
+@var Ellipsoids.SpherePopular: Ellipsoid(name='SpherePopular', a=6378137, b=6378137, f_=0, f=0, f2=0, n=0, e=0, e2=0, e21=1, e22=0, e32=0, A=6378137, L=10018754.17139462, R1=6378137, R2=6378137, R3=6378137, Rbiaxial=6378137, Rtriaxial=6378137)
+@var Ellipsoids.Struve1860: Ellipsoid(name='Struve1860', a=6378298.3, b=6356657.14266956, f_=294.73, f=0.00339294, f2=0.00340449, n=0.00169935, e=0.0823065, e2=0.00677436, e21=0.99322564, e22=0.00682056, e32=0.00339869, A=6367482.31832549, L=10002017.83655714, R1=6371084.58088985, R2=6371082.95208988, R3=6371076.40691418, Rbiaxial=6367486.91530791, Rtriaxial=6372894.90029454)
+@var Ellipsoids.WGS60: Ellipsoid(name='WGS60', a=6378165, b=6356783.28695944, f_=298.3, f=0.00335233, f2=0.00336361, n=0.00167898, e=0.08181333, e2=0.00669342, e21=0.99330658, e22=0.00673853, e32=0.00335795, A=6367478.63091189, L=10002012.04438139, R1=6371037.76231981, R2=6371036.17227197, R3=6371029.78316994, Rbiaxial=6367483.11833616, Rtriaxial=6372826.29723739)
+@var Ellipsoids.WGS66: Ellipsoid(name='WGS66', a=6378145, b=6356759.76948868, f_=298.25, f=0.00335289, f2=0.00336417, n=0.00167926, e=0.08182018, e2=0.00669454, e21=0.99330546, e22=0.00673966, e32=0.00335851, A=6367456.87366841, L=10001977.86818326, R1=6371016.58982956, R2=6371014.999254, R3=6371008.60802667, Rbiaxial=6367461.36258457, Rtriaxial=6372805.42010473)
+@var Ellipsoids.WGS72: Ellipsoid(name='WGS72', a=6378135, b=6356750.52001609, f_=298.26, f=0.00335278, f2=0.00336406, n=0.0016792, e=0.08181881, e2=0.00669432, e21=0.99330568, e22=0.00673943, e32=0.0033584, A=6367447.24862383, L=10001962.74919858, R1=6371006.84000536, R2=6371005.24953886, R3=6370998.8587507, Rbiaxial=6367451.7372317, Rtriaxial=6372795.60727472)
+@var Ellipsoids.WGS84: Ellipsoid(name='WGS84', a=6378137, b=6356752.31424518, f_=298.25722356, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181919, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367449.14582341, L=10001965.72931272, R1=6371008.77141506, R2=6371007.18091847, R3=6371000.79000916, Rbiaxial=6367453.63451633, Rtriaxial=6372797.5559594)
+@var Ellipsoids.WGS84_NGS: Ellipsoid(name='WGS84_NGS', a=6378137, b=6356752.31414035, f_=298.2572221, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.08181919, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367449.14577104, L=10001965.72923046, R1=6371008.77138012, R2=6371007.18088351, R3=6371000.78997414, Rbiaxial=6367453.634464, Rtriaxial=6372797.55593326)
+'''
+# make sure int/int division yields float quotient, see .basics
+from __future__ import division as _; del _  # PYCHOK semicolon
+
+from pygeodesy.basics import copysign0, isbool, isint
+from pygeodesy.constants import EPS, EPS0, EPS02, EPS1, INF, NINF, PI4, PI_2, PI_3, R_M, R_MA, R_FM, \
+                               _EPSqrt, _EPStol as _TOL, _floatuple as _T, _isfinite, _SQRT2_2, \
+                               _0_0s, _0_0, _0_5, _1_0, _1_EPS, _2_0, _4_0, _90_0, \
+                               _0_25, _3_0  # PYCHOK used!
+from pygeodesy.errors import _AssertionError, IntersectionError, _ValueError, _xattr, _xkwds_not
+from pygeodesy.fmath import cbrt, cbrt2, fdot, Fhorner, fpowers, Fsum, hypot, hypot_, \
+                            hypot1, hypot2, sqrt3
+# from pygeodesy.fsums import Fsum  # from .fmath
+from pygeodesy.interns import NN, _a_, _Airy1830_, _AiryModified_, _b_, _Bessel1841_, _beta_, \
+                             _Clarke1866_, _Clarke1880IGN_, _DOT_, _f_, _GRS80_, _height_, \
+                             _Intl1924_, _incompatible_, _invalid_, _Krassovski1940_, \
+                             _Krassowsky1940_, _meridional_, _lat_, _negative_, _not_, \
+                             _not_finite_, _prime_vertical_, _radius_, _Sphere_, _SPACE_, \
+                             _vs_, _WGS72_, _WGS84_
+# from pygeodesy.lazily import _ALL_LAZY, _ALL_MODS as _MODS  # from .named
+from pygeodesy.named import _lazyNamedEnumItem as _lazy, _NamedEnum, _NamedEnumItem, \
+                            _NamedTuple, _Pass,  _ALL_LAZY, _MODS
+from pygeodesy.namedTuples import Distance2Tuple, Vector3Tuple, Vector4Tuple
+from pygeodesy.props import deprecated_Property_RO, Property_RO, property_doc_, \
+                            deprecated_property_RO, property_RO
+from pygeodesy.streprs import Fmt, fstr, instr, strs, unstr
+from pygeodesy.units import Bearing_, Distance, Float, Float_, Height, Lam_, Lat, Meter, \
+                            Meter2, Meter3, Phi, Phi_, Radius, Radius_, Scalar
+from pygeodesy.utily import atan1, atan1d, atan2b, degrees90, m2radians, radians2m, sincos2d
+
+from math import asinh, atan, atanh, cos, degrees, exp, fabs, radians, sin, sinh, sqrt, tan
+
+__all__ = _ALL_LAZY.ellipsoids
+__version__ = '24.03.22'
+
+_f_0_0    = Float(f =_0_0)  # zero flattening
+_f__0_0   = Float(f_=_0_0)  # zero inverse flattening
+# see U{WGS84_f<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Constants.html>}
+_f__WGS84 = Float(f_=_1_0 / (1000000000 / 298257223563))  # 298.25722356299997 vs 298.257223563
+
+
+def _aux(lat, inverse, auxLat, clip=90):
+    '''Return a named auxiliary latitude in C{degrees}.
+    '''
+    return Lat(lat, clip=clip, name=_lat_ if inverse else auxLat.__name__)
+
+
+def _s2_c2(phi):
+    '''(INTERNAL) Return 2-tuple C{(sin(B{phi})**2, cos(B{phi})**2)}.
+    '''
+    if phi:
+        s2 = sin(phi)**2
+        if s2 > EPS:
+            c2 = _1_0 - s2
+            if c2 > EPS:
+                if c2 < EPS1:
+                    return s2, c2
+            else:
+                return _1_0, _0_0  # phi == PI_2
+    return _0_0, _1_0  # phi == 0
+
+
+class a_f2Tuple(_NamedTuple):
+    '''2-Tuple C{(a, f)} specifying an ellipsoid by I{equatorial}
+       radius C{a} in C{meter} and scalar I{flattening} C{f}.
+
+       @see: Class L{Ellipsoid2}.
+    '''
+    _Names_ = (_a_,   _f_)  # name 'f' not 'f_'
+    _Units_ = (_Pass, _Pass)
+
+    def __new__(cls, a, f, **name):
+        '''New L{a_f2Tuple} ellipsoid specification.
+
+           @arg a: Equatorial radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+           @arg f: Flattening (C{scalar} < 1, negative for I{prolate}).
+           @kwarg name: Optional name (C{str}).
+
+           @return: An L{a_f2Tuple}C{(a, f)} instance.
+
+           @raise UnitError: Invalid B{C{a}} or B{C{f}}.
+
+           @note: C{abs(B{f}) < EPS} is forced to C{B{f}=0}, I{spherical}.
+                  Negative C{B{f}} produces a I{prolate} ellipsoid.
+        '''
+        a = Radius_(a=a)  # low=EPS, high=None
+        f = Float_( f=f, low=None, high=EPS1)
+        if fabs(f) < EPS:  # force spherical
+            f = _f_0_0
+        return _NamedTuple.__new__(cls, a, f, **name)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def b(self):
+        '''Get the I{polar} radius (C{meter}), M{a * (1 - f)}.
+        '''
+        return a_f2b(self.a, self.f)  # PYCHOK .a and .f
+
+    def ellipsoid(self, name=NN):
+        '''Return an L{Ellipsoid} for this 2-tuple C{(a, f)}.
+
+           @raise NameError: A registered C{ellipsoid} with the
+                             same B{C{name}} already exists.
+        '''
+        return Ellipsoid(self.a, f=self.f, name=name or self.name)  # PYCHOK .a and .f
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def f_(self):
+        '''Get the I{inverse} flattening (C{scalar}), M{1 / f} == M{a / (a - b)}.
+        '''
+        return f2f_(self.f)  # PYCHOK .f
+
+
+class Circle4Tuple(_NamedTuple):
+    '''4-Tuple C{(radius, height, lat, beta)} of the C{radius} and C{height},
+       both conventionally in C{meter} of a parallel I{circle of latitude} at
+       (geodetic) latitude C{lat} and the I{parametric (or reduced) auxiliary
+       latitude} C{beta}, both in C{degrees90}.
+
+       The C{height} is the (signed) distance along the z-axis between the
+       parallel and the equator.  At near-polar C{lat}s, the C{radius} is C{0},
+       the C{height} is the ellipsoid's (signed) polar radius and C{beta}
+       equals C{lat}.
+    '''
+    _Names_ = (_radius_, _height_, _lat_, _beta_)
+    _Units_ = ( Radius,   Height,   Lat,   Lat)
+
+
+class Curvature2Tuple(_NamedTuple):
+    '''2-Tuple C{(meridional, prime_vertical)} of radii of curvature, both in
+       C{meter}, conventionally.
+    '''
+    _Names_ = (_meridional_, _prime_vertical_)
+    _Units_ = ( Meter,        Meter)
+
+    @property_RO
+    def transverse(self):
+        '''Get this I{prime_vertical}, aka I{transverse} radius of curvature.
+        '''
+        return self.prime_vertical
+
+
+class Ellipsoid(_NamedEnumItem):
+    '''Ellipsoid with I{equatorial} and I{polar} radii, I{flattening}, I{inverse
+       flattening} and other, often used, I{cached} attributes, supporting
+       I{oblate} and I{prolate} ellipsoidal and I{spherical} earth models.
+    '''
+    _a  = 0  # equatorial radius, semi-axis (C{meter})
+    _b  = 0  # polar radius, semi-axis (C{meter}): a * (f - 1) / f
+    _f  = 0  # (1st) flattening: (a - b) / a
+    _f_ = 0  # inverse flattening: 1 / f = a / (a - b)
+
+    _geodsolve  = NN  # means, use PYGEODESY_GEODSOLVE
+    _KsOrder    =  8  # Krüger series order (4, 6 or 8)
+    _rhumbsolve = NN  # means, use PYGEODESY_RHUMBSOLVE
+
+    def __init__(self, a, b=None, f_=None, f=None, name=NN):
+        '''New L{Ellipsoid} from the I{equatorial} radius I{and} either
+           the I{polar} radius or I{inverse flattening} or I{flattening}.
+
+           @arg a: Equatorial radius, semi-axis (C{meter}).
+           @arg b: Optional polar radius, semi-axis (C{meter}).
+           @arg f_: Inverse flattening: M{a / (a - b)} (C{float} >>> 1.0).
+           @arg f: Flattening: M{(a - b) / a} (C{scalar}, near zero for
+                   spherical).
+           @kwarg name: Optional, unique name (C{str}).
+
+           @raise NameError: Ellipsoid with the same B{C{name}} already exists.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{a}}, B{C{b}}, B{C{f_}} or B{C{f}} or
+                              B{C{f_}} and B{C{f}} are incompatible.
+
+           @note: M{abs(f_) > 1 / EPS} or M{abs(1 / f_) < EPS} is forced
+                  to M{1 / f_ = 0}, spherical.
+        '''
+        ff_ = f, f_  # assertion below
+        try:
+            a = Radius_(a=a)  # low=EPS
+            if not _isfinite(a):
+                raise ValueError(_SPACE_(_a_, _not_finite_))
+
+            if b:  # not in (_0_0, None)
+                b  = Radius_(b=b)  # low=EPS
+                f  = a_b2f(a, b) if f is None else Float(f=f)
+                f_ = f2f_(f) if f_ is None else Float(f_=f_)
+            elif f is not None:
+                f  = Float(f=f)
+                b  = a_f2b(a, f)
+                f_ = f2f_(f) if f_ is None else Float(f_=f_)
+            elif f_:
+                f_ = Float(f_=f_)
+                b  = a_f_2b(a, f_)  # a * (f_ - 1) / f_
+                f  = f_2f(f_)
+            else:  # only a, spherical
+                f_ = f = 0
+                b  = a  # superfluous
+
+            if not f < _1_0:  # sanity check, see .ecef.Ecef.__init__
+                raise ValueError(_SPACE_(_f_, _invalid_))
+            if not _isfinite(b):
+                raise ValueError(_SPACE_(_b_, _not_finite_))
+
+            if fabs(f) < EPS or a == b or not f_:  # spherical
+                b  =  a
+                f  = _f_0_0
+                f_ = _f__0_0
+
+        except (TypeError, ValueError) as x:
+            d = _xkwds_not(None, b=b, f_=f_, f=f)
+            t =  instr(self, a=a, name=name, **d)
+            raise _ValueError(t, cause=x)
+
+        self._a  = a
+        self._b  = b
+        self._f  = f
+        self._f_ = f_
+
+        self._register(Ellipsoids, name)
+
+        if f and f_:  # see .test/testEllipsoidal.py
+            d = dict(eps=_TOL)
+            if None in ff_:  # both f_ and f given
+                d.update(Error=_ValueError, txt=_incompatible_)
+            self._assert(_1_0 / f,  f_=f_, **d)
+            self._assert(_1_0 / f_, f =f,  **d)
+        self._assert(self.b2_a2, e21=self.e21, eps=EPS)
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        '''Compare this and an other ellipsoid.
+
+           @arg other: The other ellipsoid (L{Ellipsoid} or L{Ellipsoid2}).
+
+           @return: C{True} if equal, C{False} otherwise.
+        '''
+        return self is other or (isinstance(other, Ellipsoid) and
+                                  self.a == other.a and
+                                 (self.f == other.f or self.b == other.b))
+
+    def __hash__(self):
+        return self._hash  # memoized
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def a(self):
+        '''Get the I{equatorial} radius, semi-axis (C{meter}).
+        '''
+        return self._a
+
+    equatoradius = a  # = Requatorial
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def a2(self):
+        '''Get the I{equatorial} radius I{squared} (C{meter} I{squared}), M{a**2}.
+        '''
+        return Meter2(a2=self.a**2)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def a2_(self):
+        '''Get the inverse of the I{equatorial} radius I{squared} (C{meter} I{squared}), M{1 / a**2}.
+        '''
+        return Float(a2_=_1_0 / self.a2)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def a_b(self):
+        '''Get the ratio I{equatorial} over I{polar} radius (C{float}), M{a / b} == M{1 / (1 - f)}.
+        '''
+        return Float(a_b=self.a / self.b if self.f else _1_0)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def a2_b(self):
+        '''Get the I{polar} meridional (or polar) radius of curvature (C{meter}), M{a**2 / b}.
+
+           @see: U{Radii of Curvature
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius#Radii_of_curvature>}
+                 and U{Moritz, H. (1980), Geodetic Reference System 1980
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius#cite_note-Moritz-2>}.
+
+           @note: Symbol C{c} is used by IUGG and IERS for the U{polar radius of curvature
+                  <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius#Radii_of_curvature>}, see L{c2}
+                  and L{R2} or L{Rauthalic}.
+        '''
+        return Radius(a2_b=self.a2 / self.b if self.f else self.a)  # = rocPolar
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def a2_b2(self):
+        '''Get the ratio I{equatorial} over I{polar} radius I{squared} (C{float}),
+           M{(a / b)**2} == M{1 / (1 - e**2)} == M{1 / (1 - e2)} == M{1 / e21}.
+        '''
+        return Float(a2_b2=self.a_b**2 if self.f else _1_0)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def a_f(self):
+        '''Get the I{equatorial} radius and I{flattening} (L{a_f2Tuple}), see method C{toEllipsoid2}.
+        '''
+        return a_f2Tuple(self.a, self.f, name=self.name)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def A(self):
+        '''Get the UTM I{meridional (or rectifying)} radius (C{meter}).
+
+           @see: I{Meridian arc unit} U{Q<https://StudyLib.net/doc/7443565/>}.
+        '''
+        A, n = self.a, self.n
+        if n:
+            d = (n + _1_0) * 1048576 / A
+            if d:  # use 6 n**2 terms, half-way between the _KsOrder's 4, 6, 8
+                # <https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/tmseries30.html>
+                # <https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/transversemercator.html> and
+                # <https://www.MyGeodesy.id.AU/documents/Karney-Krueger%20equations.pdf> (3)
+                # A *= fhorner(n**2, 1048576, 262144, 16384, 4096, 1600, 784, 441) / 1048576) / (1 + n)
+                A = Radius(A=Fhorner(n**2, 1048576, 262144, 16384, 4096, 1600, 784, 441).fover(d))
+        return A
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def _albersCyl(self):
+        '''(INTERNAL) Helper for C{auxAuthalic}.
+        '''
+        return _MODS.albers.AlbersEqualAreaCylindrical(datum=self, name=self.name)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def AlphaKs(self):
+        '''Get the I{Krüger} U{Alpha series coefficients<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/tmseries30.html>} (C{KsOrder}C{-tuple}).
+        '''
+        return self._Kseries(  # XXX int/int quotients may require  from __future__ import division as _; del _  # PYCHOK semicolon
+            #   n    n**2   n**3      n**4         n**5            n**6                 n**7                     n**8
+            _T(1/2, -2/3,   5/16,    41/180,    -127/288,       7891/37800,         72161/387072,        -18975107/50803200),
+                 _T(13/48, -3/5,    557/1440,    281/630,   -1983433/1935360,       13769/28800,         148003883/174182400),     # PYCHOK unaligned
+                        _T(61/240, -103/140,   15061/26880,   167603/181440,    -67102379/29030400,       79682431/79833600),      # PYCHOK unaligned
+                               _T(49561/161280, -179/168,    6601661/7257600,       97445/49896,      -40176129013/7664025600),    # PYCHOK unaligned
+                                            _T(34729/80640, -3418889/1995840,    14644087/9123840,      2605413599/622702080),     # PYCHOK unaligned
+                                                        _T(212378941/319334400, -30705481/10378368,   175214326799/58118860800),   # PYCHOK unaligned
+                                                                            _T(1522256789/1383782400, -16759934899/3113510400),    # PYCHOK unaligned
+                                                                                                  _T(1424729850961/743921418240))  # PYCHOK unaligned
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def area(self):
+        '''Get the ellipsoid's surface area (C{meter} I{squared}), M{4 * PI * c2}.
+
+           @see: Properties L{areax}, L{c2} and L{R2} and functions
+                 L{ellipsoidalExact.areaOf} and L{ellipsoidalKarney.areaOf}.
+        '''
+        return Meter2(area=self.c2 * PI4)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def areax(self):
+        '''Get the ellipsoid's surface area (C{meter} I{squared}), M{4 * PI * c2x}, more
+           accurate for very I{oblate} ellipsoids.
+
+           @see: Properties L{area}, L{c2x} and L{R2x}, class L{GeodesicExact} and
+                 functions L{ellipsoidalExact.areaOf} and L{ellipsoidalKarney.areaOf}.
+        '''
+        return Meter2(areax=self.c2x * PI4)
+
+    def _assert(self, val, eps=_TOL, f0=_0_0, Error=_AssertionError, txt=NN, **name_value):
+        '''(INTERNAL) Assert a C{name=value} vs C{val}.
+        '''
+        for n, v in name_value.items():
+            if fabs(v - val) > eps:  # PYCHOK no cover
+                t = (v, _vs_, val)
+                t = _SPACE_.join(strs(t, prec=12, fmt=Fmt.g))
+                t =  Fmt.EQUAL(self._DOT_(n), t)
+                raise Error(t, txt=txt or Fmt.exceeds_eps(eps))
+            return Float(v if self.f else f0, name=n)
+        raise Error(unstr(self._DOT_(self._assert.__name__), val,
+                                eps=eps, f0=f0, **name_value))
+
+    def auxAuthalic(self, lat, inverse=False):
+        '''Compute the I{authalic} auxiliary latitude or the I{inverse} thereof.
+
+           @arg lat: The geodetic (or I{authalic}) latitude (C{degrees90}).
+           @kwarg inverse: If C{True}, B{C{lat}} is the I{authalic} and
+                           return the geodetic latitude (C{bool}).
+
+           @return: The I{authalic} (or geodetic) latitude in C{degrees90}.
+
+           @see: U{Inverse-/AuthalicLatitude<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+                 C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>}, U{Authalic latitude
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Latitude#Authalic_latitude>}, and
+                 U{Snyder<https://Pubs.USGS.gov/pp/1395/report.pdf>}, p 16.
+        '''
+        if self.f:
+            f = self._albersCyl._tanf if inverse else self._albersCyl._txif  # PYCHOK attr
+            lat = atan1d(f(tan(Phi_(lat))))  # PYCHOK attr
+        return _aux(lat, inverse, Ellipsoid.auxAuthalic)
+
+    def auxConformal(self, lat, inverse=False):
+        '''Compute the I{conformal} auxiliary latitude or the I{inverse} thereof.
+
+           @arg lat: The geodetic (or I{conformal}) latitude (C{degrees90}).
+           @kwarg inverse: If C{True}, B{C{lat}} is the I{conformal} and
+                           return the geodetic latitude (C{bool}).
+
+           @return: The I{conformal} (or geodetic) latitude in C{degrees90}.
+
+           @see: U{Inverse-/ConformalLatitude<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+                 C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>}, U{Conformal latitude
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Latitude#Conformal_latitude>}, and
+                 U{Snyder<https://Pubs.USGS.gov/pp/1395/report.pdf>}, pp 15-16.
+        '''
+        if self.f:
+            f = self.es_tauf if inverse else self.es_taupf  # PYCHOK attr
+            lat = atan1d(f(tan(Phi_(lat))))  # PYCHOK attr
+        return _aux(lat, inverse, Ellipsoid.auxConformal)
+
+    def auxGeocentric(self, lat, inverse=False):
+        '''Compute the I{geocentric} auxiliary latitude or the I{inverse} thereof.
+
+           @arg lat: The geodetic (or I{geocentric}) latitude (C{degrees90}).
+           @kwarg inverse: If C{True}, B{C{lat}} is the geocentric and
+                           return the I{geocentric} latitude (C{bool}).
+
+           @return: The I{geocentric} (or geodetic) latitude in C{degrees90}.
+
+           @see: U{Inverse-/GeocentricLatitude<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+                 C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>}, U{Geocentric latitude
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Latitude#Geocentric_latitude>}, and
+                 U{Snyder<https://Pubs.USGS.gov/pp/1395/report.pdf>}, pp 17-18.
+        '''
+        if self.f:
+            f = self.a2_b2 if inverse else self.b2_a2
+            lat = atan1d(f * tan(Phi_(lat)))
+        return _aux(lat, inverse, Ellipsoid.auxGeocentric)
+
+    def auxIsometric(self, lat, inverse=False):
+        '''Compute the I{isometric} auxiliary latitude or the I{inverse} thereof.
+
+           @arg lat: The geodetic (or I{isometric}) latitude (C{degrees}).
+           @kwarg inverse: If C{True}, B{C{lat}} is the I{isometric} and
+                           return the geodetic latitude (C{bool}).
+
+           @return: The I{isometric} (or geodetic) latitude in C{degrees}.
+
+           @note: The I{isometric} latitude for geodetic C{+/-90} is far
+                  outside the C{[-90..+90]} range but the inverse
+                  thereof is the original geodetic latitude.
+
+           @see: U{Inverse-/IsometricLatitude<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+                 C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>}, U{Isometric latitude
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Latitude#Isometric_latitude>}, and
+                 U{Snyder<https://Pubs.USGS.gov/pp/1395/report.pdf>}, pp 15-16.
+        '''
+        if self.f:
+            r = Phi_(lat, clip=0)
+            lat = degrees(atan1(self.es_tauf(sinh(r))) if inverse else
+                          asinh(self.es_taupf(tan(r))))
+        # clip=0, since auxIsometric(+/-90) is far outside [-90..+90]
+        return _aux(lat, inverse, Ellipsoid.auxIsometric, clip=0)
+
+    def auxParametric(self, lat, inverse=False):
+        '''Compute the I{parametric} auxiliary latitude or the I{inverse} thereof.
+
+           @arg lat: The geodetic (or I{parametric}) latitude (C{degrees90}).
+           @kwarg inverse: If C{True}, B{C{lat}} is the I{parametric} and
+                           return the geodetic latitude (C{bool}).
+
+           @return: The I{parametric} (or geodetic) latitude in C{degrees90}.
+
+           @see: U{Inverse-/ParametricLatitude<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+                 C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>}, U{Parametric latitude
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Latitude#Parametric_(or_reduced)_latitude>},
+                 and U{Snyder<https://Pubs.USGS.gov/pp/1395/report.pdf>}, p 18.
+        '''
+        if self.f:
+            lat = self._beta(Lat(lat), inverse=inverse)
+        return _aux(lat, inverse, Ellipsoid.auxParametric)
+
+    auxReduced = auxParametric  # synonymous
+
+    def auxRectifying(self, lat, inverse=False):
+        '''Compute the I{rectifying} auxiliary latitude or the I{inverse} thereof.
+
+           @arg lat: The geodetic (or I{rectifying}) latitude (C{degrees90}).
+           @kwarg inverse: If C{True}, B{C{lat}} is the I{rectifying} and
+                           return the geodetic latitude (C{bool}).
+
+           @return: The I{rectifying} (or geodetic) latitude in C{degrees90}.
+
+           @see: U{Inverse-/RectifyingLatitude<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+                 C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>}, U{Rectifying latitude
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Latitude#Rectifying_latitude>}, and
+                 U{Snyder<https://Pubs.USGS.gov/pp/1395/report.pdf>}, pp 16-17.
+        '''
+        if self.f:
+            lat = Lat(lat)
+            if 0 < fabs(lat) < _90_0:
+                if inverse:
+                    e = self._elliptic_e22
+                    d = degrees90(e.fEinv(e.cE * lat / _90_0))
+                    lat = self.auxParametric(d, inverse=True)
+                else:
+                    lat = _90_0 * self.Llat(lat) / self.L
+        return _aux(lat, inverse, Ellipsoid.auxRectifying)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def b(self):
+        '''Get the I{polar} radius, semi-axis (C{meter}).
+        '''
+        return self._b
+
+    polaradius = b  # = Rpolar
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def b_a(self):
+        '''Get the ratio I{polar} over I{equatorial} radius (C{float}), M{b / a == f1 == 1 - f}.
+
+           @see: Property L{f1}.
+        '''
+        return self._assert(self.b / self.a, b_a=self.f1, f0=_1_0)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def b2(self):
+        '''Get the I{polar} radius I{squared} (C{float}), M{b**2}.
+        '''
+        return Meter2(b2=self.b**2)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def b2_a(self):
+        '''Get the I{equatorial} meridional radius of curvature (C{meter}), M{b**2 / a}, see C{rocMeridional}C{(0)}.
+
+           @see: U{Radii of Curvature<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius#Radii_of_curvature>}.
+        '''
+        return Radius(b2_a=self.b2 / self.a if self.f else self.b)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def b2_a2(self):
+        '''Get the ratio I{polar} over I{equatorial} radius I{squared} (C{float}), M{(b / a)**2}
+           == M{(1 - f)**2} == M{1 - e**2} == C{e21}.
+        '''
+        return Float(b2_a2=self.b_a**2 if self.f else _1_0)
+
+    def _beta(self, lat, inverse=False):
+        '''(INTERNAL) Get the I{parametric (or reduced) auxiliary latitude} or inverse thereof.
+        '''
+        s, c = sincos2d(lat)  # like Karney's tand(lat)
+        s *= self.a_b if inverse else self.b_a
+        return atan1d(s, c)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def BetaKs(self):
+        '''Get the I{Krüger} U{Beta series coefficients<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/tmseries30.html>} (C{KsOrder}C{-tuple}).
+        '''
+        return self._Kseries(  # XXX int/int quotients may require  from __future__ import division as _; del _  # PYCHOK semicolon
+            #   n    n**2  n**3     n**4        n**5            n**6                 n**7                   n**8
+            _T(1/2, -2/3, 37/96,   -1/360,    -81/512,      96199/604800,     -5406467/38707200,      7944359/67737600),
+                  _T(1/48, 1/15, -437/1440,    46/105,   -1118711/3870720,       51841/1209600,      24749483/348364800),      # PYCHOK unaligned
+                       _T(17/480, -37/840,   -209/4480,      5569/90720,       9261899/58060800,     -6457463/17740800),       # PYCHOK unaligned
+                              _T(4397/161280, -11/504,    -830251/7257600,      466511/2494800,     324154477/7664025600),     # PYCHOK unaligned
+                                          _T(4583/161280, -108847/3991680,    -8005831/63866880,     22894433/124540416),      # PYCHOK unaligned
+                                                      _T(20648693/638668800, -16363163/518918400, -2204645983/12915302400),    # PYCHOK unaligne
+                                                                          _T(219941297/5535129600, -497323811/12454041600),    # PYCHOK unaligned
+                                                                                              _T(191773887257/3719607091200))  # PYCHOK unaligned
+
+    @deprecated_Property_RO
+    def c(self):  # PYCHOK no cover
+        '''DEPRECATED, use property C{R2} or C{Rauthalic}.'''
+        return self.R2
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def c2(self):
+        '''Get the I{authalic} earth radius I{squared} (C{meter} I{squared}).
+
+           @see: Properties L{c2x}, L{area}, L{R2}, L{Rauthalic}, I{Karney's} U{equation (60)
+                 <https://Link.Springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00190-012-0578-z>} and C++ U{Ellipsoid.Area
+                 <https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>},
+                 U{Authalic radius<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius#Authalic_radius>}, U{Surface area
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Ellipsoid>} and U{surface area
+                 <https://www.Numericana.com/answer/geometry.htm#oblate>}.
+        '''
+        return self._c2f(False)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def c2x(self):
+        '''Get the I{authalic} earth radius I{squared} (C{meter} I{squared}), more accurate for very I{oblate}
+           ellipsoids.
+
+           @see: Properties L{c2}, L{areax}, L{R2x}, L{Rauthalicx}, class L{GeodesicExact} and I{Karney}'s comments at C++
+                 attribute U{GeodesicExact._c2<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/GeodesicExact_8cpp_source.html>}.
+        '''
+        return self._c2f(True)
+
+    def _c2f(self, c2x):
+        '''(INTERNAL) Helper for C{.c2} and C{.c2x}.
+        '''
+        f, c2 = self.f, self.b2
+        if f:
+            e = self.e
+            if e > EPS0:
+                if f > 0:  # .isOblate
+                    c2 *= (asinh(sqrt(self.e22abs)) if c2x else atanh(e)) / e
+                elif f < 0:  # .isProlate
+                    c2 *=  atan1(e) / e  # XXX asin?
+            c2 = Meter2(c2=(self.a2 + c2) * _0_5)
+        return c2
+
+    def circle4(self, lat):
+        '''Get the equatorial or a parallel I{circle of latitude}.
+
+           @arg lat: Geodetic latitude (C{degrees90}, C{str}).
+
+           @return: A L{Circle4Tuple}C{(radius, height, lat, beta)}
+                    instance.
+
+           @raise RangeError: Latitude B{C{lat}} outside valid range and
+                              L{pygeodesy.rangerrors} set to C{True}.
+
+           @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @see: Definition of U{I{p} and I{z} under B{Parametric (or reduced) latitude}
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Latitude>}, I{Karney's} C++ U{CircleRadius and CircleHeight
+                 <https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>}
+                 and method C{Rlat}.
+        '''
+        lat = Lat(lat)
+        if lat:
+            b = lat
+            if fabs(lat) < _90_0:
+                if self.f:
+                    b = self._beta(lat)
+                z, r = sincos2d(b)
+                r *= self.a
+                z *= self.b
+            else:  # near-polar
+                r, z = _0_0, copysign0(self.b, lat)
+        else:  # equator
+            r = self.a
+            z = lat = b = _0_0
+        return Circle4Tuple(r, z, lat, b)
+
+    def degrees2m(self, deg, lat=0):
+        '''Convert an angle to the distance along the equator or
+           along a parallel of (geodetic) latitude.
+
+           @arg deg: The angle (C{degrees}).
+           @kwarg lat: Parallel latitude (C{degrees90}, C{str}).
+
+           @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as the equatorial
+                    and polar radii) or C{0} for near-polar B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @raise RangeError: Latitude B{C{lat}} outside valid range and
+                              L{pygeodesy.rangerrors} set to C{True}.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{deg}} or B{C{lat}}.
+        '''
+        return self.radians2m(radians(deg), lat=lat)
+
+    def distance2(self, lat0, lon0, lat1, lon1):
+        '''I{Approximate} the distance and (initial) bearing between
+           two points based on the U{local, flat earth approximation
+           <https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform.htm#flat>} aka U{Hubeny
+           <https://www.OVG.AT/de/vgi/files/pdf/3781/>} formula.
+
+           I{Suitable only for distances of several hundred Km or Miles
+           and only between points not near-polar}.
+
+           @arg lat0: From latitude (C{degrees}).
+           @arg lon0: From longitude (C{degrees}).
+           @arg lat1: To latitude (C{degrees}).
+           @arg lon1: To longitude (C{degrees}).
+
+           @return: A L{Distance2Tuple}C{(distance, initial)} with C{distance}
+                    in same units as this ellipsoid's axes.
+
+           @note: The meridional and prime_vertical radii of curvature are
+                  taken and scaled I{at the initial latitude}, see C{roc2}.
+
+           @see: Function L{pygeodesy.flatLocal}/L{pygeodesy.hubeny}.
+        '''
+        phi0 = Phi_(lat0=lat0)
+        m, n = self.roc2_(phi0, scaled=True)
+        m *= Phi_(lat1=lat1) - phi0
+        n *= Lam_(lon1=lon1) - Lam_(lon0=lon0)
+        return Distance2Tuple(hypot(m, n), atan2b(n, m))
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def e(self):
+        '''Get the I{unsigned, (1st) eccentricity} (C{float}), M{sqrt(1 - (b / a)**2))}, see C{a_b2e}.
+
+           @see: Property L{es}.
+        '''
+        return Float(e=sqrt(self.e2abs) if self.e2 else _0_0)
+
+    @deprecated_Property_RO
+    def e12(self):  # see property ._e12
+        '''DEPRECATED, use property C{e21}.'''
+        return self.e21
+
+#   @Property_RO
+#   def _e12(self):  # see property ._elliptic_e12
+#       # (INTERNAL) until e12 above can be replaced with e21.
+#       return self.e2 / (_1_0 - self.e2)  # see I{Karney}'s Ellipsoid._e12 = e2 / (1 - e2)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def e2(self):
+        '''Get the I{signed, (1st) eccentricity squared} (C{float}), M{f * (2 - f)
+           == 1 - (b / a)**2}, see C{a_b2e2}.
+        '''
+        return self._assert(a_b2e2(self.a, self.b), e2=f2e2(self.f))
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def e2abs(self):
+        '''Get the I{unsigned, (1st) eccentricity squared} (C{float}).
+        '''
+        return fabs(self.e2)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def e21(self):
+        '''Get 1 less I{1st eccentricity squared} (C{float}), M{1 - e**2}
+           == M{1 - e2} == M{(1 - f)**2} == M{b**2 / a**2}, see C{b2_a2}.
+        '''
+        return self._assert((_1_0 - self.f)**2, e21=_1_0 - self.e2, f0=_1_0)
+
+#   _e2m   = e21  # see I{Karney}'s Ellipsoid._e2m = 1 - _e2
+    _1_e21 = a2_b2  # == M{1 / e21} == M{1 / (1 - e**2)}
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def e22(self):
+        '''Get the I{signed, 2nd eccentricity squared} (C{float}), M{e2 / (1 - e2)
+           == e2 / (1 - f)**2 == (a / b)**2 - 1}, see C{a_b2e22}.
+        '''
+        return self._assert(a_b2e22(self.a, self.b), e22=f2e22(self.f))
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def e22abs(self):
+        '''Get the I{unsigned, 2nd eccentricity squared} (C{float}).
+        '''
+        return fabs(self.e22)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def e32(self):
+        '''Get the I{signed, 3rd eccentricity squared} (C{float}), M{e2 / (2 - e2)
+           == (a**2 - b**2) / (a**2 + b**2)}, see C{a_b2e32}.
+        '''
+        return self._assert(a_b2e32(self.a, self.b), e32=f2e32(self.f))
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def e32abs(self):
+        '''Get the I{unsigned, 3rd eccentricity squared} (C{float}).
+        '''
+        return fabs(self.e32)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def e4(self):
+        '''Get the I{unsignd, (1st) eccentricity} to 4th power (C{float}), M{e**4 == e2**2}.
+        '''
+        return Float(e4=self.e2**2 if self.e2 else _0_0)
+
+    eccentricity     = e    # eccentricity
+#   eccentricity2    = e2   # eccentricity squared
+    eccentricity1st2 = e2   # first eccentricity squared
+    eccentricity2nd2 = e22  # second eccentricity squared
+    eccentricity3rd2 = e32  # third eccentricity squared
+
+    def ecef(self, Ecef=None):
+        '''Return U{ECEF<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/ECEF>} converter.
+
+           @kwarg Ecef: ECEF class to use, default L{EcefKarney}.
+
+           @return: An ECEF converter for this C{ellipsoid}.
+
+           @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{Ecef}}.
+
+           @see: Module L{pygeodesy.ecef}.
+        '''
+        return _MODS.ecef._4Ecef(self, Ecef)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def _elliptic_e12(self):  # see I{Karney}'s Ellipsoid._e12
+        '''(INTERNAL) Elliptic helper for C{Rhumb}.
+        '''
+        e12 = self.e2 / (self.e2 - _1_0)  # NOT DEPRECATED .e12!
+        return _MODS.elliptic.Elliptic(e12)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def _elliptic_e22(self):  # aka ._elliptic_ep2
+        '''(INTERNAL) Elliptic helper for C{auxRectifying}, C{L}, C{Llat}.
+        '''
+        return _MODS.elliptic.Elliptic(-self.e22abs)  # complex
+
+    equatoradius = a  # Requatorial
+
+    def e2s(self, s):
+        '''Compute norm M{sqrt(1 - e2 * s**2)}.
+
+           @arg s: Sine value (C{scalar}).
+
+           @return: Norm (C{float}).
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{s}}.
+        '''
+        return sqrt(self.e2s2(s)) if self.e2 else _1_0
+
+    def e2s2(self, s):
+        '''Compute M{1 - e2 * s**2}.
+
+           @arg s: Sine value (C{scalar}).
+
+           @return: Result (C{float}).
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{s}}.
+        '''
+        r = _1_0
+        if self.e2:
+            try:
+                r -= self.e2 * Scalar(s=s)**2
+                if r < 0:
+                    raise ValueError(_negative_)
+            except (TypeError, ValueError) as x:
+                t = self._DOT_(Ellipsoid.e2s2.__name__)
+                raise _ValueError(t, s, cause=x)
+        return r
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def es(self):
+        '''Get the I{signed (1st) eccentricity} (C{float}).
+
+           @see: Property L{e}.
+        '''
+        # note, self.e is always non-negative
+        return Float(es=copysign0(self.e, self.f))  # see .ups
+
+    def es_atanh(self, x):
+        '''Compute M{es * atanh(es * x)} or M{-es * atan(es * x)}
+           for I{oblate} respectively I{prolate} ellipsoids where
+           I{es} is the I{signed} (1st) eccentricity.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{x}}.
+
+           @see: Function U{Math::eatanhe<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+                 C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Math.html>}.
+        '''
+        return self._es_atanh(Scalar(x=x)) if self.f else _0_0
+
+    def _es_atanh(self, x):  # see .albers._atanhee, .AuxLat._atanhee
+        '''(INTERNAL) Helper for .es_atanh, ._es_taupf2 and ._exp_es_atanh.
+        '''
+        es = self.es  # signOf(es) == signOf(f)
+        return es * (atanh(es * x) if es > 0 else  # .isOblate
+                    (-atan(es * x) if es < 0 else  # .isProlate
+                     _0_0))  # .isSpherical
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def es_c(self):
+        '''Get M{(1 - f) * exp(es_atanh(1))} (C{float}), M{b_a * exp(es_atanh(1))}.
+        '''
+        return Float(es_c=(self._exp_es_atanh_1 * self.b_a) if self.f else _1_0)
+
+    def es_tauf(self, taup):
+        '''Compute I{Karney}'s U{equations (19), (20) and (21)
+           <https://ArXiv.org/abs/1002.1417>}.
+
+           @see: I{Karney}'s C++ method U{Math::tauf<https://GeographicLib.
+                 SourceForge.io/C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Math.html>} and
+                 and I{Veness}' JavaScript method U{toLatLon<https://www.
+                 Movable-Type.co.UK/scripts/latlong-utm-mgrs.html>}.
+        '''
+        t = Scalar(taup=taup)
+        if self.f:  # .isEllipsoidal
+            a = fabs(t)
+            T = t * (self._exp_es_atanh_1 if a > 70 else self._1_e21)
+            if fabs(T * _EPSqrt) < _2_0:  # handles +/- INF and NAN
+                s = (a * _TOL) if a > _1_0 else _TOL
+                for T, _, d in self._es_tauf3(t, T):  # max 2
+                    if fabs(d) < s:
+                        break
+            t = Scalar(tauf=T)
+        return t
+
+    def _es_tauf3(self, taup, T, N=9):  # in .utm.Utm._toLLEB
+        '''(INTERNAL) Yield a 3-tuple C{(τi, iteration, delta)} for at most
+           B{C{N}} Newton iterations, converging rapidly except when C{delta}
+           toggles on +/-1.12e-16 or +/-4.47e-16, see C{.utm.Utm._toLLEB}.
+        '''
+        e    = self._1_e21
+        _F2_ = Fsum(T).fsum2_  # τ0
+        _tf2 = self._es_taupf2
+        for i in range(1, N + 1):
+            a, h = _tf2(T)
+            d = (taup - a) * (e + T**2) / (hypot1(a) * h)
+            # = (taup - a) / hypot1(a) / ((e + T**2) / h)
+            T, d = _F2_(d)  # τi, (τi - τi-1)
+            yield T, i, d
+
+    def es_taupf(self, tau):
+        '''Compute I{Karney}'s U{equations (7), (8) and (9)
+           <https://ArXiv.org/abs/1002.1417>}.
+
+           @see: I{Karney}'s C++ method U{Math::taupf<https://GeographicLib.
+                 SourceForge.io/C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Math.html>}.
+        '''
+        t = Scalar(tau=tau)
+        if self.f:  # .isEllipsoidal
+            t, _ = self._es_taupf2(t)
+            t = Scalar(taupf=t)
+        return t
+
+    def _es_taupf2(self, tau):
+        '''(INTERNAL) Return 2-tuple C{(es_taupf(tau), hypot1(tau))}.
+        '''
+        if _isfinite(tau):
+            h = hypot1(tau)
+            s = sinh(self._es_atanh(tau / h))
+            a = hypot1(s) * tau - h * s
+        else:
+            a, h = tau, INF
+        return a, h
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def _exp_es_atanh_1(self):
+        '''(INTERNAL) Helper for .es_c and .es_tauf.
+        '''
+        return exp(self._es_atanh(_1_0)) if self.es else _1_0
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def f(self):
+        '''Get the I{flattening} (C{scalar}), M{(a - b) / a}, C{0} for spherical, negative for prolate.
+        '''
+        return self._f
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def f_(self):
+        '''Get the I{inverse flattening} (C{scalar}), M{1 / f} == M{a / (a - b)}, C{0} for spherical, see C{a_b2f_}.
+        '''
+        return self._f_
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def f1(self):
+        '''Get the I{1 - flattening} (C{float}), M{f1 == 1 - f == b / a}.
+
+           @see: Property L{b_a}.
+        '''
+        return Float(f1=_1_0 - self.f)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def f2(self):
+        '''Get the I{2nd flattening} (C{float}), M{(a - b) / b == f / (1 - f)}, C{0} for spherical, see C{a_b2f2}.
+        '''
+        return self._assert(self.a_b - _1_0, f2=f2f2(self.f))
+
+    @deprecated_Property_RO
+    def geodesic(self):
+        '''DEPRECATED, use property C{geodesicw}.'''
+        return self.geodesicw
+
+    def geodesic_(self, exact=True):
+        '''Get the an I{exact} C{Geodesic...} instance for this ellipsoid.
+
+           @kwarg exact: If C{bool} return L{GeodesicExact}C{(exact=B{exact}, ...)},
+                         otherwise a L{Geodesic}, L{GeodesicExact} or L{GeodesicSolve}
+                         instance for I{this} ellipsoid.
+
+           @return: The C{exact} geodesic (C{Geodesic...}).
+
+           @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{exact}}.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Incompatible B{C{exact}} ellipsoid.
+        '''
+        if isbool(exact):  # for consistenccy with C{.rhumb_}
+            g = _MODS.geodesicx.GeodesicExact(self, C4order=30 if exact else 24,
+                                              name=self.name)
+        else:
+            g =  exact
+            E = _xattr(g, ellipsoid=None)
+            if not (E is self and isinstance(g, self._Geodesics)):
+                raise _ValueError(exact=g, ellipsoid=E, txt=_not_(self.name))
+        return g
+
+    @property_RO
+    def _Geodesics(self):
+        '''(INTERNAL) Get all C{Geodesic...} classes, I{once}.
+        '''
+        Ellipsoid._Geodesics = t = (_MODS.geodesicw._wrapped.Geodesic,  # overwrite property_RO
+                                    _MODS.geodesicx.GeodesicExact,
+                                    _MODS.geodsolve.GeodesicSolve)
+        return t
+
+    @property_RO
+    def geodesicw(self):
+        '''Get this ellipsoid's I{wrapped} U{geodesicw.Geodesic
+           <https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/Python/doc/code.html>}, provided
+           I{Karney}'s U{geographiclib<https://PyPI.org/project/geographiclib>}
+           package is installed.
+        '''
+        # if not self.isEllipsoidal:
+        #     raise _IsnotError(_ellipsoidal_, ellipsoid=self)
+        return _MODS.geodesicw.Geodesic(self)
+
+    @property_RO
+    def geodesicx(self):
+        '''Get this ellipsoid's I{exact} L{GeodesicExact}.
+        '''
+        # if not self.isEllipsoidal:
+        #     raise _IsnotError(_ellipsoidal_, ellipsoid=self)
+        return _MODS.geodesicx.GeodesicExact(self, name=self.name)
+
+    @property
+    def geodsolve(self):
+        '''Get this ellipsoid's L{GeodesicSolve}, the I{wrapper} around utility
+           U{GeodSolve<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/GeodSolve.1.html>},
+           provided the path to the C{GeodSolve} executable is specified with env
+           variable C{PYGEODESY_GEODSOLVE} or re-/set with this property..
+        '''
+        # if not self.isEllipsoidal:
+        #     raise _IsnotError(_ellipsoidal_, ellipsoid=self)
+        return _MODS.geodsolve.GeodesicSolve(self, path=self._geodsolve, name=self.name)
+
+    @geodsolve.setter  # PYCHOK setter!
+    def geodsolve(self, path):
+        '''Re-/set the (fully qualified) path to the U{GeodSolve
+           <https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/GeodSolve.1.html>} executable,
+           overriding env variable C{PYGEODESY_GEODSOLVE} (C{str}).
+        '''
+        self._geodsolve = path
+
+    def hartzell4(self, pov, los=None):
+        '''Compute the intersection of this ellipsoid's surface and a Line-Of-Sight
+           from a Point-Of-View in space.
+
+           @arg pov: Point-Of-View outside this ellipsoid (C{Cartesian}, L{Ecef9Tuple}
+                     or L{Vector3d}).
+           @kwarg los: Line-Of-Sight, I{direction} to this ellipsoid (L{Vector3d}) or
+                       C{None} to point to this ellipsoid's center.
+
+           @return: L{Vector4Tuple}C{(x, y, z, h)} with the cartesian coordinates C{x},
+                    C{y} and C{z} of the projection on or the intersection with this
+                    ellipsoid and the I{distance} C{h} from B{C{pov}} to C{(x, y, z)}
+                    along B{C{los}}, all in C{meter}, conventionally.
+
+           @raise IntersectionError: Null B{C{pov}} or B{C{los}} vector, or B{C{pov}}
+                                     is inside this ellipsoid or B{C{los}} points
+                                     outside this ellipsoid or points in an opposite
+                                     direction.
+
+           @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{pov}} or B{C{los}}.
+
+           @see: U{I{Satellite Line-of-Sight Intersection with Earth}<https://StephenHartzell.
+                 Medium.com/satellite-line-of-sight-intersection-with-earth-d786b4a6a9b6>} and
+                 methods L{Ellipsoid.height4} and L{Triaxial.hartzell4}.
+        '''
+        try:
+            v, d = _MODS.triaxials._hartzell2(pov, los, self._triaxial)
+        except Exception as x:
+            raise IntersectionError(pov=pov, los=los, cause=x)
+        return Vector4Tuple(v.x, v.y, v.z, d, name=self.hartzell4.__name__)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def _hash(self):
+        return hash((self.a, self.f))
+
+    def height4(self, xyz, normal=True):
+        '''Compute the projection on and the height of a cartesian above or below
+           this ellipsoid's surface.
+
+           @arg xyz: The cartesian (C{Cartesian}, L{Ecef9Tuple}, L{Vector3d},
+                     L{Vector3Tuple} or L{Vector4Tuple}).
+           @kwarg normal: If C{True}, the projection is perpendicular to (the nearest
+                          point on) this ellipsoid's surface, otherwise the C{radial}
+                          line to this ellipsoid's center (C{bool}).
+
+           @return: L{Vector4Tuple}C{(x, y, z, h)} with the cartesian coordinates C{x},
+                    C{y} and C{z} of the projection on and the height C{h} above or
+                    below this ellipsoid's surface, all in C{meter}, conventionally.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Null B{C{xyz}}.
+
+           @raise TypeError: Non-cartesian B{C{xyz}}.
+
+           @see: U{Distance to<https://StackOverflow.com/questions/22959698/distance-from-given-point-to-given-ellipse>}
+                 and U{intersection with<https://MathWorld.wolfram.com/Ellipse-LineIntersection.html>} an ellipse and
+                 methods L{Ellipsoid.hartzell4} and L{Triaxial.height4}.
+        '''
+        v = _MODS.vector3d._otherV3d(xyz=xyz)
+        r =  v.length
+
+        a, b, i = self.a, self.b, None
+        if r < EPS0:  # EPS
+            v =  v.times(_0_0)
+            h = -a
+
+        elif self.isSpherical:
+            v = v.times(a / r)
+            h = r - a
+
+        elif normal:  # perpendicular to ellipsoid
+            x, y = hypot(v.x, v.y), fabs(v.z)
+            if x < EPS0:  # PYCHOK no cover
+                z = copysign0(b, v.z)
+                v = Vector3Tuple(v.x, v.y, z)
+                h = y - b  # polar
+            elif y < EPS0:  # PYCHOK no cover
+                t = a / r
+                v = v.times_(t, t, 0)  # force z=0.0
+                h = x - a  # equatorial
+            else:  # normal in 1st quadrant
+                x, y, i = _normalTo3(x, y, self)
+                t, v = v, v.times_(x, x, y)
+                h = t.minus(v).length
+
+        else:  # radial to ellipsoid's center
+            h = hypot_(a * v.z, b * v.x, b * v.y)
+            t = (a * b / h) if h > EPS0 else _0_0  # EPS
+            v = v.times(t)
+            h = r * (_1_0 - t)
+
+        return Vector4Tuple(v.x, v.y, v.z, h, iteration=i,
+                            name=self.height4.__name__)
+
+    def _hubeny_2(self, phi2, phi1, lam21, scaled=True, squared=True):
+        '''(INTERNAL) like function C{pygeodesy.flatLocal_}/C{pygeodesy.hubeny_},
+           returning the I{angular} distance in C{radians squared} or C{radians}
+        '''
+        m, n = self.roc2_((phi2 + phi1) * _0_5, scaled=scaled)
+        h, r = (hypot2, self.a2_) if squared else (hypot, _1_0 / self.a)
+        return h(m * (phi2 - phi1), n * lam21) * r
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def isEllipsoidal(self):
+        '''Is this model I{ellipsoidal} (C{bool})?
+        '''
+        return self.f != 0
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def isOblate(self):
+        '''Is this ellipsoid I{oblate} (C{bool})?  I{Prolate} or
+           spherical otherwise.
+        '''
+        return self.f > 0
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def isProlate(self):
+        '''Is this ellipsoid I{prolate} (C{bool})?  I{Oblate} or
+           spherical otherwise.
+        '''
+        return self.f < 0
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def isSpherical(self):
+        '''Is this ellipsoid I{spherical} (C{bool})?
+        '''
+        return self.f == 0
+
+    def _Kseries(self, *AB8Ks):
+        '''(INTERNAL) Compute the 4-, 6- or 8-th order I{Krüger} Alpha
+           or Beta series coefficients per I{Karney}'s U{equations (35)
+           and (36)<https://ArXiv.org/pdf/1002.1417v3.pdf>}.
+
+           @arg AB8Ks: 8-Tuple of 8-th order I{Krüger} Alpha or Beta series
+                       coefficient tuples.
+
+           @return: I{Krüger} series coefficients (L{KsOrder}C{-tuple}).
+
+           @see: I{Karney}'s 30-th order U{TMseries30
+                 <https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/tmseries30.html>}.
+        '''
+        k = self.KsOrder
+        if self.n:
+            ns = fpowers(self.n, k)
+            ks = tuple(fdot(AB8Ks[i][:k-i], *ns[i:]) for i in range(k))
+        else:
+            ks = _0_0s(k)
+        return ks
+
+    @property_doc_(''' the I{Krüger} series' order (C{int}), see properties C{AlphaKs}, C{BetaKs}.''')
+    def KsOrder(self):
+        '''Get the I{Krüger} series' order (C{int} 4, 6 or 8).
+        '''
+        return self._KsOrder
+
+    @KsOrder.setter  # PYCHOK setter!
+    def KsOrder(self, order):
+        '''Set the I{Krüger} series' order (C{int} 4, 6 or 8).
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{order}}.
+        '''
+        if not (isint(order) and order in (4, 6, 8)):
+            raise _ValueError(order=order)
+        if self._KsOrder != order:
+            Ellipsoid.AlphaKs._update(self)
+            Ellipsoid.BetaKs._update(self)
+            self._KsOrder = order
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def L(self):
+        '''Get the I{quarter meridian} C{L}, aka the C{polar distance}
+           along a meridian between the equator and a pole (C{meter}),
+           M{b * Elliptic(-e2 / (1 - e2)).cE} or M{b * PI / 2}.
+        '''
+        r = self._elliptic_e22.cE if self.f else PI_2
+        return Distance(L=self.b * r)
+
+    def Llat(self, lat):
+        '''Return the I{meridional length}, the distance along a meridian
+           between the equator and a (geodetic) latitude, see C{L}.
+
+           @arg lat: Geodetic latitude (C{degrees90}).
+
+           @return: The meridional length at B{C{lat}}, negative on southern
+                    hemisphere (C{meter}).
+        '''
+        r = self._elliptic_e22.fEd(self.auxParametric(lat)) if self.f else Phi_(lat)
+        return Distance(Llat=self.b * r)
+
+    Lmeridian = Llat  # meridional distance
+
+    @property_RO
+    def _Lpd(self):
+        '''Get the I{quarter meridian} per degree (C{meter}), M{self.L / 90}.
+        '''
+        return Meter(_Lpd=self.L / _90_0)
+
+    @property_RO
+    def _Lpr(self):
+        '''Get the I{quarter meridian} per radian (C{meter}), M{self.L / PI_2}.
+        '''
+        return Meter(_Lpr=self.L / PI_2)
+
+    @deprecated_Property_RO
+    def majoradius(self):  # PYCHOK no cover
+        '''DEPRECATED, use property C{a} or C{Requatorial}.'''
+        return self.a
+
+    def m2degrees(self, distance, lat=0):
+        '''Convert a distance to an angle along the equator or
+           along a parallel of (geodetic) latitude.
+
+           @arg distance: Distance (C{meter}).
+           @kwarg lat: Parallel latitude (C{degrees90}, C{str}).
+
+           @return: Angle (C{degrees}) or C{INF} for near-polar B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @raise RangeError: Latitude B{C{lat}} outside valid range and
+                              L{pygeodesy.rangerrors} set to C{True}.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{distance}} or B{C{lat}}.
+       '''
+        return degrees(self.m2radians(distance, lat=lat))
+
+    def m2radians(self, distance, lat=0):
+        '''Convert a distance to an angle along the equator or
+           along a parallel of (geodetic) latitude.
+
+           @arg distance: Distance (C{meter}).
+           @kwarg lat: Parallel latitude (C{degrees90}, C{str}).
+
+           @return: Angle (C{radians}) or C{INF} for near-polar B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @raise RangeError: Latitude B{C{lat}} outside valid range and
+                              L{pygeodesy.rangerrors} set to C{True}.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{distance}} or B{C{lat}}.
+        '''
+        r = self.circle4(lat).radius if lat else self.a
+        return m2radians(distance, radius=r, lat=0)
+
+    @deprecated_Property_RO
+    def minoradius(self):  # PYCHOK no cover
+        '''DEPRECATED, use property C{b}, C{polaradius} or C{Rpolar}.'''
+        return self.b
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def n(self):
+        '''Get the I{3rd flattening} (C{float}), M{f / (2 - f) == (a - b) / (a + b)}, see C{a_b2n}.
+        '''
+        return self._assert(a_b2n(self.a, self.b), n=f2n(self.f))
+
+    flattening    = f
+    flattening1st = f
+    flattening2nd = f2
+    flattening3rd = n
+
+    polaradius = b  # Rpolar
+
+#   @Property_RO
+#   def Q(self):
+#       '''Get the I{meridian arc unit} C{Q}, the mean, meridional length I{per radian} C({float}).
+#
+#          @note: C{Q * PI / 2} ≈ C{L}, the I{quarter meridian}.
+#
+#          @see: Property C{A} and U{Engsager, K., Poder, K.<https://StudyLib.net/doc/7443565/
+#                a-highly-accurate-world-wide-algorithm-for-the-transverse...>}.
+#       '''
+#       n = self.n
+#       d = (n + _1_0) / self.a
+#       return Float(Q=Fhorner(n**2, _1_0, _0_25, _1_16th, _0_25).fover(d) if d else self.b)
+
+#       # Moritz, H. <https://Geodesy.Geology.Ohio-State.EDU/course/refpapers/00740128.pdf>
+#       # Q = (1 - 3/4 * e'2 + 45/64 * e'4 - 175/256 * e'6 + 11025/16384 * e'8) * rocPolar
+#       #   = (4 + e'2 * (-3 + e'2 * (45/16 + e'2 * (-175/64 + e'2 * 11025/4096)))) * rocPolar / 4
+#       return Fhorner(self.e22, 4, -3, 45 / 16, -175 / 64, 11025 / 4096).fover(4 / self.rocPolar)
+
+    @deprecated_Property_RO
+    def quarteradius(self):  # PYCHOK no cover
+        '''DEPRECATED, use property C{L} or method C{Llat}.'''
+        return self.L
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def R1(self):
+        '''Get the I{mean} earth radius per I{IUGG} (C{meter}), M{(2 * a + b) / 3 == a * (1 - f / 3)}.
+
+           @see: U{Earth radius<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius>}
+                 and method C{Rgeometric}.
+        '''
+        r = Fsum(self.a, self.a, self.b).fover(_3_0) if self.f else self.a
+        return Radius(R1=r)
+
+    Rmean = R1
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def R2(self):
+        '''Get the I{authalic} earth radius (C{meter}), M{sqrt(c2)}.
+
+           @see: C{R2x}, C{c2}, C{area} and U{Earth radius
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius>}.
+        '''
+        return Radius(R2=sqrt(self.c2) if self.f else self.a)
+
+    Rauthalic = R2
+
+#   @Property_RO
+#   def R2(self):
+#       # Moritz, H. <https://Geodesy.Geology.Ohio-State.EDU/course/refpapers/00740128.pdf>
+#       # R2 = (1 - 2/3 * e'2 + 26/45 * e'4 - 100/189 * e'6 + 7034/14175 * e'8) * rocPolar
+#       #    = (3 + e'2 * (-2 + e'2 * (26/15 + e'2 * (-100/63 + e'2 * 7034/4725)))) * rocPolar / 3
+#       return Fhorner(self.e22, 3, -2, 26 / 15, -100 / 63, 7034 / 4725).fover(3 / self.rocPolar)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def R2x(self):
+        '''Get the I{authalic} earth radius (C{meter}), M{sqrt(c2x)}.
+
+           @see: C{R2}, C{c2x} and C{areax}.
+        '''
+        return Radius(R2x=sqrt(self.c2x) if self.f else self.a)
+
+    Rauthalicx = R2x
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def R3(self):
+        '''Get the I{volumetric} earth radius (C{meter}), M{(a * a * b)**(1/3)}.
+
+           @see: U{Earth radius<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius>} and C{volume}.
+        '''
+        r = (cbrt(self.b_a) * self.a) if self.f else self.a
+        return Radius(R3=r)
+
+    Rvolumetric = R3
+
+    def radians2m(self, rad, lat=0):
+        '''Convert an angle to the distance along the equator or
+           along a parallel of (geodetic) latitude.
+
+           @arg rad: The angle (C{radians}).
+           @kwarg lat: Parallel latitude (C{degrees90}, C{str}).
+
+           @return: Distance (C{meter}, same units as the equatorial
+                    and polar radii) or C{0} for near-polar B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @raise RangeError: Latitude B{C{lat}} outside valid range and
+                              L{pygeodesy.rangerrors} set to C{True}.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{rad}} or B{C{lat}}.
+        '''
+        r = self.circle4(lat).radius if lat else self.a
+        return radians2m(rad, radius=r, lat=0)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def Rbiaxial(self):
+        '''Get the I{biaxial, quadratic} mean earth radius (C{meter}), M{sqrt((a**2 + b**2) / 2)}.
+
+           @see: C{Rtriaxial}
+        '''
+        a, b = self.a, self.b
+        if b < a:
+            b  = sqrt(_0_5 + self.b2_a2 * _0_5) * a
+        elif b > a:
+            b *= sqrt(_0_5 + self.a2_b2 * _0_5)
+        return Radius(Rbiaxial=b)
+
+    Requatorial = a  # for consistent naming
+
+    def Rgeocentric(self, lat):
+        '''Compute the I{geocentric} earth radius of (geodetic) latitude.
+
+           @arg lat: Latitude (C{degrees90}).
+
+           @return: Geocentric earth radius (C{meter}).
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @see: U{Geocentric Radius
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius#Geocentric_radius>}
+        '''
+        r, a = self.a, Phi_(lat)
+        if a and self.f:
+            if fabs(a) < PI_2:
+                s2, c2 = _s2_c2(a)
+                b2_a2_s2 = self.b2_a2 * s2
+                # R == sqrt((a2**2 * c2 + b2**2 * s2) / (a2 * c2 + b2 * s2))
+                #   == sqrt(a2**2 * (c2 + (b2 / a2)**2 * s2) / (a2 * (c2 + b2 / a2 * s2)))
+                #   == sqrt(a2 * (c2 + (b2 / a2)**2 * s2) / (c2 + (b2 / a2) * s2))
+                #   == a * sqrt((c2 + b2_a2 * b2_a2 * s2) / (c2 + b2_a2 * s2))
+                #   == a * sqrt((c2 + b2_a2 * b2_a2_s2) / (c2 + b2_a2_s2))
+                r *= sqrt((c2 + b2_a2_s2 * self.b2_a2) / (c2 + b2_a2_s2))
+            else:
+                r  = self.b
+        return Radius(Rgeocentric=r)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def Rgeometric(self):
+        '''Get the I{geometric} mean earth radius (C{meter}), M{sqrt(a * b)}.
+
+           @see: C{R1}.
+        '''
+        g = sqrt(self.a * self.b) if self.f else self.a
+        return Radius(Rgeometric=g)
+
+    def rhumb_(self, exact=True):
+        '''Get the an I{exact} C{Rhumb...} instance for this ellipsoid.
+
+           @kwarg exact: If C{bool} or C{None} return L{Rhumb}C{(exact=B{exact}, ...)},
+                         otherwise a L{Rhumb}, L{RhumbAux} or L{RhumbSolve} instance
+                         for I{this} ellipsoid.
+
+           @return: The C{exact} rhumb (C{Rhumb...}).
+
+           @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{exact}}.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Incompatible B{C{exact}} ellipsoid.
+        '''
+        if isbool(exact):  # use Rhumb for backward compatibility
+            r = _MODS.rhumb.ekx.Rhumb(self, exact=exact, name=self.name)
+        else:
+            r =  exact
+            E = _xattr(r, ellipsoid=None)
+            if not (E is self and isinstance(r, self._Rhumbs)):
+                raise _ValueError(exact=r, ellipsosid=E, txt=_not_(self.name))
+        return r
+
+    @property_RO
+    def rhumbaux(self):
+        '''Get this ellipsoid's I{Auxiliary} C{rhumb.RhumbAux}.
+        '''
+        # if not self.isEllipsoidal:
+        #     raise _IsnotError(_ellipsoidal_, ellipsoid=self)
+        return _MODS.rhumb.aux_.RhumbAux(self, name=self.name)
+
+    @property_RO
+    def rhumbekx(self):
+        '''Get this ellipsoid's I{Elliptic, Krüger} C{rhumb.Rhumb}.
+        '''
+        # if not self.isEllipsoidal:
+        #     raise _IsnotError(_ellipsoidal_, ellipsoid=self)
+        return _MODS.rhumb.ekx.Rhumb(self, name=self.name)
+
+    @property_RO
+    def _Rhumbs(self):
+        '''(INTERNAL) Get all C{Rhumb...} classes, I{once}.
+        '''
+        p = _MODS.rhumb
+        Ellipsoid._Rhumbs = t = (p.aux_.RhumbAux,  # overwrite property_RO
+                                 p.ekx.Rhumb, p.solve.RhumbSolve)
+        return t
+
+    @property
+    def rhumbsolve(self):
+        '''Get this ellipsoid's L{RhumbSolve}, the I{wrapper} around utility
+           U{RhumbSolve<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/GeodSolve.1.html>},
+           provided the path to the C{RhumbSolve} executable is specified with env
+           variable C{PYGEODESY_RHUMBSOLVE} or re-/set with this property.
+        '''
+        # if not self.isEllipsoidal:
+        #     raise _IsnotError(_ellipsoidal_, ellipsoid=self)
+        return _MODS.rhumb.solve.RhumbSolve(self, path=self._rhumbsolve, name=self.name)
+
+    @rhumbsolve.setter  # PYCHOK setter!
+    def rhumbsolve(self, path):
+        '''Re-/set the (fully qualified) path to the U{RhumbSolve
+           <https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/C++/doc/GeodSolve.1.html>} executable,
+           overriding env variable C{PYGEODESY_RHUMBSOLVE} (C{str}).
+        '''
+        self._rhumbsolve = path
+
+    @deprecated_property_RO
+    def rhumbx(self):
+        '''DEPRECATED on 2023.11.28, use property C{rhumbekx}. '''
+        return self.rhumbekx
+
+    def Rlat(self, lat):
+        '''I{Approximate} the earth radius of (geodetic) latitude.
+
+           @arg lat: Latitude (C{degrees90}).
+
+           @return: Approximate earth radius (C{meter}).
+
+           @raise RangeError: Latitude B{C{lat}} outside valid range and
+                              L{pygeodesy.rangerrors} set to C{True}.
+
+           @raise TypeError: Invalid B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @note: C{Rlat(B{90})} equals C{Rpolar}.
+
+           @see: Method C{circle4}.
+        '''
+        # r = a - (a - b) * |lat| / 90
+        r = self.a
+        if self.f and lat:  # .isEllipsoidal
+            r -= (r - self.b) * fabs(Lat(lat)) / _90_0
+            r  =  Radius(Rlat=r)
+        return r
+
+    Rpolar = b  # for consistent naming
+
+    def roc1_(self, sa, ca=None):
+        '''Compute the I{prime-vertical}, I{normal} radius of curvature
+           of (geodetic) latitude, I{unscaled}.
+
+           @arg sa: Sine of the latitude (C{float}, [-1.0..+1.0]).
+           @kwarg ca: Optional cosine of the latitude (C{float}, [-1.0..+1.0])
+                      to use an alternate formula.
+
+           @return: The prime-vertical radius of curvature (C{float}).
+
+           @note: The delta between both formulae with C{Ellipsoids.WGS84}
+                  is less than 2 nanometer over the entire latitude range.
+
+           @see: Method L{roc2_} and class L{EcefYou}.
+        '''
+        if not self.f:  # .isSpherical
+            n = self.a
+        elif ca is None:
+            r = self.e2s2(sa)  # see .roc2_ and _EcefBase._forward
+            n = sqrt(self.a2 / r) if r > EPS02 else _0_0
+        elif ca:  # derived from EcefYou.forward
+            h = hypot(ca, self.b_a * sa) if sa else fabs(ca)
+            n = self.a / h
+        elif sa:
+            n = self.a2_b / fabs(sa)
+        else:
+            n = self.a
+        return n
+
+    def roc2(self, lat, scaled=False):
+        '''Compute the I{meridional} and I{prime-vertical}, I{normal}
+           radii of curvature of (geodetic) latitude.
+
+           @arg lat: Latitude (C{degrees90}).
+           @kwarg scaled: Scale prime_vertical by C{cos(radians(B{lat}))} (C{bool}).
+
+           @return: An L{Curvature2Tuple}C{(meridional, prime_vertical)} with
+                    the radii of curvature.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @see: Methods L{roc2_} and L{roc1_}, U{Local, flat earth approximation
+                 <https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform.htm#flat>} and meridional and
+                 prime vertical U{Radii of Curvature<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/
+                 Earth_radius#Radii_of_curvature>}.
+        '''
+        return self.roc2_(Phi_(lat), scaled=scaled)
+
+    def roc2_(self, phi, scaled=False):
+        '''Compute the I{meridional} and I{prime-vertical}, I{normal} radii of
+           curvature of (geodetic) latitude.
+
+           @arg phi: Latitude (C{radians}).
+           @kwarg scaled: Scale prime_vertical by C{cos(B{phi})} (C{bool}).
+
+           @return: An L{Curvature2Tuple}C{(meridional, prime_vertical)} with the
+                    radii of curvature.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{phi}}.
+
+           @see: Methods L{roc2} and L{roc1_}, property L{rocEquatorial2}, U{Local,
+                 flat earth approximation<https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform.htm#flat>}
+                 and the meridional and prime vertical U{Radii of Curvature
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius#Radii_of_curvature>}.
+        '''
+        a = fabs(Phi(phi))
+        if self.f:
+            r = self.e2s2(sin(a))
+            if r > EPS02:
+                n = self.a / sqrt(r)
+                m = n * self.e21 / r  # PYCHOK attr
+            else:
+                m = n = _0_0  # PYCHOK attr
+        else:
+            m = n = self.a
+        if scaled and a:
+            n *= cos(a) if a < PI_2 else _0_0
+        return Curvature2Tuple(Radius(rocMeridional=m),
+                               Radius(rocPrimeVertical=n))
+
+    def rocBearing(self, lat, bearing):
+        '''Compute the I{directional} radius of curvature of (geodetic)
+           latitude and compass direction.
+
+           @arg lat: Latitude (C{degrees90}).
+           @arg bearing: Direction (compass C{degrees360}).
+
+           @return: Directional radius of curvature (C{meter}).
+
+           @raise RangeError: Latitude B{C{lat}} outside valid range and
+                              L{pygeodesy.rangerrors} set to C{True}.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{lat}} or B{C{bearing}}.
+
+           @see: U{Radii of Curvature<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius#Radii_of_curvature>}
+        '''
+        if self.f:
+            s2, c2 = _s2_c2(Bearing_(bearing))
+            m, n = self.roc2_(Phi_(lat))
+            if n < m:  # == n / (c2 * n / m + s2)
+                c2 *= n / m
+            elif m < n:  # == m / (c2 + s2 * m / n)
+                s2 *= m / n
+                n = m
+            b = n / (c2 + s2)  # == 1 / (c2 / m + s2 / n)
+        else:
+            b = self.b  # == self.a
+        return Radius(rocBearing=b)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def rocEquatorial2(self):
+        '''Get the I{meridional} and I{prime-vertical}, I{normal} radii of curvature
+           at the equator as L{Curvature2Tuple}C{(meridional, prime_vertical)}.
+
+           @see: Methods L{rocMeridional} and L{rocPrimeVertical}, properties L{b2_a},
+                 L{a2_b}, C{rocPolar} and polar and equatorial U{Radii of Curvature
+                 <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius#Radii_of_curvature>}.
+        '''
+        return Curvature2Tuple(Radius(rocMeridional0=self.b2_a if self.f else self.a),
+                               Radius(rocPrimeVertical0=self.a))
+
+    def rocGauss(self, lat):
+        '''Compute the I{Gaussian} radius of curvature of (geodetic) latitude.
+
+           @arg lat: Latitude (C{degrees90}).
+
+           @return: Gaussian radius of curvature (C{meter}).
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @see: Non-directional U{Radii of Curvature<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/
+                 Earth_radius#Radii_of_curvature>}
+        '''
+        # using ...
+        #    m, n = self.roc2_(Phi_(lat))
+        #    return sqrt(m * n)
+        # ... requires 1 or 2 sqrt
+        g = self.b
+        if self.f:
+            s2, c2 = _s2_c2(Phi_(lat))
+            g = g / (c2 + self.b2_a2 * s2)
+        return Radius(rocGauss=g)
+
+    def rocMean(self, lat):
+        '''Compute the I{mean} radius of curvature of (geodetic) latitude.
+
+           @arg lat: Latitude (C{degrees90}).
+
+           @return: Mean radius of curvature (C{meter}).
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @see: Non-directional U{Radii of Curvature<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/
+                 Earth_radius#Radii_of_curvature>}
+        '''
+        if self.f:
+            m, n = self.roc2_(Phi_(lat))
+            m *= n * _2_0 / (m + n)  # == 2 / (1 / m + 1 / n)
+        else:
+            m  = self.a
+        return Radius(rocMean=m)
+
+    def rocMeridional(self, lat):
+        '''Compute the I{meridional} radius of curvature of (geodetic) latitude.
+
+           @arg lat: Latitude (C{degrees90}).
+
+           @return: Meridional radius of curvature (C{meter}).
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @see: Methods L{roc2} and L{roc2_}, U{Local, flat earth approximation
+                 <https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform.htm#flat>} and U{Radii of
+                 Curvature<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius#Radii_of_curvature>}.
+        '''
+        return self.roc2_(Phi_(lat)).meridional if lat else \
+               self.rocEquatorial2.meridional
+
+    rocPolar = a2_b  # synonymous
+
+    def rocPrimeVertical(self, lat):
+        '''Compute the I{prime-vertical}, I{normal} radius of curvature of
+           (geodetic) latitude, aka the I{transverse} radius of curvature.
+
+           @arg lat: Latitude (C{degrees90}).
+
+           @return: Prime-vertical radius of curvature (C{meter}).
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{lat}}.
+
+           @see: Methods L{roc2}, L{roc2_} and L{roc1_}, U{Local, flat earth
+                 approximation<https://www.EdWilliams.org/avform.htm#flat>} and
+                 U{Radii of Curvature<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/
+                 Earth_radius#Radii_of_curvature>}.
+        '''
+        return self.roc2_(Phi_(lat)).prime_vertical if lat else \
+               self.rocEquatorial2.prime_vertical
+
+    rocTransverse = rocPrimeVertical  # synonymous
+
+    @deprecated_Property_RO
+    def Rquadratic(self):  # PYCHOK no cover
+        '''DEPRECATED, use property C{Rbiaxial} or C{Rtriaxial}.'''
+        return self.Rbiaxial
+
+    @deprecated_Property_RO
+    def Rr(self):  # PYCHOK no cover
+        '''DEPRECATED, use property C{Rrectifying}.'''
+        return self.Rrectifying
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def Rrectifying(self):
+        '''Get the I{rectifying} earth radius (C{meter}), M{((a**(3/2) + b**(3/2)) / 2)**(2/3)}.
+
+           @see: U{Earth radius<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius>}.
+        '''
+        r = (cbrt2((_1_0 + sqrt3(self.b_a)) * _0_5) * self.a) if self.f else self.a
+        return Radius(Rrectifying=r)
+
+    @deprecated_Property_RO
+    def Rs(self):  # PYCHOK no cover
+        '''DEPRECATED, use property C{Rgeometric}.'''
+        return self.Rgeometric
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def Rtriaxial(self):
+        '''Get the I{triaxial, quadratic} mean earth radius (C{meter}), M{sqrt((3 * a**2 + b**2) / 4)}.
+
+           @see: C{Rbiaxial}
+        '''
+        a, b = self.a, self.b
+        q = (sqrt((_3_0 + self.b2_a2)        * _0_25) * a) if a > b else (
+            (sqrt((_3_0 * self.a2_b2 + _1_0) * _0_25) * b) if a < b else a)
+        return Radius(Rtriaxial=q)
+
+    def toEllipsoid2(self, name=NN):
+        '''Get a copy of this ellipsoid as an L{Ellipsoid2}.
+
+           @kwarg name: Optional, unique name (C{str}).
+
+           @see: Property C{a_f}.
+        '''
+        return Ellipsoid2(self, None, name=name)
+
+    def toStr(self, prec=8, terse=0, name=NN, **unused):  # PYCHOK expected
+        '''Return this ellipsoid as a text string.
+
+           @kwarg prec: Number of decimal digits, unstripped (C{int}).
+           @kwarg terse: Limit the number of items (C{int}, 0...18).
+           @kwarg name: Override name (C{str}) or C{None} to exclude
+                        this ellipsoid's name.
+
+           @return: This C{Ellipsoid}'s attributes (C{str}).
+        '''
+        E = Ellipsoid
+        t = E.a, E.b, E.f_, E.f, E.f2, E.n, E.e, E.e2, E.e21, E.e22, E.e32, \
+            E.A, E.L, E.R1, E.R2, E.R3, E.Rbiaxial, E.Rtriaxial
+        if terse:
+            t = t[:terse]
+        return self._instr(name, prec, props=t)
+
+    def toTriaxial(self, name=NN):
+        '''Convert this ellipsoid to a L{Triaxial_}.
+
+           @return: A L{Triaxial_} or L{Triaxial} with the C{X} axis
+                    pointing east and C{Z} pointing north.
+
+           @see: Method L{Triaxial_.toEllipsoid}.
+        '''
+        T = self._triaxial
+        return T.copy(name=name) if name else T
+
+    @property_RO
+    def _triaxial(self):
+        '''(INTERNAL) Get this ellipsoid's un-/ordered C{Triaxial/_}.
+        '''
+        a, b, m = self.a, self.b, _MODS.triaxials
+        T = m.Triaxial if a > b else m.Triaxial_
+        return T(a, a, b, name=self.name)
+
+    @Property_RO
+    def volume(self):
+        '''Get the ellipsoid's I{volume} (C{meter**3}), M{4 / 3 * PI * R3**3}.
+
+           @see: C{R3}.
+        '''
+        return Meter3(volume=self.a2 * self.b * PI_3 * _4_0)
+
+
+class Ellipsoid2(Ellipsoid):
+    '''An L{Ellipsoid} specified by I{equatorial} radius and I{flattening}.
+    '''
+    def __init__(self, a, f, name=NN):
+        '''New L{Ellipsoid2}.
+
+           @arg a: Equatorial radius, semi-axis (C{meter}).
+           @arg f: Flattening: (C{float} < 1.0, negative for I{prolate}).
+           @kwarg name: Optional, unique name (C{str}).
+
+           @raise NameError: Ellipsoid with that B{C{name}} already exists.
+
+           @raise ValueError: Invalid B{C{a}} or B{C{f}}.
+
+           @note: C{abs(B{f}) < EPS} is forced to C{B{f}=0}, I{spherical}.
+                  Negative C{B{f}} produces a I{prolate} ellipsoid.
+        '''
+        if f is None and isinstance(a, Ellipsoid):
+            Ellipsoid.__init__(self, a.a,   f =a.f,
+                                     b=a.b, f_=a.f_, name=name)
+        else:
+            Ellipsoid.__init__(self, a, f=f, name=name)
+
+
+def _spherical_a_b(a, b):
+    '''(INTERNAL) C{True} for spherical or invalid C{a} or C{b}.
+    '''
+    return a < EPS0 or b < EPS0 or fabs(a - b) < EPS0
+
+
+def _spherical_f(f):
+    '''(INTERNAL) C{True} for spherical or invalid C{f}.
+    '''
+    return fabs(f) < EPS or f > EPS1
+
+
+def _spherical_f_(f_):
+    '''(INTERNAL) C{True} for spherical or invalid C{f_}.
+    '''
+    return fabs(f_) < EPS or fabs(f_) > _1_EPS
+
+
+def a_b2e(a, b):
+    '''Return C{e}, the I{1st eccentricity} for a given I{equatorial} and I{polar} radius.
+
+       @arg a: Equatorial radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+       @arg b: Polar radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+
+       @return: The I{unsigned}, (1st) eccentricity (C{float} or C{0}),
+                M{sqrt(1 - (b / a)**2)}.
+
+       @note: The result is always I{non-negative} and C{0} for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+    '''
+    return Float(e=sqrt(fabs(a_b2e2(a, b))))  # == sqrt(fabs(a - b) * (a + b)) / a)
+
+
+def a_b2e2(a, b):
+    '''Return C{e2}, the I{1st eccentricity squared} for a given I{equatorial} and I{polar} radius.
+
+       @arg a: Equatorial radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+       @arg b: Polar radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+
+       @return: The I{signed}, (1st) eccentricity I{squared} (C{float} or C{0}),
+                M{1 - (b / a)**2}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate}
+              or C{0} for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+    '''
+    return Float(e2=_0_0 if _spherical_a_b(a, b) else ((a - b) * (a + b) / a**2))
+
+
+def a_b2e22(a, b):
+    '''Return C{e22}, the I{2nd eccentricity squared} for a given I{equatorial} and I{polar} radius.
+
+       @arg a: Equatorial radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+       @arg b: Polar radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+
+       @return: The I{signed}, 2nd eccentricity I{squared} (C{float} or C{0}),
+                M{(a / b)**2 - 1}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate}
+              or C{0} for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+    '''
+    return Float(e22=_0_0 if _spherical_a_b(a, b) else ((a - b) * (a + b) / b**2))
+
+
+def a_b2e32(a, b):
+    '''Return C{e32}, the I{3rd eccentricity squared} for a given I{equatorial} and I{polar} radius.
+
+       @arg a: Equatorial radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+       @arg b: Polar radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+
+       @return: The I{signed}, 3rd eccentricity I{squared} (C{float} or C{0}),
+                M{(a**2 - b**2) / (a**2 + b**2)}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate}
+              or C{0} for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+    '''
+    a2, b2 = a**2, b**2
+    return Float(e32=_0_0 if _spherical_a_b(a2, b2) else ((a2 - b2) / (a2 + b2)))
+
+
+def a_b2f(a, b):
+    '''Return C{f}, the I{flattening} for a given I{equatorial} and I{polar} radius.
+
+       @arg a: Equatorial radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+       @arg b: Polar radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+
+       @return: The flattening (C{scalar} or C{0}), M{(a - b) / a}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate} or C{0}
+              for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+    '''
+    f = 0 if _spherical_a_b(a, b) else ((a - b) / a)
+    return _f_0_0 if _spherical_f(f) else Float(f=f)
+
+
+def a_b2f_(a, b):
+    '''Return C{f_}, the I{inverse flattening} for a given I{equatorial} and I{polar} radius.
+
+       @arg a: Equatorial radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+       @arg b: Polar radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+
+       @return: The inverse flattening (C{scalar} or C{0}), M{a / (a - b)}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate} or C{0}
+              for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+    '''
+    f_ = 0 if _spherical_a_b(a, b) else (a / float(a - b))
+    return _f__0_0 if _spherical_f_(f_) else Float(f_=f_)
+
+
+def a_b2f2(a, b):
+    '''Return C{f2}, the I{2nd flattening} for a given I{equatorial} and I{polar} radius.
+
+       @arg a: Equatorial radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+       @arg b: Polar radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+
+       @return: The I{signed}, 2nd flattening (C{scalar} or C{0}), M{(a - b) / b}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate} or C{0}
+              for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+    '''
+    t = 0 if _spherical_a_b(a, b) else float(a - b)
+    return Float(f2=_0_0 if fabs(t) < EPS0 else (t / b))
+
+
+def a_b2n(a, b):
+    '''Return C{n}, the I{3rd flattening} for a given I{equatorial} and I{polar} radius.
+
+       @arg a: Equatorial radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+       @arg b: Polar radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+
+       @return: The I{signed}, 3rd flattening (C{scalar} or C{0}), M{(a - b) / (a + b)}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate}
+              or C{0} for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+    '''
+    t = 0 if _spherical_a_b(a, b) else float(a - b)
+    return Float(n=_0_0 if fabs(t) < EPS0 else (t / (a + b)))
+
+
+def a_f2b(a, f):
+    '''Return C{b}, the I{polar} radius for a given I{equatorial} radius and I{flattening}.
+
+       @arg a: Equatorial radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+       @arg f: Flattening (C{scalar} < 1, negative for I{prolate}).
+
+       @return: The polar radius (C{float}), M{a * (1 - f)}.
+    '''
+    b = a if _spherical_f(f) else (a * (_1_0 - f))
+    return Radius_(b=a if _spherical_a_b(a, b) else b)
+
+
+def a_f_2b(a, f_):
+    '''Return C{b}, the I{polar} radius for a given I{equatorial} radius and I{inverse flattening}.
+
+       @arg a: Equatorial radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+       @arg f_: Inverse flattening (C{scalar} >>> 1).
+
+       @return: The polar radius (C{float}), M{a * (f_ - 1) / f_}.
+    '''
+    b = a if _spherical_f_(f_) else (a * (f_ - _1_0) / f_)
+    return Radius_(b=a if _spherical_a_b(a, b) else b)
+
+
+def b_f2a(b, f):
+    '''Return C{a}, the I{equatorial} radius for a given I{polar} radius and I{flattening}.
+
+       @arg b: Polar radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+       @arg f: Flattening (C{scalar} < 1, negative for I{prolate}).
+
+       @return: The equatorial radius (C{float}), M{b / (1 - f)}.
+    '''
+    t = _1_0 - f
+    a = b if fabs(t) < EPS0 else (b / t)
+    return Radius_(a=b if _spherical_a_b(a, b) else a)
+
+
+def b_f_2a(b, f_):
+    '''Return C{a}, the I{equatorial} radius for a given I{polar} radius and I{inverse flattening}.
+
+       @arg b: Polar radius (C{scalar} > 0).
+       @arg f_: Inverse flattening (C{scalar} >>> 1).
+
+       @return: The equatorial radius (C{float}), M{b * f_ / (f_ - 1)}.
+    '''
+    t = f_ - _1_0
+    a = b if _spherical_f_(f_) or fabs(t - f_) < EPS0 \
+                               or fabs(t) < EPS0 else (b * f_ / t)
+    return Radius_(a=b if _spherical_a_b(a, b) else a)
+
+
+def e2f(e):
+    '''Return C{f}, the I{flattening} for a given I{1st eccentricity}.
+
+       @arg e: The (1st) eccentricity (0 <= C{float} < 1)
+
+       @return: The flattening (C{scalar} or C{0}).
+
+       @see: Function L{e22f}.
+    '''
+    return e22f(e**2)
+
+
+def e22f(e2):
+    '''Return C{f}, the I{flattening} for a given I{1st eccentricity squared}.
+
+       @arg e2: The (1st) eccentricity I{squared}, I{signed} (L{NINF} < C{float} < 1)
+
+       @return: The flattening (C{float} or C{0}), M{e2 / (sqrt(e2 - 1) + 1)}.
+    '''
+    return Float(f=e2 / (sqrt(_1_0 - e2) + _1_0)) if e2 else _f_0_0
+
+
+def f2e2(f):
+    '''Return C{e2}, the I{1st eccentricity squared} for a given I{flattening}.
+
+       @arg f: Flattening (C{scalar} < 1, negative for I{prolate}).
+
+       @return: The I{signed}, (1st) eccentricity I{squared} (C{float} < 1),
+                M{f * (2 - f)}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate}
+              or C{0} for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+
+       @see: U{Eccentricity conversions<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+             C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>} and U{Flattening
+             <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Flattening>}.
+    '''
+    return Float(e2=_0_0 if _spherical_f(f) else (f * (_2_0 - f)))
+
+
+def f2e22(f):
+    '''Return C{e22}, the I{2nd eccentricity squared} for a given I{flattening}.
+
+       @arg f: Flattening (C{scalar} < 1, negative for I{prolate}).
+
+       @return: The I{signed}, 2nd eccentricity I{squared} (C{float} > -1 or
+                C{INF}), M{f * (2 - f) / (1 - f)**2}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate}
+              or C{0} for near-spherical ellipsoids.
+
+       @see: U{Eccentricity conversions<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+             C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>}.
+    '''
+    # e2 / (1 - e2) == f * (2 - f) / (1 - f)**2
+    t = (_1_0 - f)**2
+    return Float(e22=INF if t < EPS0 else (f2e2(f) / t))  # PYCHOK type
+
+
+def f2e32(f):
+    '''Return C{e32}, the I{3rd eccentricity squared} for a given I{flattening}.
+
+       @arg f: Flattening (C{scalar} < 1, negative for I{prolate}).
+
+       @return: The I{signed}, 3rd eccentricity I{squared} (C{float}),
+                M{f * (2 - f) / (1 + (1 - f)**2)}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate}
+              or C{0} for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+
+       @see: U{Eccentricity conversions<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+             C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>}.
+    '''
+    # e2 / (2 - e2) == f * (2 - f) / (1 + (1 - f)**2)
+    e2 = f2e2(f)
+    return Float(e32=e2 / (_2_0 - e2))
+
+
+def f_2f(f_):
+    '''Return C{f}, the I{flattening} for a given I{inverse flattening}.
+
+       @arg f_: Inverse flattening (C{scalar} >>> 1).
+
+       @return: The flattening (C{scalar} or C{0}), M{1 / f_}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate}
+              or C{0} for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+    '''
+    f = 0 if _spherical_f_(f_) else _1_0 / f_
+    return _f_0_0 if _spherical_f(f) else Float(f=f)  # PYCHOK type
+
+
+def f2f_(f):
+    '''Return C{f_}, the I{inverse flattening} for a given I{flattening}.
+
+       @arg f: Flattening (C{scalar} < 1, negative for I{prolate}).
+
+       @return: The inverse flattening (C{scalar} or C{0}), M{1 / f}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate}
+              or C{0} for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+    '''
+    f_ = 0 if _spherical_f(f) else _1_0 / f
+    return _f__0_0 if _spherical_f_(f_) else Float(f_=f_)  # PYCHOK type
+
+
+def f2f2(f):
+    '''Return C{f2}, the I{2nd flattening} for a given I{flattening}.
+
+       @arg f: Flattening (C{scalar} < 1, negative for I{prolate}).
+
+       @return: The I{signed}, 2nd flattening (C{scalar} or C{INF}), M{f / (1 - f)}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate}
+              or C{0} for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+
+       @see: U{Eccentricity conversions<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+             C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>} and U{Flattening
+             <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Flattening>}.
+    '''
+    t = _1_0 - f
+    return Float(f2=_0_0 if _spherical_f(f) else (INF if fabs(t) < EPS
+                                            else (f / t)))  # PYCHOK type
+
+
+def f2n(f):
+    '''Return C{n}, the I{3rd flattening} for a given I{flattening}.
+
+       @arg f: Flattening (C{scalar} < 1, negative for I{prolate}).
+
+       @return: The I{signed}, 3rd flattening (-1 <= C{float} < 1),
+                M{f / (2 - f)}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate}
+              or C{0} for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+
+       @see: U{Eccentricity conversions<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+             C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>} and U{Flattening
+             <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Flattening>}.
+    '''
+    return Float(n=_0_0 if _spherical_f(f) else (f / float(_2_0 - f)))
+
+
+def n2e2(n):
+    '''Return C{e2}, the I{1st eccentricity squared} for a given I{3rd flattening}.
+
+       @arg n: The 3rd flattening (-1 <= C{scalar} < 1).
+
+       @return: The I{signed}, (1st) eccentricity I{squared} (C{float} or NINF),
+                M{4 * n / (1 + n)**2}.
+
+       @note: The result is positive for I{oblate}, negative for I{prolate}
+              or C{0} for I{near-spherical} ellipsoids.
+
+       @see: U{Flattening<https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Flattening>}.
+    '''
+    t = (n + _1_0)**2
+    return Float(e2=_0_0 if fabs(n) < EPS0 else
+                   (NINF if      t  < EPS0 else (_4_0 * n / t)))
+
+
+def n2f(n):
+    '''Return C{f}, the I{flattening} for a given I{3rd flattening}.
+
+       @arg n: The 3rd flattening (-1 <= C{scalar} < 1).
+
+       @return: The flattening (C{scalar} or NINF), M{2 * n / (1 + n)}.
+
+       @see: U{Eccentricity conversions<https://GeographicLib.SourceForge.io/
+             C++/doc/classGeographicLib_1_1Ellipsoid.html>} and U{Flattening
+             <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Flattening>}.
+    '''
+    t = n + _1_0
+    f = 0 if fabs(n) < EPS0 else (NINF if t < EPS0 else (_2_0 * n / t))
+    return _f_0_0 if _spherical_f(f) else Float(f=f)
+
+
+def n2f_(n):
+    '''Return C{f_}, the I{inverse flattening} for a given I{3rd flattening}.
+
+       @arg n: The 3rd flattening (-1 <= C{scalar} < 1).
+
+       @return: The inverse flattening (C{scalar} or C{0}), M{1 / f}.
+
+       @see: L{n2f} and L{f2f_}.
+    '''
+    return f2f_(n2f(n))
+
+
+def _normalTo3(px, py, E, eps=EPS):  # in .height4 above
+    '''(INTERNAL) Nearest point on a 2-D ellipse in 1st quadrant.
+
+       @see: Functions C{pygeodesy.triaxial._normalTo4} and C{-To5}.
+    '''
+    a, b, e0 = E.a, E.b, EPS0
+    if min(px, py, a, b) < e0:
+        raise _AssertionError(px=px, py=py, a=a, b=b, E=E)
+
+    a2 = a - b * E.b_a
+    b2 = b - a * E.a_b
+    tx = ty = _SQRT2_2
+    _a,  _h =  fabs, hypot
+    for i in range(16):  # max 5
+        ex = a2 * tx**3
+        ey = b2 * ty**3
+
+        qx =  px - ex
+        qy =  py - ey
+        q  = _h(qx, qy)
+        if q < e0:  # PYCHOK no cover
+            break
+        r = _h(ex - tx * a,
+               ey - ty * b) / q
+
+        sx, tx = tx, min(_1_0, max(0, (ex + qx * r) / a))
+        sy, ty = ty, min(_1_0, max(0, (ey + qy * r) / b))
+        t = _h(ty, tx)
+        if t < e0:  # PYCHOK no cover
+            break
+        tx = tx / t  # /= chokes PyChecker
+        ty = ty / t
+        if _a(sx - tx) < eps and \
+           _a(sy - ty) < eps:
+            break
+
+    tx *= a / px
+    ty *= b / py
+    return tx, ty, i  # x and y as fractions
+
+
+class Ellipsoids(_NamedEnum):
+    '''(INTERNAL) L{Ellipsoid} registry, I{must} be a sub-class
+       to accommodate the L{_LazyNamedEnumItem} properties.
+    '''
+    def _Lazy(self, a, b, f_, **kwds):
+        '''(INTERNAL) Instantiate the L{Ellipsoid}.
+        '''
+        return Ellipsoid(a, b=b, f_=f_, **kwds)
+
+Ellipsoids = Ellipsoids(Ellipsoid)  # PYCHOK singleton
+'''Some pre-defined L{Ellipsoid}s, all I{lazily} instantiated.'''
+# <https://www.GNU.org/software/gama/manual/html_node/Supported-ellipsoids.html>
+# <https://GSSC.ESA.int/navipedia/index.php/Reference_Frames_in_GNSS>
+# <https://kb.OSU.edu/dspace/handle/1811/77986>
+# <https://www.IBM.com/docs/en/db2/11.5?topic=systems-supported-spheroids>
+# <https://w3.Energistics.org/archive/Epicentre/Epicentre_v3.0/DataModel/LogicalDictionary/StandardValues/ellipsoid.html>
+# <https://GitHub.com/locationtech/proj4j/blob/master/src/main/java/org/locationtech/proj4j/datum/Ellipsoid.java>
+Ellipsoids._assert(  # <https://WikiPedia.org/wiki/Earth_ellipsoid>
+    Airy1830       = _lazy(_Airy1830_,       *_T(6377563.396, _0_0,               299.3249646)),  # b=6356256.909
+    AiryModified   = _lazy(_AiryModified_,   *_T(6377340.189, _0_0,               299.3249646)),  # b=6356034.448
+#   APL4_9         = _lazy('APL4_9',         *_T(6378137.0,   _0_0,               298.24985392)),  # Appl. Phys. Lab. 1965
+#   ANS            = _lazy('ANS',            *_T(6378160.0,   _0_0,               298.25)),  # Australian Nat. Spheroid
+#   AN_SA96        = _lazy('AN_SA96',        *_T(6378160.0,   _0_0,               298.24985392)),  # Australian Nat. South America
+    Australia1966  = _lazy('Australia1966',  *_T(6378160.0,   _0_0,               298.25)),  # b=6356774.7192
+    ATS1977        = _lazy('ATS1977',        *_T(6378135.0,   _0_0,               298.257)),  # "Average Terrestrial System"
+    Bessel1841     = _lazy(_Bessel1841_,     *_T(6377397.155,  6356078.962818,    299.152812797)),
+    BesselModified = _lazy('BesselModified', *_T(6377492.018, _0_0,               299.1528128)),
+#   BesselNamibia  = _lazy('BesselNamibia',  *_T(6377483.865, _0_0,               299.1528128)),
+    CGCS2000       = _lazy('CGCS2000',       *_T(R_MA,        _0_0,               298.257222101)),  # BeiDou Coord System (BDC)
+#   Clarke1858     = _lazy('Clarke1858',     *_T(6378293.639, _0_0,               294.260676369)),
+    Clarke1866     = _lazy(_Clarke1866_,     *_T(6378206.4,    6356583.8,         294.978698214)),
+    Clarke1880     = _lazy('Clarke1880',     *_T(6378249.145,  6356514.86954978,  293.465)),
+    Clarke1880IGN  = _lazy(_Clarke1880IGN_,  *_T(6378249.2,    6356515.0,         293.466021294)),
+    Clarke1880Mod  = _lazy('Clarke1880Mod',  *_T(6378249.145,  6356514.96639549,  293.466307656)),  # aka Clarke1880Arc
+    CPM1799        = _lazy('CPM1799',        *_T(6375738.7,    6356671.92557493,  334.39)),  # Comm. des Poids et Mesures
+    Delambre1810   = _lazy('Delambre1810',   *_T(6376428.0,    6355957.92616372,  311.5)),  # Belgium
+    Engelis1985    = _lazy('Engelis1985',    *_T(6378136.05,   6356751.32272154,  298.2566)),
+#   Everest1830    = _lazy('Everest1830',    *_T(6377276.345, _0_0,               300.801699997)),
+#   Everest1948    = _lazy('Everest1948',    *_T(6377304.063, _0_0,               300.801699997)),
+#   Everest1956    = _lazy('Everest1956',    *_T(6377301.243, _0_0,               300.801699997)),
+    Everest1969    = _lazy('Everest1969',    *_T(6377295.664,  6356094.667915,    300.801699997)),
+    Everest1975    = _lazy('Everest1975',    *_T(6377299.151,  6356098.14512013,  300.8017255)),
+    Fisher1968     = _lazy('Fisher1968',     *_T(6378150.0,    6356768.33724438,  298.3)),
+#   Fisher1968Mod  = _lazy('Fisher1968Mod',  *_T(6378155.0,   _0_0,               298.3)),
+    GEM10C         = _lazy('GEM10C',         *_T(R_MA,         6356752.31424783,  298.2572236)),
+    GPES           = _lazy('GPES',           *_T(6378135.0,    6356750.0,        _0_0)),  # "Gen. Purpose Earth Spheroid"
+    GRS67          = _lazy('GRS67',          *_T(6378160.0,   _0_0,               298.247167427)),  # Lucerne b=6356774.516
+#   GRS67Truncated = _lazy('GRS67Truncated', *_T(6378160.0,   _0_0,               298.25)),
+    GRS80          = _lazy(_GRS80_,          *_T(R_MA,         6356752.314140347, 298.25722210088)),  # IUGG, ITRS, ETRS89
+#   Hayford1924    = _lazy('Hayford1924',    *_T(6378388.0,    6356911.94612795,  None)),  # aka Intl1924 f_=297
+    Helmert1906    = _lazy('Helmert1906',    *_T(6378200.0,    6356818.16962789,  298.3)),
+#   Hough1960      = _lazy('Hough1960',      *_T(6378270.0,   _0_0,               297.0)),
+    IAU76          = _lazy('IAU76',          *_T(6378140.0,   _0_0,               298.257)),  # Int'l Astronomical Union
+    IERS1989       = _lazy('IERS1989',       *_T(6378136.0,   _0_0,               298.257)),  # b=6356751.302
+    IERS1992TOPEX  = _lazy('IERS1992TOPEX',  *_T(6378136.3,    6356751.61659215,  298.257223563)),  # IERS/TOPEX/Poseidon/McCarthy
+    IERS2003       = _lazy('IERS2003',       *_T(6378136.6,    6356751.85797165,  298.25642)),
+    Intl1924       = _lazy(_Intl1924_,       *_T(6378388.0,   _0_0,               297.0)),  # aka Hayford b=6356911.9462795
+    Intl1967       = _lazy('Intl1967',       *_T(6378157.5,    6356772.2,         298.24961539)),  # New Int'l
+    Krassovski1940 = _lazy(_Krassovski1940_, *_T(6378245.0,    6356863.01877305,  298.3)),  # spelling
+    Krassowsky1940 = _lazy(_Krassowsky1940_, *_T(6378245.0,    6356863.01877305,  298.3)),  # spelling
+#   Kaula          = _lazy('Kaula',          *_T(6378163.0,   _0_0,               298.24)),  # Kaula 1961
+#   Lerch          = _lazy('Lerch',          *_T(6378139.0,   _0_0,               298.257)),  # Lerch 1979
+    Maupertuis1738 = _lazy('Maupertuis1738', *_T(6397300.0,    6363806.28272251,  191.0)),  # France
+    Mercury1960    = _lazy('Mercury1960',    *_T(6378166.0,    6356784.28360711,  298.3)),
+    Mercury1968Mod = _lazy('Mercury1968Mod', *_T(6378150.0,    6356768.33724438,  298.3)),
+#   MERIT          = _lazy('MERIT',          *_T(6378137.0,   _0_0,               298.257)),  # MERIT 1983
+#   NWL10D         = _lazy('NWL10D',         *_T(6378135.0,   _0_0,               298.26)),  # Naval Weapons Lab.
+    NWL1965        = _lazy('NWL1965',        *_T(6378145.0,    6356759.76948868,  298.25)),  # Naval Weapons Lab.
+#   NWL9D          = _lazy('NWL9D',          *_T(6378145.0,    6356759.76948868,  298.25)),  # NWL1965
+    OSU86F         = _lazy('OSU86F',         *_T(6378136.2,    6356751.51693008,  298.2572236)),
+    OSU91A         = _lazy('OSU91A',         *_T(6378136.3,    6356751.6165948,   298.2572236)),
+#   Plessis1817    = _lazy('Plessis1817',    *_T(6397523.0,    6355863.0,         153.56512242)),  # XXX incorrect?
+    Plessis1817    = _lazy('Plessis1817',    *_T(6376523.0,    6355862.93325557,  308.64)),  # XXX IGN France 1972
+#   Prolate        = _lazy('Prolate',        *_T(6356752.3,    R_MA,             _0_0)),
+    PZ90           = _lazy('PZ90',           *_T(6378136.0,   _0_0,               298.257839303)),  # GLOSNASS PZ-90 and PZ-90.11
+#   SEAsia         = _lazy('SEAsia',         *_T(6378155.0,   _0_0,               298.3)),  # SouthEast Asia
+    SGS85          = _lazy('SGS85',          *_T(6378136.0,    6356751.30156878,  298.257)),  # Soviet Geodetic System
+    SoAmerican1969 = _lazy('SoAmerican1969', *_T(6378160.0,    6356774.71919531,  298.25)),  # South American
+    Sphere         = _lazy(_Sphere_,         *_T(R_M,          R_M,              _0_0)),  # pseudo
+    SphereAuthalic = _lazy('SphereAuthalic', *_T(R_FM,         R_FM,             _0_0)),  # pseudo
+    SpherePopular  = _lazy('SpherePopular',  *_T(R_MA,         R_MA,             _0_0)),  # EPSG:3857 Spheroid
+    Struve1860     = _lazy('Struve1860',     *_T(6378298.3,    6356657.14266956,  294.73)),
+#   Walbeck        = _lazy('Walbeck',        *_T(6376896.0,   _0_0,               302.78)),
+#   WarOffice      = _lazy('WarOffice',      *_T(6378300.0,   _0_0,               296.0)),
+    WGS60          = _lazy('WGS60',          *_T(6378165.0,    6356783.28695944,  298.3)),
+    WGS66          = _lazy('WGS66',          *_T(6378145.0,    6356759.76948868,  298.25)),
+    WGS72          = _lazy(_WGS72_,          *_T(6378135.0,   _0_0,               298.26)),  # b=6356750.52
+    WGS84          = _lazy(_WGS84_,          *_T(R_MA,        _0_0,           _f__WGS84)),  # GPS b=6356752.3142451793
+#   U{NOAA/NOS/NGS/inverse<https://GitHub.com/noaa-ngs/inverse/blob/main/invers3d.f>}
+    WGS84_NGS      = _lazy('WGS84_NGS',      *_T(R_MA,        _0_0,               298.257222100882711243162836600094))
+)
+
+_EWGS84 = Ellipsoids.WGS84  # (INTERNAL) shared
+
+if __name__ == '__main__':
+
+    from pygeodesy.interns import _COMMA_, _NL_, _NLATvar_
+    from pygeodesy import nameof, printf
+
+    for E in (_EWGS84, Ellipsoids.GRS80,  # NAD83,
+               Ellipsoids.Sphere, Ellipsoids.SpherePopular,
+               Ellipsoid(_EWGS84.b, _EWGS84.a, name='_Prolate')):
+        e = f2n(E.f) - E.n
+        printf('# %s: %s', _DOT_('Ellipsoids', E.name), E.toStr(prec=10), nl=1)
+        printf('# e=%s, f_=%s, f=%s, n=%s (%s)', fstr(E.e,  prec=13, fmt=Fmt.e),
+                                                 fstr(E.f_, prec=13, fmt=Fmt.e),
+                                                 fstr(E.f,  prec=13, fmt=Fmt.e),
+                                                 fstr(E.n,  prec=13, fmt=Fmt.e),
+                                                 fstr(e,    prec=9,  fmt=Fmt.e))
+        printf('# %s %s', Ellipsoid.AlphaKs.name, fstr(E.AlphaKs, prec=20))
+        printf('# %s  %s', Ellipsoid.BetaKs.name, fstr(E.BetaKs,  prec=20))
+        printf('# %s %s', nameof(Ellipsoid.KsOrder), E.KsOrder)  # property
+
+    # __doc__ of this file, force all into registry
+    t = [NN] + Ellipsoids.toRepr(all=True, asorted=True).split(_NL_)
+    printf(_NLATvar_.join(i.strip(_COMMA_) for i in t))
+
+# % python3 -m pygeodesy.ellipsoids
+
+# Ellipsoids.WGS84: name='WGS84', a=6378137, b=6356752.3142451793, f_=298.257223563, f=0.0033528107, f2=0.0033640898, n=0.0016792204, e=0.0818191908, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067394967, e32=0.0033584313, A=6367449.1458234144, L=10001965.7293127235, R1=6371008.7714150595, R2=6371007.1809184738, R3=6371000.7900091587, Rbiaxial=6367453.6345163295, Rtriaxial=6372797.5559594007
+# e=8.1819190842622e-02, f_=2.98257223563e+02, f=3.3528106647475e-03, n=1.6792203863837e-03 (0.0e+00)
+# AlphaKs 0.00083773182062446994, 0.00000076085277735725, 0.00000000119764550324, 0.00000000000242917068, 0.00000000000000571182, 0.0000000000000000148, 0.00000000000000000004, 0.0
+# BetaKs  0.00083773216405794875, 0.0000000590587015222, 0.00000000016734826653, 0.00000000000021647981, 0.00000000000000037879, 0.00000000000000000072, 0.0, 0.0
+# KsOrder 8
+
+# Ellipsoids.GRS80: name='GRS80', a=6378137, b=6356752.3141403468, f_=298.2572221009, f=0.0033528107, f2=0.0033640898, n=0.0016792204, e=0.081819191, e2=0.00669438, e21=0.99330562, e22=0.0067394968, e32=0.0033584313, A=6367449.1457710434, L=10001965.7292304561, R1=6371008.7713801153, R2=6371007.1808835147, R3=6371000.7899741363, Rbiaxial=6367453.6344640013, Rtriaxial=6372797.5559332585
+# e=8.1819191042833e-02, f_=2.9825722210088e+02, f=3.3528106811837e-03, n=1.6792203946295e-03 (0.0e+00)
+# AlphaKs 0.00083773182472890429, 0.00000076085278481561, 0.00000000119764552086, 0.00000000000242917073, 0.00000000000000571182, 0.0000000000000000148, 0.00000000000000000004, 0.0
+# BetaKs  0.0008377321681623882, 0.00000005905870210374, 0.000000000167348269, 0.00000000000021647982, 0.00000000000000037879, 0.00000000000000000072, 0.0, 0.0
+# KsOrder 8
+
+# Ellipsoids.Sphere: name='Sphere', a=6371008.7714149999, b=6371008.7714149999, f_=0, f=0, f2=0, n=0, e=0, e2=0, e21=1, e22=0, e32=0, A=6371008.7714149999, L=10007557.1761167478, R1=6371008.7714149999, R2=6371008.7714149999, R3=6371008.7714149999, Rbiaxial=6371008.7714149999, Rtriaxial=6371008.7714149999
+# e=0.0e+00, f_=0.0e+00, f=0.0e+00, n=0.0e+00 (0.0e+00)
+# AlphaKs 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0
+# BetaKs  0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0
+# KsOrder 8
+
+# Ellipsoids.SpherePopular: name='SpherePopular', a=6378137, b=6378137, f_=0, f=0, f2=0, n=0, e=0, e2=0, e21=1, e22=0, e32=0, A=6378137, L=10018754.171394622, R1=6378137, R2=6378137, R3=6378137, Rbiaxial=6378137, Rtriaxial=6378137
+# e=0.0e+00, f_=0.0e+00, f=0.0e+00, n=0.0e+00 (0.0e+00)
+# AlphaKs 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0
+# BetaKs  0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0
+# KsOrder 8
+
+# Ellipsoids._Prolate: name='_Prolate', a=6356752.3142451793, b=6378137, f_=-297.257223563, f=-0.0033640898, f2=-0.0033528107, n=-0.0016792204, e=0.0820944379, e2=-0.0067394967, e21=1.0067394967, e22=-0.00669438, e32=-0.0033584313, A=6367449.1458234144, L=10035500.5204500314, R1=6363880.5428301189, R2=6363878.9413582645, R3=6363872.5644020075, Rbiaxial=6367453.6345163295, Rtriaxial=6362105.2243882557
+# e=8.2094437949696e-02, f_=-2.97257223563e+02, f=-3.3640898209765e-03, n=-1.6792203863837e-03 (0.0e+00)
+# AlphaKs -0.00084149152514366627, 0.00000076653480614871, -0.00000000120934503389, 0.0000000000024576225, -0.00000000000000578863, 0.00000000000000001502, -0.00000000000000000004, 0.0
+# BetaKs  -0.00084149187224351817, 0.00000005842735196773, -0.0000000001680487236, 0.00000000000021706261, -0.00000000000000038002, 0.00000000000000000073, -0.0, 0.0
+# KsOrder 8
+
+# **) MIT License
+#
+# Copyright (C) 2016-2024 -- mrJean1 at Gmail -- All Rights Reserved.
+#
+# Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a
+# copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"),
+# to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation
+# the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense,
+# and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the
+# Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+#
+# The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
+# in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+#
+# THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS
+# OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+# FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL
+# THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR
+# OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE,
+# ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR
+# OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.