@saibolla/ada 0.1.2

package/skills/statsmodels/references/stats_diagnostics.md

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+# Statistical Tests and Diagnostics Reference
+
+This document provides comprehensive guidance on statistical tests, diagnostics, and tools available in statsmodels.
+
+## Overview
+
+Statsmodels provides extensive statistical testing capabilities:
+- Residual diagnostics and specification tests
+- Hypothesis testing (parametric and non-parametric)
+- Goodness-of-fit tests
+- Multiple comparisons and post-hoc tests
+- Power and sample size calculations
+- Robust covariance matrices
+- Influence and outlier detection
+
+## Residual Diagnostics
+
+### Autocorrelation Tests
+
+**Ljung-Box Test**: Tests for autocorrelation in residuals
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.diagnostic import acorr_ljungbox
+
+# Test residuals for autocorrelation
+lb_test = acorr_ljungbox(residuals, lags=10, return_df=True)
+print(lb_test)
+
+# H0: No autocorrelation up to lag k
+# If p-value < 0.05, reject H0 (autocorrelation present)
+```
+
+**Durbin-Watson Test**: Tests for first-order autocorrelation
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.stattools import durbin_watson
+
+dw_stat = durbin_watson(residuals)
+print(f"Durbin-Watson: {dw_stat:.4f}")
+
+# DW ≈ 2: no autocorrelation
+# DW < 2: positive autocorrelation
+# DW > 2: negative autocorrelation
+# Exact critical values depend on n and k
+```
+
+**Breusch-Godfrey Test**: More general test for autocorrelation
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.diagnostic import acorr_breusch_godfrey
+
+bg_test = acorr_breusch_godfrey(results, nlags=5)
+lm_stat, lm_pval, f_stat, f_pval = bg_test
+
+print(f"LM statistic: {lm_stat:.4f}, p-value: {lm_pval:.4f}")
+# H0: No autocorrelation up to lag k
+```
+
+### Heteroskedasticity Tests
+
+**Breusch-Pagan Test**: Tests for heteroskedasticity
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.diagnostic import het_breuschpagan
+
+bp_test = het_breuschpagan(residuals, exog)
+lm_stat, lm_pval, f_stat, f_pval = bp_test
+
+print(f"Breusch-Pagan test p-value: {lm_pval:.4f}")
+# H0: Homoskedasticity (constant variance)
+# If p-value < 0.05, reject H0 (heteroskedasticity present)
+```
+
+**White Test**: More general test for heteroskedasticity
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.diagnostic import het_white
+
+white_test = het_white(residuals, exog)
+lm_stat, lm_pval, f_stat, f_pval = white_test
+
+print(f"White test p-value: {lm_pval:.4f}")
+# H0: Homoskedasticity
+```
+
+**ARCH Test**: Tests for autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.diagnostic import het_arch
+
+arch_test = het_arch(residuals, nlags=5)
+lm_stat, lm_pval, f_stat, f_pval = arch_test
+
+print(f"ARCH test p-value: {lm_pval:.4f}")
+# H0: No ARCH effects
+# If significant, consider GARCH model
+```
+
+### Normality Tests
+
+**Jarque-Bera Test**: Tests for normality using skewness and kurtosis
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.stattools import jarque_bera
+
+jb_stat, jb_pval, skew, kurtosis = jarque_bera(residuals)
+
+print(f"Jarque-Bera statistic: {jb_stat:.4f}")
+print(f"p-value: {jb_pval:.4f}")
+print(f"Skewness: {skew:.4f}")
+print(f"Kurtosis: {kurtosis:.4f}")
+
+# H0: Residuals are normally distributed
+# Normal: skewness ≈ 0, kurtosis ≈ 3
+```
+
+**Omnibus Test**: Another normality test (also based on skewness/kurtosis)
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.stattools import omni_normtest
+
+omni_stat, omni_pval = omni_normtest(residuals)
+print(f"Omnibus test p-value: {omni_pval:.4f}")
+# H0: Normality
+```
+
+**Anderson-Darling Test**: Distribution fit test
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.diagnostic import normal_ad
+
+ad_stat, ad_pval = normal_ad(residuals)
+print(f"Anderson-Darling test p-value: {ad_pval:.4f}")
+```
+
+**Lilliefors Test**: Modified Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.diagnostic import lilliefors
+
+lf_stat, lf_pval = lilliefors(residuals, dist='norm')
+print(f"Lilliefors test p-value: {lf_pval:.4f}")
+```
+
+### Linearity and Specification Tests
+
+**Ramsey RESET Test**: Tests for functional form misspecification
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.diagnostic import linear_reset
+
+reset_test = linear_reset(results, power=2)
+f_stat, f_pval = reset_test
+
+print(f"RESET test p-value: {f_pval:.4f}")
+# H0: Model is correctly specified (linear)
+# If rejected, may need polynomial terms or transformations
+```
+
+**Harvey-Collier Test**: Tests for linearity
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.diagnostic import linear_harvey_collier
+
+hc_stat, hc_pval = linear_harvey_collier(results)
+print(f"Harvey-Collier test p-value: {hc_pval:.4f}")
+# H0: Linear specification is correct
+```
+
+## Multicollinearity Detection
+
+**Variance Inflation Factor (VIF)**:
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.outliers_influence import variance_inflation_factor
+import pandas as pd
+
+# Calculate VIF for each variable
+vif_data = pd.DataFrame()
+vif_data["Variable"] = X.columns
+vif_data["VIF"] = [variance_inflation_factor(X.values, i)
+                   for i in range(X.shape[1])]
+
+print(vif_data.sort_values('VIF', ascending=False))
+
+# Interpretation:
+# VIF = 1: No correlation with other predictors
+# VIF > 5: Moderate multicollinearity
+# VIF > 10: Serious multicollinearity problem
+# VIF > 20: Severe multicollinearity (consider removing variable)
+```
+
+**Condition Number**: From regression results
+
+```python
+print(f"Condition number: {results.condition_number:.2f}")
+
+# Interpretation:
+# < 10: No multicollinearity concern
+# 10-30: Moderate multicollinearity
+# > 30: Strong multicollinearity
+# > 100: Severe multicollinearity
+```
+
+## Influence and Outlier Detection
+
+### Leverage
+
+High leverage points have extreme predictor values.
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.outliers_influence import OLSInfluence
+
+influence = results.get_influence()
+
+# Hat values (leverage)
+leverage = influence.hat_matrix_diag
+
+# Rule of thumb: leverage > 2*p/n or 3*p/n is high
+# p = number of parameters, n = sample size
+threshold = 2 * len(results.params) / len(y)
+high_leverage = np.where(leverage > threshold)[0]
+
+print(f"High leverage observations: {high_leverage}")
+```
+
+### Cook's Distance
+
+Measures overall influence of each observation.
+
+```python
+# Cook's distance
+cooks_d = influence.cooks_distance[0]
+
+# Rule of thumb: Cook's D > 4/n is influential
+threshold = 4 / len(y)
+influential = np.where(cooks_d > threshold)[0]
+
+print(f"Influential observations (Cook's D): {influential}")
+
+# Plot
+import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+plt.stem(range(len(cooks_d)), cooks_d)
+plt.axhline(y=threshold, color='r', linestyle='--', label=f'Threshold (4/n)')
+plt.xlabel('Observation')
+plt.ylabel("Cook's Distance")
+plt.legend()
+plt.show()
+```
+
+### DFFITS
+
+Measures influence on fitted value.
+
+```python
+# DFFITS
+dffits = influence.dffits[0]
+
+# Rule of thumb: |DFFITS| > 2*sqrt(p/n) is influential
+p = len(results.params)
+n = len(y)
+threshold = 2 * np.sqrt(p / n)
+
+influential_dffits = np.where(np.abs(dffits) > threshold)[0]
+print(f"Influential observations (DFFITS): {influential_dffits}")
+```
+
+### DFBETAs
+
+Measures influence on each coefficient.
+
+```python
+# DFBETAs (one for each parameter)
+dfbetas = influence.dfbetas
+
+# Rule of thumb: |DFBETA| > 2/sqrt(n)
+threshold = 2 / np.sqrt(n)
+
+for i, param_name in enumerate(results.params.index):
+    influential = np.where(np.abs(dfbetas[:, i]) > threshold)[0]
+    if len(influential) > 0:
+        print(f"Influential for {param_name}: {influential}")
+```
+
+### Influence Plot
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.graphics.regressionplots import influence_plot
+
+fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(12, 8))
+influence_plot(results, ax=ax, criterion='cooks')
+plt.show()
+
+# Combines leverage, residuals, and Cook's distance
+# Large bubbles = high Cook's distance
+# Far from x=0 = high leverage
+# Far from y=0 = large residual
+```
+
+### Studentized Residuals
+
+```python
+# Studentized residuals (outliers)
+student_resid = influence.resid_studentized_internal
+
+# External studentized residuals (more conservative)
+student_resid_external = influence.resid_studentized_external
+
+# Outliers: |studentized residual| > 3 (or > 2.5)
+outliers = np.where(np.abs(student_resid_external) > 3)[0]
+print(f"Outliers: {outliers}")
+```
+
+## Hypothesis Testing
+
+### t-tests
+
+**One-sample t-test**: Test if mean equals specific value
+
+```python
+from scipy import stats
+
+# H0: population mean = mu_0
+t_stat, p_value = stats.ttest_1samp(data, popmean=mu_0)
+
+print(f"t-statistic: {t_stat:.4f}")
+print(f"p-value: {p_value:.4f}")
+```
+
+**Two-sample t-test**: Compare means of two groups
+
+```python
+# H0: mean1 = mean2 (equal variances)
+t_stat, p_value = stats.ttest_ind(group1, group2)
+
+# Welch's t-test (unequal variances)
+t_stat, p_value = stats.ttest_ind(group1, group2, equal_var=False)
+
+print(f"t-statistic: {t_stat:.4f}")
+print(f"p-value: {p_value:.4f}")
+```
+
+**Paired t-test**: Compare paired observations
+
+```python
+# H0: mean difference = 0
+t_stat, p_value = stats.ttest_rel(before, after)
+
+print(f"t-statistic: {t_stat:.4f}")
+print(f"p-value: {p_value:.4f}")
+```
+
+### Proportion Tests
+
+**One-proportion test**:
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.proportion import proportions_ztest
+
+# H0: proportion = p0
+count = 45  # successes
+nobs = 100  # total observations
+p0 = 0.5    # hypothesized proportion
+
+z_stat, p_value = proportions_ztest(count, nobs, value=p0)
+
+print(f"z-statistic: {z_stat:.4f}")
+print(f"p-value: {p_value:.4f}")
+```
+
+**Two-proportion test**:
+
+```python
+# H0: proportion1 = proportion2
+counts = [45, 60]
+nobs = [100, 120]
+
+z_stat, p_value = proportions_ztest(counts, nobs)
+print(f"z-statistic: {z_stat:.4f}")
+print(f"p-value: {p_value:.4f}")
+```
+
+### Chi-square Tests
+
+**Chi-square test of independence**:
+
+```python
+from scipy.stats import chi2_contingency
+
+# Contingency table
+contingency_table = pd.crosstab(variable1, variable2)
+
+chi2, p_value, dof, expected = chi2_contingency(contingency_table)
+
+print(f"Chi-square statistic: {chi2:.4f}")
+print(f"p-value: {p_value:.4f}")
+print(f"Degrees of freedom: {dof}")
+
+# H0: Variables are independent
+```
+
+**Chi-square goodness-of-fit**:
+
+```python
+from scipy.stats import chisquare
+
+# Observed frequencies
+observed = [20, 30, 25, 25]
+
+# Expected frequencies (equal by default)
+expected = [25, 25, 25, 25]
+
+chi2, p_value = chisquare(observed, expected)
+
+print(f"Chi-square statistic: {chi2:.4f}")
+print(f"p-value: {p_value:.4f}")
+
+# H0: Data follow the expected distribution
+```
+
+### Non-parametric Tests
+
+**Mann-Whitney U test** (independent samples):
+
+```python
+from scipy.stats import mannwhitneyu
+
+# H0: Distributions are equal
+u_stat, p_value = mannwhitneyu(group1, group2, alternative='two-sided')
+
+print(f"U statistic: {u_stat:.4f}")
+print(f"p-value: {p_value:.4f}")
+```
+
+**Wilcoxon signed-rank test** (paired samples):
+
+```python
+from scipy.stats import wilcoxon
+
+# H0: Median difference = 0
+w_stat, p_value = wilcoxon(before, after)
+
+print(f"W statistic: {w_stat:.4f}")
+print(f"p-value: {p_value:.4f}")
+```
+
+**Kruskal-Wallis H test** (>2 groups):
+
+```python
+from scipy.stats import kruskal
+
+# H0: All groups have same distribution
+h_stat, p_value = kruskal(group1, group2, group3)
+
+print(f"H statistic: {h_stat:.4f}")
+print(f"p-value: {p_value:.4f}")
+```
+
+**Sign test**:
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.descriptivestats import sign_test
+
+# H0: Median = m0
+result = sign_test(data, m0=0)
+print(result)
+```
+
+### ANOVA
+
+**One-way ANOVA**:
+
+```python
+from scipy.stats import f_oneway
+
+# H0: All group means are equal
+f_stat, p_value = f_oneway(group1, group2, group3)
+
+print(f"F-statistic: {f_stat:.4f}")
+print(f"p-value: {p_value:.4f}")
+```
+
+**Two-way ANOVA** (with statsmodels):
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.formula.api import ols
+from statsmodels.stats.anova import anova_lm
+
+# Fit model
+model = ols('response ~ C(factor1) + C(factor2) + C(factor1):C(factor2)',
+            data=df).fit()
+
+# ANOVA table
+anova_table = anova_lm(model, typ=2)
+print(anova_table)
+```
+
+**Repeated measures ANOVA**:
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.anova import AnovaRM
+
+# Requires long-format data
+aovrm = AnovaRM(df, depvar='score', subject='subject_id', within=['time'])
+results = aovrm.fit()
+
+print(results.summary())
+```
+
+## Multiple Comparisons
+
+### Post-hoc Tests
+
+**Tukey's HSD** (Honest Significant Difference):
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.multicomp import pairwise_tukeyhsd
+
+# Perform Tukey HSD test
+tukey = pairwise_tukeyhsd(data, groups, alpha=0.05)
+
+print(tukey.summary())
+
+# Plot confidence intervals
+tukey.plot_simultaneous()
+plt.show()
+```
+
+**Bonferroni correction**:
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.multitest import multipletests
+
+# P-values from multiple tests
+p_values = [0.01, 0.03, 0.04, 0.15, 0.001]
+
+# Apply correction
+reject, pvals_corrected, alphac_sidak, alphac_bonf = multipletests(
+    p_values,
+    alpha=0.05,
+    method='bonferroni'
+)
+
+print("Rejected:", reject)
+print("Corrected p-values:", pvals_corrected)
+```
+
+**False Discovery Rate (FDR)**:
+
+```python
+# FDR correction (less conservative than Bonferroni)
+reject, pvals_corrected, alphac_sidak, alphac_bonf = multipletests(
+    p_values,
+    alpha=0.05,
+    method='fdr_bh'  # Benjamini-Hochberg
+)
+
+print("Rejected:", reject)
+print("Corrected p-values:", pvals_corrected)
+```
+
+## Robust Covariance Matrices
+
+### Heteroskedasticity-Consistent (HC) Standard Errors
+
+```python
+# After fitting OLS
+results = sm.OLS(y, X).fit()
+
+# HC0 (White's heteroskedasticity-consistent SEs)
+results_hc0 = results.get_robustcov_results(cov_type='HC0')
+
+# HC1 (degrees of freedom adjustment)
+results_hc1 = results.get_robustcov_results(cov_type='HC1')
+
+# HC2 (leverage adjustment)
+results_hc2 = results.get_robustcov_results(cov_type='HC2')
+
+# HC3 (most conservative, recommended for small samples)
+results_hc3 = results.get_robustcov_results(cov_type='HC3')
+
+print("Standard OLS SEs:", results.bse)
+print("Robust HC3 SEs:", results_hc3.bse)
+```
+
+### HAC (Heteroskedasticity and Autocorrelation Consistent)
+
+**Newey-West standard errors**:
+
+```python
+# For time series with autocorrelation and heteroskedasticity
+results_hac = results.get_robustcov_results(cov_type='HAC', maxlags=4)
+
+print("HAC (Newey-West) SEs:", results_hac.bse)
+print(results_hac.summary())
+```
+
+### Cluster-Robust Standard Errors
+
+```python
+# For clustered/grouped data
+results_cluster = results.get_robustcov_results(
+    cov_type='cluster',
+    groups=cluster_ids
+)
+
+print("Cluster-robust SEs:", results_cluster.bse)
+```
+
+## Descriptive Statistics
+
+**Basic descriptive statistics**:
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.api import DescrStatsW
+
+# Comprehensive descriptive stats
+desc = DescrStatsW(data)
+
+print("Mean:", desc.mean)
+print("Std Dev:", desc.std)
+print("Variance:", desc.var)
+print("Confidence interval:", desc.tconfint_mean())
+
+# Quantiles
+print("Median:", desc.quantile(0.5))
+print("IQR:", desc.quantile([0.25, 0.75]))
+```
+
+**Weighted statistics**:
+
+```python
+# With weights
+desc_weighted = DescrStatsW(data, weights=weights)
+
+print("Weighted mean:", desc_weighted.mean)
+print("Weighted std:", desc_weighted.std)
+```
+
+**Compare two groups**:
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.weightstats import CompareMeans
+
+# Create comparison object
+cm = CompareMeans(DescrStatsW(group1), DescrStatsW(group2))
+
+# t-test
+print("t-test:", cm.ttest_ind())
+
+# Confidence interval for difference
+print("CI for difference:", cm.tconfint_diff())
+
+# Test for equal variances
+print("Equal variance test:", cm.test_equal_var())
+```
+
+## Power Analysis and Sample Size
+
+**Power for t-test**:
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.power import tt_ind_solve_power
+
+# Solve for sample size
+effect_size = 0.5  # Cohen's d
+alpha = 0.05
+power = 0.8
+
+n = tt_ind_solve_power(effect_size=effect_size,
+                        alpha=alpha,
+                        power=power,
+                        alternative='two-sided')
+
+print(f"Required sample size per group: {n:.0f}")
+
+# Solve for power given n
+power = tt_ind_solve_power(effect_size=0.5,
+                           nobs1=50,
+                           alpha=0.05,
+                           alternative='two-sided')
+
+print(f"Power: {power:.4f}")
+```
+
+**Power for proportion test**:
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.power import zt_ind_solve_power
+
+# For proportion tests (z-test)
+effect_size = 0.3  # Difference in proportions
+alpha = 0.05
+power = 0.8
+
+n = zt_ind_solve_power(effect_size=effect_size,
+                        alpha=alpha,
+                        power=power,
+                        alternative='two-sided')
+
+print(f"Required sample size per group: {n:.0f}")
+```
+
+**Power curves**:
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.power import TTestIndPower
+import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+
+# Create power analysis object
+analysis = TTestIndPower()
+
+# Plot power curves for different sample sizes
+sample_sizes = range(10, 200, 10)
+effect_sizes = [0.2, 0.5, 0.8]  # Small, medium, large
+
+fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(10, 6))
+
+for es in effect_sizes:
+    power = [analysis.solve_power(effect_size=es, nobs1=n, alpha=0.05)
+             for n in sample_sizes]
+    ax.plot(sample_sizes, power, label=f'Effect size = {es}')
+
+ax.axhline(y=0.8, color='r', linestyle='--', label='Power = 0.8')
+ax.set_xlabel('Sample size per group')
+ax.set_ylabel('Power')
+ax.set_title('Power Curves for Two-Sample t-test')
+ax.legend()
+ax.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
+plt.show()
+```
+
+## Effect Sizes
+
+**Cohen's d** (standardized mean difference):
+
+```python
+def cohens_d(group1, group2):
+    \"\"\"Calculate Cohen's d for independent samples\"\"\"
+    n1, n2 = len(group1), len(group2)
+    var1, var2 = np.var(group1, ddof=1), np.var(group2, ddof=1)
+
+    # Pooled standard deviation
+    pooled_std = np.sqrt(((n1-1)*var1 + (n2-1)*var2) / (n1+n2-2))
+
+    # Cohen's d
+    d = (np.mean(group1) - np.mean(group2)) / pooled_std
+
+    return d
+
+d = cohens_d(group1, group2)
+print(f"Cohen's d: {d:.4f}")
+
+# Interpretation:
+# |d| < 0.2: negligible
+# |d| ~ 0.2: small
+# |d| ~ 0.5: medium
+# |d| ~ 0.8: large
+```
+
+**Eta-squared** (for ANOVA):
+
+```python
+# From ANOVA table
+# η² = SS_between / SS_total
+
+def eta_squared(anova_table):
+    return anova_table['sum_sq'][0] / anova_table['sum_sq'].sum()
+
+# After running ANOVA
+eta_sq = eta_squared(anova_table)
+print(f"Eta-squared: {eta_sq:.4f}")
+
+# Interpretation:
+# 0.01: small effect
+# 0.06: medium effect
+# 0.14: large effect
+```
+
+## Contingency Tables and Association
+
+**McNemar's test** (paired binary data):
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.contingency_tables import mcnemar
+
+# 2x2 contingency table
+table = [[a, b],
+         [c, d]]
+
+result = mcnemar(table, exact=True)  # or exact=False for large samples
+print(f"p-value: {result.pvalue:.4f}")
+
+# H0: Marginal probabilities are equal
+```
+
+**Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel test**:
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.contingency_tables import StratifiedTable
+
+# For stratified 2x2 tables
+strat_table = StratifiedTable(tables_list)
+result = strat_table.test_null_odds()
+
+print(f"p-value: {result.pvalue:.4f}")
+```
+
+## Treatment Effects and Causal Inference
+
+**Propensity score matching**:
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.treatment import propensity_score
+
+# Estimate propensity scores
+ps_model = sm.Logit(treatment, X).fit()
+propensity_scores = ps_model.predict(X)
+
+# Use for matching or weighting
+# (manual implementation of matching needed)
+```
+
+**Difference-in-differences**:
+
+```python
+# Did formula: outcome ~ treatment * post
+model = ols('outcome ~ treatment + post + treatment:post', data=df).fit()
+
+# DiD estimate is the interaction coefficient
+did_estimate = model.params['treatment:post']
+print(f"DiD estimate: {did_estimate:.4f}")
+```
+
+## Best Practices
+
+1. **Always check assumptions**: Test before interpreting results
+2. **Report effect sizes**: Not just p-values
+3. **Use appropriate tests**: Match test to data type and distribution
+4. **Correct for multiple comparisons**: When conducting many tests
+5. **Check sample size**: Ensure adequate power
+6. **Visual inspection**: Plot data before testing
+7. **Report confidence intervals**: Along with point estimates
+8. **Consider alternatives**: Non-parametric when assumptions violated
+9. **Robust standard errors**: Use when heteroskedasticity/autocorrelation present
+10. **Document decisions**: Note which tests used and why
+
+## Common Pitfalls
+
+1. **Not checking test assumptions**: May invalidate results
+2. **Multiple testing without correction**: Inflated Type I error
+3. **Using parametric tests on non-normal data**: Consider non-parametric
+4. **Ignoring heteroskedasticity**: Use robust SEs
+5. **Confusing statistical and practical significance**: Check effect sizes
+6. **Not reporting confidence intervals**: Only p-values insufficient
+7. **Using wrong test**: Match test to research question
+8. **Insufficient power**: Risk of Type II error (false negatives)
+9. **p-hacking**: Testing many specifications until significant
+10. **Overinterpreting p-values**: Remember limitations of NHST