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@mytechtoday/augment-extensions 0.7.0 → 1.2.0

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@@ -1,588 +1,588 @@
-# NoSQL Databases
-## Overview
-This document covers NoSQL database fundamentals, including when to use NoSQL, CAP theorem, eventual consistency, BASE properties, NoSQL types (document, key-value, column-family, graph), database selection criteria, common patterns, and limitations.
----
-## When to Use NoSQL Databases
-### Ideal Use Cases
-**Use NoSQL databases when:**
-- ✅ Schema changes frequently or is undefined
-- ✅ Horizontal scaling is critical
-- ✅ Data is unstructured or semi-structured
-- ✅ Eventual consistency is acceptable
-- ✅ Simple key-value lookups dominate
-- ✅ Document-oriented data model fits naturally
-- ✅ High write throughput is required
-- ✅ Flexible data models are needed
-**Examples:**
-- Social media platforms (user profiles, posts, feeds)
-- Real-time analytics (logs, metrics, events)
-- Content management (articles, media, metadata)
-- IoT applications (sensor data, telemetry)
-- Session stores (user sessions, shopping carts)
-- Caching layers (frequently accessed data)
-- Recommendation engines (user preferences, behavior)
-### When to Use Relational Instead
-**Use relational databases when:**
-- ❌ ACID compliance is required
-- ❌ Complex queries with JOINs are needed
-- ❌ Data integrity is critical
-- ❌ Transactions across multiple entities are essential
-- ❌ Reporting and analytics with complex aggregations
-- ❌ Schema is stable and well-defined
-- ❌ Strong consistency is required
----
-## CAP Theorem
-### Understanding CAP
-**CAP Theorem**: A distributed system can provide at most two of three guarantees:
-1. **Consistency (C)**: All nodes see the same data at the same time
-2. **Availability (A)**: Every request receives a response (success or failure)
-3. **Partition Tolerance (P)**: System continues to operate despite network partitions
-**Trade-offs:**
-- **CP (Consistency + Partition Tolerance)**: Sacrifice availability during partitions
-- **AP (Availability + Partition Tolerance)**: Sacrifice consistency during partitions
-- **CA (Consistency + Availability)**: Not possible in distributed systems with partitions
-### Database Classifications
-**CP Databases (Consistency + Partition Tolerance):**
-- MongoDB (with majority write concern)
-- HBase
-- Redis (with replication)
-- Consul
-**AP Databases (Availability + Partition Tolerance):**
-- Cassandra
-- DynamoDB
-- Riak
-- CouchDB
-**Note**: Most modern databases allow tuning consistency/availability trade-offs
----
-## BASE Properties
-### BASE vs ACID
-**BASE**: Alternative to ACID for distributed systems
-- **Basically Available**: System guarantees availability
-- **Soft state**: State may change over time without input (due to eventual consistency)
-- **Eventual consistency**: System will become consistent over time
-**Comparison:**
-| Property | ACID (Relational) | BASE (NoSQL) |
-|----------|-------------------|--------------|
-| Consistency | Strong | Eventual |
-| Availability | May sacrifice | Prioritized |
-| Partition Tolerance | Limited | High |
-| Transactions | Multi-row | Limited |
-| Scalability | Vertical | Horizontal |
-| Use Case | Financial, critical data | High-scale, flexible data |
-### Eventual Consistency
-**Definition**: All replicas will eventually converge to the same value
-**Example:**
-```javascript
-// Write to primary node
-await db.users.updateOne(
-  { _id: userId },
-  { $set: { status: 'active' } }
-);
-// Read from replica (may return old value temporarily)
-const user = await db.users.findOne({ _id: userId });
-// user.status might still be 'inactive' for a short time
-```
-**Strategies:**
-- **Read-your-writes consistency**: User sees their own writes immediately
-- **Session consistency**: Consistency within a session
-- **Monotonic reads**: Once a value is read, subsequent reads return same or newer value
-- **Causal consistency**: Related operations are seen in order
----
-## NoSQL Database Types
-### 1. Document Databases
-**Characteristics:**
-- Store data as documents (JSON, BSON, XML)
-- Flexible schema
-- Nested data structures
-- Rich query capabilities
-**Examples:**
-- MongoDB
-- CouchDB
-- Couchbase
-- RavenDB
-**Use Cases:**
-- Content management systems
-- User profiles
-- Product catalogs
-- Event logging
-**See**: `nosql-document-stores.md` for detailed guide
-### 2. Key-Value Stores
-**Characteristics:**
-- Simple key-value pairs
-- Fast lookups by key
-- Limited query capabilities
-- High performance
-**Examples:**
-- Redis
-- DynamoDB
-- Riak
-- Memcached
-**Use Cases:**
-- Caching
-- Session storage
-- Shopping carts
-- User preferences
-**See**: `nosql-key-value-stores.md` for detailed guide
-### 3. Column-Family Databases
-**Characteristics:**
-- Store data in column families (groups of columns)
-- Optimized for write-heavy workloads
-- Horizontal scalability
-- Sparse data support
-**Examples:**
-- Cassandra
-- HBase
-- ScyllaDB
-- Google Bigtable
-**Use Cases:**
-- Time-series data
-- Event logging
-- IoT sensor data
-- Analytics
-**Example: Cassandra**
-```cql
--- Create keyspace (database)
-CREATE KEYSPACE analytics WITH replication = {
-  'class': 'SimpleStrategy',
-  'replication_factor': 3
-};
--- Create column family (table)
-CREATE TABLE analytics.events (
-  user_id UUID,
-  event_time TIMESTAMP,
-  event_type TEXT,
-  event_data MAP<TEXT, TEXT>,
-  PRIMARY KEY (user_id, event_time)
-) WITH CLUSTERING ORDER BY (event_time DESC);
--- Insert data
-INSERT INTO analytics.events (user_id, event_time, event_type, event_data)
-VALUES (uuid(), toTimestamp(now()), 'page_view', {'page': '/home', 'duration': '5s'});
--- Query by partition key
-SELECT * FROM analytics.events WHERE user_id = ?;
-```
-### 4. Graph Databases
-**Characteristics:**
-- Store data as nodes and relationships
-- Optimized for traversing relationships
-- Rich query language for graph operations
-- Flexible schema
-**Examples:**
-- Neo4j
-- ArangoDB
-- Amazon Neptune
-- JanusGraph
-**Use Cases:**
-- Social networks
-- Recommendation engines
-- Fraud detection
-- Knowledge graphs
-**See**: `nosql-graph-databases.md` for detailed guide
----
-## Database Selection Criteria
-### Decision Framework
-**1. Data Structure**
-- **Structured, relational**: Relational database
-- **Documents with nested data**: Document database
-- **Simple key-value pairs**: Key-value store
-- **Time-series, events**: Column-family database
-- **Highly connected data**: Graph database
-**2. Query Patterns**
-- **Complex JOINs**: Relational database
-- **Simple lookups by ID**: Key-value store
-- **Rich queries on documents**: Document database
-- **Graph traversals**: Graph database
-- **Range queries on time-series**: Column-family database
-**3. Scalability Requirements**
-- **Vertical scaling (single server)**: Relational database, SQLite
-- **Horizontal scaling (distributed)**: NoSQL databases
-- **Massive write throughput**: Column-family database
-- **Massive read throughput**: Key-value store with caching
-**4. Consistency Requirements**
-- **Strong consistency (ACID)**: Relational database
-- **Eventual consistency acceptable**: NoSQL databases
-- **Tunable consistency**: Cassandra, DynamoDB, MongoDB
-**5. Transaction Requirements**
-- **Multi-row transactions**: Relational database
-- **Single-document transactions**: Document database
-- **No transactions needed**: Key-value store, column-family
-### Database Comparison Matrix
-| Database | Type | Consistency | Scalability | Query Complexity | Use Case |
-|----------|------|-------------|-------------|------------------|----------|
-| PostgreSQL | Relational | Strong | Vertical | High | Complex queries, ACID |
-| MongoDB | Document | Tunable | Horizontal | Medium | Flexible schema, nested data |
-| Redis | Key-Value | Strong | Horizontal | Low | Caching, sessions |
-| Cassandra | Column-Family | Tunable | Horizontal | Low | Time-series, high writes |
-| Neo4j | Graph | Strong | Vertical | High | Relationships, traversals |
-| DynamoDB | Key-Value | Tunable | Horizontal | Low | Simple lookups, high scale |
----
-## Common Patterns
-### Denormalization
-**Principle**: Store redundant data to avoid JOINs and improve read performance
-**Example: Blog Application**
-```javascript
-// ❌ Normalized (relational approach)
-// users table: { id, name, email }
-// posts table: { id, user_id, title, content }
-// Requires JOIN to get author name
-// ✅ Denormalized (NoSQL approach)
-{
-  "_id": "post123",
-  "title": "Introduction to NoSQL",
-  "content": "...",
-  "author": {
-    "id": "user456",
-    "name": "John Doe",
-    "email": "john@example.com"
-  },
-  "created_at": "2024-01-15T10:00:00Z"
-}
-// Author data embedded in post document
-```
-**Trade-offs:**
-- ✅ Faster reads (no JOINs)
-- ✅ Single query to get all data
-- ❌ Data duplication
-- ❌ Update complexity (must update all copies)
-**When to denormalize:**
-- ✅ Read-heavy workloads
-- ✅ Data rarely changes
-- ✅ Query performance is critical
-- ❌ Data changes frequently
-- ❌ Strong consistency is required
-### Embedding vs Referencing
-**Embedding**: Store related data within the same document
-**Referencing**: Store references (IDs) to related data in separate documents
-**Example:**
-```javascript
-// Embedding (one-to-few relationship)
-{
-  "_id": "user123",
-  "name": "John Doe",
-  "addresses": [
-    { "type": "home", "street": "123 Main St", "city": "Boston" },
-    { "type": "work", "street": "456 Office Blvd", "city": "Boston" }
-  ]
-}
-// Referencing (one-to-many relationship)
-// User document
-{
-  "_id": "user123",
-  "name": "John Doe"
-}
-// Order documents (separate collection)
-{
-  "_id": "order456",
-  "user_id": "user123",
-  "total": 99.99,
-  "items": [...]
-}
-```
-**When to embed:**
-- ✅ One-to-few relationships (< 100 items)
-- ✅ Data is always accessed together
-- ✅ Data doesn't change frequently
-- ✅ Document size stays under limit (16MB in MongoDB)
-**When to reference:**
-- ✅ One-to-many or many-to-many relationships
-- ✅ Data is accessed independently
-- ✅ Data changes frequently
-- ✅ Document size would exceed limits
-### Caching Pattern
-**Use NoSQL as cache layer in front of relational database:**
-```javascript
-// Node.js: Redis cache with PostgreSQL fallback
-async function getUser(userId) {
-  // Try cache first
-  const cached = await redis.get(`user:${userId}`);
-  if (cached) {
-    return JSON.parse(cached);
-  }
-  // Cache miss - query database
-  const user = await db.query('SELECT * FROM users WHERE id = $1', [userId]);
-  // Store in cache with TTL
-  await redis.setex(`user:${userId}`, 3600, JSON.stringify(user));
-  return user;
-}
-// Invalidate cache on update
-async function updateUser(userId, data) {
-  await db.query('UPDATE users SET ... WHERE id = $1', [userId]);
-  await redis.del(`user:${userId}`);  // Invalidate cache
-}
-```
-### Event Sourcing
-**Store events instead of current state:**
-```javascript
-// Event store (append-only)
-{
-  "_id": "event123",
-  "aggregate_id": "account456",
-  "event_type": "MoneyDeposited",
-  "amount": 100,
-  "timestamp": "2024-01-15T10:00:00Z"
-}
-{
-  "_id": "event124",
-  "aggregate_id": "account456",
-  "event_type": "MoneyWithdrawn",
-  "amount": 50,
-  "timestamp": "2024-01-15T11:00:00Z"
-}
-// Rebuild current state by replaying events
-function getCurrentBalance(accountId) {
-  const events = db.events.find({ aggregate_id: accountId }).sort({ timestamp: 1 });
-  let balance = 0;
-  for (const event of events) {
-    if (event.event_type === 'MoneyDeposited') {
-      balance += event.amount;
-    } else if (event.event_type === 'MoneyWithdrawn') {
-      balance -= event.amount;
-    }
-  }
-  return balance;
-}
-```
----
-## Limitations and Challenges
-### Lack of JOINs
-**Problem**: NoSQL databases don't support JOINs like relational databases
-**Solutions:**
-- **Denormalization**: Embed related data
-- **Application-level joins**: Fetch related data in multiple queries
-- **Aggregation pipelines**: Use database-specific aggregation features (MongoDB)
-**Example: Application-level join**
-```javascript
-// Fetch user
-const user = await db.users.findOne({ _id: userId });
-// Fetch user's orders (separate query)
-const orders = await db.orders.find({ user_id: userId });
-// Combine in application
-const result = {
-  ...user,
-  orders: orders
-};
-```
-### No ACID Transactions (Traditional)
-**Problem**: Many NoSQL databases don't support multi-document transactions
-**Solutions:**
-- **Single-document atomicity**: Design schema to keep related data in one document
-- **Eventual consistency**: Accept temporary inconsistencies
-- **Saga pattern**: Use compensating transactions
-- **Modern NoSQL**: Use databases with transaction support (MongoDB 4.0+, DynamoDB transactions)
-### Schema Flexibility Can Be a Curse
-**Problem**: No enforced schema can lead to data inconsistencies
-**Solutions:**
-- **Application-level validation**: Validate data before inserting
-- **Schema versioning**: Include version field in documents
-- **Migration scripts**: Update old documents to new schema
-- **Database-level validation**: Use schema validation features (MongoDB schema validation)
-**Example: MongoDB schema validation**
-```javascript
-db.createCollection("users", {
-  validator: {
-    $jsonSchema: {
-      bsonType: "object",
-      required: ["email", "name"],
-      properties: {
-        email: {
-          bsonType: "string",
-          pattern: "^.+@.+$"
-        },
-        name: {
-          bsonType: "string"
-        },
-        age: {
-          bsonType: "int",
-          minimum: 0,
-          maximum: 150
-        }
-      }
-    }
-  }
-});
-```
-### Query Limitations
-**Problem**: Limited query capabilities compared to SQL
-**Solutions:**
-- **Indexing**: Create indexes for common query patterns
-- **Aggregation pipelines**: Use database-specific aggregation features
-- **Materialized views**: Pre-compute and store query results
-- **Hybrid approach**: Use relational database for complex queries
-### Consistency Challenges
-**Problem**: Eventual consistency can lead to stale reads
-**Solutions:**
-- **Read-your-writes consistency**: Configure database to return user's own writes
-- **Strong consistency reads**: Use consistency level options (DynamoDB, Cassandra)
-- **Conflict resolution**: Implement application-level conflict resolution
-- **Version vectors**: Track causality to resolve conflicts
----
-## Best Practices
-### DO
-✅ **Understand your access patterns** before choosing a database
-✅ **Design schema for your queries** (query-driven design)
-✅ **Use indexes** for frequently queried fields
-✅ **Monitor performance** and adjust as needed
-✅ **Plan for data growth** and scalability
-✅ **Implement proper error handling** for eventual consistency
-✅ **Use connection pooling** for better performance
-✅ **Validate data** at application level
-✅ **Version your schema** for easier migrations
-✅ **Test with production-like data volumes**
-### DON'T
-❌ **Don't use NoSQL for everything** - choose the right tool
-❌ **Don't ignore consistency requirements** - understand trade-offs
-❌ **Don't over-denormalize** - balance read/write performance
-❌ **Don't skip indexing** - queries will be slow
-❌ **Don't ignore data modeling** - schema design still matters
-❌ **Don't assume infinite scalability** - test at scale
-❌ **Don't forget backups** - data loss is catastrophic
-❌ **Don't ignore security** - encrypt data, use authentication
-❌ **Don't mix paradigms** - understand the database model
-❌ **Don't skip monitoring** - observe performance and errors
----
-## Summary
-**NoSQL databases offer:**
-- Flexible schema
-- Horizontal scalability
-- High performance for specific use cases
-- Eventual consistency (trade-off for availability)
-**Choose NoSQL when:**
-- Schema flexibility is needed
-- Horizontal scaling is critical
-- Eventual consistency is acceptable
-- Simple query patterns dominate
-**Choose Relational when:**
-- ACID compliance is required
-- Complex queries with JOINs are needed
-- Strong consistency is critical
-- Schema is stable and well-defined
-**Key Takeaway**: NoSQL is not a replacement for relational databases - it's a complementary tool for specific use cases. Choose the right database for your requirements.
+# NoSQL Databases
+## Overview
+This document covers NoSQL database fundamentals, including when to use NoSQL, CAP theorem, eventual consistency, BASE properties, NoSQL types (document, key-value, column-family, graph), database selection criteria, common patterns, and limitations.
+---
+## When to Use NoSQL Databases
+### Ideal Use Cases
+**Use NoSQL databases when:**
+- ✅ Schema changes frequently or is undefined
+- ✅ Horizontal scaling is critical
+- ✅ Data is unstructured or semi-structured
+- ✅ Eventual consistency is acceptable
+- ✅ Simple key-value lookups dominate
+- ✅ Document-oriented data model fits naturally
+- ✅ High write throughput is required
+- ✅ Flexible data models are needed
+**Examples:**
+- Social media platforms (user profiles, posts, feeds)
+- Real-time analytics (logs, metrics, events)
+- Content management (articles, media, metadata)
+- IoT applications (sensor data, telemetry)
+- Session stores (user sessions, shopping carts)
+- Caching layers (frequently accessed data)
+- Recommendation engines (user preferences, behavior)
+### When to Use Relational Instead
+**Use relational databases when:**
+- ❌ ACID compliance is required
+- ❌ Complex queries with JOINs are needed
+- ❌ Data integrity is critical
+- ❌ Transactions across multiple entities are essential
+- ❌ Reporting and analytics with complex aggregations
+- ❌ Schema is stable and well-defined
+- ❌ Strong consistency is required
+---
+## CAP Theorem
+### Understanding CAP
+**CAP Theorem**: A distributed system can provide at most two of three guarantees:
+1. **Consistency (C)**: All nodes see the same data at the same time
+2. **Availability (A)**: Every request receives a response (success or failure)
+3. **Partition Tolerance (P)**: System continues to operate despite network partitions
+**Trade-offs:**
+- **CP (Consistency + Partition Tolerance)**: Sacrifice availability during partitions
+- **AP (Availability + Partition Tolerance)**: Sacrifice consistency during partitions
+- **CA (Consistency + Availability)**: Not possible in distributed systems with partitions
+### Database Classifications
+**CP Databases (Consistency + Partition Tolerance):**
+- MongoDB (with majority write concern)
+- HBase
+- Redis (with replication)
+- Consul
+**AP Databases (Availability + Partition Tolerance):**
+- Cassandra
+- DynamoDB
+- Riak
+- CouchDB
+**Note**: Most modern databases allow tuning consistency/availability trade-offs
+---
+## BASE Properties
+### BASE vs ACID
+**BASE**: Alternative to ACID for distributed systems
+- **Basically Available**: System guarantees availability
+- **Soft state**: State may change over time without input (due to eventual consistency)
+- **Eventual consistency**: System will become consistent over time
+**Comparison:**
+| Property | ACID (Relational) | BASE (NoSQL) |
+|----------|-------------------|--------------|
+| Consistency | Strong | Eventual |
+| Availability | May sacrifice | Prioritized |
+| Partition Tolerance | Limited | High |
+| Transactions | Multi-row | Limited |
+| Scalability | Vertical | Horizontal |
+| Use Case | Financial, critical data | High-scale, flexible data |
+### Eventual Consistency
+**Definition**: All replicas will eventually converge to the same value
+**Example:**
+```javascript
+// Write to primary node
+await db.users.updateOne(
+  { _id: userId },
+  { $set: { status: 'active' } }
+);
+// Read from replica (may return old value temporarily)
+const user = await db.users.findOne({ _id: userId });
+// user.status might still be 'inactive' for a short time
+```
+**Strategies:**
+- **Read-your-writes consistency**: User sees their own writes immediately
+- **Session consistency**: Consistency within a session
+- **Monotonic reads**: Once a value is read, subsequent reads return same or newer value
+- **Causal consistency**: Related operations are seen in order
+---
+## NoSQL Database Types
+### 1. Document Databases
+**Characteristics:**
+- Store data as documents (JSON, BSON, XML)
+- Flexible schema
+- Nested data structures
+- Rich query capabilities
+**Examples:**
+- MongoDB
+- CouchDB
+- Couchbase
+- RavenDB
+**Use Cases:**
+- Content management systems
+- User profiles
+- Product catalogs
+- Event logging
+**See**: `nosql-document-stores.md` for detailed guide
+### 2. Key-Value Stores
+**Characteristics:**
+- Simple key-value pairs
+- Fast lookups by key
+- Limited query capabilities
+- High performance
+**Examples:**
+- Redis
+- DynamoDB
+- Riak
+- Memcached
+**Use Cases:**
+- Caching
+- Session storage
+- Shopping carts
+- User preferences
+**See**: `nosql-key-value-stores.md` for detailed guide
+### 3. Column-Family Databases
+**Characteristics:**
+- Store data in column families (groups of columns)
+- Optimized for write-heavy workloads
+- Horizontal scalability
+- Sparse data support
+**Examples:**
+- Cassandra
+- HBase
+- ScyllaDB
+- Google Bigtable
+**Use Cases:**
+- Time-series data
+- Event logging
+- IoT sensor data
+- Analytics
+**Example: Cassandra**
+```cql
+-- Create keyspace (database)
+CREATE KEYSPACE analytics WITH replication = {
+  'class': 'SimpleStrategy',
+  'replication_factor': 3
+};
+-- Create column family (table)
+CREATE TABLE analytics.events (
+  user_id UUID,
+  event_time TIMESTAMP,
+  event_type TEXT,
+  event_data MAP<TEXT, TEXT>,
+  PRIMARY KEY (user_id, event_time)
+) WITH CLUSTERING ORDER BY (event_time DESC);
+-- Insert data
+INSERT INTO analytics.events (user_id, event_time, event_type, event_data)
+VALUES (uuid(), toTimestamp(now()), 'page_view', {'page': '/home', 'duration': '5s'});
+-- Query by partition key
+SELECT * FROM analytics.events WHERE user_id = ?;
+```
+### 4. Graph Databases
+**Characteristics:**
+- Store data as nodes and relationships
+- Optimized for traversing relationships
+- Rich query language for graph operations
+- Flexible schema
+**Examples:**
+- Neo4j
+- ArangoDB
+- Amazon Neptune
+- JanusGraph
+**Use Cases:**
+- Social networks
+- Recommendation engines
+- Fraud detection
+- Knowledge graphs
+**See**: `nosql-graph-databases.md` for detailed guide
+---
+## Database Selection Criteria
+### Decision Framework
+**1. Data Structure**
+- **Structured, relational**: Relational database
+- **Documents with nested data**: Document database
+- **Simple key-value pairs**: Key-value store
+- **Time-series, events**: Column-family database
+- **Highly connected data**: Graph database
+**2. Query Patterns**
+- **Complex JOINs**: Relational database
+- **Simple lookups by ID**: Key-value store
+- **Rich queries on documents**: Document database
+- **Graph traversals**: Graph database
+- **Range queries on time-series**: Column-family database
+**3. Scalability Requirements**
+- **Vertical scaling (single server)**: Relational database, SQLite
+- **Horizontal scaling (distributed)**: NoSQL databases
+- **Massive write throughput**: Column-family database
+- **Massive read throughput**: Key-value store with caching
+**4. Consistency Requirements**
+- **Strong consistency (ACID)**: Relational database
+- **Eventual consistency acceptable**: NoSQL databases
+- **Tunable consistency**: Cassandra, DynamoDB, MongoDB
+**5. Transaction Requirements**
+- **Multi-row transactions**: Relational database
+- **Single-document transactions**: Document database
+- **No transactions needed**: Key-value store, column-family
+### Database Comparison Matrix
+| Database | Type | Consistency | Scalability | Query Complexity | Use Case |
+|----------|------|-------------|-------------|------------------|----------|
+| PostgreSQL | Relational | Strong | Vertical | High | Complex queries, ACID |
+| MongoDB | Document | Tunable | Horizontal | Medium | Flexible schema, nested data |
+| Redis | Key-Value | Strong | Horizontal | Low | Caching, sessions |
+| Cassandra | Column-Family | Tunable | Horizontal | Low | Time-series, high writes |
+| Neo4j | Graph | Strong | Vertical | High | Relationships, traversals |
+| DynamoDB | Key-Value | Tunable | Horizontal | Low | Simple lookups, high scale |
+---
+## Common Patterns
+### Denormalization
+**Principle**: Store redundant data to avoid JOINs and improve read performance
+**Example: Blog Application**
+```javascript
+// ❌ Normalized (relational approach)
+// users table: { id, name, email }
+// posts table: { id, user_id, title, content }
+// Requires JOIN to get author name
+// ✅ Denormalized (NoSQL approach)
+{
+  "_id": "post123",
+  "title": "Introduction to NoSQL",
+  "content": "...",
+  "author": {
+    "id": "user456",
+    "name": "John Doe",
+    "email": "john@example.com"
+  },
+  "created_at": "2024-01-15T10:00:00Z"
+}
+// Author data embedded in post document
+```
+**Trade-offs:**
+- ✅ Faster reads (no JOINs)
+- ✅ Single query to get all data
+- ❌ Data duplication
+- ❌ Update complexity (must update all copies)
+**When to denormalize:**
+- ✅ Read-heavy workloads
+- ✅ Data rarely changes
+- ✅ Query performance is critical
+- ❌ Data changes frequently
+- ❌ Strong consistency is required
+### Embedding vs Referencing
+**Embedding**: Store related data within the same document
+**Referencing**: Store references (IDs) to related data in separate documents
+**Example:**
+```javascript
+// Embedding (one-to-few relationship)
+{
+  "_id": "user123",
+  "name": "John Doe",
+  "addresses": [
+    { "type": "home", "street": "123 Main St", "city": "Boston" },
+    { "type": "work", "street": "456 Office Blvd", "city": "Boston" }
+  ]
+}
+// Referencing (one-to-many relationship)
+// User document
+{
+  "_id": "user123",
+  "name": "John Doe"
+}
+// Order documents (separate collection)
+{
+  "_id": "order456",
+  "user_id": "user123",
+  "total": 99.99,
+  "items": [...]
+}
+```
+**When to embed:**
+- ✅ One-to-few relationships (< 100 items)
+- ✅ Data is always accessed together
+- ✅ Data doesn't change frequently
+- ✅ Document size stays under limit (16MB in MongoDB)
+**When to reference:**
+- ✅ One-to-many or many-to-many relationships
+- ✅ Data is accessed independently
+- ✅ Data changes frequently
+- ✅ Document size would exceed limits
+### Caching Pattern
+**Use NoSQL as cache layer in front of relational database:**
+```javascript
+// Node.js: Redis cache with PostgreSQL fallback
+async function getUser(userId) {
+  // Try cache first
+  const cached = await redis.get(`user:${userId}`);
+  if (cached) {
+    return JSON.parse(cached);
+  }
+  // Cache miss - query database
+  const user = await db.query('SELECT * FROM users WHERE id = $1', [userId]);
+  // Store in cache with TTL
+  await redis.setex(`user:${userId}`, 3600, JSON.stringify(user));
+  return user;
+}
+// Invalidate cache on update
+async function updateUser(userId, data) {
+  await db.query('UPDATE users SET ... WHERE id = $1', [userId]);
+  await redis.del(`user:${userId}`);  // Invalidate cache
+}
+```
+### Event Sourcing
+**Store events instead of current state:**
+```javascript
+// Event store (append-only)
+{
+  "_id": "event123",
+  "aggregate_id": "account456",
+  "event_type": "MoneyDeposited",
+  "amount": 100,
+  "timestamp": "2024-01-15T10:00:00Z"
+}
+{
+  "_id": "event124",
+  "aggregate_id": "account456",
+  "event_type": "MoneyWithdrawn",
+  "amount": 50,
+  "timestamp": "2024-01-15T11:00:00Z"
+}
+// Rebuild current state by replaying events
+function getCurrentBalance(accountId) {
+  const events = db.events.find({ aggregate_id: accountId }).sort({ timestamp: 1 });
+  let balance = 0;
+  for (const event of events) {
+    if (event.event_type === 'MoneyDeposited') {
+      balance += event.amount;
+    } else if (event.event_type === 'MoneyWithdrawn') {
+      balance -= event.amount;
+    }
+  }
+  return balance;
+}
+```
+---
+## Limitations and Challenges
+### Lack of JOINs
+**Problem**: NoSQL databases don't support JOINs like relational databases
+**Solutions:**
+- **Denormalization**: Embed related data
+- **Application-level joins**: Fetch related data in multiple queries
+- **Aggregation pipelines**: Use database-specific aggregation features (MongoDB)
+**Example: Application-level join**
+```javascript
+// Fetch user
+const user = await db.users.findOne({ _id: userId });
+// Fetch user's orders (separate query)
+const orders = await db.orders.find({ user_id: userId });
+// Combine in application
+const result = {
+  ...user,
+  orders: orders
+};
+```
+### No ACID Transactions (Traditional)
+**Problem**: Many NoSQL databases don't support multi-document transactions
+**Solutions:**
+- **Single-document atomicity**: Design schema to keep related data in one document
+- **Eventual consistency**: Accept temporary inconsistencies
+- **Saga pattern**: Use compensating transactions
+- **Modern NoSQL**: Use databases with transaction support (MongoDB 4.0+, DynamoDB transactions)
+### Schema Flexibility Can Be a Curse
+**Problem**: No enforced schema can lead to data inconsistencies
+**Solutions:**
+- **Application-level validation**: Validate data before inserting
+- **Schema versioning**: Include version field in documents
+- **Migration scripts**: Update old documents to new schema
+- **Database-level validation**: Use schema validation features (MongoDB schema validation)
+**Example: MongoDB schema validation**
+```javascript
+db.createCollection("users", {
+  validator: {
+    $jsonSchema: {
+      bsonType: "object",
+      required: ["email", "name"],
+      properties: {
+        email: {
+          bsonType: "string",
+          pattern: "^.+@.+$"
+        },
+        name: {
+          bsonType: "string"
+        },
+        age: {
+          bsonType: "int",
+          minimum: 0,
+          maximum: 150
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+});
+```
+### Query Limitations
+**Problem**: Limited query capabilities compared to SQL
+**Solutions:**
+- **Indexing**: Create indexes for common query patterns
+- **Aggregation pipelines**: Use database-specific aggregation features
+- **Materialized views**: Pre-compute and store query results
+- **Hybrid approach**: Use relational database for complex queries
+### Consistency Challenges
+**Problem**: Eventual consistency can lead to stale reads
+**Solutions:**
+- **Read-your-writes consistency**: Configure database to return user's own writes
+- **Strong consistency reads**: Use consistency level options (DynamoDB, Cassandra)
+- **Conflict resolution**: Implement application-level conflict resolution
+- **Version vectors**: Track causality to resolve conflicts
+---
+## Best Practices
+### DO
+✅ **Understand your access patterns** before choosing a database
+✅ **Design schema for your queries** (query-driven design)
+✅ **Use indexes** for frequently queried fields
+✅ **Monitor performance** and adjust as needed
+✅ **Plan for data growth** and scalability
+✅ **Implement proper error handling** for eventual consistency
+✅ **Use connection pooling** for better performance
+✅ **Validate data** at application level
+✅ **Version your schema** for easier migrations
+✅ **Test with production-like data volumes**
+### DON'T
+❌ **Don't use NoSQL for everything** - choose the right tool
+❌ **Don't ignore consistency requirements** - understand trade-offs
+❌ **Don't over-denormalize** - balance read/write performance
+❌ **Don't skip indexing** - queries will be slow
+❌ **Don't ignore data modeling** - schema design still matters
+❌ **Don't assume infinite scalability** - test at scale
+❌ **Don't forget backups** - data loss is catastrophic
+❌ **Don't ignore security** - encrypt data, use authentication
+❌ **Don't mix paradigms** - understand the database model
+❌ **Don't skip monitoring** - observe performance and errors
+---
+## Summary
+**NoSQL databases offer:**
+- Flexible schema
+- Horizontal scalability
+- High performance for specific use cases
+- Eventual consistency (trade-off for availability)
+**Choose NoSQL when:**
+- Schema flexibility is needed
+- Horizontal scaling is critical
+- Eventual consistency is acceptable
+- Simple query patterns dominate
+**Choose Relational when:**
+- ACID compliance is required
+- Complex queries with JOINs are needed
+- Strong consistency is critical
+- Schema is stable and well-defined
+**Key Takeaway**: NoSQL is not a replacement for relational databases - it's a complementary tool for specific use cases. Choose the right database for your requirements.