wasmtime 19.0.2 → 20.0.0

data/ext/cargo-vendor/wasmtime-wasi-20.0.0/src/preview1.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,2601 @@
+//! Bindings for WASIp1 aka Preview 1 aka `wasi_snapshot_preview1`.
+//!
+//! This module contains runtime support for configuring and executing
+//! WASIp1-using core WebAssembly modules. Support for WASIp1 is built on top of
+//! support for WASIp2 available at [the crate root](crate), but that's just an
+//! internal implementation detail.
+//!
+//! Unlike the crate root support for WASIp1 centers around two APIs:
+//!
+//! * [`WasiP1Ctx`]
+//! * [`add_to_linker_sync`] (or [`add_to_linker_async`])
+//!
+//! First a [`WasiCtxBuilder`] will be used and finalized with the [`build_p1`]
+//! method to create a [`WasiCtx`]. Next a [`wasmtime::Linker`] is configured
+//! with WASI imports by using the `add_to_linker_*` desired (sync or async
+//! depending on [`Config::async_support`]).
+//!
+//! Note that WASIp1 is not as extensible or configurable as WASIp2 so the
+//! support in this module is enough to run wasm modules but any customization
+//! beyond that [`WasiCtxBuilder`] already supports is not possible yet.
+//!
+//! [`WasiCtxBuilder`]: crate::WasiCtxBuilder
+//! [`build_p1`]: crate::WasiCtxBuilder::build_p1
+//! [`Config::async_support`]: wasmtime::Config::async_support
+//!
+//! # Components vs Modules
+//!
+//! Note that WASIp1 does not work for components at this time, only core wasm
+//! modules. That means this module is only for users of [`wasmtime::Module`]
+//! and [`wasmtime::Linker`], for example. If you're using
+//! [`wasmtime::component::Component`] or [`wasmtime::component::Linker`] you'll
+//! want the WASIp2 [support this crate has](crate) instead.
+//!
+//! # Examples
+//!
+//! ```no_run
+//! use wasmtime::{Result, Engine, Linker, Module, Store};
+//! use wasmtime_wasi::preview1::{self, WasiP1Ctx};
+//! use wasmtime_wasi::WasiCtxBuilder;
+//!
+//! // An example of executing a WASIp1 "command"
+//! fn main() -> Result<()> {
+//!     let args = std::env::args().skip(1).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+//!     let engine = Engine::default();
+//!     let module = Module::from_file(&engine, &args[0])?;
+//!
+//!     let mut linker: Linker<WasiP1Ctx> = Linker::new(&engine);
+//!     preview1::add_to_linker_async(&mut linker, |t| t)?;
+//!     let pre = linker.instantiate_pre(&module)?;
+//!
+//!     let wasi_ctx = WasiCtxBuilder::new()
+//!         .inherit_stdio()
+//!         .inherit_env()
+//!         .args(&args)
+//!         .build_p1();
+//!
+//!     let mut store = Store::new(&engine, wasi_ctx);
+//!     let instance = pre.instantiate(&mut store)?;
+//!     let func = instance.get_typed_func::<(), ()>(&mut store, "_start")?;
+//!     func.call(&mut store, ())?;
+//!
+//!     Ok(())
+//! }
+//! ```
+
+#![cfg_attr(docsrs, doc(cfg(feature = "preview1")))]
+
+use crate::bindings::{
+    cli::{
+        stderr, stdin, stdout, terminal_input, terminal_output, terminal_stderr, terminal_stdin,
+        terminal_stdout,
+    },
+    clocks::{monotonic_clock, wall_clock},
+    filesystem::{preopens, types as filesystem},
+    io::{poll, streams},
+};
+use crate::{FsError, IsATTY, ResourceTable, StreamError, StreamResult, WasiCtx, WasiView};
+use anyhow::{bail, Context};
+use std::borrow::Borrow;
+use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashSet};
+use std::mem::{self, size_of, size_of_val};
+use std::ops::{Deref, DerefMut};
+use std::slice;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use wasmtime::component::Resource;
+use wiggle::tracing::instrument;
+use wiggle::{GuestError, GuestPtr, GuestStrCow, GuestType};
+
+// Bring all WASI traits in scope that this implementation builds on.
+use crate::bindings::cli::environment::Host as _;
+use crate::bindings::filesystem::types::HostDescriptor as _;
+use crate::bindings::io::poll::Host as _;
+use crate::bindings::random::random::Host as _;
+
+/// Structure containing state for WASIp1.
+///
+/// This structure is created through [`WasiCtxBuilder::build_p1`] and is
+/// configured through the various methods of [`WasiCtxBuilder`]. This structure
+/// itself implements generated traits for WASIp1 as well as [`WasiView`] to
+/// have access to WASIp2.
+///
+/// Instances of [`WasiP1Ctx`] are typically stored within the `T` of
+/// [`Store<T>`](wasmtime::Store).
+///
+/// [`WasiCtxBuilder::build_p1`]: crate::WasiCtxBuilder::build_p1
+/// [`WasiCtxBuilder`]: crate::WasiCtxBuilder
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```no_run
+/// use wasmtime::{Result, Linker};
+/// use wasmtime_wasi::preview1::{self, WasiP1Ctx};
+/// use wasmtime_wasi::WasiCtxBuilder;
+///
+/// struct MyState {
+///     // ... custom state as necessary ...
+///
+///     wasi: WasiP1Ctx,
+/// }
+///
+/// impl MyState {
+///     fn new() -> MyState {
+///         MyState {
+///             // .. initialize custom state if needed ..
+///
+///             wasi: WasiCtxBuilder::new()
+///                 .arg("./foo.wasm")
+///                 // .. more customization if necesssary ..
+///                 .build_p1(),
+///         }
+///     }
+/// }
+///
+/// fn add_to_linker(linker: &mut Linker<MyState>) -> Result<()> {
+///     preview1::add_to_linker_sync(linker, |my_state| &mut my_state.wasi)?;
+///     Ok(())
+/// }
+/// ```
+pub struct WasiP1Ctx {
+    table: ResourceTable,
+    wasi: WasiCtx,
+    adapter: WasiPreview1Adapter,
+}
+
+impl WasiP1Ctx {
+    pub(crate) fn new(wasi: WasiCtx) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            table: ResourceTable::new(),
+            wasi,
+            adapter: WasiPreview1Adapter::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl WasiView for WasiP1Ctx {
+    fn table(&mut self) -> &mut ResourceTable {
+        &mut self.table
+    }
+    fn ctx(&mut self) -> &mut WasiCtx {
+        &mut self.wasi
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct File {
+    /// The handle to the preview2 descriptor of type [`crate::filesystem::Descriptor::File`].
+    fd: Resource<filesystem::Descriptor>,
+
+    /// The current-position pointer.
+    position: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+
+    /// In append mode, all writes append to the file.
+    append: bool,
+
+    /// When blocking, read and write calls dispatch to blocking_read and
+    /// blocking_check_write on the underlying streams. When false, read and write
+    /// dispatch to stream's plain read and check_write.
+    blocking_mode: BlockingMode,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+enum BlockingMode {
+    Blocking,
+    NonBlocking,
+}
+impl BlockingMode {
+    fn from_fdflags(flags: &types::Fdflags) -> Self {
+        if flags.contains(types::Fdflags::NONBLOCK) {
+            BlockingMode::NonBlocking
+        } else {
+            BlockingMode::Blocking
+        }
+    }
+    async fn read(
+        &self,
+        host: &mut impl streams::Host,
+        input_stream: Resource<streams::InputStream>,
+        max_size: usize,
+    ) -> Result<Vec<u8>, types::Error> {
+        let max_size = max_size.try_into().unwrap_or(u64::MAX);
+        match self {
+            BlockingMode::Blocking => {
+                match streams::HostInputStream::blocking_read(host, input_stream, max_size).await {
+                    Ok(r) if r.is_empty() => Err(types::Errno::Intr.into()),
+                    Ok(r) => Ok(r),
+                    Err(StreamError::Closed) => Ok(Vec::new()),
+                    Err(e) => Err(e.into()),
+                }
+            }
+
+            BlockingMode::NonBlocking => {
+                match streams::HostInputStream::read(host, input_stream, max_size).await {
+                    Ok(r) => Ok(r),
+                    Err(StreamError::Closed) => Ok(Vec::new()),
+                    Err(e) => Err(e.into()),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    async fn write(
+        &self,
+        host: &mut (impl streams::Host + poll::Host),
+        output_stream: Resource<streams::OutputStream>,
+        bytes: GuestPtr<'_, [u8]>,
+    ) -> StreamResult<usize> {
+        use streams::HostOutputStream as Streams;
+
+        let bytes = bytes.as_cow().map_err(|e| StreamError::Trap(e.into()))?;
+        let mut bytes = &bytes[..];
+
+        match self {
+            BlockingMode::Blocking => {
+                let total = bytes.len();
+                while !bytes.is_empty() {
+                    // NOTE: blocking_write_and_flush takes at most one 4k buffer.
+                    let len = bytes.len().min(4096);
+                    let (chunk, rest) = bytes.split_at(len);
+                    bytes = rest;
+
+                    Streams::blocking_write_and_flush(
+                        host,
+                        output_stream.borrowed(),
+                        Vec::from(chunk),
+                    )
+                    .await?
+                }
+
+                Ok(total)
+            }
+            BlockingMode::NonBlocking => {
+                let n = match Streams::check_write(host, output_stream.borrowed()) {
+                    Ok(n) => n,
+                    Err(StreamError::Closed) => 0,
+                    Err(e) => Err(e)?,
+                };
+
+                let len = bytes.len().min(n as usize);
+                if len == 0 {
+                    return Ok(0);
+                }
+
+                match Streams::write(host, output_stream.borrowed(), bytes[..len].to_vec()) {
+                    Ok(()) => {}
+                    Err(StreamError::Closed) => return Ok(0),
+                    Err(e) => Err(e)?,
+                }
+
+                match Streams::blocking_flush(host, output_stream.borrowed()).await {
+                    Ok(()) => {}
+                    Err(StreamError::Closed) => return Ok(0),
+                    Err(e) => Err(e)?,
+                };
+
+                Ok(len)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+enum Descriptor {
+    Stdin {
+        stream: Resource<streams::InputStream>,
+        isatty: IsATTY,
+    },
+    Stdout {
+        stream: Resource<streams::OutputStream>,
+        isatty: IsATTY,
+    },
+    Stderr {
+        stream: Resource<streams::OutputStream>,
+        isatty: IsATTY,
+    },
+    /// A fd of type [`crate::filesystem::Descriptor::Dir`]
+    Directory {
+        fd: Resource<filesystem::Descriptor>,
+        /// The path this directory was preopened as.
+        /// `None` means this directory was opened using `open-at`.
+        preopen_path: Option<String>,
+    },
+    /// A fd of type [`crate::filesystem::Descriptor::File`]
+    File(File),
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct WasiPreview1Adapter {
+    descriptors: Option<Descriptors>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct Descriptors {
+    used: BTreeMap<u32, Descriptor>,
+    free: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl Deref for Descriptors {
+    type Target = BTreeMap<u32, Descriptor>;
+
+    fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target {
+        &self.used
+    }
+}
+
+impl DerefMut for Descriptors {
+    fn deref_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Self::Target {
+        &mut self.used
+    }
+}
+
+impl Descriptors {
+    /// Initializes [Self] using `preopens`
+    fn new(
+        host: &mut (impl preopens::Host
+                  + stdin::Host
+                  + stdout::Host
+                  + stderr::Host
+                  + terminal_stdin::Host
+                  + terminal_stdout::Host
+                  + terminal_stderr::Host
+                  + terminal_input::Host
+                  + terminal_output::Host
+                  + ?Sized),
+    ) -> Result<Self, types::Error> {
+        let mut descriptors = Self::default();
+        descriptors.push(Descriptor::Stdin {
+            stream: host
+                .get_stdin()
+                .context("failed to call `get-stdin`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?,
+            isatty: if let Some(term_in) = host
+                .get_terminal_stdin()
+                .context("failed to call `get-terminal-stdin`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+            {
+                terminal_input::HostTerminalInput::drop(host, term_in)
+                    .context("failed to call `drop-terminal-input`")
+                    .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+                IsATTY::Yes
+            } else {
+                IsATTY::No
+            },
+        })?;
+        descriptors.push(Descriptor::Stdout {
+            stream: host
+                .get_stdout()
+                .context("failed to call `get-stdout`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?,
+            isatty: if let Some(term_out) = host
+                .get_terminal_stdout()
+                .context("failed to call `get-terminal-stdout`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+            {
+                terminal_output::HostTerminalOutput::drop(host, term_out)
+                    .context("failed to call `drop-terminal-output`")
+                    .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+                IsATTY::Yes
+            } else {
+                IsATTY::No
+            },
+        })?;
+        descriptors.push(Descriptor::Stderr {
+            stream: host
+                .get_stderr()
+                .context("failed to call `get-stderr`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?,
+            isatty: if let Some(term_out) = host
+                .get_terminal_stderr()
+                .context("failed to call `get-terminal-stderr`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+            {
+                terminal_output::HostTerminalOutput::drop(host, term_out)
+                    .context("failed to call `drop-terminal-output`")
+                    .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+                IsATTY::Yes
+            } else {
+                IsATTY::No
+            },
+        })?;
+
+        for dir in host
+            .get_directories()
+            .context("failed to call `get-directories`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+        {
+            descriptors.push(Descriptor::Directory {
+                fd: dir.0,
+                preopen_path: Some(dir.1),
+            })?;
+        }
+        Ok(descriptors)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns next descriptor number, which was never assigned
+    fn unused(&self) -> Result<u32> {
+        match self.last_key_value() {
+            Some((fd, _)) => {
+                if let Some(fd) = fd.checked_add(1) {
+                    return Ok(fd);
+                }
+                if self.len() == u32::MAX as usize {
+                    return Err(types::Errno::Loop.into());
+                }
+                // TODO: Optimize
+                Ok((0..u32::MAX)
+                    .rev()
+                    .find(|fd| !self.contains_key(fd))
+                    .expect("failed to find an unused file descriptor"))
+            }
+            None => Ok(0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Removes the [Descriptor] corresponding to `fd`
+    fn remove(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Option<Descriptor> {
+        let fd = fd.into();
+        let desc = self.used.remove(&fd)?;
+        self.free.push(fd);
+        Some(desc)
+    }
+
+    /// Pushes the [Descriptor] returning corresponding number.
+    /// This operation will try to reuse numbers previously removed via [`Self::remove`]
+    /// and rely on [`Self::unused`] if no free numbers are recorded
+    fn push(&mut self, desc: Descriptor) -> Result<u32> {
+        let fd = if let Some(fd) = self.free.pop() {
+            fd
+        } else {
+            self.unused()?
+        };
+        assert!(self.insert(fd, desc).is_none());
+        Ok(fd)
+    }
+}
+
+impl WasiPreview1Adapter {
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        Self::default()
+    }
+}
+
+/// A mutably-borrowed [`WasiPreview1View`] implementation, which provides access to the stored
+/// state. It can be thought of as an in-flight [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] transaction, all
+/// changes will be recorded in the underlying [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] returned by
+/// [`WasiPreview1View::adapter_mut`] on [`Drop`] of this struct.
+// NOTE: This exists for the most part just due to the fact that `bindgen` generates methods with
+// `&mut self` receivers and so this struct lets us extend the lifetime of the `&mut self` borrow
+// of the [`WasiPreview1View`] to provide means to return mutably and immutably borrowed [`Descriptors`]
+// without having to rely on something like `Arc<Mutex<Descriptors>>`, while also being able to
+// call methods like [`Descriptor::is_file`] and hiding complexity from preview1 method implementations.
+struct Transaction<'a> {
+    view: &'a mut WasiP1Ctx,
+    descriptors: Descriptors,
+}
+
+impl Drop for Transaction<'_> {
+    /// Record changes in the [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] returned by [`WasiPreview1View::adapter_mut`]
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        let descriptors = mem::take(&mut self.descriptors);
+        self.view.adapter.descriptors = Some(descriptors);
+    }
+}
+
+impl Transaction<'_> {
+    /// Borrows [`Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns [`types::Errno::Badf`] if no [`Descriptor`] is found
+    fn get_descriptor(&self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<&Descriptor> {
+        let fd = fd.into();
+        let desc = self.descriptors.get(&fd).ok_or(types::Errno::Badf)?;
+        Ok(desc)
+    }
+
+    /// Borrows [`File`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`]
+    fn get_file(&self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<&File> {
+        let fd = fd.into();
+        match self.descriptors.get(&fd) {
+            Some(Descriptor::File(file)) => Ok(file),
+            _ => Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Mutably borrows [`File`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`]
+    fn get_file_mut(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<&mut File> {
+        let fd = fd.into();
+        match self.descriptors.get_mut(&fd) {
+            Some(Descriptor::File(file)) => Ok(file),
+            _ => Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Borrows [`File`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`]
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns [`types::Errno::Spipe`] if the descriptor corresponds to stdio
+    fn get_seekable(&self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<&File> {
+        let fd = fd.into();
+        match self.descriptors.get(&fd) {
+            Some(Descriptor::File(file)) => Ok(file),
+            Some(
+                Descriptor::Stdin { .. } | Descriptor::Stdout { .. } | Descriptor::Stderr { .. },
+            ) => {
+                // NOTE: legacy implementation returns SPIPE here
+                Err(types::Errno::Spipe.into())
+            }
+            _ => Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns [`filesystem::Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`
+    fn get_fd(&self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<Resource<filesystem::Descriptor>> {
+        match self.get_descriptor(fd)? {
+            Descriptor::File(File { fd, .. }) => Ok(fd.borrowed()),
+            Descriptor::Directory { fd, .. } => Ok(fd.borrowed()),
+            Descriptor::Stdin { .. } | Descriptor::Stdout { .. } | Descriptor::Stderr { .. } => {
+                Err(types::Errno::Badf.into())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns [`filesystem::Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`]
+    fn get_file_fd(&self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<Resource<filesystem::Descriptor>> {
+        self.get_file(fd).map(|File { fd, .. }| fd.borrowed())
+    }
+
+    /// Returns [`filesystem::Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::Directory`]
+    fn get_dir_fd(&self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<Resource<filesystem::Descriptor>> {
+        let fd = fd.into();
+        match self.descriptors.get(&fd) {
+            Some(Descriptor::Directory { fd, .. }) => Ok(fd.borrowed()),
+            _ => Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl WasiP1Ctx {
+    /// Lazily initializes [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] returned by [`WasiPreview1View::adapter_mut`]
+    /// and returns [`Transaction`] on success
+    fn transact(&mut self) -> Result<Transaction<'_>, types::Error> {
+        let descriptors = if let Some(descriptors) = self.adapter.descriptors.take() {
+            descriptors
+        } else {
+            Descriptors::new(self)?
+        }
+        .into();
+        Ok(Transaction {
+            view: self,
+            descriptors,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Lazily initializes [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] returned by [`WasiPreview1View::adapter_mut`]
+    /// and returns [`filesystem::Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`
+    fn get_fd(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<Resource<filesystem::Descriptor>, types::Error> {
+        let st = self.transact()?;
+        let fd = st.get_fd(fd)?;
+        Ok(fd)
+    }
+
+    /// Lazily initializes [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] returned by [`WasiPreview1View::adapter_mut`]
+    /// and returns [`filesystem::Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`] of [`crate::filesystem::File`] type
+    fn get_file_fd(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+    ) -> Result<Resource<filesystem::Descriptor>, types::Error> {
+        let st = self.transact()?;
+        let fd = st.get_file_fd(fd)?;
+        Ok(fd)
+    }
+
+    /// Lazily initializes [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] returned by [`WasiPreview1View::adapter_mut`]
+    /// and returns [`filesystem::Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`] or [`Descriptor::PreopenDirectory`]
+    /// of [`crate::filesystem::Dir`] type
+    fn get_dir_fd(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+    ) -> Result<Resource<filesystem::Descriptor>, types::Error> {
+        let st = self.transact()?;
+        let fd = st.get_dir_fd(fd)?;
+        Ok(fd)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Adds asynchronous versions of all WASIp1 functions to the
+/// [`wasmtime::Linker`] provided.
+///
+/// This method will add WASIp1 functions to `linker`. The `f` closure provided
+/// is used to project from the `T` state that `Linker` is associated with to a
+/// [`WasiP1Ctx`]. If `T` is `WasiP1Ctx` itself then this is the identity
+/// closure, but otherwise it must project out the field where `WasiP1Ctx` is
+/// stored within `T`.
+///
+/// The state provided by `f` is used to implement all WASIp1 functions and
+/// provides configuration to know what to return.
+///
+/// Note that this function is intended for use with
+/// [`Config::async_support(true)`]. If you're looking for a synchronous version
+/// see [`add_to_linker_sync`].
+///
+/// [`Config::async_support(true)`]: wasmtime::Config::async_support
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// If the `T` in `Linker<T>` is just `WasiP1Ctx`:
+///
+/// ```no_run
+/// use wasmtime::{Result, Linker, Engine, Config};
+/// use wasmtime_wasi::preview1::{self, WasiP1Ctx};
+///
+/// fn main() -> Result<()> {
+///     let mut config = Config::new();
+///     config.async_support(true);
+///     let engine = Engine::new(&config)?;
+///
+///     let mut linker: Linker<WasiP1Ctx> = Linker::new(&engine);
+///     preview1::add_to_linker_async(&mut linker, |cx| cx)?;
+///
+///     // ... continue to add more to `linker` as necessary and use it ...
+///
+///     Ok(())
+/// }
+/// ```
+///
+/// If the `T` in `Linker<T>` is custom state:
+///
+/// ```no_run
+/// use wasmtime::{Result, Linker, Engine, Config};
+/// use wasmtime_wasi::preview1::{self, WasiP1Ctx};
+///
+/// struct MyState {
+///     // .. other custom state here ..
+///
+///     wasi: WasiP1Ctx,
+/// }
+///
+/// fn main() -> Result<()> {
+///     let mut config = Config::new();
+///     config.async_support(true);
+///     let engine = Engine::new(&config)?;
+///
+///     let mut linker: Linker<MyState> = Linker::new(&engine);
+///     preview1::add_to_linker_async(&mut linker, |cx| &mut cx.wasi)?;
+///
+///     // ... continue to add more to `linker` as necessary and use it ...
+///
+///     Ok(())
+/// }
+/// ```
+pub fn add_to_linker_async<T: Send>(
+    linker: &mut wasmtime::Linker<T>,
+    f: impl Fn(&mut T) -> &mut WasiP1Ctx + Copy + Send + Sync + 'static,
+) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    crate::preview1::wasi_snapshot_preview1::add_to_linker(linker, f)
+}
+
+/// Adds synchronous versions of all WASIp1 functions to the
+/// [`wasmtime::Linker`] provided.
+///
+/// This method will add WASIp1 functions to `linker`. The `f` closure provided
+/// is used to project from the `T` state that `Linker` is associated with to a
+/// [`WasiP1Ctx`]. If `T` is `WasiP1Ctx` itself then this is the identity
+/// closure, but otherwise it must project out the field where `WasiP1Ctx` is
+/// stored within `T`.
+///
+/// The state provided by `f` is used to implement all WASIp1 functions and
+/// provides configuration to know what to return.
+///
+/// Note that this function is intended for use with
+/// [`Config::async_support(false)`]. If you're looking for a synchronous version
+/// see [`add_to_linker_async`].
+///
+/// [`Config::async_support(false)`]: wasmtime::Config::async_support
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// If the `T` in `Linker<T>` is just `WasiP1Ctx`:
+///
+/// ```no_run
+/// use wasmtime::{Result, Linker, Engine, Config};
+/// use wasmtime_wasi::preview1::{self, WasiP1Ctx};
+///
+/// fn main() -> Result<()> {
+///     let mut config = Config::new();
+///     config.async_support(true);
+///     let engine = Engine::new(&config)?;
+///
+///     let mut linker: Linker<WasiP1Ctx> = Linker::new(&engine);
+///     preview1::add_to_linker_async(&mut linker, |cx| cx)?;
+///
+///     // ... continue to add more to `linker` as necessary and use it ...
+///
+///     Ok(())
+/// }
+/// ```
+///
+/// If the `T` in `Linker<T>` is custom state:
+///
+/// ```no_run
+/// use wasmtime::{Result, Linker, Engine, Config};
+/// use wasmtime_wasi::preview1::{self, WasiP1Ctx};
+///
+/// struct MyState {
+///     // .. other custom state here ..
+///
+///     wasi: WasiP1Ctx,
+/// }
+///
+/// fn main() -> Result<()> {
+///     let mut config = Config::new();
+///     config.async_support(true);
+///     let engine = Engine::new(&config)?;
+///
+///     let mut linker: Linker<MyState> = Linker::new(&engine);
+///     preview1::add_to_linker_async(&mut linker, |cx| &mut cx.wasi)?;
+///
+///     // ... continue to add more to `linker` as necessary and use it ...
+///
+///     Ok(())
+/// }
+/// ```
+pub fn add_to_linker_sync<T: Send>(
+    linker: &mut wasmtime::Linker<T>,
+    f: impl Fn(&mut T) -> &mut WasiP1Ctx + Copy + Send + Sync + 'static,
+) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    crate::preview1::sync::add_wasi_snapshot_preview1_to_linker(linker, f)
+}
+
+// Generate the wasi_snapshot_preview1::WasiSnapshotPreview1 trait,
+// and the module types.
+// None of the generated modules, traits, or types should be used externally
+// to this module.
+wiggle::from_witx!({
+    witx: ["$CARGO_MANIFEST_DIR/witx/preview1/wasi_snapshot_preview1.witx"],
+    async: {
+        wasi_snapshot_preview1::{
+            fd_advise, fd_close, fd_datasync, fd_fdstat_get, fd_filestat_get, fd_filestat_set_size,
+            fd_filestat_set_times, fd_read, fd_pread, fd_seek, fd_sync, fd_readdir, fd_write,
+            fd_pwrite, poll_oneoff, path_create_directory, path_filestat_get,
+            path_filestat_set_times, path_link, path_open, path_readlink, path_remove_directory,
+            path_rename, path_symlink, path_unlink_file
+        }
+    },
+    errors: { errno => trappable Error },
+});
+
+pub(crate) mod sync {
+    use anyhow::Result;
+    use std::future::Future;
+
+    wiggle::wasmtime_integration!({
+        witx: ["$CARGO_MANIFEST_DIR/witx/preview1/wasi_snapshot_preview1.witx"],
+        target: super,
+        block_on[in_tokio]: {
+            wasi_snapshot_preview1::{
+                fd_advise, fd_close, fd_datasync, fd_fdstat_get, fd_filestat_get, fd_filestat_set_size,
+                fd_filestat_set_times, fd_read, fd_pread, fd_seek, fd_sync, fd_readdir, fd_write,
+                fd_pwrite, poll_oneoff, path_create_directory, path_filestat_get,
+                path_filestat_set_times, path_link, path_open, path_readlink, path_remove_directory,
+                path_rename, path_symlink, path_unlink_file
+            }
+        },
+        errors: { errno => trappable Error },
+    });
+
+    // Small wrapper around `in_tokio` to add a `Result` layer which is always
+    // `Ok`
+    fn in_tokio<F: Future>(future: F) -> Result<F::Output> {
+        Ok(crate::runtime::in_tokio(future))
+    }
+}
+
+impl wiggle::GuestErrorType for types::Errno {
+    fn success() -> Self {
+        Self::Success
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<StreamError> for types::Error {
+    fn from(err: StreamError) -> Self {
+        match err {
+            StreamError::Closed => types::Errno::Io.into(),
+            StreamError::LastOperationFailed(e) => match e.downcast::<std::io::Error>() {
+                Ok(err) => filesystem::ErrorCode::from(err).into(),
+                Err(e) => {
+                    tracing::debug!("dropping error {e:?}");
+                    types::Errno::Io.into()
+                }
+            },
+            StreamError::Trap(e) => types::Error::trap(e),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<FsError> for types::Error {
+    fn from(err: FsError) -> Self {
+        match err.downcast() {
+            Ok(code) => code.into(),
+            Err(e) => types::Error::trap(e),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn systimespec(set: bool, ts: types::Timestamp, now: bool) -> Result<filesystem::NewTimestamp> {
+    if set && now {
+        Err(types::Errno::Inval.into())
+    } else if set {
+        Ok(filesystem::NewTimestamp::Timestamp(filesystem::Datetime {
+            seconds: ts / 1_000_000_000,
+            nanoseconds: (ts % 1_000_000_000) as _,
+        }))
+    } else if now {
+        Ok(filesystem::NewTimestamp::Now)
+    } else {
+        Ok(filesystem::NewTimestamp::NoChange)
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<wall_clock::Datetime> for types::Timestamp {
+    type Error = types::Errno;
+
+    fn try_from(
+        wall_clock::Datetime {
+            seconds,
+            nanoseconds,
+        }: wall_clock::Datetime,
+    ) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        types::Timestamp::from(seconds)
+            .checked_mul(1_000_000_000)
+            .and_then(|ns| ns.checked_add(nanoseconds.into()))
+            .ok_or(types::Errno::Overflow)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<types::Lookupflags> for filesystem::PathFlags {
+    fn from(flags: types::Lookupflags) -> Self {
+        if flags.contains(types::Lookupflags::SYMLINK_FOLLOW) {
+            filesystem::PathFlags::SYMLINK_FOLLOW
+        } else {
+            filesystem::PathFlags::empty()
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<types::Oflags> for filesystem::OpenFlags {
+    fn from(flags: types::Oflags) -> Self {
+        let mut out = filesystem::OpenFlags::empty();
+        if flags.contains(types::Oflags::CREAT) {
+            out |= filesystem::OpenFlags::CREATE;
+        }
+        if flags.contains(types::Oflags::DIRECTORY) {
+            out |= filesystem::OpenFlags::DIRECTORY;
+        }
+        if flags.contains(types::Oflags::EXCL) {
+            out |= filesystem::OpenFlags::EXCLUSIVE;
+        }
+        if flags.contains(types::Oflags::TRUNC) {
+            out |= filesystem::OpenFlags::TRUNCATE;
+        }
+        out
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<types::Advice> for filesystem::Advice {
+    fn from(advice: types::Advice) -> Self {
+        match advice {
+            types::Advice::Normal => filesystem::Advice::Normal,
+            types::Advice::Sequential => filesystem::Advice::Sequential,
+            types::Advice::Random => filesystem::Advice::Random,
+            types::Advice::Willneed => filesystem::Advice::WillNeed,
+            types::Advice::Dontneed => filesystem::Advice::DontNeed,
+            types::Advice::Noreuse => filesystem::Advice::NoReuse,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<filesystem::DescriptorType> for types::Filetype {
+    type Error = anyhow::Error;
+
+    fn try_from(ty: filesystem::DescriptorType) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        match ty {
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::RegularFile => Ok(types::Filetype::RegularFile),
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::Directory => Ok(types::Filetype::Directory),
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::BlockDevice => Ok(types::Filetype::BlockDevice),
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::CharacterDevice => Ok(types::Filetype::CharacterDevice),
+            // preview1 never had a FIFO code.
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::Fifo => Ok(types::Filetype::Unknown),
+            // TODO: Add a way to disginguish between FILETYPE_SOCKET_STREAM and
+            // FILETYPE_SOCKET_DGRAM.
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::Socket => {
+                bail!("sockets are not currently supported")
+            }
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::SymbolicLink => Ok(types::Filetype::SymbolicLink),
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::Unknown => Ok(types::Filetype::Unknown),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<IsATTY> for types::Filetype {
+    fn from(isatty: IsATTY) -> Self {
+        match isatty {
+            IsATTY::Yes => types::Filetype::CharacterDevice,
+            IsATTY::No => types::Filetype::Unknown,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<filesystem::ErrorCode> for types::Errno {
+    fn from(code: filesystem::ErrorCode) -> Self {
+        match code {
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Access => types::Errno::Acces,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::WouldBlock => types::Errno::Again,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Already => types::Errno::Already,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::BadDescriptor => types::Errno::Badf,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Busy => types::Errno::Busy,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Deadlock => types::Errno::Deadlk,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Quota => types::Errno::Dquot,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Exist => types::Errno::Exist,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::FileTooLarge => types::Errno::Fbig,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::IllegalByteSequence => types::Errno::Ilseq,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::InProgress => types::Errno::Inprogress,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Interrupted => types::Errno::Intr,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Invalid => types::Errno::Inval,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Io => types::Errno::Io,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::IsDirectory => types::Errno::Isdir,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Loop => types::Errno::Loop,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::TooManyLinks => types::Errno::Mlink,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::MessageSize => types::Errno::Msgsize,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NameTooLong => types::Errno::Nametoolong,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NoDevice => types::Errno::Nodev,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NoEntry => types::Errno::Noent,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NoLock => types::Errno::Nolck,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::InsufficientMemory => types::Errno::Nomem,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::InsufficientSpace => types::Errno::Nospc,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Unsupported => types::Errno::Notsup,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NotDirectory => types::Errno::Notdir,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NotEmpty => types::Errno::Notempty,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NotRecoverable => types::Errno::Notrecoverable,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NoTty => types::Errno::Notty,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NoSuchDevice => types::Errno::Nxio,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Overflow => types::Errno::Overflow,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NotPermitted => types::Errno::Perm,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Pipe => types::Errno::Pipe,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::ReadOnly => types::Errno::Rofs,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::InvalidSeek => types::Errno::Spipe,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::TextFileBusy => types::Errno::Txtbsy,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::CrossDevice => types::Errno::Xdev,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<std::num::TryFromIntError> for types::Error {
+    fn from(_: std::num::TryFromIntError) -> Self {
+        types::Errno::Overflow.into()
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<GuestError> for types::Error {
+    fn from(err: GuestError) -> Self {
+        use wiggle::GuestError::*;
+        match err {
+            InvalidFlagValue { .. } => types::Errno::Inval.into(),
+            InvalidEnumValue { .. } => types::Errno::Inval.into(),
+            // As per
+            // https://github.com/WebAssembly/wasi/blob/main/legacy/tools/witx-docs.md#pointers
+            //
+            // > If a misaligned pointer is passed to a function, the function
+            // > shall trap.
+            // >
+            // > If an out-of-bounds pointer is passed to a function and the
+            // > function needs to dereference it, the function shall trap.
+            //
+            // so this turns OOB and misalignment errors into traps.
+            PtrOverflow { .. } | PtrOutOfBounds { .. } | PtrNotAligned { .. } => {
+                types::Error::trap(err.into())
+            }
+            PtrBorrowed { .. } => types::Errno::Fault.into(),
+            InvalidUtf8 { .. } => types::Errno::Ilseq.into(),
+            TryFromIntError { .. } => types::Errno::Overflow.into(),
+            SliceLengthsDiffer { .. } => types::Errno::Fault.into(),
+            BorrowCheckerOutOfHandles { .. } => types::Errno::Fault.into(),
+            InFunc { err, .. } => types::Error::from(*err),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<filesystem::ErrorCode> for types::Error {
+    fn from(code: filesystem::ErrorCode) -> Self {
+        types::Errno::from(code).into()
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<wasmtime::component::ResourceTableError> for types::Error {
+    fn from(err: wasmtime::component::ResourceTableError) -> Self {
+        types::Error::trap(err.into())
+    }
+}
+
+type Result<T, E = types::Error> = std::result::Result<T, E>;
+
+fn write_bytes<'a>(
+    ptr: impl Borrow<GuestPtr<'a, u8>>,
+    buf: &[u8],
+) -> Result<GuestPtr<'a, u8>, types::Error> {
+    // NOTE: legacy implementation always returns Inval errno
+
+    let len = u32::try_from(buf.len())?;
+
+    let ptr = ptr.borrow();
+    ptr.as_array(len).copy_from_slice(buf)?;
+    let next = ptr.add(len)?;
+    Ok(next)
+}
+
+fn write_byte<'a>(ptr: impl Borrow<GuestPtr<'a, u8>>, byte: u8) -> Result<GuestPtr<'a, u8>> {
+    let ptr = ptr.borrow();
+    ptr.write(byte)?;
+    let next = ptr.add(1)?;
+    Ok(next)
+}
+
+fn read_str<'a>(ptr: impl Borrow<GuestPtr<'a, str>>) -> Result<GuestStrCow<'a>> {
+    let s = ptr.borrow().as_cow()?;
+    Ok(s)
+}
+
+fn read_string<'a>(ptr: impl Borrow<GuestPtr<'a, str>>) -> Result<String> {
+    read_str(ptr).map(|s| s.to_string())
+}
+
+// Find first non-empty buffer.
+fn first_non_empty_ciovec<'a, 'b>(
+    ciovs: &'a types::CiovecArray<'b>,
+) -> Result<Option<GuestPtr<'a, [u8]>>> {
+    for iov in ciovs.iter() {
+        let iov = iov?.read()?;
+        if iov.buf_len == 0 {
+            continue;
+        }
+        return Ok(Some(iov.buf.as_array(iov.buf_len)));
+    }
+    Ok(None)
+}
+
+// Find first non-empty buffer.
+fn first_non_empty_iovec<'a>(iovs: &types::IovecArray<'a>) -> Result<Option<GuestPtr<'a, [u8]>>> {
+    for iov in iovs.iter() {
+        let iov = iov?.read()?;
+        if iov.buf_len == 0 {
+            continue;
+        }
+        return Ok(Some(iov.buf.as_array(iov.buf_len)));
+    }
+    Ok(None)
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+// Implement the WasiSnapshotPreview1 trait using only the traits that are
+// required for T, i.e., in terms of the preview 2 wit interface, and state
+// stored in the WasiPreview1Adapter struct.
+impl wasi_snapshot_preview1::WasiSnapshotPreview1 for WasiP1Ctx {
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn args_get<'b>(
+        &mut self,
+        argv: &GuestPtr<'b, GuestPtr<'b, u8>>,
+        argv_buf: &GuestPtr<'b, u8>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        self.get_arguments()
+            .context("failed to call `get-arguments`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+            .into_iter()
+            .try_fold((*argv, *argv_buf), |(argv, argv_buf), arg| -> Result<_> {
+                argv.write(argv_buf)?;
+                let argv = argv.add(1)?;
+
+                let argv_buf = write_bytes(argv_buf, arg.as_bytes())?;
+                let argv_buf = write_byte(argv_buf, 0)?;
+
+                Ok((argv, argv_buf))
+            })?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn args_sizes_get(&mut self) -> Result<(types::Size, types::Size), types::Error> {
+        let args = self
+            .get_arguments()
+            .context("failed to call `get-arguments`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        let num = args.len().try_into().map_err(|_| types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+        let len = args
+            .iter()
+            .map(|buf| buf.len() + 1) // Each argument is expected to be `\0` terminated.
+            .sum::<usize>()
+            .try_into()
+            .map_err(|_| types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+        Ok((num, len))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn environ_get<'b>(
+        &mut self,
+        environ: &GuestPtr<'b, GuestPtr<'b, u8>>,
+        environ_buf: &GuestPtr<'b, u8>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        self.get_environment()
+            .context("failed to call `get-environment`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+            .into_iter()
+            .try_fold(
+                (*environ, *environ_buf),
+                |(environ, environ_buf), (k, v)| -> Result<_, types::Error> {
+                    environ.write(environ_buf)?;
+                    let environ = environ.add(1)?;
+
+                    let environ_buf = write_bytes(environ_buf, k.as_bytes())?;
+                    let environ_buf = write_byte(environ_buf, b'=')?;
+                    let environ_buf = write_bytes(environ_buf, v.as_bytes())?;
+                    let environ_buf = write_byte(environ_buf, 0)?;
+
+                    Ok((environ, environ_buf))
+                },
+            )?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn environ_sizes_get(&mut self) -> Result<(types::Size, types::Size), types::Error> {
+        let environ = self
+            .get_environment()
+            .context("failed to call `get-environment`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        let num = environ.len().try_into()?;
+        let len = environ
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(k, v)| k.len() + 1 + v.len() + 1) // Key/value pairs are expected to be joined with `=`s, and terminated with `\0`s.
+            .sum::<usize>()
+            .try_into()?;
+        Ok((num, len))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn clock_res_get(&mut self, id: types::Clockid) -> Result<types::Timestamp, types::Error> {
+        let res = match id {
+            types::Clockid::Realtime => wall_clock::Host::resolution(self)
+                .context("failed to call `wall_clock::resolution`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+                .try_into()?,
+            types::Clockid::Monotonic => monotonic_clock::Host::resolution(self)
+                .context("failed to call `monotonic_clock::resolution`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?,
+            types::Clockid::ProcessCputimeId | types::Clockid::ThreadCputimeId => {
+                return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into())
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(res)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn clock_time_get(
+        &mut self,
+        id: types::Clockid,
+        _precision: types::Timestamp,
+    ) -> Result<types::Timestamp, types::Error> {
+        let now = match id {
+            types::Clockid::Realtime => wall_clock::Host::now(self)
+                .context("failed to call `wall_clock::now`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+                .try_into()?,
+            types::Clockid::Monotonic => monotonic_clock::Host::now(self)
+                .context("failed to call `monotonic_clock::now`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?,
+            types::Clockid::ProcessCputimeId | types::Clockid::ThreadCputimeId => {
+                return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into())
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(now)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_advise(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        offset: types::Filesize,
+        len: types::Filesize,
+        advice: types::Advice,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let fd = self.get_file_fd(fd)?;
+        self.advise(fd, offset, len, advice.into())
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `advise`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })
+    }
+
+    /// Force the allocation of space in a file.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `posix_fallocate` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_allocate(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        _offset: types::Filesize,
+        _len: types::Filesize,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        self.get_file_fd(fd)?;
+        Err(types::Errno::Notsup.into())
+    }
+
+    /// Close a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `close` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_close(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let desc = self
+            .transact()?
+            .descriptors
+            .remove(fd)
+            .ok_or(types::Errno::Badf)?;
+        match desc {
+            Descriptor::Stdin { stream, .. } => streams::HostInputStream::drop(self, stream)
+                .context("failed to call `drop` on `input-stream`"),
+            Descriptor::Stdout { stream, .. } | Descriptor::Stderr { stream, .. } => {
+                streams::HostOutputStream::drop(self, stream)
+                    .context("failed to call `drop` on `output-stream`")
+            }
+            Descriptor::File(File { fd, .. }) | Descriptor::Directory { fd, .. } => {
+                filesystem::HostDescriptor::drop(self, fd).context("failed to call `drop`")
+            }
+        }
+        .map_err(types::Error::trap)
+    }
+
+    /// Synchronize the data of a file to disk.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `fdatasync` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_datasync(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let fd = self.get_file_fd(fd)?;
+        self.sync_data(fd).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `sync-data`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Get the attributes of a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This returns similar flags to `fsync(fd, F_GETFL)` in POSIX, as well as additional fields.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_fdstat_get(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<types::Fdstat, types::Error> {
+        let (fd, blocking, append) = match self.transact()?.get_descriptor(fd)? {
+            Descriptor::Stdin { isatty, .. } => {
+                let fs_rights_base = types::Rights::FD_READ;
+                return Ok(types::Fdstat {
+                    fs_filetype: (*isatty).into(),
+                    fs_flags: types::Fdflags::empty(),
+                    fs_rights_base,
+                    fs_rights_inheriting: fs_rights_base,
+                });
+            }
+            Descriptor::Stdout { isatty, .. } | Descriptor::Stderr { isatty, .. } => {
+                let fs_rights_base = types::Rights::FD_WRITE;
+                return Ok(types::Fdstat {
+                    fs_filetype: (*isatty).into(),
+                    fs_flags: types::Fdflags::empty(),
+                    fs_rights_base,
+                    fs_rights_inheriting: fs_rights_base,
+                });
+            }
+            Descriptor::Directory {
+                preopen_path: Some(_),
+                ..
+            } => {
+                // Hard-coded set or rights expected by many userlands:
+                let fs_rights_base = types::Rights::PATH_CREATE_DIRECTORY
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_CREATE_FILE
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_LINK_SOURCE
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_LINK_TARGET
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_OPEN
+                    | types::Rights::FD_READDIR
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_READLINK
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_RENAME_SOURCE
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_RENAME_TARGET
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_SYMLINK
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_REMOVE_DIRECTORY
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_UNLINK_FILE
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_FILESTAT_GET
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_FILESTAT_SET_TIMES
+                    | types::Rights::FD_FILESTAT_GET
+                    | types::Rights::FD_FILESTAT_SET_TIMES;
+
+                let fs_rights_inheriting = fs_rights_base
+                    | types::Rights::FD_DATASYNC
+                    | types::Rights::FD_READ
+                    | types::Rights::FD_SEEK
+                    | types::Rights::FD_FDSTAT_SET_FLAGS
+                    | types::Rights::FD_SYNC
+                    | types::Rights::FD_TELL
+                    | types::Rights::FD_WRITE
+                    | types::Rights::FD_ADVISE
+                    | types::Rights::FD_ALLOCATE
+                    | types::Rights::FD_FILESTAT_GET
+                    | types::Rights::FD_FILESTAT_SET_SIZE
+                    | types::Rights::FD_FILESTAT_SET_TIMES
+                    | types::Rights::POLL_FD_READWRITE;
+
+                return Ok(types::Fdstat {
+                    fs_filetype: types::Filetype::Directory,
+                    fs_flags: types::Fdflags::empty(),
+                    fs_rights_base,
+                    fs_rights_inheriting,
+                });
+            }
+            Descriptor::Directory { fd, .. } => (fd.borrowed(), BlockingMode::Blocking, false),
+            Descriptor::File(File {
+                fd,
+                blocking_mode,
+                append,
+                ..
+            }) => (fd.borrowed(), *blocking_mode, *append),
+        };
+        let flags = self.get_flags(fd.borrowed()).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `get-flags`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })?;
+        let fs_filetype = self
+            .get_type(fd.borrowed())
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `get-type`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })?
+            .try_into()
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        let mut fs_flags = types::Fdflags::empty();
+        let mut fs_rights_base = types::Rights::all();
+        if let types::Filetype::Directory = fs_filetype {
+            fs_rights_base &= !types::Rights::FD_SEEK;
+        }
+        if !flags.contains(filesystem::DescriptorFlags::READ) {
+            fs_rights_base &= !types::Rights::FD_READ;
+        }
+        if !flags.contains(filesystem::DescriptorFlags::WRITE) {
+            fs_rights_base &= !types::Rights::FD_WRITE;
+        }
+        if flags.contains(filesystem::DescriptorFlags::DATA_INTEGRITY_SYNC) {
+            fs_flags |= types::Fdflags::DSYNC;
+        }
+        if flags.contains(filesystem::DescriptorFlags::REQUESTED_WRITE_SYNC) {
+            fs_flags |= types::Fdflags::RSYNC;
+        }
+        if flags.contains(filesystem::DescriptorFlags::FILE_INTEGRITY_SYNC) {
+            fs_flags |= types::Fdflags::SYNC;
+        }
+        if append {
+            fs_flags |= types::Fdflags::APPEND;
+        }
+        if matches!(blocking, BlockingMode::NonBlocking) {
+            fs_flags |= types::Fdflags::NONBLOCK;
+        }
+        Ok(types::Fdstat {
+            fs_filetype,
+            fs_flags,
+            fs_rights_base,
+            fs_rights_inheriting: fs_rights_base,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Adjust the flags associated with a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `fcntl(fd, F_SETFL, flags)` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_fdstat_set_flags(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        flags: types::Fdflags,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let mut st = self.transact()?;
+        let File {
+            append,
+            blocking_mode,
+            ..
+        } = st.get_file_mut(fd)?;
+
+        // Only support changing the NONBLOCK or APPEND flags.
+        if flags.contains(types::Fdflags::DSYNC)
+            || flags.contains(types::Fdflags::SYNC)
+            || flags.contains(types::Fdflags::RSYNC)
+        {
+            return Err(types::Errno::Inval.into());
+        }
+        *append = flags.contains(types::Fdflags::APPEND);
+        *blocking_mode = BlockingMode::from_fdflags(&flags);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Does not do anything if `fd` corresponds to a valid descriptor and returns `[types::Errno::Badf]` error otherwise.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_fdstat_set_rights(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        _fs_rights_base: types::Rights,
+        _fs_rights_inheriting: types::Rights,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        self.get_fd(fd)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Return the attributes of an open file.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_filestat_get(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<types::Filestat, types::Error> {
+        let t = self.transact()?;
+        let desc = t.get_descriptor(fd)?;
+        match desc {
+            Descriptor::Stdin { isatty, .. }
+            | Descriptor::Stdout { isatty, .. }
+            | Descriptor::Stderr { isatty, .. } => Ok(types::Filestat {
+                dev: 0,
+                ino: 0,
+                filetype: (*isatty).into(),
+                nlink: 0,
+                size: 0,
+                atim: 0,
+                mtim: 0,
+                ctim: 0,
+            }),
+            Descriptor::Directory { fd, .. } | Descriptor::File(File { fd, .. }) => {
+                let fd = fd.borrowed();
+                drop(t);
+                let filesystem::DescriptorStat {
+                    type_,
+                    link_count: nlink,
+                    size,
+                    data_access_timestamp,
+                    data_modification_timestamp,
+                    status_change_timestamp,
+                } = self.stat(fd.borrowed()).await.map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to call `stat`")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+                let metadata_hash = self.metadata_hash(fd).await.map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to call `metadata_hash`")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+                let filetype = type_.try_into().map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+                let zero = wall_clock::Datetime {
+                    seconds: 0,
+                    nanoseconds: 0,
+                };
+                let atim = data_access_timestamp.unwrap_or(zero).try_into()?;
+                let mtim = data_modification_timestamp.unwrap_or(zero).try_into()?;
+                let ctim = status_change_timestamp.unwrap_or(zero).try_into()?;
+                Ok(types::Filestat {
+                    dev: 1,
+                    ino: metadata_hash.lower,
+                    filetype,
+                    nlink,
+                    size,
+                    atim,
+                    mtim,
+                    ctim,
+                })
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Adjust the size of an open file. If this increases the file's size, the extra bytes are filled with zeros.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `ftruncate` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_filestat_set_size(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        size: types::Filesize,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let fd = self.get_file_fd(fd)?;
+        self.set_size(fd, size).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `set-size`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Adjust the timestamps of an open file or directory.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `futimens` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_filestat_set_times(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        atim: types::Timestamp,
+        mtim: types::Timestamp,
+        fst_flags: types::Fstflags,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let atim = systimespec(
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::ATIM),
+            atim,
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::ATIM_NOW),
+        )?;
+        let mtim = systimespec(
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::MTIM),
+            mtim,
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::MTIM_NOW),
+        )?;
+
+        let fd = self.get_fd(fd)?;
+        self.set_times(fd, atim, mtim).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `set-times`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Read from a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `readv` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_read<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        iovs: &types::IovecArray<'a>,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        let t = self.transact()?;
+        let desc = t.get_descriptor(fd)?;
+        let (buf, read) = match desc {
+            Descriptor::File(File {
+                fd,
+                blocking_mode,
+                position,
+                ..
+            }) => {
+                let fd = fd.borrowed();
+                let blocking_mode = *blocking_mode;
+                let position = position.clone();
+                drop(t);
+                let Some(buf) = first_non_empty_iovec(iovs)? else {
+                    return Ok(0);
+                };
+
+                let pos = position.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+                let stream = self.read_via_stream(fd.borrowed(), pos).map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to call `read-via-stream`")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+                let read = blocking_mode
+                    .read(self, stream.borrowed(), buf.len().try_into()?)
+                    .await;
+                streams::HostInputStream::drop(self, stream).map_err(|e| types::Error::trap(e))?;
+                let read = read?;
+                let n = read.len().try_into()?;
+                let pos = pos.checked_add(n).ok_or(types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+                position.store(pos, Ordering::Relaxed);
+
+                (buf, read)
+            }
+            Descriptor::Stdin { stream, .. } => {
+                let stream = stream.borrowed();
+                drop(t);
+                let Some(buf) = first_non_empty_iovec(iovs)? else {
+                    return Ok(0);
+                };
+                let read = BlockingMode::Blocking
+                    .read(self, stream, buf.len().try_into()?)
+                    .await?;
+                (buf, read)
+            }
+            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        };
+        if read.len() > buf.len().try_into()? {
+            return Err(types::Errno::Range.into());
+        }
+        let buf = buf.get_range(0..u32::try_from(read.len())?).unwrap();
+        buf.copy_from_slice(&read)?;
+        let n = read.len().try_into()?;
+        Ok(n)
+    }
+
+    /// Read from a file descriptor, without using and updating the file descriptor's offset.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `preadv` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_pread<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        iovs: &types::IovecArray<'a>,
+        offset: types::Filesize,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        let t = self.transact()?;
+        let desc = t.get_descriptor(fd)?;
+        let (buf, read) = match desc {
+            Descriptor::File(File {
+                fd, blocking_mode, ..
+            }) => {
+                let fd = fd.borrowed();
+                let blocking_mode = *blocking_mode;
+                drop(t);
+                let Some(buf) = first_non_empty_iovec(iovs)? else {
+                    return Ok(0);
+                };
+
+                let stream = self.read_via_stream(fd, offset).map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to call `read-via-stream`")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+                let read = blocking_mode
+                    .read(self, stream.borrowed(), buf.len().try_into()?)
+                    .await;
+                streams::HostInputStream::drop(self, stream).map_err(|e| types::Error::trap(e))?;
+                (buf, read?)
+            }
+            Descriptor::Stdin { .. } => {
+                // NOTE: legacy implementation returns SPIPE here
+                return Err(types::Errno::Spipe.into());
+            }
+            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        };
+        if read.len() > buf.len().try_into()? {
+            return Err(types::Errno::Range.into());
+        }
+        let buf = buf.get_range(0..u32::try_from(read.len())?).unwrap();
+        buf.copy_from_slice(&read)?;
+        let n = read.len().try_into()?;
+        Ok(n)
+    }
+
+    /// Write to a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `writev` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_write<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        ciovs: &types::CiovecArray<'a>,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        let t = self.transact()?;
+        let desc = t.get_descriptor(fd)?;
+        match desc {
+            Descriptor::File(File {
+                fd,
+                blocking_mode,
+                append,
+                position,
+            }) => {
+                let fd = fd.borrowed();
+                let fd2 = fd.borrowed();
+                let blocking_mode = *blocking_mode;
+                let position = position.clone();
+                let append = *append;
+                drop(t);
+                let Some(buf) = first_non_empty_ciovec(ciovs)? else {
+                    return Ok(0);
+                };
+                let (stream, pos) = if append {
+                    let stream = self.append_via_stream(fd).map_err(|e| {
+                        e.try_into()
+                            .context("failed to call `append-via-stream`")
+                            .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                    })?;
+                    (stream, 0)
+                } else {
+                    let pos = position.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+                    let stream = self.write_via_stream(fd, pos).map_err(|e| {
+                        e.try_into()
+                            .context("failed to call `write-via-stream`")
+                            .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                    })?;
+                    (stream, pos)
+                };
+                let n = blocking_mode.write(self, stream.borrowed(), buf).await;
+                streams::HostOutputStream::drop(self, stream).map_err(|e| types::Error::trap(e))?;
+                let n = n?;
+                if append {
+                    let len = self.stat(fd2).await?;
+                    position.store(len.size, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                } else {
+                    let pos = pos.checked_add(n as u64).ok_or(types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+                    position.store(pos, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                }
+                let n = n.try_into()?;
+                Ok(n)
+            }
+            Descriptor::Stdout { stream, .. } | Descriptor::Stderr { stream, .. } => {
+                let stream = stream.borrowed();
+                drop(t);
+                let Some(buf) = first_non_empty_ciovec(ciovs)? else {
+                    return Ok(0);
+                };
+                let n = BlockingMode::Blocking
+                    .write(self, stream, buf)
+                    .await?
+                    .try_into()?;
+                Ok(n)
+            }
+            _ => Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Write to a file descriptor, without using and updating the file descriptor's offset.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `pwritev` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_pwrite<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        ciovs: &types::CiovecArray<'a>,
+        offset: types::Filesize,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        let t = self.transact()?;
+        let desc = t.get_descriptor(fd)?;
+        let n = match desc {
+            Descriptor::File(File {
+                fd, blocking_mode, ..
+            }) => {
+                let fd = fd.borrowed();
+                let blocking_mode = *blocking_mode;
+                drop(t);
+                let Some(buf) = first_non_empty_ciovec(ciovs)? else {
+                    return Ok(0);
+                };
+                let stream = self.write_via_stream(fd, offset).map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to call `write-via-stream`")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+                let result = blocking_mode.write(self, stream.borrowed(), buf).await;
+                streams::HostOutputStream::drop(self, stream).map_err(|e| types::Error::trap(e))?;
+                result?
+            }
+            Descriptor::Stdout { .. } | Descriptor::Stderr { .. } => {
+                // NOTE: legacy implementation returns SPIPE here
+                return Err(types::Errno::Spipe.into());
+            }
+            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        };
+        Ok(n.try_into()?)
+    }
+
+    /// Return a description of the given preopened file descriptor.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_prestat_get(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<types::Prestat, types::Error> {
+        if let Descriptor::Directory {
+            preopen_path: Some(p),
+            ..
+        } = self.transact()?.get_descriptor(fd)?
+        {
+            let pr_name_len = p.len().try_into()?;
+            return Ok(types::Prestat::Dir(types::PrestatDir { pr_name_len }));
+        }
+        Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()) // NOTE: legacy implementation returns BADF here
+    }
+
+    /// Return a description of the given preopened file descriptor.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_prestat_dir_name<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, u8>,
+        path_max_len: types::Size,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let path_max_len = path_max_len.try_into()?;
+        if let Descriptor::Directory {
+            preopen_path: Some(p),
+            ..
+        } = self.transact()?.get_descriptor(fd)?
+        {
+            if p.len() > path_max_len {
+                return Err(types::Errno::Nametoolong.into());
+            }
+            write_bytes(path, p.as_bytes())?;
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        Err(types::Errno::Notdir.into()) // NOTE: legacy implementation returns NOTDIR here
+    }
+
+    /// Atomically replace a file descriptor by renumbering another file descriptor.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_renumber(&mut self, from: types::Fd, to: types::Fd) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let mut st = self.transact()?;
+        let desc = st.descriptors.remove(from).ok_or(types::Errno::Badf)?;
+        st.descriptors.insert(to.into(), desc);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Move the offset of a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `lseek` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_seek(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        offset: types::Filedelta,
+        whence: types::Whence,
+    ) -> Result<types::Filesize, types::Error> {
+        let t = self.transact()?;
+        let File { fd, position, .. } = t.get_seekable(fd)?;
+        let fd = fd.borrowed();
+        let position = position.clone();
+        drop(t);
+        let pos = match whence {
+            types::Whence::Set if offset >= 0 => {
+                offset.try_into().map_err(|_| types::Errno::Inval)?
+            }
+            types::Whence::Cur => position
+                .load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+                .checked_add_signed(offset)
+                .ok_or(types::Errno::Inval)?,
+            types::Whence::End => {
+                let filesystem::DescriptorStat { size, .. } = self.stat(fd).await.map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to call `stat`")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+                size.checked_add_signed(offset).ok_or(types::Errno::Inval)?
+            }
+            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Inval.into()),
+        };
+        position.store(pos, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        Ok(pos)
+    }
+
+    /// Synchronize the data and metadata of a file to disk.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `fsync` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_sync(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let fd = self.get_file_fd(fd)?;
+        self.sync(fd).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `sync`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Return the current offset of a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `lseek(fd, 0, SEEK_CUR)` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_tell(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<types::Filesize, types::Error> {
+        let pos = self
+            .transact()?
+            .get_seekable(fd)
+            .map(|File { position, .. }| position.load(Ordering::Relaxed))?;
+        Ok(pos)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_readdir<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        buf: &GuestPtr<'a, u8>,
+        buf_len: types::Size,
+        cookie: types::Dircookie,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        let fd = self.get_dir_fd(fd)?;
+        let stream = self.read_directory(fd.borrowed()).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `read-directory`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })?;
+        let dir_metadata_hash = self.metadata_hash(fd.borrowed()).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `metadata-hash`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })?;
+        let cookie = cookie.try_into().map_err(|_| types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+
+        let head = [
+            (
+                types::Dirent {
+                    d_next: 1u64.to_le(),
+                    d_ino: dir_metadata_hash.lower.to_le(),
+                    d_type: types::Filetype::Directory,
+                    d_namlen: 1u32.to_le(),
+                },
+                ".".into(),
+            ),
+            (
+                types::Dirent {
+                    d_next: 2u64.to_le(),
+                    d_ino: dir_metadata_hash.lower.to_le(), // NOTE: incorrect, but legacy implementation returns `fd` inode here
+                    d_type: types::Filetype::Directory,
+                    d_namlen: 2u32.to_le(),
+                },
+                "..".into(),
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        let mut dir = Vec::new();
+        for (entry, d_next) in self
+            .table()
+            // remove iterator from table and use it directly:
+            .delete(stream)?
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(3u64..)
+        {
+            let filesystem::DirectoryEntry { type_, name } = entry.map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to inspect `read-directory` entry")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })?;
+            let metadata_hash = self
+                .metadata_hash_at(fd.borrowed(), filesystem::PathFlags::empty(), name.clone())
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to call `metadata-hash-at`")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+            let d_type = type_.try_into().map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+            let d_namlen: u32 = name.len().try_into().map_err(|_| types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+            dir.push((
+                types::Dirent {
+                    d_next: d_next.to_le(),
+                    d_ino: metadata_hash.lower.to_le(),
+                    d_type, // endian-invariant
+                    d_namlen: d_namlen.to_le(),
+                },
+                name,
+            ))
+        }
+
+        // assume that `types::Dirent` size always fits in `u32`
+        const DIRENT_SIZE: u32 = size_of::<types::Dirent>() as _;
+        assert_eq!(
+            types::Dirent::guest_size(),
+            DIRENT_SIZE,
+            "Dirent guest repr and host repr should match"
+        );
+        let mut buf = *buf;
+        let mut cap = buf_len;
+        for (ref entry, path) in head.into_iter().chain(dir.into_iter()).skip(cookie) {
+            let mut path = path.into_bytes();
+            assert_eq!(
+                1,
+                size_of_val(&entry.d_type),
+                "Dirent member d_type should be endian-invariant"
+            );
+            let entry_len = cap.min(DIRENT_SIZE);
+            let entry = entry as *const _ as _;
+            let entry = unsafe { slice::from_raw_parts(entry, entry_len as _) };
+            cap = cap.checked_sub(entry_len).unwrap();
+            buf = write_bytes(buf, entry)?;
+            if cap == 0 {
+                return Ok(buf_len);
+            }
+
+            if let Ok(cap) = cap.try_into() {
+                // `path` cannot be longer than `usize`, only truncate if `cap` fits in `usize`
+                path.truncate(cap);
+            }
+            cap = cap.checked_sub(path.len() as _).unwrap();
+            buf = write_bytes(buf, &path)?;
+            if cap == 0 {
+                return Ok(buf_len);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(buf_len.checked_sub(cap).unwrap())
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_create_directory<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let path = read_string(path)?;
+        self.create_directory_at(dirfd.borrowed(), path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `create-directory-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })
+    }
+
+    /// Return the attributes of a file or directory.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `stat` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_filestat_get<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        flags: types::Lookupflags,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<types::Filestat, types::Error> {
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let path = read_string(path)?;
+        let filesystem::DescriptorStat {
+            type_,
+            link_count: nlink,
+            size,
+            data_access_timestamp,
+            data_modification_timestamp,
+            status_change_timestamp,
+        } = self
+            .stat_at(dirfd.borrowed(), flags.into(), path.clone())
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `stat-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })?;
+        let metadata_hash = self
+            .metadata_hash_at(dirfd, flags.into(), path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `metadata-hash-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })?;
+        let filetype = type_.try_into().map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        let zero = wall_clock::Datetime {
+            seconds: 0,
+            nanoseconds: 0,
+        };
+        let atim = data_access_timestamp.unwrap_or(zero).try_into()?;
+        let mtim = data_modification_timestamp.unwrap_or(zero).try_into()?;
+        let ctim = status_change_timestamp.unwrap_or(zero).try_into()?;
+        Ok(types::Filestat {
+            dev: 1,
+            ino: metadata_hash.lower,
+            filetype,
+            nlink,
+            size,
+            atim,
+            mtim,
+            ctim,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Adjust the timestamps of a file or directory.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `utimensat` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_filestat_set_times<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        flags: types::Lookupflags,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+        atim: types::Timestamp,
+        mtim: types::Timestamp,
+        fst_flags: types::Fstflags,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let atim = systimespec(
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::ATIM),
+            atim,
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::ATIM_NOW),
+        )?;
+        let mtim = systimespec(
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::MTIM),
+            mtim,
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::MTIM_NOW),
+        )?;
+
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let path = read_string(path)?;
+        self.set_times_at(dirfd, flags.into(), path, atim, mtim)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `set-times-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })
+    }
+
+    /// Create a hard link.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `linkat` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_link<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        src_fd: types::Fd,
+        src_flags: types::Lookupflags,
+        src_path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+        target_fd: types::Fd,
+        target_path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let src_fd = self.get_dir_fd(src_fd)?;
+        let target_fd = self.get_dir_fd(target_fd)?;
+        let src_path = read_string(src_path)?;
+        let target_path = read_string(target_path)?;
+        self.link_at(src_fd, src_flags.into(), src_path, target_fd, target_path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `link-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })
+    }
+
+    /// Open a file or directory.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `openat` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_open<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        dirflags: types::Lookupflags,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+        oflags: types::Oflags,
+        fs_rights_base: types::Rights,
+        _fs_rights_inheriting: types::Rights,
+        fdflags: types::Fdflags,
+    ) -> Result<types::Fd, types::Error> {
+        let path = read_string(path)?;
+
+        let mut flags = filesystem::DescriptorFlags::empty();
+        if fs_rights_base.contains(types::Rights::FD_READ) {
+            flags |= filesystem::DescriptorFlags::READ;
+        }
+        if fs_rights_base.contains(types::Rights::FD_WRITE) {
+            flags |= filesystem::DescriptorFlags::WRITE;
+        }
+        if fdflags.contains(types::Fdflags::SYNC) {
+            flags |= filesystem::DescriptorFlags::FILE_INTEGRITY_SYNC;
+        }
+        if fdflags.contains(types::Fdflags::DSYNC) {
+            flags |= filesystem::DescriptorFlags::DATA_INTEGRITY_SYNC;
+        }
+        if fdflags.contains(types::Fdflags::RSYNC) {
+            flags |= filesystem::DescriptorFlags::REQUESTED_WRITE_SYNC;
+        }
+
+        let t = self.transact()?;
+        let dirfd = match t.get_descriptor(dirfd)? {
+            Descriptor::Directory { fd, .. } => fd.borrowed(),
+            Descriptor::File(_) => return Err(types::Errno::Notdir.into()),
+            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        };
+        drop(t);
+        let fd = self
+            .open_at(dirfd, dirflags.into(), path, oflags.into(), flags)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `open-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })?;
+        let mut t = self.transact()?;
+        let desc = match t.view.table().get(&fd)? {
+            crate::filesystem::Descriptor::Dir(_) => Descriptor::Directory {
+                fd,
+                preopen_path: None,
+            },
+            crate::filesystem::Descriptor::File(_) => Descriptor::File(File {
+                fd,
+                position: Default::default(),
+                append: fdflags.contains(types::Fdflags::APPEND),
+                blocking_mode: BlockingMode::from_fdflags(&fdflags),
+            }),
+        };
+        let fd = t.descriptors.push(desc)?;
+        Ok(fd.into())
+    }
+
+    /// Read the contents of a symbolic link.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `readlinkat` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_readlink<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+        buf: &GuestPtr<'a, u8>,
+        buf_len: types::Size,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let path = read_string(path)?;
+        let mut path = self
+            .readlink_at(dirfd, path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `readlink-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })?
+            .into_bytes();
+        if let Ok(buf_len) = buf_len.try_into() {
+            // `path` cannot be longer than `usize`, only truncate if `buf_len` fits in `usize`
+            path.truncate(buf_len);
+        }
+        let n = path.len().try_into().map_err(|_| types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+        write_bytes(buf, &path)?;
+        Ok(n)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_remove_directory<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let path = read_string(path)?;
+        self.remove_directory_at(dirfd, path).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `remove-directory-at`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Rename a file or directory.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `renameat` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_rename<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        src_fd: types::Fd,
+        src_path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+        dest_fd: types::Fd,
+        dest_path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let src_fd = self.get_dir_fd(src_fd)?;
+        let dest_fd = self.get_dir_fd(dest_fd)?;
+        let src_path = read_string(src_path)?;
+        let dest_path = read_string(dest_path)?;
+        self.rename_at(src_fd, src_path, dest_fd, dest_path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `rename-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_symlink<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        src_path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        dest_path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let src_path = read_string(src_path)?;
+        let dest_path = read_string(dest_path)?;
+        self.symlink_at(dirfd.borrowed(), src_path, dest_path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `symlink-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_unlink_file<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let path = path.as_cow()?.to_string();
+        self.unlink_file_at(dirfd.borrowed(), path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `unlink-file-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn poll_oneoff<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        subs: &GuestPtr<'a, types::Subscription>,
+        events: &GuestPtr<'a, types::Event>,
+        nsubscriptions: types::Size,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        if nsubscriptions == 0 {
+            // Indefinite sleeping is not supported in preview1.
+            return Err(types::Errno::Inval.into());
+        }
+        let subs = subs.as_array(nsubscriptions);
+        let events = events.as_array(nsubscriptions);
+
+        let n = usize::try_from(nsubscriptions).unwrap_or(usize::MAX);
+        let mut pollables = Vec::with_capacity(n);
+        for sub in subs.iter() {
+            let sub = sub?.read()?;
+            let p = match sub.u {
+                types::SubscriptionU::Clock(types::SubscriptionClock {
+                    id,
+                    timeout,
+                    flags,
+                    ..
+                }) => {
+                    let absolute = flags.contains(types::Subclockflags::SUBSCRIPTION_CLOCK_ABSTIME);
+                    let (timeout, absolute) = match id {
+                        types::Clockid::Monotonic => (timeout, absolute),
+                        types::Clockid::Realtime if !absolute => (timeout, false),
+                        types::Clockid::Realtime => {
+                            let now = wall_clock::Host::now(self)
+                                .context("failed to call `wall_clock::now`")
+                                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+
+                            // Convert `timeout` to `Datetime` format.
+                            let seconds = timeout / 1_000_000_000;
+                            let nanoseconds = timeout % 1_000_000_000;
+
+                            let timeout = if now.seconds < seconds
+                                || now.seconds == seconds
+                                    && u64::from(now.nanoseconds) < nanoseconds
+                            {
+                                // `now` is less than `timeout`, which is expressable as u64,
+                                // substract the nanosecond counts directly
+                                now.seconds * 1_000_000_000 + u64::from(now.nanoseconds) - timeout
+                            } else {
+                                0
+                            };
+                            (timeout, false)
+                        }
+                        _ => return Err(types::Errno::Inval.into()),
+                    };
+                    if absolute {
+                        monotonic_clock::Host::subscribe_instant(self, timeout)
+                            .context("failed to call `monotonic_clock::subscribe_instant`")
+                            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+                    } else {
+                        monotonic_clock::Host::subscribe_duration(self, timeout)
+                            .context("failed to call `monotonic_clock::subscribe_duration`")
+                            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+                    }
+                }
+                types::SubscriptionU::FdRead(types::SubscriptionFdReadwrite {
+                    file_descriptor,
+                }) => {
+                    let stream = {
+                        let t = self.transact()?;
+                        let desc = t.get_descriptor(file_descriptor)?;
+                        match desc {
+                            Descriptor::Stdin { stream, .. } => stream.borrowed(),
+                            Descriptor::File(File { fd, position, .. }) => {
+                                let pos = position.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+                                let fd = fd.borrowed();
+                                drop(t);
+                                self.read_via_stream(fd, pos).map_err(|e| {
+                                    e.try_into()
+                                        .context("failed to call `read-via-stream`")
+                                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                                })?
+                            }
+                            // TODO: Support sockets
+                            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+                        }
+                    };
+                    streams::HostInputStream::subscribe(self, stream)
+                        .context("failed to call `subscribe` on `input-stream`")
+                        .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+                }
+                types::SubscriptionU::FdWrite(types::SubscriptionFdReadwrite {
+                    file_descriptor,
+                }) => {
+                    let stream = {
+                        let t = self.transact()?;
+                        let desc = t.get_descriptor(file_descriptor)?;
+                        match desc {
+                            Descriptor::Stdout { stream, .. }
+                            | Descriptor::Stderr { stream, .. } => stream.borrowed(),
+                            Descriptor::File(File {
+                                fd,
+                                position,
+                                append,
+                                ..
+                            }) => {
+                                let fd = fd.borrowed();
+                                let position = position.clone();
+                                let append = *append;
+                                drop(t);
+                                if append {
+                                    self.append_via_stream(fd).map_err(|e| {
+                                        e.try_into()
+                                            .context("failed to call `append-via-stream`")
+                                            .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                                    })?
+                                } else {
+                                    let pos = position.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+                                    self.write_via_stream(fd, pos).map_err(|e| {
+                                        e.try_into()
+                                            .context("failed to call `write-via-stream`")
+                                            .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                                    })?
+                                }
+                            }
+                            // TODO: Support sockets
+                            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+                        }
+                    };
+                    streams::HostOutputStream::subscribe(self, stream)
+                        .context("failed to call `subscribe` on `output-stream`")
+                        .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+                }
+            };
+            pollables.push(p);
+        }
+        let ready: HashSet<_> = self
+            .poll(pollables)
+            .await
+            .context("failed to call `poll-oneoff`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect();
+
+        let mut count: types::Size = 0;
+        for (sub, event) in (0..)
+            .zip(subs.iter())
+            .filter_map(|(idx, sub)| ready.contains(&idx).then_some(sub))
+            .zip(events.iter())
+        {
+            let sub = sub?.read()?;
+            let event = event?;
+            let e = match sub.u {
+                types::SubscriptionU::Clock(..) => types::Event {
+                    userdata: sub.userdata,
+                    error: types::Errno::Success,
+                    type_: types::Eventtype::Clock,
+                    fd_readwrite: types::EventFdReadwrite {
+                        flags: types::Eventrwflags::empty(),
+                        nbytes: 0,
+                    },
+                },
+                types::SubscriptionU::FdRead(types::SubscriptionFdReadwrite {
+                    file_descriptor,
+                }) => {
+                    let t = self.transact()?;
+                    let desc = t.get_descriptor(file_descriptor)?;
+                    match desc {
+                        Descriptor::Stdin { .. } => types::Event {
+                            userdata: sub.userdata,
+                            error: types::Errno::Success,
+                            type_: types::Eventtype::FdRead,
+                            fd_readwrite: types::EventFdReadwrite {
+                                flags: types::Eventrwflags::empty(),
+                                nbytes: 1,
+                            },
+                        },
+                        Descriptor::File(File { fd, position, .. }) => {
+                            let fd = fd.borrowed();
+                            let position = position.clone();
+                            drop(t);
+                            match self.stat(fd).await? {
+                                filesystem::DescriptorStat { size, .. } => {
+                                    let pos = position.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+                                    let nbytes = size.saturating_sub(pos);
+                                    types::Event {
+                                        userdata: sub.userdata,
+                                        error: types::Errno::Success,
+                                        type_: types::Eventtype::FdRead,
+                                        fd_readwrite: types::EventFdReadwrite {
+                                            flags: if nbytes == 0 {
+                                                types::Eventrwflags::FD_READWRITE_HANGUP
+                                            } else {
+                                                types::Eventrwflags::empty()
+                                            },
+                                            nbytes: 1,
+                                        },
+                                    }
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                        // TODO: Support sockets
+                        _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+                    }
+                }
+                types::SubscriptionU::FdWrite(types::SubscriptionFdReadwrite {
+                    file_descriptor,
+                }) => {
+                    let t = self.transact()?;
+                    let desc = t.get_descriptor(file_descriptor)?;
+                    match desc {
+                        Descriptor::Stdout { .. } | Descriptor::Stderr { .. } => types::Event {
+                            userdata: sub.userdata,
+                            error: types::Errno::Success,
+                            type_: types::Eventtype::FdWrite,
+                            fd_readwrite: types::EventFdReadwrite {
+                                flags: types::Eventrwflags::empty(),
+                                nbytes: 1,
+                            },
+                        },
+                        Descriptor::File(_) => types::Event {
+                            userdata: sub.userdata,
+                            error: types::Errno::Success,
+                            type_: types::Eventtype::FdWrite,
+                            fd_readwrite: types::EventFdReadwrite {
+                                flags: types::Eventrwflags::empty(),
+                                nbytes: 1,
+                            },
+                        },
+                        // TODO: Support sockets
+                        _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+                    }
+                }
+            };
+            event.write(e)?;
+            count = count
+                .checked_add(1)
+                .ok_or_else(|| types::Error::from(types::Errno::Overflow))?
+        }
+        Ok(count)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn proc_exit(&mut self, status: types::Exitcode) -> anyhow::Error {
+        // Check that the status is within WASI's range.
+        if status >= 126 {
+            return anyhow::Error::msg("exit with invalid exit status outside of [0..126)");
+        }
+        crate::I32Exit(status as i32).into()
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn proc_raise(&mut self, _sig: types::Signal) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        Err(types::Errno::Notsup.into())
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn sched_yield(&mut self) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        // No such thing in preview 2. Intentionally left empty.
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn random_get<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        buf: &GuestPtr<'a, u8>,
+        buf_len: types::Size,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let rand = self
+            .get_random_bytes(buf_len.into())
+            .context("failed to call `get-random-bytes`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        write_bytes(buf, &rand)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[allow(unused_variables)]
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn sock_accept(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        flags: types::Fdflags,
+    ) -> Result<types::Fd, types::Error> {
+        todo!("preview1 sock_accept is not implemented")
+    }
+
+    #[allow(unused_variables)]
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn sock_recv<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        ri_data: &types::IovecArray<'a>,
+        ri_flags: types::Riflags,
+    ) -> Result<(types::Size, types::Roflags), types::Error> {
+        todo!("preview1 sock_recv is not implemented")
+    }
+
+    #[allow(unused_variables)]
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn sock_send<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        si_data: &types::CiovecArray<'a>,
+        _si_flags: types::Siflags,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        todo!("preview1 sock_send is not implemented")
+    }
+
+    #[allow(unused_variables)]
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn sock_shutdown(&mut self, fd: types::Fd, how: types::Sdflags) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        todo!("preview1 sock_shutdown is not implemented")
+    }
+}
+
+trait ResourceExt<T> {
+    fn borrowed(&self) -> Resource<T>;
+}
+
+impl<T: 'static> ResourceExt<T> for Resource<T> {
+    fn borrowed(&self) -> Resource<T> {
+        Resource::new_borrow(self.rep())
+    }
+}