passagemath-modules 10.6.31rc3__cp314-cp314-musllinux_1_2_aarch64.whl

sage/calculus/wester.py

@@ -0,0 +1,662 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-modules
+# sage.doctest: needs sage.symbolic
+r"""
+Further examples from Wester's paper
+
+These are all the problems at
+http://yacas.sourceforge.net/essaysmanual.html
+
+They come from the 1994 paper "Review of CAS mathematical
+capabilities", by Michael Wester, who put forward 123 problems that
+a reasonable computer algebra system should be able to solve and
+tested the then current versions of various commercial CAS on this
+list. Sage can do most of the problems natively now, i.e., with no
+explicit calls to Maxima or other systems.
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) factorial of 50, and factor it
+    sage: factorial(50)
+    30414093201713378043612608166064768844377641568960512000000000000
+    sage: factor(factorial(50))
+    2^47 * 3^22 * 5^12 * 7^8 * 11^4 * 13^3 * 17^2 * 19^2 * 23^2 * 29 * 31 * 37 * 41 * 43 * 47
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) 1/2+...+1/10 = 4861/2520
+    sage: sum(1/n for n in range(2,10+1)) == 4861/2520
+    True
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Evaluate  e^(Pi*Sqrt(163)) to 50 decimal digits
+    sage: a = e^(pi*sqrt(163)); a
+    e^(sqrt(163)*pi)
+    sage: RealField(150)(a)
+    2.6253741264076874399999999999925007259719820e17
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Evaluate the Bessel function J[2] numerically at z=1+I.
+    sage: bessel_J(2, 1+I).n()
+    0.0415798869439621 + 0.247397641513306*I
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Obtain period of decimal fraction 1/7=0.(142857).
+    sage: a = 1/7
+    sage: a
+    1/7
+    sage: a.period()
+    6
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Continued fraction of 3.1415926535
+    sage: a = 3.1415926535
+    sage: continued_fraction(a)
+    [3; 7, 15, 1, 292, 1, 1, 6, 2, 13, 4]
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Sqrt(2*Sqrt(3)+4)=1+Sqrt(3).
+    sage: # The Maxima backend equality checker does this;
+    sage: # note the equality only holds for one choice of sign,
+    sage: # but Maxima always chooses the "positive" one
+    sage: a = sqrt(2*sqrt(3) + 4); b = 1 + sqrt(3)
+    sage: float(a-b)
+    0.0
+    sage: bool(a == b)
+    True
+    sage: # We can, of course, do this in a quadratic field
+    sage: k.<sqrt3> = QuadraticField(3)
+    sage: asqr = 2*sqrt3 + 4
+    sage: b = 1+sqrt3
+    sage: asqr == b^2
+    True
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Sqrt(14+3*Sqrt(3+2*Sqrt(5-12*Sqrt(3-2*Sqrt(2)))))=3+Sqrt(2).
+    sage: a = sqrt(14+3*sqrt(3+2*sqrt(5-12*sqrt(3-2*sqrt(2)))))
+    sage: b = 3+sqrt(2)
+    sage: a, b
+    (sqrt(3*sqrt(2*sqrt(-12*sqrt(-2*sqrt(2) + 3) + 5) + 3) + 14), sqrt(2) + 3)
+    sage: bool(a==b)
+    True
+    sage: abs(float(a-b)) < 1e-10
+    True
+    sage: # 2*Infinity-3=Infinity.
+    sage: 2*infinity-3 == infinity
+    True
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Standard deviation of the sample (1, 2, 3, 4, 5).
+    sage: v = vector(RDF, 5, [1,2,3,4,5])
+    sage: v.standard_deviation()
+    1.5811388300841898
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (NO) Hypothesis testing with t-distribution.
+    sage: # (NO) Hypothesis testing with chi^2 distribution
+    sage: # (But both are included in Scipy and R)
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) (x^2-4)/(x^2+4*x+4)=(x-2)/(x+2).
+    sage: R.<x> = QQ[]
+    sage: (x^2-4)/(x^2+4*x+4) == (x-2)/(x+2)
+    True
+    sage: restore('x')
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES -- Maxima doesn't immediately consider them
+    sage: # equal, but simplification shows that they are)
+    sage: # (Exp(x)-1)/(Exp(x/2)+1)=Exp(x/2)-1.
+    sage: f = (exp(x)-1)/(exp(x/2)+1)
+    sage: g = exp(x/2)-1
+    sage: f
+    (e^x - 1)/(e^(1/2*x) + 1)
+    sage: g
+    e^(1/2*x) - 1
+    sage: f.canonicalize_radical()
+    e^(1/2*x) - 1
+    sage: g
+    e^(1/2*x) - 1
+    sage: f(x=10.0).n(53), g(x=10.0).n(53)
+    (147.413159102577, 147.413159102577)
+    sage: bool(f == g)
+    True
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Expand (1+x)^20, take derivative and factorize.
+    sage: # first do it using algebraic polys
+    sage: R.<x> = QQ[]
+    sage: f = (1+x)^20; f
+    x^20 + 20*x^19 + 190*x^18 + 1140*x^17 + 4845*x^16 + 15504*x^15 + 38760*x^14 + 77520*x^13 + 125970*x^12 + 167960*x^11 + 184756*x^10 + 167960*x^9 + 125970*x^8 + 77520*x^7 + 38760*x^6 + 15504*x^5 + 4845*x^4 + 1140*x^3 + 190*x^2 + 20*x + 1
+    sage: deriv = f.derivative()
+    sage: deriv
+    20*x^19 + 380*x^18 + 3420*x^17 + 19380*x^16 + 77520*x^15 + 232560*x^14 + 542640*x^13 + 1007760*x^12 + 1511640*x^11 + 1847560*x^10 + 1847560*x^9 + 1511640*x^8 + 1007760*x^7 + 542640*x^6 + 232560*x^5 + 77520*x^4 + 19380*x^3 + 3420*x^2 + 380*x + 20
+    sage: deriv.factor()
+    (20) * (x + 1)^19
+    sage: restore('x')
+    sage: # next do it symbolically
+    sage: var('y')
+    y
+    sage: f = (1+y)^20; f
+    (y + 1)^20
+    sage: g = f.expand(); g
+    y^20 + 20*y^19 + 190*y^18 + 1140*y^17 + 4845*y^16 + 15504*y^15 + 38760*y^14 + 77520*y^13 + 125970*y^12 + 167960*y^11 + 184756*y^10 + 167960*y^9 + 125970*y^8 + 77520*y^7 + 38760*y^6 + 15504*y^5 + 4845*y^4 + 1140*y^3 + 190*y^2 + 20*y + 1
+    sage: deriv = g.derivative(); deriv
+    20*y^19 + 380*y^18 + 3420*y^17 + 19380*y^16 + 77520*y^15 + 232560*y^14 + 542640*y^13 + 1007760*y^12 + 1511640*y^11 + 1847560*y^10 + 1847560*y^9 + 1511640*y^8 + 1007760*y^7 + 542640*y^6 + 232560*y^5 + 77520*y^4 + 19380*y^3 + 3420*y^2 + 380*y + 20
+    sage: deriv.factor()
+    20*(y + 1)^19
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Factorize x^100-1.
+    sage: factor(x^100-1)
+    (x^40 - x^30 + x^20 - x^10 + 1)*(x^20 + x^15 + x^10 + x^5 + 1)*(x^20 - x^15 + x^10 - x^5 + 1)*(x^8 - x^6 + x^4 - x^2 + 1)*(x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1)*(x^4 - x^3 + x^2 - x + 1)*(x^2 + 1)*(x + 1)*(x - 1)
+    sage: # Also, algebraically
+    sage: x = polygen(QQ)
+    sage: factor(x^100 - 1)
+    (x - 1) * (x + 1) * (x^2 + 1) * (x^4 - x^3 + x^2 - x + 1) * (x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1) * (x^8 - x^6 + x^4 - x^2 + 1) * (x^20 - x^15 + x^10 - x^5 + 1) * (x^20 + x^15 + x^10 + x^5 + 1) * (x^40 - x^30 + x^20 - x^10 + 1)
+    sage: restore('x')
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Factorize  x^4-3*x^2+1 in the field of rational numbers extended by roots of  x^2-x-1.
+    sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+    sage: k.< a> = NumberField(x^2 - x -1)
+    sage: R.< y> = k[]
+    sage: f = y^4 - 3*y^2 + 1
+    sage: f
+    y^4 - 3*y^2 + 1
+    sage: factor(f)
+    (y - a) * (y - a + 1) * (y + a - 1) * (y + a)
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Factorize  x^4-3*x^2+1 mod 5.
+    sage: k.< x > = GF(5) [ ]
+    sage: f = x^4 - 3*x^2 + 1
+    sage: f.factor()
+    (x + 2)^2 * (x + 3)^2
+    sage: # Alternatively, from symbol x as follows:
+    sage: reset('x')
+    sage: f = x^4 - 3*x^2 + 1
+    sage: f.polynomial(GF(5)).factor()
+    (x + 2)^2 * (x + 3)^2
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Partial fraction decomposition of (x^2+2*x+3)/(x^3+4*x^2+5*x+2)
+    sage: f = (x^2+2*x+3)/(x^3+4*x^2+5*x+2); f
+    (x^2 + 2*x + 3)/(x^3 + 4*x^2 + 5*x + 2)
+    sage: f.partial_fraction()
+    3/(x + 2) - 2/(x + 1) + 2/(x + 1)^2
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Assuming  x>=y,  y>=z,  z>=x, deduce  x=z.
+    sage: forget()
+    sage: var('x,y,z')
+    (x, y, z)
+    sage: assume(x>=y, y>=z,z>=x)
+    sage: bool(x==z)
+    True
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Assuming x>y, y>0, deduce 2*x^2>2*y^2.
+    sage: forget()
+    sage: assume(x>y, y>0)
+    sage: sorted(assumptions())
+    [x > y, y > 0]
+    sage: bool(2*x^2 > 2*y^2)
+    True
+    sage: forget()
+    sage: assumptions()
+    []
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (NO) Solve the inequality Abs(x-1)>2.
+    sage: # Maxima doesn't solve inequalities
+    sage: # (but some Maxima packages do):
+    sage: eqn = abs(x-1) > 2
+    sage: eqn.solve(x)
+    [[x < -1], [3 < x]]
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (NO) Solve the inequality (x-1)*...*(x-5)<0.
+    sage: eqn = prod(x-i for i in range(1,5 +1)) < 0
+    sage: # but don't know how to solve
+    sage: eqn.solve(x)
+    [[x < 1], [x > 2, x < 3], [x > 4, x < 5]]
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Cos(3*x)/Cos(x)=Cos(x)^2-3*Sin(x)^2 or similar equivalent combination.
+    sage: f = cos(3*x)/cos(x)
+    sage: g = cos(x)^2 - 3*sin(x)^2
+    sage: h = f-g
+    sage: h.trig_simplify()
+                                           0
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Cos(3*x)/Cos(x)=2*Cos(2*x)-1.
+    sage: f = cos(3*x)/cos(x)
+    sage: g = 2*cos(2*x) - 1
+    sage: h = f-g
+    sage: h.trig_simplify()
+                                           0
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (GOOD ENOUGH) Define rewrite rules to match  Cos(3*x)/Cos(x)=Cos(x)^2-3*Sin(x)^2.
+    sage: # Sage has no notion of "rewrite rules", but
+    sage: # it can simplify both to the same thing.
+    sage: (cos(3*x)/cos(x)).simplify_full()
+    4*cos(x)^2 - 3
+    sage: (cos(x)^2-3*sin(x)^2).simplify_full()
+    4*cos(x)^2 - 3
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Sqrt(997)-(997^3)^(1/6)=0
+    sage: a = sqrt(997) - (997^3)^(1/6)
+    sage: a.simplify()
+    0
+    sage: bool(a == 0)
+    True
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Sqrt(99983)-99983^3^(1/6)=0
+    sage: a = sqrt(99983) - (99983^3)^(1/6)
+    sage: bool(a==0)
+    True
+    sage: float(a)
+    1.1368683772...e-13
+    sage: 13*7691
+    99983
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) (2^(1/3) + 4^(1/3))^3 - 6*(2^(1/3) + 4^(1/3))-6 = 0
+    sage: a = (2^(1/3) + 4^(1/3))^3 - 6*(2^(1/3) + 4^(1/3)) - 6; a
+    (4^(1/3) + 2^(1/3))^3 - 6*4^(1/3) - 6*2^(1/3) - 6
+    sage: bool(a==0)
+    True
+    sage: abs(float(a)) < 1e-10
+    True
+
+Or we can do it using number fields. ::
+
+    sage: reset('x')
+    sage: k.<b> = NumberField(x^3-2)
+    sage: a = (b  + b^2)^3 - 6*(b  + b^2) - 6
+    sage: a
+    0
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (NO, except numerically) Ln(Tan(x/2+Pi/4))-ArcSinh(Tan(x))=0
+    # Sage uses the Maxima convention when comparing symbolic expressions and
+    # returns True only when it can prove equality. Thus, in this case, we get
+    # False even though the equality holds.
+    sage: f = log(tan(x/2 + pi/4)) - arcsinh(tan(x))
+    sage: bool(f == 0)
+    False
+    sage: [abs(float(f(x=i/10))) < 1e-15 for i in range(1,5)]
+    [True, True, True, True]
+    sage: # Numerically, the expression Ln(Tan(x/2+Pi/4))-ArcSinh(Tan(x))=0 and its derivative at x=0 are zero.
+    sage: g = f.derivative()
+    sage: abs(float(f(x=0))) < 1e-10
+    True
+    sage: abs(float(g(x=0))) < 1e-10
+    True
+    sage: g
+    -sqrt(tan(x)^2 + 1) + 1/2*(tan(1/4*pi + 1/2*x)^2 + 1)/tan(1/4*pi + 1/2*x)
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (NO) Ln((2*Sqrt(r) + 1)/Sqrt(4*r 4*Sqrt(r) 1))=0.
+    sage: var('r')
+    r
+    sage: f = log( (2*sqrt(r) + 1) / sqrt(4*r  + 4*sqrt(r) +  1)); f
+    log((2*sqrt(r) + 1)/sqrt(4*r + 4*sqrt(r) + 1))
+    sage: bool(f == 0)
+    False
+    sage: [abs(float(f(r=i))) < 1e-10 for i in [0.1,0.3,0.5]]
+    [True, True, True]
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (NO)
+    sage: # (4*r+4*Sqrt(r)+1)^(Sqrt(r)/(2*Sqrt(r)+1))*(2*Sqrt(r)+1)^(2*Sqrt(r)+1)^(-1)-2*Sqrt(r)-1=0, assuming r>0.
+    sage: assume(r>0)
+    sage: f = (4*r+4*sqrt(r)+1)^(sqrt(r)/(2*sqrt(r)+1))*(2*sqrt(r)+1)^(2*sqrt(r)+1)^(-1)-2*sqrt(r)-1
+    sage: f
+    (4*r + 4*sqrt(r) + 1)^(sqrt(r)/(2*sqrt(r) + 1))*(2*sqrt(r) + 1)^(1/(2*sqrt(r) + 1)) - 2*sqrt(r) - 1
+    sage: bool(f == 0)
+    False
+    sage: [abs(float(f(r=i))) < 1e-10 for i in [0.1,0.3,0.5]]
+    [True, True, True]
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Obtain real and imaginary parts of Ln(3+4*I).
+    sage: a = log(3+4*I); a
+    log(4*I + 3)
+    sage: a.real()
+    log(5)
+    sage: a.imag()
+    arctan(4/3)
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Obtain real and imaginary parts of Tan(x+I*y)
+    sage: z = var('z')
+    sage: a = tan(z); a
+    tan(z)
+    sage: a.real()
+    sin(2*real_part(z))/(cos(2*real_part(z)) + cosh(2*imag_part(z)))
+    sage: a.imag()
+    sinh(2*imag_part(z))/(cos(2*real_part(z)) + cosh(2*imag_part(z)))
+
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Simplify Ln(Exp(z)) to z for -Pi<Im(z)<=Pi.
+    sage: # Unfortunately (?), Maxima does this even without
+    sage: # any assumptions.
+    sage: # We *would* use assume(-pi < imag(z))
+    sage: # and assume(imag(z) <= pi)
+    sage: f = log(exp(z)); f
+    log(e^z)
+    sage: f.simplify()
+    z
+    sage: forget()
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Assuming Re(x)>0, Re(y)>0, deduce x^(1/n)*y^(1/n)-(x*y)^(1/n)=0.
+    sage: # Maxima 5.26 has different behaviours depending on the current
+    sage: # domain.
+    sage: # To stick with the behaviour of previous versions, the domain is set
+    sage: # to 'real' in the following.
+    sage: # See Issue #10682 for further details.
+    sage: n = var('n')
+    sage: f = x^(1/n)*y^(1/n)-(x*y)^(1/n)
+    sage: assume(real(x) > 0, real(y) > 0)
+    sage: f.simplify()
+    x^(1/n)*y^(1/n) - (x*y)^(1/n)
+    sage: maxima = sage.calculus.calculus.maxima
+    sage: maxima.set('domain', 'real') # set domain to real
+    sage: f.simplify()
+    0
+    sage: maxima.set('domain', 'complex') # set domain back to its default value
+    sage: forget()
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Transform equations, (x==2)/2+(1==1)=>x/2+1==2.
+    sage: eq1 = x == 2
+    sage: eq2 = SR(1) == SR(1)
+    sage: eq1/2 + eq2
+    1/2*x + 1 == 2
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (SOMEWHAT) Solve Exp(x)=1 and get all solutions.
+    sage: # to_poly_solve in Maxima can do this.
+    sage: solve(exp(x) == 1, x)
+    [x == 0]
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (SOMEWHAT) Solve Tan(x)=1 and get all solutions.
+    sage: # to_poly_solve in Maxima can do this.
+    sage: solve(tan(x) == 1, x)
+    [x == 1/4*pi]
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Solve a degenerate 3x3 linear system.
+    sage: # x+y+z==6,2*x+y+2*z==10,x+3*y+z==10
+    sage: # First symbolically:
+    sage: solve([x+y+z==6, 2*x+y+2*z==10, x+3*y+z==10], x,y,z)
+    [[x == -r1 + 4, y == 2, z == r1]]
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Invert a 2x2 symbolic matrix.
+    sage: # [[a,b],[1,a*b]]
+    sage: # Using multivariate poly ring -- much nicer
+    sage: R.<a,b> = QQ[]
+    sage: m = matrix(2,2,[a,b,  1, a*b])
+    sage: zz = m^(-1)
+    sage: zz
+    [     a/(a^2 - 1)   (-1)/(a^2 - 1)]
+    [(-1)/(a^2*b - b)    a/(a^2*b - b)]
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Compute and factor the determinant of the 4x4 Vandermonde matrix in a, b, c, d.
+    sage: var('a,b,c,d')
+    (a, b, c, d)
+    sage: m = matrix(SR, 4, 4, [[z^i for i in range(4)] for z in [a,b,c,d]])
+    sage: m
+    [  1   a a^2 a^3]
+    [  1   b b^2 b^3]
+    [  1   c c^2 c^3]
+    [  1   d d^2 d^3]
+    sage: d = m.determinant()
+    sage: d.factor()
+    (a - b)*(a - c)*(a - d)*(b - c)*(b - d)*(c - d)
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Compute and factor the determinant of the 4x4 Vandermonde matrix in a, b, c, d.
+    sage: # Do it instead in a multivariate ring
+    sage: R.<a,b,c,d> = QQ[]
+    sage: m = matrix(R, 4, 4, [[z^i for i in range(4)] for z in [a,b,c,d]])
+    sage: m
+    [  1   a a^2 a^3]
+    [  1   b b^2 b^3]
+    [  1   c c^2 c^3]
+    [  1   d d^2 d^3]
+    sage: d = m.determinant()
+    sage: d
+    a^3*b^2*c - a^2*b^3*c - a^3*b*c^2 + a*b^3*c^2 + a^2*b*c^3 - a*b^2*c^3 - a^3*b^2*d + a^2*b^3*d + a^3*c^2*d - b^3*c^2*d - a^2*c^3*d + b^2*c^3*d + a^3*b*d^2 - a*b^3*d^2 - a^3*c*d^2 + b^3*c*d^2 + a*c^3*d^2 - b*c^3*d^2 - a^2*b*d^3 + a*b^2*d^3 + a^2*c*d^3 - b^2*c*d^3 - a*c^2*d^3 + b*c^2*d^3
+    sage: d.factor()
+    (-1) * (-a + c) * (-a + b) * (-b + c) * (c - d) * (b - d) * (a - d)
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Find the eigenvalues of a 3x3 integer matrix.
+    sage: m = matrix(QQ, 3, [5,-3,-7, -2,1,2, 2,-3,-4])
+    sage: m.eigenspaces_left()
+    [(3,
+      Vector space of degree 3 and dimension 1 over Rational Field
+      User basis matrix:
+      [ 1  0 -1]),
+     (1,
+      Vector space of degree 3 and dimension 1 over Rational Field
+      User basis matrix:
+      [ 1  1 -1]),
+     (-2,
+      Vector space of degree 3 and dimension 1 over Rational Field
+      User basis matrix:
+      [0 1 1])]
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Verify some standard limits found by L'Hopital's rule:
+    sage: #   Verify(Limit(x,Infinity) (1+1/x)^x, Exp(1));
+    sage: #   Verify(Limit(x,0) (1-Cos(x))/x^2, 1/2);
+    sage: limit( (1+1/x)^x, x = oo)
+    e
+    sage: limit( (1-cos(x))/(x^2), x = 1/2)
+    -4*cos(1/2) + 4
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (OK-ish) D(x)Abs(x)
+    sage: #    Verify(D(x) Abs(x), Sign(x));
+    sage: diff(abs(x))
+    1/2*(x + conjugate(x))/abs(x)
+    sage: _.simplify_full()
+    x/abs(x)
+    sage: _ = var('x', domain='real')
+    sage: diff(abs(x))
+    x/abs(x)
+    sage: forget()
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) (Integrate(x)Abs(x))=Abs(x)*x/2
+    sage: integral(abs(x), x)
+    1/2*x*abs(x)
+
+::
+
+    sage: #  (YES) Compute derivative of Abs(x), piecewise defined.
+    sage: #     Verify(D(x)if(x<0) (-x) else x,
+    sage: #        Simplify(if(x<0) -1 else 1))
+    Piecewise defined function with 2 parts, [[(-10, 0), -1], [(0, 10), 1]]
+    sage: #  (NOT really) Integrate Abs(x), piecewise defined.
+    sage: #      Verify(Simplify(Integrate(x)
+    sage: #        if(x<0) (-x) else x),
+    sage: #        Simplify(if(x<0) (-x^2/2) else x^2/2));
+    sage: f = piecewise([ ((-10,0), -x), ((0,10), x)])
+    sage: f.integral(definite=True)
+    100
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Taylor series of 1/Sqrt(1-v^2/c^2) at v=0.
+    sage: var('v,c')
+    (v, c)
+    sage: taylor(1/sqrt(1-v^2/c^2), v, 0, 7)
+    1/2*v^2/c^2 + 3/8*v^4/c^4 + 5/16*v^6/c^6 + 1
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (OK-ish) (Taylor expansion of Sin(x))/(Taylor expansion of Cos(x)) = (Taylor expansion of Tan(x)).
+    sage: #      TestYacas(Taylor(x,0,5)(Taylor(x,0,5)Sin(x))/
+    sage: #        (Taylor(x,0,5)Cos(x)), Taylor(x,0,5)Tan(x));
+    sage: f = taylor(sin(x), x, 0, 8)
+    sage: g = taylor(cos(x), x, 0, 8)
+    sage: h = taylor(tan(x), x, 0, 8)
+    sage: f = f.power_series(QQ)
+    sage: g = g.power_series(QQ)
+    sage: h = h.power_series(QQ)
+    sage: f - g*h
+    O(x^8)
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Taylor expansion of Ln(x)^a*Exp(-b*x) at x=1.
+    sage: a,b = var('a,b')
+    sage: taylor(log(x)^a*exp(-b*x), x, 1, 3)
+    -1/48*(a^3*(x - 1)^a + a^2*(6*b + 5)*(x - 1)^a + 8*b^3*(x - 1)^a + 2*(6*b^2 + 5*b + 3)*a*(x - 1)^a)*(x - 1)^3*e^(-b) + 1/24*(3*a^2*(x - 1)^a + a*(12*b + 5)*(x - 1)^a + 12*b^2*(x - 1)^a)*(x - 1)^2*e^(-b) - 1/2*(a*(x - 1)^a + 2*b*(x - 1)^a)*(x - 1)*e^(-b) + (x - 1)^a*e^(-b)
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Taylor expansion of Ln(Sin(x)/x) at x=0.
+    sage: taylor(log(sin(x)/x), x, 0, 10)
+    -1/467775*x^10 - 1/37800*x^8 - 1/2835*x^6 - 1/180*x^4 - 1/6*x^2
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (NO) Compute n-th term of the Taylor series of Ln(Sin(x)/x) at x=0.
+    sage: # need formal functions
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (NO) Compute n-th term of the Taylor series of Exp(-x)*Sin(x) at x=0.
+    sage: # (Sort of, with some work)
+    sage: # Solve x=Sin(y)+Cos(y) for y as Taylor series in x at x=1.
+    sage: #      TestYacas(InverseTaylor(y,0,4) Sin(y)+Cos(y),
+    sage: #        (y-1)+(y-1)^2/2+2*(y-1)^3/3+(y-1)^4);
+    sage: #       Note that InverseTaylor does not give the series in terms of x but in terms of y which is semantically
+    sage: # wrong. But other CAS do the same.
+    sage: f = sin(y) + cos(y)
+    sage: g = f.taylor(y, 0, 10)
+    sage: h = g.power_series(QQ)
+    sage: k = (h - 1).reverse()
+    sage: k
+    y + 1/2*y^2 + 2/3*y^3 + y^4 + 17/10*y^5 + 37/12*y^6 + 41/7*y^7 + 23/2*y^8 + 1667/72*y^9 + 3803/80*y^10 + O(y^11)
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (OK) Compute Legendre polynomials directly from Rodrigues's formula, P[n]=1/(2^n*n!) *(Deriv(x,n)(x^2-1)^n).
+    sage: #      P(n,x) := Simplify( 1/(2*n)!! *
+    sage: #        Deriv(x,n) (x^2-1)^n );
+    sage: #      TestYacas(P(4,x), (35*x^4)/8+(-15*x^2)/4+3/8);
+    sage: P = lambda n, x: simplify(diff((x^2-1)^n,x,n) / (2^n * factorial(n)))
+    sage: P(4,x).expand()
+    35/8*x^4 - 15/4*x^2 + 3/8
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Define the polynomial p=Sum(i,1,5,a[i]*x^i).
+    sage: # symbolically
+    sage: ps = sum(var('a%s'%i)*x^i for i in range(1,6)); ps
+    a5*x^5 + a4*x^4 + a3*x^3 + a2*x^2 + a1*x
+    sage: ps.parent()
+    Symbolic Ring
+    sage: # algebraically
+    sage: R = PolynomialRing(QQ,5,names='a')
+    sage: S.<x> = PolynomialRing(R)
+    sage: p = S(list(R.gens()))*x; p
+    a4*x^5 + a3*x^4 + a2*x^3 + a1*x^2 + a0*x
+    sage: p.parent()
+    Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a0, a1, a2, a3, a4 over Rational Field
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Convert the above to Horner's form.
+    sage: #      Verify(Horner(p, x), ((((a[5]*x+a[4])*x
+    sage: #        +a[3])*x+a[2])*x+a[1])*x);
+    sage: restore('x')
+    sage: SR(p).horner(x)
+    ((((a4*x + a3)*x + a2)*x + a1)*x + a0)*x
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (NO) Convert the result of problem 127 to Fortran syntax.
+    sage: #      CForm(Horner(p, x));
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Verify that True And False=False.
+    sage: (True and False) is False
+    True
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Prove x Or Not x.
+    sage: for x in [True, False]:
+    ....:    print(x or (not x))
+    True
+    True
+
+::
+
+    sage: # (YES) Prove x Or y Or x And y=>x Or y.
+    sage: for x in [True, False]:
+    ....:   for y in [True, False]:
+    ....:       if x or y or x and y:
+    ....:           if not (x or y):
+    ....:              print("failed!")
+"""