passagemath-modules 10.6.31rc3__cp314-cp314-musllinux_1_2_aarch64.whl

sage/quadratic_forms/quadratic_form.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1753 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-modules
+"""
+Quadratic forms overview
+
+AUTHORS:
+
+- Jon Hanke (2007-06-19)
+- Anna Haensch (2010-07-01): Formatting and ReSTification
+- Simon Brandhorst (2019-10-15): :meth:`quadratic_form_from_invariants`
+"""
+
+# ****************************************************************************
+#       Copyright (C) 2007 William Stein and Jonathan Hanke
+#
+# This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
+# it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+# the Free Software Foundation, either version 2 of the License, or
+# (at your option) any later version.
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# ****************************************************************************
+
+from warnings import warn
+from copy import deepcopy
+
+from sage.matrix.constructor import matrix
+from sage.matrix.matrix_space import MatrixSpace
+from sage.misc.lazy_import import lazy_import
+from sage.structure.element import Matrix
+from sage.categories.rings import Rings
+from sage.categories.fields import Fields
+from sage.categories.principal_ideal_domains import PrincipalIdealDomains
+from sage.rings.integer_ring import IntegerRing, ZZ
+from sage.misc.functional import denominator, is_even
+from sage.arith.misc import GCD
+from sage.arith.functions import lcm as LCM
+from sage.rings.ideal import Ideal
+from sage.rings.rational_field import QQ
+from sage.structure.element import Vector
+from sage.rings.polynomial.polynomial_ring_constructor import PolynomialRing
+from sage.rings.polynomial.polynomial_element import Polynomial
+from sage.rings.polynomial.multi_polynomial import MPolynomial
+from sage.modules.free_module_element import vector
+from sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__evaluate import QFEvaluateVector, QFEvaluateMatrix
+from sage.structure.sage_object import SageObject
+from sage.misc.superseded import deprecation, deprecated_function_alias
+
+
+def is_QuadraticForm(Q):
+    """
+    Determine if the object ``Q`` is an element of the :class:`QuadraticForm` class.
+
+    This function is deprecated.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,2,3])
+        sage: from sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form import is_QuadraticForm
+        sage: is_QuadraticForm(Q)
+        doctest:...: DeprecationWarning: the function is_QuadraticForm is deprecated;
+        use isinstance(x, sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form.QuadraticForm) instead...
+        True
+        sage: is_QuadraticForm(2)
+        False
+    """
+    deprecation(35305,
+                "the function is_QuadraticForm is deprecated; use "
+                "isinstance(x, sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form.QuadraticForm) instead")
+    return isinstance(Q, QuadraticForm)
+
+
+def quadratic_form_from_invariants(F, rk, det, P, sminus):
+    r"""
+    Return a rational quadratic form with given invariants.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``F`` -- the base field; currently only ``QQ`` is allowed
+    - ``rk`` -- integer; the rank
+    - ``det`` -- rational; the determinant
+    - ``P`` -- list of primes where Cassel's Hasse invariant
+      is negative
+    - ``sminus`` -- integer; the number of negative eigenvalues
+      of any Gram matrix
+
+    OUTPUT: a quadratic form with the specified invariants
+
+    Let `(a_1, \ldots, a_n)` be the Gram matrix of a regular quadratic space.
+    Then Cassel's Hasse invariant is defined as
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        \prod_{i<j} (a_i,a_j),
+
+    where `(a_i,a_j)` denotes the Hilbert symbol.
+
+    ALGORITHM:
+
+    We follow [Kir2016]_.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: P = [3,5]
+        sage: q = quadratic_form_from_invariants(QQ,2,-15,P,1); q                       # needs sage.rings.padics
+        Quadratic form in 2 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+        [ 5 0 ]
+        [ * -3 ]
+        sage: all(q.hasse_invariant(p) == -1 for p in P)                                # needs sage.rings.padics
+        True
+
+    TESTS:
+
+    This shows that :issue:`28955` is fixed::
+
+        sage: quadratic_form_from_invariants(QQ,3,2,[2],2)                              # needs sage.rings.padics
+        Quadratic form in 3 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+        [ -1 0 0 ]
+        [ * 1 0 ]
+        [ * * -2 ]
+
+        sage: quadratic_form_from_invariants(QQ,4,2,[2],4)                              # needs sage.rings.padics
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        ValueError: invariants do not define a rational quadratic form
+    """
+    from sage.arith.misc import hilbert_symbol
+    # normalize input
+    if F != QQ:
+        raise NotImplementedError('base field must be QQ. If you want this over any field, implement weak approximation.')
+    P = [ZZ(p) for p in P]
+    rk = ZZ(rk)
+    d = QQ(det).squarefree_part()
+    sminus = ZZ(sminus)
+    # check if the invariants define a global quadratic form
+    if d.sign() != (-1)**sminus:
+        raise ValueError("invariants do not define a rational quadratic form")
+    if rk == 1 and len(P) != 0:
+        raise ValueError("invariants do not define a rational quadratic form")
+    if rk == 2:
+        for p in P:
+            if QQ(-d).is_padic_square(p):
+                raise ValueError("invariants do not define a rational quadratic form")
+    f = 0
+    if sminus % 4 in (2, 3):
+        f = 1
+    if (f + len(P)) % 2 == 1:
+        raise ValueError("invariants do not define a rational quadratic form")
+    D = []
+    while rk >= 2:
+        if rk >= 4:
+            if sminus > 0:
+                a = ZZ(-1)
+            else:
+                a = ZZ(1)
+        elif rk == 3:
+            Pprime = [p for p in P if hilbert_symbol(-1, -d, p) == 1]
+            Pprime += [p for p in (2 * d).prime_divisors()
+                       if hilbert_symbol(-1, -d, p) == -1 and p not in P]
+            if sminus > 0:
+                a = ZZ(-1)
+            else:
+                a = ZZ(1)
+            for p in Pprime:
+                if d.valuation(p) % 2 == 0:
+                    a *= p
+            assert all((a * d).valuation(p) % 2 == 1 for p in Pprime)
+        elif rk == 2:
+            S = P
+            if sminus == 2:
+                S += [-1]
+            a = QQ.hilbert_symbol_negative_at_S(S, -d)
+            a = ZZ(a)
+        P = ([p for p in P if hilbert_symbol(a, -d, p) == 1]
+             + [p for p in (2 * a * d).prime_divisors()
+                if hilbert_symbol(a, -d, p) == -1 and p not in P])
+        sminus = max(0, sminus - 1)
+        rk = rk - 1
+        d = a * d
+        D.append(a.squarefree_part())
+    d = d.squarefree_part()
+    D.append(d)
+    return DiagonalQuadraticForm(QQ, D)
+
+
+class QuadraticForm(SageObject):
+    r"""
+    The ``QuadraticForm`` class represents a quadratic form in `n` variables with
+    coefficients in the ring `R`.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    The constructor may be called in any of the following ways.
+
+    #. ``QuadraticForm(R, n, entries)``, where
+
+       - ``R`` -- ring for which the quadratic form is defined
+       - ``n`` -- integer `\geq 0`
+       - ``entries`` -- list of `n(n+1)/2` coefficients of the quadratic form
+         in `R` (given lexicographically, or equivalently, by rows of the
+         matrix)
+
+    #. ``QuadraticForm(p)``, where
+
+       - ``p`` -- a homogeneous polynomial of degree `2`
+
+    #. ``QuadraticForm(R, n)``, where
+
+       - ``R`` -- a ring
+       - ``n`` -- a symmetric `n \times n` matrix with even diagonal (relative to
+         `R`)
+
+    #. ``QuadraticForm(R)``, where
+
+       - ``R`` -- a symmetric `n \times n` matrix with even diagonal (relative to
+         its base ring)
+
+    If the keyword argument ``unsafe_initialize`` is True, then the subsequent
+    fields may by used to force the external initialization of various fields
+    of the quadratic form. Currently the only fields which can be set are:
+
+    - ``number_of_automorphisms``
+    - ``determinant``
+
+    OUTPUT: quadratic form
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 3, [1,2,3,4,5,6]); Q
+        Quadratic form in 3 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+        [ 1 2 3 ]
+        [ * 4 5 ]
+        [ * * 6 ]
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: Q = QuadraticForm(QQ, 3, [1,2,3,4/3,5,6]); Q
+        Quadratic form in 3 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+        [ 1 2 3 ]
+        [ * 4/3 5 ]
+        [ * * 6 ]
+        sage: Q[0,0]
+        1
+        sage: Q[0,0].parent()
+        Rational Field
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: Q = QuadraticForm(QQ, 7, range(28)); Q
+        Quadratic form in 7 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+        [ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ]
+        [ * 7 8 9 10 11 12 ]
+        [ * * 13 14 15 16 17 ]
+        [ * * * 18 19 20 21 ]
+        [ * * * * 22 23 24 ]
+        [ * * * * * 25 26 ]
+        [ * * * * * * 27 ]
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: Q = QuadraticForm(QQ, 2, range(1,4))
+        sage: A = Matrix(ZZ, 2, 2, [-1,0,0,1])
+        sage: Q(A)
+        Quadratic form in 2 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+        [ 1 -2 ]
+        [ * 3 ]
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: m = matrix(2, 2, [1,2,3,4])
+        sage: m + m.transpose()
+        [2 5]
+        [5 8]
+        sage: QuadraticForm(m + m.transpose())
+        Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+        [ 1 5 ]
+        [ * 4 ]
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: P.<x,y,z> = QQ[]
+        sage: p = x^2 + 2*x*y + x*z/2 + y^2 + y*z/3
+        sage: QuadraticForm(p)
+        Quadratic form in 3 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+        [ 1 2 1/2 ]
+        [ * 1 1/3 ]
+        [ * * 0 ]
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: QuadraticForm(ZZ, m + m.transpose())
+        Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+        [ 1 5 ]
+        [ * 4 ]
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: QuadraticForm(QQ, m + m.transpose())
+        Quadratic form in 2 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+        [ 1 5 ]
+        [ * 4 ]
+    """
+
+    # Import specialized methods:
+    # ---------------------------
+
+    # Routines to compute the p-adic local normal form
+    lazy_import("sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__local_normal_form", [
+        "find_entry_with_minimal_scale_at_prime",
+        "local_normal_form",
+        "jordan_blocks_by_scale_and_unimodular",
+        "jordan_blocks_in_unimodular_list_by_scale_power"
+    ])
+
+    # Routines to perform elementary variable substitutions
+    from sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__variable_substitutions import \
+        swap_variables, \
+        multiply_variable, \
+        divide_variable, \
+        scale_by_factor, \
+        extract_variables, \
+        elementary_substitution, \
+        add_symmetric
+
+    # Routines to compute p-adic field invariants
+    from sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__local_field_invariants import \
+        rational_diagonal_form, \
+        _rational_diagonal_form_and_transformation, \
+        signature_vector, \
+        signature, \
+        hasse_invariant, \
+        hasse_invariant__OMeara, \
+        is_hyperbolic, \
+        is_anisotropic, \
+        is_isotropic, \
+        anisotropic_primes, \
+        compute_definiteness, \
+        compute_definiteness_string_by_determinants, \
+        is_positive_definite, \
+        is_negative_definite, \
+        is_indefinite, \
+        is_definite
+
+    # Routines to compute local densities by the reduction procedure
+    from sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__local_density_congruence import \
+        count_modp_solutions__by_Gauss_sum, \
+        local_good_density_congruence_odd, \
+        local_good_density_congruence_even, \
+        local_good_density_congruence, \
+        local_zero_density_congruence, \
+        local_badI_density_congruence, \
+        local_badII_density_congruence, \
+        local_bad_density_congruence, \
+        local_density_congruence, \
+        local_primitive_density_congruence
+
+    # Routines to compute local densities by counting solutions of various types
+    from sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__count_local_2 import \
+        count_congruence_solutions_as_vector, \
+        count_congruence_solutions, \
+        count_congruence_solutions__good_type, \
+        count_congruence_solutions__zero_type, \
+        count_congruence_solutions__bad_type, \
+        count_congruence_solutions__bad_type_I, \
+        count_congruence_solutions__bad_type_II
+
+    # Routines to be called by the user to compute local densities
+    lazy_import('sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__local_density_interfaces', [
+        'local_density',
+        'local_primitive_density'
+    ])
+
+    # Routines for computing with ternary forms
+    from sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__ternary_Tornaria import \
+        disc, \
+        content, \
+        adjoint, \
+        antiadjoint, \
+        is_adjoint, \
+        reciprocal, \
+        omega, \
+        delta, \
+        level__Tornaria, \
+        discrec, \
+        hasse_conductor, \
+        clifford_invariant, \
+        clifford_conductor, \
+        basiclemma, \
+        basiclemmavec, \
+        xi, \
+        xi_rec, \
+        lll, \
+        representation_number_list, \
+        representation_vector_list, \
+        is_zero, \
+        is_zero_nonsingular, \
+        is_zero_singular
+
+    # Routines to compute the theta function
+    from sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__theta import \
+        theta_series, \
+        theta_series_degree_2, \
+        theta_by_pari, \
+        theta_by_cholesky
+
+    # Routines to compute the product of all local densities
+    lazy_import('sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__siegel_product', [
+        'siegel_product'
+    ])
+
+    # Routines to compute p-neighbors
+    from sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__neighbors import \
+        find_primitive_p_divisible_vector__random, \
+        find_primitive_p_divisible_vector__next, \
+        find_p_neighbor_from_vec, \
+        neighbor_iteration, \
+        orbits_lines_mod_p
+
+    # Routines to reduce a given quadratic form
+    from sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__reduction_theory import \
+        reduced_binary_form1, \
+        reduced_ternary_form__Dickson, \
+        reduced_binary_form, \
+        minkowski_reduction, \
+        minkowski_reduction_for_4vars__SP
+    # Wrappers for Conway-Sloane genus routines (in ./genera/)
+    lazy_import('sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__genus', [
+        'global_genus_symbol',
+        'local_genus_symbol',
+        'CS_genus_symbol_list'
+    ])
+
+    # Routines to compute local masses for ZZ.
+    lazy_import('sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__mass', [
+        'shimura_mass__maximal',
+        'GHY_mass__maximal'
+    ])
+    lazy_import('sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__mass__Siegel_densities', [
+        'mass__by_Siegel_densities',
+        'Pall_mass_density_at_odd_prime',
+        'Watson_mass_at_2',
+        'Kitaoka_mass_at_2',
+        'mass_at_two_by_counting_mod_power'
+    ])
+    lazy_import('sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__mass__Conway_Sloane_masses', [
+        'parity',
+        'is_even',
+        'is_odd',
+        'conway_species_list_at_odd_prime',
+        'conway_species_list_at_2',
+        'conway_octane_of_this_unimodular_Jordan_block_at_2',
+        'conway_diagonal_factor',
+        'conway_cross_product_doubled_power',
+        'conway_type_factor',
+        'conway_p_mass',
+        'conway_standard_p_mass',
+        'conway_standard_mass',
+        'conway_mass'
+        #            conway_generic_mass, \
+        #            conway_p_mass_adjustment
+    ])
+
+    # Routines to check local representability of numbers
+    lazy_import('sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__local_representation_conditions', [
+        'local_representation_conditions',
+        'is_locally_universal_at_prime',
+        'is_locally_universal_at_all_primes',
+        'is_locally_universal_at_all_places',
+        'is_locally_represented_number_at_place',
+        'is_locally_represented_number'
+    ])
+
+    # Routines to make a split local covering of the given quadratic form.
+    from sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__split_local_covering import \
+        cholesky_decomposition, \
+        vectors_by_length, \
+        complementary_subform_to_vector, \
+        split_local_cover
+
+    # Routines to make automorphisms of the given quadratic form.
+    lazy_import('sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__automorphisms', [
+        'basis_of_short_vectors',
+        'short_vector_list_up_to_length',
+        'short_primitive_vector_list_up_to_length',
+        '_compute_automorphisms',
+        'automorphism_group',
+        'automorphisms',
+        'number_of_automorphisms',
+        'set_number_of_automorphisms'
+    ])
+
+    # Routines to test the local and global equivalence/isometry of two quadratic forms.
+    from sage.quadratic_forms.quadratic_form__equivalence_testing import \
+        is_globally_equivalent_to, \
+        is_locally_equivalent_to, \
+        has_equivalent_Jordan_decomposition_at_prime, \
+        is_rationally_isometric
+
+    # Routines for solving equations of the form Q(x) = c.
+    lazy_import('sage.quadratic_forms.qfsolve', [
+        'solve'
+    ])
+
+    # Genus
+    lazy_import('sage.quadratic_forms.genera.genus',
+                '_genera_staticmethod', as_='genera')
+
+    def __init__(self, R, n=None, entries=None, unsafe_initialization=False, number_of_automorphisms=None, determinant=None):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: s = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 4, range(10))
+            sage: s.dim()
+            4
+
+            sage: P.<x,y,z> = QQ[]
+            sage: p = x^2 + y^2 + 2*x*z
+            sage: QuadraticForm(p)
+            Quadratic form in 3 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+            [ 1 0 2 ]
+            [ * 1 0 ]
+            [ * * 0 ]
+            sage: z = P.zero()
+            sage: QuadraticForm(z)
+            Quadratic form in 3 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+            [ 0 0 0 ]
+            [ * 0 0 ]
+            [ * * 0 ]
+            sage: q = x^2 + 3*y - z
+            sage: QuadraticForm(q)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: polynomial is neither zero nor homogeneous of degree 2
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: s == loads(dumps(s))
+            True
+            sage: QuadraticForm(ZZ, -1)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: the size must be a nonnegative integer, not -1
+
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: QuadraticForm(x**2)
+            Quadratic form in 1 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 1 ]
+
+            sage: QuadraticForm(1)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ....
+            TypeError: wrong input for QuadraticForm
+        """
+        # Deal with:  QuadraticForm(ring, matrix)
+        matrix_init_flag = False
+        if R in Rings():
+            if isinstance(n, Matrix):
+                # Test if n is symmetric and has even diagonal
+                if not self._is_even_symmetric_matrix_(n, R):
+                    raise TypeError("the matrix is not a symmetric with even diagonal defined over R")
+
+                # Rename the matrix and ring
+                M = n
+                M_ring = R
+                matrix_init_flag = True
+
+        elif isinstance(R, Matrix):
+            M = R
+
+            # Test if R is symmetric and has even diagonal
+            if not self._is_even_symmetric_matrix_(M):
+                raise TypeError("the matrix is not a symmetric with even diagonal")
+
+            M_ring = M.base_ring()
+            matrix_init_flag = True
+
+        elif isinstance(R, (Polynomial, MPolynomial)):
+            p = R
+
+            if not p.is_zero() and not (p.is_homogeneous() and p.degree() == 2):
+                raise ValueError("polynomial is neither zero nor homogeneous of degree 2")
+
+            P = p.parent()
+            R, n = P.base_ring(), P.ngens()
+
+            # Extract quadratic form coefficients
+            entries = []
+            if n == 0:
+                exponents = []
+            elif n == 1:
+                exponents = [2]
+            else:
+                from sage.combinat.integer_lists.invlex import IntegerListsLex
+
+                exponents = IntegerListsLex(2, length=n)
+            for alpha in exponents:
+                entries.append(p[alpha])
+
+        else:
+            raise TypeError('wrong input for QuadraticForm')
+
+        # Perform the quadratic form initialization
+        if matrix_init_flag:
+            self.__n = ZZ(M.nrows())
+            self.__base_ring = M_ring
+            self.__coeffs = []
+            for i in range(M.nrows()):
+                for j in range(i, M.nrows()):
+                    if i == j:
+                        self.__coeffs += [M_ring(M[i, j] / 2)]
+                    else:
+                        self.__coeffs += [M_ring(M[i, j])]
+
+            return
+
+        # -----------------------------------------------------------
+
+        # Verify the size of the matrix is an integer >= 0
+        n = ZZ(n)
+        if n < 0:
+            raise ValueError(f"the size must be a nonnegative integer, not {n}")
+
+        # Store the relevant variables
+        N = n * (n + 1) // 2
+        self.__n = n
+        self.__base_ring = R
+        self.__coeffs = [self.__base_ring.zero() for i in range(N)]
+
+        # Check if entries is a list, tuple or iterator for the
+        # current size, and if so, write the upper-triangular matrix
+        if entries is not None:
+            try:
+                entries = list(entries)
+            except TypeError:
+                raise TypeError('entries must be an iterable')
+
+            if len(entries) == N:
+                for i in range(N):
+                    self.__coeffs[i] = self.__base_ring(entries[i])
+            else:
+                raise TypeError(f"the entries {entries} must be a list of size n(n+1)/2")
+
+        # -----------------------------------------------------------
+
+        # Process possible forced initialization of various fields
+        self._external_initialization_list = []
+        if unsafe_initialization:
+
+            # Set the number of automorphisms
+            if number_of_automorphisms is not None:
+                self.set_number_of_automorphisms(number_of_automorphisms)
+                # self.__number_of_automorphisms = number_of_automorphisms
+                # self.__external_initialization_list.append('number_of_automorphisms')
+
+            # Set the determinant
+            if determinant is not None:
+                self.__det = determinant
+                self._external_initialization_list.append('determinant')
+
+    def list_external_initializations(self):
+        """
+        Return a list of the fields which were set externally at
+        creation, and not created through the usual :class:`QuadraticForm`
+        methods.  These fields are as good as the external process
+        that made them, and are thus not guaranteed to be correct.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,0,5])
+            sage: Q.list_external_initializations()
+            []
+
+            sage: # needs sage.libs.pari
+            sage: T = Q.theta_series()
+            sage: Q.list_external_initializations()
+            []
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,0,5], unsafe_initialization=False,
+            ....:                   number_of_automorphisms=3, determinant=0)
+            sage: Q.list_external_initializations()
+            []
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.libs.pari
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,0,5], unsafe_initialization=False,
+            ....:                   number_of_automorphisms=3, determinant=0)
+            sage: Q.list_external_initializations()
+            []
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,0,5], unsafe_initialization=True,
+            ....:                   number_of_automorphisms=3, determinant=0)
+            sage: Q.list_external_initializations()
+            ['number_of_automorphisms', 'determinant']
+        """
+        return deepcopy(self._external_initialization_list)
+
+    def __pari__(self):
+        """
+        Return a PARI-formatted Hessian matrix for Q.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,0,5])
+            sage: Q.__pari__()                                                          # needs sage.libs.pari
+            [2, 0; 0, 10]
+        """
+        return self.matrix().__pari__()
+
+    def _pari_init_(self):
+        """
+        Return a PARI-formatted Hessian matrix for Q, as string.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,0,5])
+            sage: Q._pari_init_()                                                       # needs sage.libs.pari
+            'Mat([2,0;0,10])'
+        """
+        return self.matrix()._pari_init_()
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        """
+        Give a text representation for the quadratic form given as an upper-triangular matrix of coefficients.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,3,5])
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 1 3 ]
+            [ * 5 ]
+        """
+        n = self.dim()
+        out_str = "Quadratic form in " + str(n) + " variables over " + str(self.base_ring()) + " with coefficients: \n"
+        for i in range(n):
+            if i > 0:
+                out_str += '\n'
+            out_str += "[ "
+            for j in range(n):
+                if (i > j):
+                    out_str += "* "
+                else:
+                    out_str += str(self[i, j]) + " "
+            out_str += "]"
+        return out_str
+
+    def _latex_(self):
+        """
+        Give a LaTeX representation for the quadratic form given as an upper-triangular matrix of coefficients.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [2,3,5])
+            sage: Q._latex_()
+            'Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients: \\newline\\left[ \\begin{array}{cc}2 & 3 &  * & 5 & \\end{array} \\right]'
+        """
+        n = self.dim()
+        out_str = ""
+        out_str += "Quadratic form in " + str(n) + " variables over " + str(self.base_ring())
+        out_str += " with coefficients: \\newline"
+        out_str += "\\left[ \\begin{array}{" + n * "c" + "}"
+        for i in range(n):
+            for j in range(n):
+                if (i > j):
+                    out_str += " * & "
+                else:
+                    out_str += str(self[i, j]) + " & "
+#            if i < (n-1):
+#                out_str += "\\"
+        out_str += "\\end{array} \\right]"
+        return out_str
+
+    def __getitem__(self, ij):
+        r"""
+        Return the coefficient `a_{ij}` of `x_i\cdot x_j`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 3, [1,2,3,4,5,6])
+            sage: matrix(ZZ, 3, 3, [Q[i,j]  for i in range(3) for j in range(3)])
+            [1 2 3]
+            [2 4 5]
+            [3 5 6]
+        """
+        # Unpack the list of indices
+        i, j = ij
+        i = int(i)
+        j = int(j)
+
+        # Ensure we're using upper-triangular coordinates
+        if i > j:
+            tmp = i
+            i = j
+            j = tmp
+
+        return self.__coeffs[i*self.__n - i*(i-1)//2 + j - i]
+
+    def __setitem__(self, ij, coeff):
+        r"""
+        Set the coefficient `a_{ij}` in front of `x_i\cdot x_j`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 3, [1,2,3,4,5,6])
+            sage: Q
+            Quadratic form in 3 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 1 2 3 ]
+            [ * 4 5 ]
+            [ * * 6 ]
+            sage: Q[2,1] = 17
+            sage: Q
+            Quadratic form in 3 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 1 2 3 ]
+            [ * 4 17 ]
+            [ * * 6 ]
+        """
+        # Unpack the list of indices
+        i, j = ij
+        i = int(i)
+        j = int(j)
+
+        # TO DO:  Verify that 0 <= i, j <= (n-1)
+
+        # Ensure we're using upper-triangular coordinates
+        if i > j:
+            tmp = i
+            i = j
+            j = tmp
+
+        # Set the entry
+        try:
+            self.__coeffs[i*self.__n - i*(i-1)//2 + j - i] = self.__base_ring(coeff)
+        except Exception:
+            raise RuntimeError("this coefficient cannot be coerced to an element of the base ring for the quadratic form")
+
+    def __hash__(self):
+        r"""
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: Q1 = QuadraticForm(QQ, 2, [1,1,1])
+            sage: Q2 = QuadraticForm(QQ, 2, [1,1,1])
+            sage: Q3 = QuadraticForm(QuadraticField(2), 2, [1,1,1])                     # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: hash(Q1) == hash(Q2)
+            True
+            sage: hash(Q1) == hash(Q3)                                                  # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            False
+        """
+        return hash(self.__base_ring) ^ hash(tuple(self.__coeffs))
+
+    def __eq__(self, right):
+        """
+        Determines if two quadratic forms are equal.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,4,10])
+            sage: Q == Q
+            True
+
+            sage: Q1 = QuadraticForm(QQ, 2, [1,4,10])
+            sage: Q == Q1
+            False
+
+            sage: Q2 = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,4,-10])
+            sage: Q == Q1
+            False
+            sage: Q == Q2
+            False
+            sage: Q1 == Q2
+            False
+        """
+        if not isinstance(right, QuadraticForm):
+            return False
+        return (self.__base_ring == right.__base_ring) and (self.__coeffs == right.__coeffs)
+
+    def __add__(self, right):
+        """
+        Return the direct sum of two quadratic forms.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,4,10]); Q
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 1 4 ]
+            [ * 10 ]
+            sage: Q2 = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,4,-10])
+            sage: Q + Q2
+            Quadratic form in 4 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 1 4 0 0 ]
+            [ * 10 0 0 ]
+            [ * * 1 4 ]
+            [ * * * -10 ]
+        """
+        if not isinstance(right, QuadraticForm):
+            raise TypeError("cannot add these objects since they are not both quadratic forms")
+        elif (self.base_ring() != right.base_ring()):
+            raise TypeError("cannot add these since the quadratic forms do not have the same base rings")
+
+        Q = QuadraticForm(self.base_ring(), self.dim() + right.dim())
+        n = self.dim()
+        m = right.dim()
+
+        for i in range(n):
+            for j in range(i, n):
+                Q[i, j] = self[i, j]
+
+        for i in range(m):
+            for j in range(i, m):
+                Q[n + i, n + j] = right[i, j]
+
+        return Q
+
+    def sum_by_coefficients_with(self, right):
+        """
+        Return the sum (on coefficients) of two quadratic forms of the same size.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,4,10]); Q
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 1 4 ]
+            [ * 10 ]
+            sage: Q + Q
+            Quadratic form in 4 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 1 4 0 0 ]
+            [ * 10 0 0 ]
+            [ * * 1 4 ]
+            [ * * * 10 ]
+
+            sage: Q2 = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,4,-10])
+            sage: Q.sum_by_coefficients_with(Q2)
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 2 8 ]
+            [ * 0 ]
+        """
+        if not isinstance(right, QuadraticForm):
+            raise TypeError("cannot add these objects since they are not both quadratic forms")
+        elif self.__n != right.__n:
+            raise TypeError("cannot add these since the quadratic forms do not have the same sizes")
+        elif self.__base_ring != right.__base_ring:
+            raise TypeError("cannot add these since the quadratic forms do not have the same base rings")
+        return QuadraticForm(self.__base_ring, self.__n, [self.__coeffs[i] + right.__coeffs[i] for i in range(len(self.__coeffs))])
+
+    # ========================  CHANGE THIS TO A TENSOR PRODUCT?!?  Even in Characteristic 2?!?  =======================
+    #    def __mul__(self, right):
+    #        """
+    #        Multiply (on the right) the quadratic form Q by an element of the ring that Q is defined over.
+    #
+    #        EXAMPLES::
+    #
+    #            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,4,10])
+    #            sage: Q*2
+    #            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+    #            [ 2 8 ]
+    #            [ * 20 ]
+    #
+    #            sage: Q+Q == Q*2
+    #            True
+    #        """
+    #        try:
+    #            c = self.base_ring()(right)
+    #        except Exception:
+    #            raise TypeError("the multiplier cannot be coerced into the base ring of the quadratic form")
+    #        return QuadraticForm(self.base_ring(), self.dim(), [c * self.__coeffs[i]  for i in range(len(self.__coeffs))])
+
+    def __call__(self, v):
+        r"""
+        Evaluate this quadratic form `Q` on a vector or matrix of elements
+        coercible to the base ring of the quadratic form.
+
+        If a vector is given then the output will be the ring element
+        `Q(v)`, but if a matrix is given then the output will be the
+        quadratic form `Q'` which in matrix notation is given by:
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            Q' = v^t\cdot Q\cdot v.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Evaluate a quadratic form at a vector::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(QQ, 3, range(6))
+            sage: Q
+            Quadratic form in 3 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+            [ 0 1 2 ]
+            [ * 3 4 ]
+            [ * * 5 ]
+            sage: Q([1,2,3])
+            89
+            sage: Q([1,0,0])
+            0
+            sage: Q([1,1,1])
+            15
+
+        Evaluate a quadratic form using a column matrix::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(QQ, 2, range(1,4))
+            sage: A = Matrix(ZZ,2,2,[-1,0,0,1])
+            sage: Q(A)
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+            [ 1 -2 ]
+            [ * 3 ]
+            sage: Q([1,0])
+            1
+            sage: type(Q([1,0]))
+            <... 'sage.rings.rational.Rational'>
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(QQ, 2, range(1,4))
+            sage: Q(matrix(2, [1,0]))
+            Quadratic form in 1 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+            [ 1 ]
+
+        Simple 2x2 change of variables::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,0,1])
+            sage: Q
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 1 0 ]
+            [ * 1 ]
+            sage: M = Matrix(ZZ, 2, 2, [1,1,0,1])
+            sage: M
+            [1 1]
+            [0 1]
+            sage: Q(M)
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 1 2 ]
+            [ * 2 ]
+
+        Some more tests::
+
+            sage: Q = DiagonalQuadraticForm(ZZ, [1,1,1])
+            sage: Q([1,2,3])
+            14
+            sage: v = vector([1,2,3])
+            sage: Q(v)
+            14
+            sage: t = tuple([1,2,3])
+            sage: Q(v)
+            14
+            sage: M = Matrix(ZZ, 3, [1,2,3])
+            sage: Q(M)
+            Quadratic form in 1 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 14 ]
+        """
+        # If we are passed a matrix A, return the quadratic form Q(A(x))
+        # (In matrix notation: A^t * Q * A)
+        n = self.dim()
+
+        if isinstance(v, Matrix):
+            # Check that v has the correct number of rows
+            if v.nrows() != n:
+                raise TypeError(f"the matrix must have {n} rows")
+
+            # Create the new quadratic form
+            m = v.ncols()
+            Q2 = QuadraticForm(self.base_ring(), m)
+            return QFEvaluateMatrix(self, v, Q2)
+
+        elif isinstance(v, (Vector, list, tuple)):
+            # Check the vector/tuple/list has the correct length
+            if len(v) != n:
+                raise TypeError(f"your vector needs to have length {n}")
+
+            # TO DO:  Check that the elements can be coerced into the base ring of Q -- on first elt.
+            if len(v) > 0:
+                try:
+                    self.base_ring()(v[0])
+                except Exception:
+                    raise TypeError("your vector is not coercible to the base ring of the quadratic form")
+
+            # Attempt to evaluate Q[v]
+            return QFEvaluateVector(self, v)
+
+        else:
+            raise TypeError
+
+    # ===============================================
+
+    def _is_even_symmetric_matrix_(self, A, R=None):
+        """
+        Test if a matrix is symmetric, defined over `R`, and has even diagonal in `R`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``A`` -- matrix
+
+        - ``R`` -- ring
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [2,3,5])
+            sage: A = Q.matrix()
+            sage: A
+            [ 4  3]
+            [ 3 10]
+            sage: Q._is_even_symmetric_matrix_(A)
+            True
+            sage: A[0,0] = 1
+            sage: Q._is_even_symmetric_matrix_(A)
+            False
+        """
+        if not isinstance(A, Matrix):
+            raise TypeError("A is not a matrix.")
+
+        ring_coerce_test = True
+        if R is None:            # This allows us to omit the ring from the variables, and take it from the matrix
+            R = A.base_ring()
+            ring_coerce_test = False
+
+        if R not in Rings():
+            raise TypeError("R is not a ring.")
+
+        if not (A.is_square() and A.is_symmetric()):
+            return False
+
+        # Test that all entries coerce to R
+        n = A.nrows()
+        if not ((A.base_ring() == R) or ring_coerce_test):
+            try:
+                for i in range(n):
+                    for j in range(i, n):
+                        R(A[i, j])
+            except (TypeError, ValueError):
+                return False
+
+        # Test that the diagonal is even (if 1/2 isn't in R)
+        if not R(2).is_unit():
+            for i in range(n):
+                if not is_even(R(A[i, i])):
+                    return False
+
+        return True
+
+    # =====================================================================
+
+    def matrix(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the Hessian matrix `A` for which `Q(X) = (1/2) X^t\cdot A\cdot X`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 3, range(6))
+            sage: Q.matrix()
+            [ 0  1  2]
+            [ 1  6  4]
+            [ 2  4 10]
+        """
+        return self.Hessian_matrix()
+
+    def Hessian_matrix(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the Hessian matrix `A` for which `Q(X) = (1/2) X^t\cdot A\cdot X`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(QQ, 2, range(1,4)); Q
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Rational Field with coefficients:
+            [ 1 2 ]
+            [ * 3 ]
+            sage: Q.Hessian_matrix()
+            [2 2]
+            [2 6]
+            sage: Q.matrix().base_ring()
+            Rational Field
+        """
+        mat_entries = []
+        for i in range(self.dim()):
+            for j in range(self.dim()):
+                if i == j:
+                    mat_entries += [2 * self[i, j]]
+                else:
+                    mat_entries += [self[i, j]]
+
+        return matrix(self.base_ring(), self.dim(), self.dim(), mat_entries)
+
+    def Gram_matrix_rational(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a (symmetric) Gram matrix `A` for the quadratic form `Q`,
+        meaning that
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            Q(x) = x^t\cdot A\cdot x,
+
+        defined over the fraction field of the base ring.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = DiagonalQuadraticForm(ZZ, [1,3,5,7])
+            sage: A = Q.Gram_matrix_rational(); A
+            [1 0 0 0]
+            [0 3 0 0]
+            [0 0 5 0]
+            [0 0 0 7]
+            sage: A.base_ring()
+            Rational Field
+        """
+        return (ZZ(1) / ZZ(2)) * self.matrix()
+
+    def Gram_matrix(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a (symmetric) Gram matrix `A` for the quadratic form `Q`,
+        meaning that
+
+        .. MATH::
+
+            Q(x) = x^t\cdot A\cdot x,
+
+        defined over the base ring of `Q`.  If this is not possible,
+        then a :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = DiagonalQuadraticForm(ZZ, [1,3,5,7])
+            sage: A = Q.Gram_matrix(); A
+            [1 0 0 0]
+            [0 3 0 0]
+            [0 0 5 0]
+            [0 0 0 7]
+            sage: A.base_ring()
+            Integer Ring
+        """
+        A = (ZZ.one() / ZZ(2)) * self.matrix()
+        n = self.dim()
+
+        # Test to see if it has an integral Gram matrix
+        Int_flag = True
+        for i in range(n):
+            for j in range(i, n):
+                Int_flag &= A[i, j] in self.base_ring()
+
+        # Return the Gram matrix, or an error
+        if Int_flag:
+            return MatrixSpace(self.base_ring(), n, n)(A)
+        raise TypeError("this form does not have an integral Gram matrix")
+
+    def has_integral_Gram_matrix(self) -> bool:
+        r"""
+        Return whether the quadratic form has an integral Gram matrix (with respect to its base ring).
+
+        A warning is issued if the form is defined over a field,
+        since in that case the return is trivially true.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [7,8,9])
+            sage: Q.has_integral_Gram_matrix()
+            True
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [4,5,6])
+            sage: Q.has_integral_Gram_matrix()
+            False
+        """
+        # Warning over fields
+        if self.base_ring() in Fields():
+            warn("Warning -- A quadratic form over a field always has integral Gram matrix.  Do you really want to do this?!?")
+
+        # Determine integrality of the Gram matrix
+        try:
+            self.Gram_matrix()
+        except TypeError:
+            return False
+        else:
+            return True
+
+    def gcd(self):
+        """
+        Return the greatest common divisor of the coefficients of the
+        quadratic form (as a polynomial).
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 4, range(1, 21, 2))
+            sage: Q.gcd()
+            1
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 4, range(0, 20, 2))
+            sage: Q.gcd()
+            2
+        """
+        if self.base_ring() != ZZ:
+            raise TypeError("the given quadratic form must be defined over ZZ")
+        return GCD(self.coefficients())
+
+    def polynomial(self, names='x'):
+        r"""
+        Return the quadratic form as a polynomial in `n` variables.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``self`` -- a quadratic form over a commutative ring
+
+        - ``names`` -- specification of the names of the variables; see :func:`PolynomialRing`
+
+        OUTPUT: the polynomial form of the quadratic form
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = DiagonalQuadraticForm(QQ,[1, 3, 5, 7])
+            sage: P = Q.polynomial(); P
+            x0^2 + 3*x1^2 + 5*x2^2 + 7*x3^2
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: F.<a> = NumberField(x^2 - 5)
+            sage: Z = F.ring_of_integers()
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(Z, 3, [2*a, 3*a, 0, 1 - a, 0, 2*a + 4])
+            sage: P = Q.polynomial(names='y'); P
+            2*a*y0^2 + 3*a*y0*y1 + (-a + 1)*y1^2 + (2*a + 4)*y2^2
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(F, 4,
+            ....:                   [a, 3*a, 0, 1 - a, a - 3, 0, 2*a + 4, 4 + a, 0, 1])
+            sage: Q.polynomial(names='z')
+            a*z0^2 + (3*a)*z0*z1 + (a - 3)*z1^2 + (a + 4)*z2^2
+            + (-a + 1)*z0*z3 + (2*a + 4)*z1*z3 + z3^2
+            sage: B.<i,j,k> = QuaternionAlgebra(F,-1,-1)
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(B, 3, [2*a, 3*a, i, 1 - a, 0, 2*a + 4])
+            sage: Q.polynomial()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: Can only create polynomial rings over commutative rings
+        """
+        B = self.base_ring()
+        if B not in Rings().Commutative():
+            raise ValueError('Can only create polynomial rings over commutative rings')
+        n = self.dim()
+        M = matrix(B, n)
+        for i in range(n):
+            for j in range(i, n):
+                M[i, j] = self[i, j]
+        R = PolynomialRing(self.base_ring(), names, n)
+        V = vector(R.gens())
+        return (V * M).dot_product(V)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def from_polynomial(poly):
+        r"""
+        Construct a :class:`QuadraticForm` from a multivariate
+        polynomial. Inverse of :meth:`polynomial`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<x,y,z> = ZZ[]
+            sage: f = 5*x^2 - x*z - 3*y*z - 2*y^2 + 9*z^2
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm.from_polynomial(f); Q
+            Quadratic form in 3 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 5 0 -1 ]
+            [ * -2 -3 ]
+            [ * * 9 ]
+            sage: Q.polynomial()
+            5*x0^2 - 2*x1^2 - x0*x2 - 3*x1*x2 + 9*x2^2
+            sage: Q.polynomial()(R.gens()) == f
+            True
+
+        The method fails if the given polynomial is not a quadratic form::
+
+            sage: QuadraticForm.from_polynomial(x^3 + x*z + 5*y^2)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            ValueError: polynomial has monomials of degree != 2
+        """
+        R = poly.parent()
+        from sage.rings.polynomial.multi_polynomial_ring_base import MPolynomialRing_base
+        if not isinstance(R, MPolynomialRing_base):
+            raise TypeError(f'not a multivariate polynomial ring: {R}')
+        if not all(mon.degree() == 2 for mon in poly.monomials()):
+            raise ValueError('polynomial has monomials of degree != 2')
+        base = R.base_ring()
+        vs = R.gens()
+        coeffs = [poly.monomial_coefficient(v * w)
+                  for i, v in enumerate(vs) for w in vs[i:]]
+        return QuadraticForm(base, len(vs), coeffs)
+
+    def is_primitive(self) -> bool:
+        """
+        Determine if the given integer-valued form is primitive.
+
+        This means not an integer (`> 1`) multiple of another integer-valued
+        quadratic form.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [2,3,4])
+            sage: Q.is_primitive()
+            True
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [2,4,8])
+            sage: Q.is_primitive()
+            False
+        """
+        return self.gcd() == 1
+
+    def primitive(self):
+        r"""
+        Return a primitive version of an integer-valued quadratic form, defined over `\ZZ`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [2,3,4])
+            sage: Q.primitive()
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 2 3 ]
+            [ * 4 ]
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [2,4,8])
+            sage: Q.primitive()
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 1 2 ]
+            [ * 4 ]
+        """
+        if self.base_ring() != ZZ:
+            raise TypeError("the given quadratic form must be defined over ZZ")
+        g = self.gcd()
+        return QuadraticForm(ZZ, self.dim(),
+                             [x // g for x in self.coefficients()])
+
+    def adjoint_primitive(self):
+        """
+        Return the primitive adjoint of the quadratic form, which is
+        the smallest discriminant integer-valued quadratic form whose
+        matrix is a scalar multiple of the inverse of the matrix of
+        the given quadratic form.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,2,3])
+            sage: Q.adjoint_primitive()                                                 # needs sage.libs.pari
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 3 -2 ]
+            [ *  1 ]
+        """
+        return QuadraticForm(self.Hessian_matrix().adjoint_classical()).primitive()
+
+    def dim(self):
+        """
+        Return the number of variables of the quadratic form.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,2,3])
+            sage: Q.dim()
+            2
+            sage: parent(Q.dim())
+            Integer Ring
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(Q.matrix())
+            sage: Q.dim()
+            2
+            sage: parent(Q.dim())
+            Integer Ring
+        """
+        return self.__n
+
+    def base_ring(self):
+        """
+        Return the ring over which the quadratic form is defined.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,2,3])
+            sage: Q.base_ring()
+            Integer Ring
+        """
+        return self.__base_ring
+
+    def coefficients(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the matrix of upper triangular coefficients,
+        by reading across the rows from the main diagonal.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,2,3])
+            sage: Q.coefficients()
+            [1, 2, 3]
+        """
+        return self.__coeffs
+
+    def det(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the determinant of the Gram matrix of `2\cdot Q`, or
+        equivalently the determinant of the Hessian matrix of `Q`.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            This is always defined over the same ring as the quadratic form.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,2,3])
+            sage: Q.det()
+            8
+        """
+        try:
+            return self.__det
+        except AttributeError:
+            # Compute the determinant
+            if self.dim() == 0:
+                new_det = self.base_ring()(1)
+            else:
+                new_det = self.matrix().det()
+
+            # Cache and return the determinant
+            self.__det = new_det
+            return new_det
+
+    def Gram_det(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the determinant of the Gram matrix of `Q`.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            This is defined over the fraction field of the ring of
+            the quadratic form, but is often not defined over the same
+            ring as the quadratic form.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, [1,2,3])
+            sage: Q.Gram_det()
+            2
+        """
+        return self.det() / ZZ(2**self.dim())
+
+    def change_ring(self, R):
+        """
+        Alters the quadratic form to have all coefficients
+        defined over the new base ring `R`.  Here `R` must be
+        coercible to from the current base ring.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            This is preferable to performing an explicit
+            coercion through the :meth:`base_ring` method, which does
+            not affect the individual coefficients.  This is
+            particularly useful for performing fast modular
+            arithmetic evaluations.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``R`` -- a ring
+
+        OUTPUT: quadratic form
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = DiagonalQuadraticForm(ZZ, [1,1]); Q
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+            [ 1 0 ]
+            [ * 1 ]
+
+            sage: Q1 = Q.change_ring(IntegerModRing(5)); Q1
+            Quadratic form in 2 variables over Ring of integers modulo 5 with coefficients:
+            [ 1 0 ]
+            [ * 1 ]
+
+            sage: Q1([35,11])
+            1
+        """
+        # Check that a canonical coercion is possible
+        if R not in Rings():
+            raise TypeError("R is not a ring")
+        if not R.has_coerce_map_from(self.base_ring()):
+            raise TypeError(f"there is no canonical coercion from {self.base_ring()} to R")
+        # Return the coerced form
+        return QuadraticForm(R, self.dim(), [R(x) for x in self.coefficients()])
+
+    base_change_to = deprecated_function_alias(35248, change_ring)
+
+    def level(self):
+        r"""
+        Determines the level of the quadratic form over a PID, which is a
+        generator for the smallest ideal `N` of `R` such that `N\cdot (` the matrix of
+        `2*Q` `)^{(-1)}` is in `R` with diagonal in `2R`.
+
+        Over `\ZZ` this returns a nonnegative number.
+
+        (Caveat: This always returns the unit ideal when working over a field!)
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, range(1,4))
+            sage: Q.level()
+            8
+
+            sage: Q1 = QuadraticForm(QQ, 2, range(1,4))
+            sage: Q1.level()      # random
+            UserWarning: Warning -- The level of a quadratic form over a field is always 1.
+            Do you really want to do this?!?
+            1
+
+            sage: Q = DiagonalQuadraticForm(ZZ, [1,3,5,7])
+            sage: Q.level()
+            420
+        """
+        # Try to return the cached level
+        try:
+            return self.__level
+        except AttributeError:
+
+            # Check that the base ring is a PID
+            if self.base_ring() not in PrincipalIdealDomains():
+                raise TypeError("the level (as a number) is only defined over a Principal Ideal Domain ; try using level_ideal()")
+
+            # Warn the user if the form is defined over a field!
+            if self.base_ring() in Fields():
+                warn("Warning -- The level of a quadratic form over a field is always 1.  Do you really want to do this?!?")
+                # raise RuntimeError("Warning -- The level of a quadratic form over a field is always 1.  Do you really want to do this?!?")
+
+            # Check invertibility and find the inverse
+            try:
+                mat_inv = self.matrix()**(-1)
+            except ZeroDivisionError:
+                raise TypeError("the quadratic form is degenerate")
+
+            # Compute the level
+            inv_denoms = []
+            for i in range(self.dim()):
+                for j in range(i, self.dim()):
+                    if (i == j):
+                        inv_denoms += [denominator(mat_inv[i, j] / 2)]
+                    else:
+                        inv_denoms += [denominator(mat_inv[i, j])]
+            lvl = LCM(inv_denoms)
+            lvl = Ideal(self.base_ring()(lvl)).gen()
+            ##############################################################
+            # To do this properly, the level should be the inverse of the
+            # fractional ideal (over R) generated by the entries whose
+            # denominators we take above. =)
+            ##############################################################
+
+            # Normalize the result over ZZ
+            if self.base_ring() == IntegerRing():
+                lvl = abs(lvl)
+
+            # Cache and return the level
+            self.__level = lvl
+            return lvl
+
+    def level_ideal(self):
+        r"""
+        Determine the level of the quadratic form (over `R`), which is the
+        smallest ideal `N` of `R` such that `N \cdot (` the matrix of `2Q` `)^{(-1)}` is
+        in `R` with diagonal in `2R`.
+        (Caveat: This always returns the principal ideal when working over a field!)
+
+        .. WARNING::
+
+            This only works over a PID ring of integers for now!
+            (Waiting for Sage fractional ideal support.)
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 2, range(1,4))
+            sage: Q.level_ideal()
+            Principal ideal (8) of Integer Ring
+
+            sage: Q1 = QuadraticForm(QQ, 2, range(1,4))
+            sage: Q1.level_ideal()
+            Principal ideal (1) of Rational Field
+
+            sage: Q = DiagonalQuadraticForm(ZZ, [1,3,5,7])
+            sage: Q.level_ideal()
+            Principal ideal (420) of Integer Ring
+        """
+        ##############################################################
+        # To do this properly, the level should be the inverse of the
+        # fractional ideal (over R) generated by the entries whose
+        # denominators we take above.
+        ##############################################################
+        return Ideal(self.base_ring()(self.level()))
+
+    def bilinear_map(self, v, w):
+        r"""
+        Return the value of the associated bilinear map on two vectors.
+
+        Given a quadratic form `Q` over some base ring `R` with
+        characteristic not equal to 2, this gives the image of two
+        vectors with coefficients in `R` under the associated bilinear
+        map `B`, given by the relation `2 B(v,w) = Q(v) + Q(w) - Q(v+w)`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``v``, ``w`` -- two vectors
+
+        OUTPUT: an element of the base ring `R`
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        First, an example over `\ZZ`::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(ZZ, 3, [1,4,0,1,4,1])
+            sage: v = vector(ZZ, (1,2,0))
+            sage: w = vector(ZZ, (0,1,1))
+            sage: Q.bilinear_map(v, w)
+            8
+
+        This also works over `\QQ`::
+
+            sage: Q = QuadraticForm(QQ, 2, [1/2,2,1])
+            sage: v = vector(QQ, (1,1))
+            sage: w = vector(QQ, (1/2,2))
+            sage: Q.bilinear_map(v, w)
+            19/4
+
+        The vectors must have the correct length::
+
+            sage: Q = DiagonalQuadraticForm(ZZ, [1,7,7])
+            sage: v = vector((1,2))
+            sage: w = vector((1,1,1))
+            sage: Q.bilinear_map(v, w)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: vectors must have length 3
+
+        This does not work if the characteristic is 2::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: Q = DiagonalQuadraticForm(GF(2), [1,1,1])
+            sage: v = vector((1,1,1))
+            sage: w = vector((1,1,1))
+            sage: Q.bilinear_map(v, w)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: not defined for rings of characteristic 2
+        """
+        if len(v) != self.dim() or len(w) != self.dim():
+            raise TypeError("vectors must have length " + str(self.dim()))
+        if self.base_ring().characteristic() == 2:
+            raise TypeError("not defined for rings of characteristic 2")
+        return (self(v + w) - self(v) - self(w)) / 2
+
+
+def DiagonalQuadraticForm(R, diag):
+    """
+    Return a quadratic form over `R` which is a sum of squares.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``R`` -- ring
+    - ``diag`` -- list/tuple of elements coercible to `R`
+
+    OUTPUT: quadratic form
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: Q = DiagonalQuadraticForm(ZZ, [1,3,5,7]); Q
+        Quadratic form in 4 variables over Integer Ring with coefficients:
+        [ 1 0 0 0 ]
+        [ * 3 0 0 ]
+        [ * * 5 0 ]
+        [ * * * 7 ]
+    """
+    Q = QuadraticForm(R, len(diag))
+    for i in range(len(diag)):
+        Q[i, i] = diag[i]
+    return Q