numpy 1.9.2__zip → 1.10.0__zip

numpy-1.9.2/numpy/lib/polynomial.py

@@ -1,1271 +0,0 @@
-"""
-Functions to operate on polynomials.
-
-"""
-from __future__ import division, absolute_import, print_function
-
-__all__ = ['poly', 'roots', 'polyint', 'polyder', 'polyadd',
-           'polysub', 'polymul', 'polydiv', 'polyval', 'poly1d',
-           'polyfit', 'RankWarning']
-
-import re
-import warnings
-import numpy.core.numeric as NX
-
-from numpy.core import isscalar, abs, finfo, atleast_1d, hstack, dot
-from numpy.lib.twodim_base import diag, vander
-from numpy.lib.function_base import trim_zeros, sort_complex
-from numpy.lib.type_check import iscomplex, real, imag
-from numpy.linalg import eigvals, lstsq, inv
-
-class RankWarning(UserWarning):
-    """
-    Issued by `polyfit` when the Vandermonde matrix is rank deficient.
-
-    For more information, a way to suppress the warning, and an example of
-    `RankWarning` being issued, see `polyfit`.
-
-    """
-    pass
-
-def poly(seq_of_zeros):
-    """
-    Find the coefficients of a polynomial with the given sequence of roots.
-
-    Returns the coefficients of the polynomial whose leading coefficient
-    is one for the given sequence of zeros (multiple roots must be included
-    in the sequence as many times as their multiplicity; see Examples).
-    A square matrix (or array, which will be treated as a matrix) can also
-    be given, in which case the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial
-    of the matrix are returned.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    seq_of_zeros : array_like, shape (N,) or (N, N)
-        A sequence of polynomial roots, or a square array or matrix object.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    c : ndarray
-        1D array of polynomial coefficients from highest to lowest degree:
-
-        ``c[0] * x**(N) + c[1] * x**(N-1) + ... + c[N-1] * x + c[N]``
-        where c[0] always equals 1.
-
-    Raises
-    ------
-    ValueError
-        If input is the wrong shape (the input must be a 1-D or square
-        2-D array).
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    polyval : Evaluate a polynomial at a point.
-    roots : Return the roots of a polynomial.
-    polyfit : Least squares polynomial fit.
-    poly1d : A one-dimensional polynomial class.
-
-    Notes
-    -----
-    Specifying the roots of a polynomial still leaves one degree of
-    freedom, typically represented by an undetermined leading
-    coefficient. [1]_ In the case of this function, that coefficient -
-    the first one in the returned array - is always taken as one. (If
-    for some reason you have one other point, the only automatic way
-    presently to leverage that information is to use ``polyfit``.)
-
-    The characteristic polynomial, :math:`p_a(t)`, of an `n`-by-`n`
-    matrix **A** is given by
-
-        :math:`p_a(t) = \\mathrm{det}(t\\, \\mathbf{I} - \\mathbf{A})`,
-
-    where **I** is the `n`-by-`n` identity matrix. [2]_
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. [1] M. Sullivan and M. Sullivan, III, "Algebra and Trignometry,
-       Enhanced With Graphing Utilities," Prentice-Hall, pg. 318, 1996.
-
-    .. [2] G. Strang, "Linear Algebra and Its Applications, 2nd Edition,"
-       Academic Press, pg. 182, 1980.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    Given a sequence of a polynomial's zeros:
-
-    >>> np.poly((0, 0, 0)) # Multiple root example
-    array([1, 0, 0, 0])
-
-    The line above represents z**3 + 0*z**2 + 0*z + 0.
-
-    >>> np.poly((-1./2, 0, 1./2))
-    array([ 1.  ,  0.  , -0.25,  0.  ])
-
-    The line above represents z**3 - z/4
-
-    >>> np.poly((np.random.random(1.)[0], 0, np.random.random(1.)[0]))
-    array([ 1.        , -0.77086955,  0.08618131,  0.        ]) #random
-
-    Given a square array object:
-
-    >>> P = np.array([[0, 1./3], [-1./2, 0]])
-    >>> np.poly(P)
-    array([ 1.        ,  0.        ,  0.16666667])
-
-    Or a square matrix object:
-
-    >>> np.poly(np.matrix(P))
-    array([ 1.        ,  0.        ,  0.16666667])
-
-    Note how in all cases the leading coefficient is always 1.
-
-    """
-    seq_of_zeros = atleast_1d(seq_of_zeros)
-    sh = seq_of_zeros.shape
-    if len(sh) == 2 and sh[0] == sh[1] and sh[0] != 0:
-        seq_of_zeros = eigvals(seq_of_zeros)
-    elif len(sh) == 1:
-        pass
-    else:
-        raise ValueError("input must be 1d or non-empty square 2d array.")
-
-    if len(seq_of_zeros) == 0:
-        return 1.0
-
-    a = [1]
-    for k in range(len(seq_of_zeros)):
-        a = NX.convolve(a, [1, -seq_of_zeros[k]], mode='full')
-
-    if issubclass(a.dtype.type, NX.complexfloating):
-        # if complex roots are all complex conjugates, the roots are real.
-        roots = NX.asarray(seq_of_zeros, complex)
-        pos_roots = sort_complex(NX.compress(roots.imag > 0, roots))
-        neg_roots = NX.conjugate(sort_complex(
-                                        NX.compress(roots.imag < 0, roots)))
-        if (len(pos_roots) == len(neg_roots) and
-                NX.alltrue(neg_roots == pos_roots)):
-            a = a.real.copy()
-
-    return a
-
-def roots(p):
-    """
-    Return the roots of a polynomial with coefficients given in p.
-
-    The values in the rank-1 array `p` are coefficients of a polynomial.
-    If the length of `p` is n+1 then the polynomial is described by::
-
-      p[0] * x**n + p[1] * x**(n-1) + ... + p[n-1]*x + p[n]
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    p : array_like
-        Rank-1 array of polynomial coefficients.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    out : ndarray
-        An array containing the complex roots of the polynomial.
-
-    Raises
-    ------
-    ValueError
-        When `p` cannot be converted to a rank-1 array.
-
-    See also
-    --------
-    poly : Find the coefficients of a polynomial with a given sequence
-           of roots.
-    polyval : Evaluate a polynomial at a point.
-    polyfit : Least squares polynomial fit.
-    poly1d : A one-dimensional polynomial class.
-
-    Notes
-    -----
-    The algorithm relies on computing the eigenvalues of the
-    companion matrix [1]_.
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. [1] R. A. Horn & C. R. Johnson, *Matrix Analysis*.  Cambridge, UK:
-        Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp. 146-7.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    >>> coeff = [3.2, 2, 1]
-    >>> np.roots(coeff)
-    array([-0.3125+0.46351241j, -0.3125-0.46351241j])
-
-    """
-    # If input is scalar, this makes it an array
-    p = atleast_1d(p)
-    if len(p.shape) != 1:
-        raise ValueError("Input must be a rank-1 array.")
-
-    # find non-zero array entries
-    non_zero = NX.nonzero(NX.ravel(p))[0]
-
-    # Return an empty array if polynomial is all zeros
-    if len(non_zero) == 0:
-        return NX.array([])
-
-    # find the number of trailing zeros -- this is the number of roots at 0.
-    trailing_zeros = len(p) - non_zero[-1] - 1
-
-    # strip leading and trailing zeros
-    p = p[int(non_zero[0]):int(non_zero[-1])+1]
-
-    # casting: if incoming array isn't floating point, make it floating point.
-    if not issubclass(p.dtype.type, (NX.floating, NX.complexfloating)):
-        p = p.astype(float)
-
-    N = len(p)
-    if N > 1:
-        # build companion matrix and find its eigenvalues (the roots)
-        A = diag(NX.ones((N-2,), p.dtype), -1)
-        A[0,:] = -p[1:] / p[0]
-        roots = eigvals(A)
-    else:
-        roots = NX.array([])
-
-    # tack any zeros onto the back of the array
-    roots = hstack((roots, NX.zeros(trailing_zeros, roots.dtype)))
-    return roots
-
-def polyint(p, m=1, k=None):
-    """
-    Return an antiderivative (indefinite integral) of a polynomial.
-
-    The returned order `m` antiderivative `P` of polynomial `p` satisfies
-    :math:`\\frac{d^m}{dx^m}P(x) = p(x)` and is defined up to `m - 1`
-    integration constants `k`. The constants determine the low-order
-    polynomial part
-
-    .. math:: \\frac{k_{m-1}}{0!} x^0 + \\ldots + \\frac{k_0}{(m-1)!}x^{m-1}
-
-    of `P` so that :math:`P^{(j)}(0) = k_{m-j-1}`.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    p : {array_like, poly1d}
-        Polynomial to differentiate.
-        A sequence is interpreted as polynomial coefficients, see `poly1d`.
-    m : int, optional
-        Order of the antiderivative. (Default: 1)
-    k : {None, list of `m` scalars, scalar}, optional
-        Integration constants. They are given in the order of integration:
-        those corresponding to highest-order terms come first.
-
-        If ``None`` (default), all constants are assumed to be zero.
-        If `m = 1`, a single scalar can be given instead of a list.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    polyder : derivative of a polynomial
-    poly1d.integ : equivalent method
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    The defining property of the antiderivative:
-
-    >>> p = np.poly1d([1,1,1])
-    >>> P = np.polyint(p)
-    >>> P
-    poly1d([ 0.33333333,  0.5       ,  1.        ,  0.        ])
-    >>> np.polyder(P) == p
-    True
-
-    The integration constants default to zero, but can be specified:
-
-    >>> P = np.polyint(p, 3)
-    >>> P(0)
-    0.0
-    >>> np.polyder(P)(0)
-    0.0
-    >>> np.polyder(P, 2)(0)
-    0.0
-    >>> P = np.polyint(p, 3, k=[6,5,3])
-    >>> P
-    poly1d([ 0.01666667,  0.04166667,  0.16666667,  3. ,  5. ,  3. ])
-
-    Note that 3 = 6 / 2!, and that the constants are given in the order of
-    integrations. Constant of the highest-order polynomial term comes first:
-
-    >>> np.polyder(P, 2)(0)
-    6.0
-    >>> np.polyder(P, 1)(0)
-    5.0
-    >>> P(0)
-    3.0
-
-    """
-    m = int(m)
-    if m < 0:
-        raise ValueError("Order of integral must be positive (see polyder)")
-    if k is None:
-        k = NX.zeros(m, float)
-    k = atleast_1d(k)
-    if len(k) == 1 and m > 1:
-        k = k[0]*NX.ones(m, float)
-    if len(k) < m:
-        raise ValueError(
-              "k must be a scalar or a rank-1 array of length 1 or >m.")
-
-    truepoly = isinstance(p, poly1d)
-    p = NX.asarray(p)
-    if m == 0:
-        if truepoly:
-            return poly1d(p)
-        return p
-    else:
-        # Note: this must work also with object and integer arrays
-        y = NX.concatenate((p.__truediv__(NX.arange(len(p), 0, -1)), [k[0]]))
-        val = polyint(y, m - 1, k=k[1:])
-        if truepoly:
-            return poly1d(val)
-        return val
-
-def polyder(p, m=1):
-    """
-    Return the derivative of the specified order of a polynomial.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    p : poly1d or sequence
-        Polynomial to differentiate.
-        A sequence is interpreted as polynomial coefficients, see `poly1d`.
-    m : int, optional
-        Order of differentiation (default: 1)
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    der : poly1d
-        A new polynomial representing the derivative.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    polyint : Anti-derivative of a polynomial.
-    poly1d : Class for one-dimensional polynomials.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    The derivative of the polynomial :math:`x^3 + x^2 + x^1 + 1` is:
-
-    >>> p = np.poly1d([1,1,1,1])
-    >>> p2 = np.polyder(p)
-    >>> p2
-    poly1d([3, 2, 1])
-
-    which evaluates to:
-
-    >>> p2(2.)
-    17.0
-
-    We can verify this, approximating the derivative with
-    ``(f(x + h) - f(x))/h``:
-
-    >>> (p(2. + 0.001) - p(2.)) / 0.001
-    17.007000999997857
-
-    The fourth-order derivative of a 3rd-order polynomial is zero:
-
-    >>> np.polyder(p, 2)
-    poly1d([6, 2])
-    >>> np.polyder(p, 3)
-    poly1d([6])
-    >>> np.polyder(p, 4)
-    poly1d([ 0.])
-
-    """
-    m = int(m)
-    if m < 0:
-        raise ValueError("Order of derivative must be positive (see polyint)")
-
-    truepoly = isinstance(p, poly1d)
-    p = NX.asarray(p)
-    n = len(p) - 1
-    y = p[:-1] * NX.arange(n, 0, -1)
-    if m == 0:
-        val = p
-    else:
-        val = polyder(y, m - 1)
-    if truepoly:
-        val = poly1d(val)
-    return val
-
-def polyfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, cov=False):
-    """
-    Least squares polynomial fit.
-
-    Fit a polynomial ``p(x) = p[0] * x**deg + ... + p[deg]`` of degree `deg`
-    to points `(x, y)`. Returns a vector of coefficients `p` that minimises
-    the squared error.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    x : array_like, shape (M,)
-        x-coordinates of the M sample points ``(x[i], y[i])``.
-    y : array_like, shape (M,) or (M, K)
-        y-coordinates of the sample points. Several data sets of sample
-        points sharing the same x-coordinates can be fitted at once by
-        passing in a 2D-array that contains one dataset per column.
-    deg : int
-        Degree of the fitting polynomial
-    rcond : float, optional
-        Relative condition number of the fit. Singular values smaller than
-        this relative to the largest singular value will be ignored. The
-        default value is len(x)*eps, where eps is the relative precision of
-        the float type, about 2e-16 in most cases.
-    full : bool, optional
-        Switch determining nature of return value. When it is False (the
-        default) just the coefficients are returned, when True diagnostic
-        information from the singular value decomposition is also returned.
-    w : array_like, shape (M,), optional
-        weights to apply to the y-coordinates of the sample points.
-    cov : bool, optional
-        Return the estimate and the covariance matrix of the estimate
-        If full is True, then cov is not returned.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    p : ndarray, shape (M,) or (M, K)
-        Polynomial coefficients, highest power first.  If `y` was 2-D, the
-        coefficients for `k`-th data set are in ``p[:,k]``.
-
-    residuals, rank, singular_values, rcond :
-        Present only if `full` = True.  Residuals of the least-squares fit,
-        the effective rank of the scaled Vandermonde coefficient matrix,
-        its singular values, and the specified value of `rcond`. For more
-        details, see `linalg.lstsq`.
-
-    V : ndarray, shape (M,M) or (M,M,K)
-        Present only if `full` = False and `cov`=True.  The covariance
-        matrix of the polynomial coefficient estimates.  The diagonal of
-        this matrix are the variance estimates for each coefficient.  If y
-        is a 2-D array, then the covariance matrix for the `k`-th data set
-        are in ``V[:,:,k]``
-
-
-    Warns
-    -----
-    RankWarning
-        The rank of the coefficient matrix in the least-squares fit is
-        deficient. The warning is only raised if `full` = False.
-
-        The warnings can be turned off by
-
-        >>> import warnings
-        >>> warnings.simplefilter('ignore', np.RankWarning)
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    polyval : Computes polynomial values.
-    linalg.lstsq : Computes a least-squares fit.
-    scipy.interpolate.UnivariateSpline : Computes spline fits.
-
-    Notes
-    -----
-    The solution minimizes the squared error
-
-    .. math ::
-        E = \\sum_{j=0}^k |p(x_j) - y_j|^2
-
-    in the equations::
-
-        x[0]**n * p[0] + ... + x[0] * p[n-1] + p[n] = y[0]
-        x[1]**n * p[0] + ... + x[1] * p[n-1] + p[n] = y[1]
-        ...
-        x[k]**n * p[0] + ... + x[k] * p[n-1] + p[n] = y[k]
-
-    The coefficient matrix of the coefficients `p` is a Vandermonde matrix.
-
-    `polyfit` issues a `RankWarning` when the least-squares fit is badly
-    conditioned. This implies that the best fit is not well-defined due
-    to numerical error. The results may be improved by lowering the polynomial
-    degree or by replacing `x` by `x` - `x`.mean(). The `rcond` parameter
-    can also be set to a value smaller than its default, but the resulting
-    fit may be spurious: including contributions from the small singular
-    values can add numerical noise to the result.
-
-    Note that fitting polynomial coefficients is inherently badly conditioned
-    when the degree of the polynomial is large or the interval of sample points
-    is badly centered. The quality of the fit should always be checked in these
-    cases. When polynomial fits are not satisfactory, splines may be a good
-    alternative.
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. [1] Wikipedia, "Curve fitting",
-           http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve_fitting
-    .. [2] Wikipedia, "Polynomial interpolation",
-           http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_interpolation
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    >>> x = np.array([0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0,  4.0,  5.0])
-    >>> y = np.array([0.0, 0.8, 0.9, 0.1, -0.8, -1.0])
-    >>> z = np.polyfit(x, y, 3)
-    >>> z
-    array([ 0.08703704, -0.81349206,  1.69312169, -0.03968254])
-
-    It is convenient to use `poly1d` objects for dealing with polynomials:
-
-    >>> p = np.poly1d(z)
-    >>> p(0.5)
-    0.6143849206349179
-    >>> p(3.5)
-    -0.34732142857143039
-    >>> p(10)
-    22.579365079365115
-
-    High-order polynomials may oscillate wildly:
-
-    >>> p30 = np.poly1d(np.polyfit(x, y, 30))
-    /... RankWarning: Polyfit may be poorly conditioned...
-    >>> p30(4)
-    -0.80000000000000204
-    >>> p30(5)
-    -0.99999999999999445
-    >>> p30(4.5)
-    -0.10547061179440398
-
-    Illustration:
-
-    >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
-    >>> xp = np.linspace(-2, 6, 100)
-    >>> _ = plt.plot(x, y, '.', xp, p(xp), '-', xp, p30(xp), '--')
-    >>> plt.ylim(-2,2)
-    (-2, 2)
-    >>> plt.show()
-
-    """
-    order = int(deg) + 1
-    x = NX.asarray(x) + 0.0
-    y = NX.asarray(y) + 0.0
-
-    # check arguments.
-    if deg < 0:
-        raise ValueError("expected deg >= 0")
-    if x.ndim != 1:
-        raise TypeError("expected 1D vector for x")
-    if x.size == 0:
-        raise TypeError("expected non-empty vector for x")
-    if y.ndim < 1 or y.ndim > 2:
-        raise TypeError("expected 1D or 2D array for y")
-    if x.shape[0] != y.shape[0]:
-        raise TypeError("expected x and y to have same length")
-
-    # set rcond
-    if rcond is None:
-        rcond = len(x)*finfo(x.dtype).eps
-
-    # set up least squares equation for powers of x
-    lhs = vander(x, order)
-    rhs = y
-
-    # apply weighting
-    if w is not None:
-        w = NX.asarray(w) + 0.0
-        if w.ndim != 1:
-            raise TypeError("expected a 1-d array for weights")
-        if w.shape[0] != y.shape[0]:
-            raise TypeError("expected w and y to have the same length")
-        lhs *= w[:, NX.newaxis]
-        if rhs.ndim == 2:
-            rhs *= w[:, NX.newaxis]
-        else:
-            rhs *= w
-
-    # scale lhs to improve condition number and solve
-    scale = NX.sqrt((lhs*lhs).sum(axis=0))
-    lhs /= scale
-    c, resids, rank, s = lstsq(lhs, rhs, rcond)
-    c = (c.T/scale).T  # broadcast scale coefficients
-
-    # warn on rank reduction, which indicates an ill conditioned matrix
-    if rank != order and not full:
-        msg = "Polyfit may be poorly conditioned"
-        warnings.warn(msg, RankWarning)
-
-    if full:
-        return c, resids, rank, s, rcond
-    elif cov:
-        Vbase = inv(dot(lhs.T, lhs))
-        Vbase /= NX.outer(scale, scale)
-        # Some literature ignores the extra -2.0 factor in the denominator, but
-        #  it is included here because the covariance of Multivariate Student-T
-        #  (which is implied by a Bayesian uncertainty analysis) includes it.
-        #  Plus, it gives a slightly more conservative estimate of uncertainty.
-        fac = resids / (len(x) - order - 2.0)
-        if y.ndim == 1:
-            return c, Vbase * fac
-        else:
-            return c, Vbase[:,:, NX.newaxis] * fac
-    else:
-        return c
-
-
-def polyval(p, x):
-    """
-    Evaluate a polynomial at specific values.
-
-    If `p` is of length N, this function returns the value:
-
-        ``p[0]*x**(N-1) + p[1]*x**(N-2) + ... + p[N-2]*x + p[N-1]``
-
-    If `x` is a sequence, then `p(x)` is returned for each element of `x`.
-    If `x` is another polynomial then the composite polynomial `p(x(t))`
-    is returned.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    p : array_like or poly1d object
-       1D array of polynomial coefficients (including coefficients equal
-       to zero) from highest degree to the constant term, or an
-       instance of poly1d.
-    x : array_like or poly1d object
-       A number, a 1D array of numbers, or an instance of poly1d, "at"
-       which to evaluate `p`.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    values : ndarray or poly1d
-       If `x` is a poly1d instance, the result is the composition of the two
-       polynomials, i.e., `x` is "substituted" in `p` and the simplified
-       result is returned. In addition, the type of `x` - array_like or
-       poly1d - governs the type of the output: `x` array_like => `values`
-       array_like, `x` a poly1d object => `values` is also.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    poly1d: A polynomial class.
-
-    Notes
-    -----
-    Horner's scheme [1]_ is used to evaluate the polynomial. Even so,
-    for polynomials of high degree the values may be inaccurate due to
-    rounding errors. Use carefully.
-
-    References
-    ----------
-    .. [1] I. N. Bronshtein, K. A. Semendyayev, and K. A. Hirsch (Eng.
-       trans. Ed.), *Handbook of Mathematics*, New York, Van Nostrand
-       Reinhold Co., 1985, pg. 720.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    >>> np.polyval([3,0,1], 5)  # 3 * 5**2 + 0 * 5**1 + 1
-    76
-    >>> np.polyval([3,0,1], np.poly1d(5))
-    poly1d([ 76.])
-    >>> np.polyval(np.poly1d([3,0,1]), 5)
-    76
-    >>> np.polyval(np.poly1d([3,0,1]), np.poly1d(5))
-    poly1d([ 76.])
-
-    """
-    p = NX.asarray(p)
-    if isinstance(x, poly1d):
-        y = 0
-    else:
-        x = NX.asarray(x)
-        y = NX.zeros_like(x)
-    for i in range(len(p)):
-        y = x * y + p[i]
-    return y
-
-def polyadd(a1, a2):
-    """
-    Find the sum of two polynomials.
-
-    Returns the polynomial resulting from the sum of two input polynomials.
-    Each input must be either a poly1d object or a 1D sequence of polynomial
-    coefficients, from highest to lowest degree.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    a1, a2 : array_like or poly1d object
-        Input polynomials.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    out : ndarray or poly1d object
-        The sum of the inputs. If either input is a poly1d object, then the
-        output is also a poly1d object. Otherwise, it is a 1D array of
-        polynomial coefficients from highest to lowest degree.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    poly1d : A one-dimensional polynomial class.
-    poly, polyadd, polyder, polydiv, polyfit, polyint, polysub, polyval
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    >>> np.polyadd([1, 2], [9, 5, 4])
-    array([9, 6, 6])
-
-    Using poly1d objects:
-
-    >>> p1 = np.poly1d([1, 2])
-    >>> p2 = np.poly1d([9, 5, 4])
-    >>> print p1
-    1 x + 2
-    >>> print p2
-       2
-    9 x + 5 x + 4
-    >>> print np.polyadd(p1, p2)
-       2
-    9 x + 6 x + 6
-
-    """
-    truepoly = (isinstance(a1, poly1d) or isinstance(a2, poly1d))
-    a1 = atleast_1d(a1)
-    a2 = atleast_1d(a2)
-    diff = len(a2) - len(a1)
-    if diff == 0:
-        val = a1 + a2
-    elif diff > 0:
-        zr = NX.zeros(diff, a1.dtype)
-        val = NX.concatenate((zr, a1)) + a2
-    else:
-        zr = NX.zeros(abs(diff), a2.dtype)
-        val = a1 + NX.concatenate((zr, a2))
-    if truepoly:
-        val = poly1d(val)
-    return val
-
-def polysub(a1, a2):
-    """
-    Difference (subtraction) of two polynomials.
-
-    Given two polynomials `a1` and `a2`, returns ``a1 - a2``.
-    `a1` and `a2` can be either array_like sequences of the polynomials'
-    coefficients (including coefficients equal to zero), or `poly1d` objects.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    a1, a2 : array_like or poly1d
-        Minuend and subtrahend polynomials, respectively.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    out : ndarray or poly1d
-        Array or `poly1d` object of the difference polynomial's coefficients.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    polyval, polydiv, polymul, polyadd
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    .. math:: (2 x^2 + 10 x - 2) - (3 x^2 + 10 x -4) = (-x^2 + 2)
-
-    >>> np.polysub([2, 10, -2], [3, 10, -4])
-    array([-1,  0,  2])
-
-    """
-    truepoly = (isinstance(a1, poly1d) or isinstance(a2, poly1d))
-    a1 = atleast_1d(a1)
-    a2 = atleast_1d(a2)
-    diff = len(a2) - len(a1)
-    if diff == 0:
-        val = a1 - a2
-    elif diff > 0:
-        zr = NX.zeros(diff, a1.dtype)
-        val = NX.concatenate((zr, a1)) - a2
-    else:
-        zr = NX.zeros(abs(diff), a2.dtype)
-        val = a1 - NX.concatenate((zr, a2))
-    if truepoly:
-        val = poly1d(val)
-    return val
-
-
-def polymul(a1, a2):
-    """
-    Find the product of two polynomials.
-
-    Finds the polynomial resulting from the multiplication of the two input
-    polynomials. Each input must be either a poly1d object or a 1D sequence
-    of polynomial coefficients, from highest to lowest degree.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    a1, a2 : array_like or poly1d object
-        Input polynomials.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    out : ndarray or poly1d object
-        The polynomial resulting from the multiplication of the inputs. If
-        either inputs is a poly1d object, then the output is also a poly1d
-        object. Otherwise, it is a 1D array of polynomial coefficients from
-        highest to lowest degree.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    poly1d : A one-dimensional polynomial class.
-    poly, polyadd, polyder, polydiv, polyfit, polyint, polysub,
-    polyval
-    convolve : Array convolution. Same output as polymul, but has parameter
-               for overlap mode.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    >>> np.polymul([1, 2, 3], [9, 5, 1])
-    array([ 9, 23, 38, 17,  3])
-
-    Using poly1d objects:
-
-    >>> p1 = np.poly1d([1, 2, 3])
-    >>> p2 = np.poly1d([9, 5, 1])
-    >>> print p1
-       2
-    1 x + 2 x + 3
-    >>> print p2
-       2
-    9 x + 5 x + 1
-    >>> print np.polymul(p1, p2)
-       4      3      2
-    9 x + 23 x + 38 x + 17 x + 3
-
-    """
-    truepoly = (isinstance(a1, poly1d) or isinstance(a2, poly1d))
-    a1, a2 = poly1d(a1), poly1d(a2)
-    val = NX.convolve(a1, a2)
-    if truepoly:
-        val = poly1d(val)
-    return val
-
-def polydiv(u, v):
-    """
-    Returns the quotient and remainder of polynomial division.
-
-    The input arrays are the coefficients (including any coefficients
-    equal to zero) of the "numerator" (dividend) and "denominator"
-    (divisor) polynomials, respectively.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    u : array_like or poly1d
-        Dividend polynomial's coefficients.
-
-    v : array_like or poly1d
-        Divisor polynomial's coefficients.
-
-    Returns
-    -------
-    q : ndarray
-        Coefficients, including those equal to zero, of the quotient.
-    r : ndarray
-        Coefficients, including those equal to zero, of the remainder.
-
-    See Also
-    --------
-    poly, polyadd, polyder, polydiv, polyfit, polyint, polymul, polysub,
-    polyval
-
-    Notes
-    -----
-    Both `u` and `v` must be 0-d or 1-d (ndim = 0 or 1), but `u.ndim` need
-    not equal `v.ndim`. In other words, all four possible combinations -
-    ``u.ndim = v.ndim = 0``, ``u.ndim = v.ndim = 1``,
-    ``u.ndim = 1, v.ndim = 0``, and ``u.ndim = 0, v.ndim = 1`` - work.
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    .. math:: \\frac{3x^2 + 5x + 2}{2x + 1} = 1.5x + 1.75, remainder 0.25
-
-    >>> x = np.array([3.0, 5.0, 2.0])
-    >>> y = np.array([2.0, 1.0])
-    >>> np.polydiv(x, y)
-    (array([ 1.5 ,  1.75]), array([ 0.25]))
-
-    """
-    truepoly = (isinstance(u, poly1d) or isinstance(u, poly1d))
-    u = atleast_1d(u) + 0.0
-    v = atleast_1d(v) + 0.0
-    # w has the common type
-    w = u[0] + v[0]
-    m = len(u) - 1
-    n = len(v) - 1
-    scale = 1. / v[0]
-    q = NX.zeros((max(m - n + 1, 1),), w.dtype)
-    r = u.copy()
-    for k in range(0, m-n+1):
-        d = scale * r[k]
-        q[k] = d
-        r[k:k+n+1] -= d*v
-    while NX.allclose(r[0], 0, rtol=1e-14) and (r.shape[-1] > 1):
-        r = r[1:]
-    if truepoly:
-        return poly1d(q), poly1d(r)
-    return q, r
-
-_poly_mat = re.compile(r"[*][*]([0-9]*)")
-def _raise_power(astr, wrap=70):
-    n = 0
-    line1 = ''
-    line2 = ''
-    output = ' '
-    while True:
-        mat = _poly_mat.search(astr, n)
-        if mat is None:
-            break
-        span = mat.span()
-        power = mat.groups()[0]
-        partstr = astr[n:span[0]]
-        n = span[1]
-        toadd2 = partstr + ' '*(len(power)-1)
-        toadd1 = ' '*(len(partstr)-1) + power
-        if ((len(line2) + len(toadd2) > wrap) or
-                (len(line1) + len(toadd1) > wrap)):
-            output += line1 + "\n" + line2 + "\n "
-            line1 = toadd1
-            line2 = toadd2
-        else:
-            line2 += partstr + ' '*(len(power)-1)
-            line1 += ' '*(len(partstr)-1) + power
-    output += line1 + "\n" + line2
-    return output + astr[n:]
-
-
-class poly1d(object):
-    """
-    A one-dimensional polynomial class.
-
-    A convenience class, used to encapsulate "natural" operations on
-    polynomials so that said operations may take on their customary
-    form in code (see Examples).
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    c_or_r : array_like
-        The polynomial's coefficients, in decreasing powers, or if
-        the value of the second parameter is True, the polynomial's
-        roots (values where the polynomial evaluates to 0).  For example,
-        ``poly1d([1, 2, 3])`` returns an object that represents
-        :math:`x^2 + 2x + 3`, whereas ``poly1d([1, 2, 3], True)`` returns
-        one that represents :math:`(x-1)(x-2)(x-3) = x^3 - 6x^2 + 11x -6`.
-    r : bool, optional
-        If True, `c_or_r` specifies the polynomial's roots; the default
-        is False.
-    variable : str, optional
-        Changes the variable used when printing `p` from `x` to `variable`
-        (see Examples).
-
-    Examples
-    --------
-    Construct the polynomial :math:`x^2 + 2x + 3`:
-
-    >>> p = np.poly1d([1, 2, 3])
-    >>> print np.poly1d(p)
-       2
-    1 x + 2 x + 3
-
-    Evaluate the polynomial at :math:`x = 0.5`:
-
-    >>> p(0.5)
-    4.25
-
-    Find the roots:
-
-    >>> p.r
-    array([-1.+1.41421356j, -1.-1.41421356j])
-    >>> p(p.r)
-    array([ -4.44089210e-16+0.j,  -4.44089210e-16+0.j])
-
-    These numbers in the previous line represent (0, 0) to machine precision
-
-    Show the coefficients:
-
-    >>> p.c
-    array([1, 2, 3])
-
-    Display the order (the leading zero-coefficients are removed):
-
-    >>> p.order
-    2
-
-    Show the coefficient of the k-th power in the polynomial
-    (which is equivalent to ``p.c[-(i+1)]``):
-
-    >>> p[1]
-    2
-
-    Polynomials can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided
-    (returns quotient and remainder):
-
-    >>> p * p
-    poly1d([ 1,  4, 10, 12,  9])
-
-    >>> (p**3 + 4) / p
-    (poly1d([  1.,   4.,  10.,  12.,   9.]), poly1d([ 4.]))
-
-    ``asarray(p)`` gives the coefficient array, so polynomials can be
-    used in all functions that accept arrays:
-
-    >>> p**2 # square of polynomial
-    poly1d([ 1,  4, 10, 12,  9])
-
-    >>> np.square(p) # square of individual coefficients
-    array([1, 4, 9])
-
-    The variable used in the string representation of `p` can be modified,
-    using the `variable` parameter:
-
-    >>> p = np.poly1d([1,2,3], variable='z')
-    >>> print p
-       2
-    1 z + 2 z + 3
-
-    Construct a polynomial from its roots:
-
-    >>> np.poly1d([1, 2], True)
-    poly1d([ 1, -3,  2])
-
-    This is the same polynomial as obtained by:
-
-    >>> np.poly1d([1, -1]) * np.poly1d([1, -2])
-    poly1d([ 1, -3,  2])
-
-    """
-    coeffs = None
-    order = None
-    variable = None
-    __hash__ = None
-
-    def __init__(self, c_or_r, r=0, variable=None):
-        if isinstance(c_or_r, poly1d):
-            for key in c_or_r.__dict__.keys():
-                self.__dict__[key] = c_or_r.__dict__[key]
-            if variable is not None:
-                self.__dict__['variable'] = variable
-            return
-        if r:
-            c_or_r = poly(c_or_r)
-        c_or_r = atleast_1d(c_or_r)
-        if len(c_or_r.shape) > 1:
-            raise ValueError("Polynomial must be 1d only.")
-        c_or_r = trim_zeros(c_or_r, trim='f')
-        if len(c_or_r) == 0:
-            c_or_r = NX.array([0.])
-        self.__dict__['coeffs'] = c_or_r
-        self.__dict__['order'] = len(c_or_r) - 1
-        if variable is None:
-            variable = 'x'
-        self.__dict__['variable'] = variable
-
-    def __array__(self, t=None):
-        if t:
-            return NX.asarray(self.coeffs, t)
-        else:
-            return NX.asarray(self.coeffs)
-
-    def __repr__(self):
-        vals = repr(self.coeffs)
-        vals = vals[6:-1]
-        return "poly1d(%s)" % vals
-
-    def __len__(self):
-        return self.order
-
-    def __str__(self):
-        thestr = "0"
-        var = self.variable
-
-        # Remove leading zeros
-        coeffs = self.coeffs[NX.logical_or.accumulate(self.coeffs != 0)]
-        N = len(coeffs)-1
-
-        def fmt_float(q):
-            s = '%.4g' % q
-            if s.endswith('.0000'):
-                s = s[:-5]
-            return s
-
-        for k in range(len(coeffs)):
-            if not iscomplex(coeffs[k]):
-                coefstr = fmt_float(real(coeffs[k]))
-            elif real(coeffs[k]) == 0:
-                coefstr = '%sj' % fmt_float(imag(coeffs[k]))
-            else:
-                coefstr = '(%s + %sj)' % (fmt_float(real(coeffs[k])),
-                                          fmt_float(imag(coeffs[k])))
-
-            power = (N-k)
-            if power == 0:
-                if coefstr != '0':
-                    newstr = '%s' % (coefstr,)
-                else:
-                    if k == 0:
-                        newstr = '0'
-                    else:
-                        newstr = ''
-            elif power == 1:
-                if coefstr == '0':
-                    newstr = ''
-                elif coefstr == 'b':
-                    newstr = var
-                else:
-                    newstr = '%s %s' % (coefstr, var)
-            else:
-                if coefstr == '0':
-                    newstr = ''
-                elif coefstr == 'b':
-                    newstr = '%s**%d' % (var, power,)
-                else:
-                    newstr = '%s %s**%d' % (coefstr, var, power)
-
-            if k > 0:
-                if newstr != '':
-                    if newstr.startswith('-'):
-                        thestr = "%s - %s" % (thestr, newstr[1:])
-                    else:
-                        thestr = "%s + %s" % (thestr, newstr)
-            else:
-                thestr = newstr
-        return _raise_power(thestr)
-
-    def __call__(self, val):
-        return polyval(self.coeffs, val)
-
-    def __neg__(self):
-        return poly1d(-self.coeffs)
-
-    def __pos__(self):
-        return self
-
-    def __mul__(self, other):
-        if isscalar(other):
-            return poly1d(self.coeffs * other)
-        else:
-            other = poly1d(other)
-            return poly1d(polymul(self.coeffs, other.coeffs))
-
-    def __rmul__(self, other):
-        if isscalar(other):
-            return poly1d(other * self.coeffs)
-        else:
-            other = poly1d(other)
-            return poly1d(polymul(self.coeffs, other.coeffs))
-
-    def __add__(self, other):
-        other = poly1d(other)
-        return poly1d(polyadd(self.coeffs, other.coeffs))
-
-    def __radd__(self, other):
-        other = poly1d(other)
-        return poly1d(polyadd(self.coeffs, other.coeffs))
-
-    def __pow__(self, val):
-        if not isscalar(val) or int(val) != val or val < 0:
-            raise ValueError("Power to non-negative integers only.")
-        res = [1]
-        for _ in range(val):
-            res = polymul(self.coeffs, res)
-        return poly1d(res)
-
-    def __sub__(self, other):
-        other = poly1d(other)
-        return poly1d(polysub(self.coeffs, other.coeffs))
-
-    def __rsub__(self, other):
-        other = poly1d(other)
-        return poly1d(polysub(other.coeffs, self.coeffs))
-
-    def __div__(self, other):
-        if isscalar(other):
-            return poly1d(self.coeffs/other)
-        else:
-            other = poly1d(other)
-            return polydiv(self, other)
-
-    __truediv__ = __div__
-
-    def __rdiv__(self, other):
-        if isscalar(other):
-            return poly1d(other/self.coeffs)
-        else:
-            other = poly1d(other)
-            return polydiv(other, self)
-
-    __rtruediv__ = __rdiv__
-
-    def __eq__(self, other):
-        if self.coeffs.shape != other.coeffs.shape:
-            return False
-        return (self.coeffs == other.coeffs).all()
-
-    def __ne__(self, other):
-        return not self.__eq__(other)
-
-    def __setattr__(self, key, val):
-        raise ValueError("Attributes cannot be changed this way.")
-
-    def __getattr__(self, key):
-        if key in ['r', 'roots']:
-            return roots(self.coeffs)
-        elif key in ['c', 'coef', 'coefficients']:
-            return self.coeffs
-        elif key in ['o']:
-            return self.order
-        else:
-            try:
-                return self.__dict__[key]
-            except KeyError:
-                raise AttributeError(
-                    "'%s' has no attribute '%s'" % (self.__class__, key))
-
-    def __getitem__(self, val):
-        ind = self.order - val
-        if val > self.order:
-            return 0
-        if val < 0:
-            return 0
-        return self.coeffs[ind]
-
-    def __setitem__(self, key, val):
-        ind = self.order - key
-        if key < 0:
-            raise ValueError("Does not support negative powers.")
-        if key > self.order:
-            zr = NX.zeros(key-self.order, self.coeffs.dtype)
-            self.__dict__['coeffs'] = NX.concatenate((zr, self.coeffs))
-            self.__dict__['order'] = key
-            ind = 0
-        self.__dict__['coeffs'][ind] = val
-        return
-
-    def __iter__(self):
-        return iter(self.coeffs)
-
-    def integ(self, m=1, k=0):
-        """
-        Return an antiderivative (indefinite integral) of this polynomial.
-
-        Refer to `polyint` for full documentation.
-
-        See Also
-        --------
-        polyint : equivalent function
-
-        """
-        return poly1d(polyint(self.coeffs, m=m, k=k))
-
-    def deriv(self, m=1):
-        """
-        Return a derivative of this polynomial.
-
-        Refer to `polyder` for full documentation.
-
-        See Also
-        --------
-        polyder : equivalent function
-
-        """
-        return poly1d(polyder(self.coeffs, m=m))
-
-# Stuff to do on module import
-
-warnings.simplefilter('always', RankWarning)