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package/tests/test_Firstsetp8.txt

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+
+= = = Cosmic microwave background radiation = = =
+
+In 1965 Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson serendipitously discovered the cosmic background radiation , an omnidirectional signal in the microwave band . Their discovery provided substantial confirmation of the big @-@ bang predictions by Alpher , Herman and Gamow around 1950 . Through the 1970s the radiation was found to be approximately consistent with a black body spectrum in all directions ; this spectrum has been redshifted by the expansion of the universe , and today corresponds to approximately 2 @.@ 725 K. This tipped the balance of evidence in favor of the Big Bang model , and Penzias and Wilson were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1978 .
+
+The surface of last scattering corresponding to emission of the CMB occurs shortly after recombination , the epoch when neutral hydrogen becomes stable . Prior to this , the universe comprised a hot dense photon @-@ baryon plasma sea where photons were quickly scattered from free charged particles . Peaking at around 372 ± 14 kyr , the mean free path for a photon becomes long enough to reach the present day and the universe becomes transparent .
+
+In 1989 NASA launched the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite ( COBE ) which made two major advances : in 1990 , high @-@ precision spectrum measurements showed the CMB frequency spectrum is an almost perfect blackbody with no deviations at a level of 1 part in 104 , and measured a residual temperature of 2 @.@ 726 K ( more recent measurements have revised this figure down slightly to 2 @.@ 7255 K ) ; then in 1992 further COBE measurements discovered tiny fluctuations ( anisotropies ) in the CMB temperature across the sky , at a level of about one part in 105 . John C. Mather and George Smoot were awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics for their leadership in these results . During the following decade , CMB anisotropies were further investigated by a large number of ground @-@ based and balloon experiments . In 2000 – 2001 several experiments , most notably BOOMERanG , found the shape of the universe to be spatially almost flat by measuring the typical angular size ( the size on the sky ) of the anisotropies .
+
+In early 2003 the first results of the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( WMAP ) were released , yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters . The results disproved several specific cosmic inflation models , but are consistent with the inflation theory in general . The Planck space probe was launched in May 2009 . Other ground and balloon based cosmic microwave background experiments are ongoing .
+
+= = = Abundance of primordial elements = = =
+
+Using the Big Bang model it is possible to calculate the concentration of helium @-@ 4 , helium @-@ 3 , deuterium , and lithium @-@ 7 in the universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen . The relative abundances depend on a single parameter , the ratio of photons to baryons . This value can be calculated independently from the detailed structure of CMB fluctuations . The ratios predicted ( by mass , not by number ) are about 0 @.@ 25 for 4He / H , about 10 − 3 for 2H / H , about 10 − 4 for 3He / H and about 10 − 9 for 7Li / H.
+
+The measured abundances all agree at least roughly with those predicted from a single value of the baryon @-@ to @-@ photon ratio . The agreement is excellent for deuterium , close but formally discrepant for 4He , and off by a factor of two for 7Li ; in the latter two cases there are substantial systematic uncertainties . Nonetheless , the general consistency with abundances predicted by Big Bang nucleosynthesis is strong evidence for the Big Bang , as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements , and it is virtually impossible to " tune " the Big Bang to produce much more or less than 20 – 30 % helium . Indeed , there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that , for example , the young universe ( i.e. , before star formation , as determined by studying matter supposedly free of stellar nucleosynthesis products ) should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than 3He , and in constant ratios , too .
+
+= = = Galactic evolution and distribution = = =
+
+Detailed observations of the morphology and distribution of galaxies and quasars are in agreement with the current state of the Big Bang theory . A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed about a billion years after the Big Bang , and since then larger structures have been forming , such as galaxy clusters and superclusters . Populations of stars have been aging and evolving , so that distant galaxies ( which are observed as they were in the early universe ) appear very different from nearby galaxies ( observed in a more recent state ) . Moreover , galaxies that formed relatively recently appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang . These observations are strong arguments against the steady @-@ state model . Observations of star formation , galaxy and quasar distributions and larger structures agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the universe and are helping to complete details of the theory .
+
+= = = Primordial gas clouds = = =
+
+In 2011 astronomers found what they believe to be pristine clouds of primordial gas , by analyzing absorption lines in the spectra of distant quasars . Before this discovery , all other astronomical objects have been observed to contain heavy elements that are formed in stars . These two clouds of gas contain no elements heavier than hydrogen and deuterium . Since the clouds of gas have no heavy elements , they likely formed in the first few minutes after the Big Bang , during Big Bang nucleosynthesis .
+
+= = = Other lines of evidence = = =
+
+The age of the universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in good agreement with other estimates using the ages of the oldest stars , both as measured by applying the theory of stellar evolution to globular clusters and through radiometric dating of individual Population II stars .
+
+The prediction that the CMB temperature was higher in the past has been experimentally supported by observations of very low temperature absorption lines in gas clouds at high redshift . This prediction also implies that the amplitude of the Sunyaev – Zel 'dovich effect in clusters of galaxies does not depend directly on redshift . Observations have found this to be roughly true , but this effect depends on cluster properties that do change with cosmic time , making precise measurements difficult .
+
+On 17 March 2014 astronomers at the Harvard @-@ Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics announced the apparent detection of primordial gravitational waves , which , was shown to be due to galactic dust . On February 11 , 2016 , the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration teams announced that they had made first observation of gravitational waves , originating from a pair of merging black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors .
+
+= = = Future observations = = =
+
+Future gravitational waves observatories might see primordial gravitational waves , relics of the early universe , up to less than a second of the Big Bang .
+
+= = Problems and related issues in physics = =
+
+As with any theory , a number of mysteries and problems have arisen as a result of the development of the Big Bang theory . Some of these mysteries and problems have been resolved while others are still outstanding . Proposed solutions to some of the problems in the Big Bang model have revealed new mysteries of their own . For example , the horizon problem , the magnetic monopole problem , and the flatness problem are most commonly resolved with inflationary theory , but the details of the inflationary universe are still left unresolved and many , including some founders of the theory , say it has been disproven . What follows are a list of the mysterious aspects of the Big Bang theory still under intense investigation by cosmologists and astrophysicists .
+
+= = = Baryon asymmetry = = =
+
+It is not yet understood why the universe has more matter than antimatter . It is generally assumed that when the universe was young and very hot , it was in statistical equilibrium and contained equal numbers of baryons and antibaryons . However , observations suggest that the universe , including its most distant parts , is made almost entirely of matter . A process called baryogenesis was hypothesized to account for the asymmetry . For baryogenesis to occur , the Sakharov conditions must be satisfied . These require that baryon number is not conserved , that C @-@ symmetry and CP @-@ symmetry are violated and that the universe depart from thermodynamic equilibrium . All these conditions occur in the Standard Model , but the effect is not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry .
+
+= = = Dark energy = = =
+
+Measurements of the redshift – magnitude relation for type Ia supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe has been accelerating since the universe was about half its present age . To explain this acceleration , general relativity requires that much of the energy in the universe consists of a component with large negative pressure , dubbed " dark energy " . Dark energy , though speculative , solves numerous problems . Measurements of the cosmic microwave background indicate that the universe is very nearly spatially flat , and therefore according to general relativity the universe must have almost exactly the critical density of mass / energy . But the mass density of the universe can be measured from its gravitational clustering , and is found to have only about 30 % of the critical density . Since theory suggests that dark energy does not cluster in the usual way it is the best explanation for the " missing " energy density . Dark energy also helps to explain two geometrical measures of the overall curvature of the universe , one using the frequency of gravitational lenses , and the other using the characteristic pattern of the large @-@ scale structure as a cosmic ruler .
+
+Negative pressure is believed to be a property of vacuum energy , but the exact nature and existence of dark energy remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang . Results from the WMAP team in 2008 are in accordance with a universe that consists of 73 % dark energy , 23 % dark matter , 4 @.@ 6 % regular matter and less than 1 % neutrinos . According to theory , the energy density in matter decreases with the expansion of the universe , but the dark energy density remains constant ( or nearly so ) as the universe expands . Therefore , matter made up a larger fraction of the total energy of the universe in the past than it does today , but its fractional contribution will fall in the far future as dark energy becomes even more dominant .
+
+The dark energy component of the universe has been explained by theorists using a variety of competing theories including Einstein 's cosmological constant but also extending to more exotic forms of quintessence or other modified gravity schemes . A cosmological constant problem sometimes called the " most embarrassing problem in physics " results from the apparent discrepancy between the measured energy density of dark energy and the one naively predicted from Planck units .
+
+= = = Dark matter = = =
+
+During the 1970s and 80s , various observations showed that there is not sufficient visible matter in the universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies . This led to the idea that up to 90 % of the matter in the universe is dark matter that does not emit light or interact with normal baryonic matter . In addition , the assumption that the universe is mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations . In particular , the universe today is far more lumpy and contains far less deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter . While dark matter has always been controversial , it is inferred by various observations : the anisotropies in the CMB , galaxy cluster velocity dispersions , large @-@ scale structure distributions , gravitational lensing studies , and X @-@ ray measurements of galaxy clusters .
+
+Indirect evidence for dark matter comes from its gravitational influence on other matter , as no dark matter particles have been observed in laboratories . Many particle physics candidates for dark matter have been proposed , and several projects to detect them directly are underway .
+
+Additionally , there are outstanding problems associated with the currently favored cold dark matter model which include the dwarf galaxy problem and the cuspy halo problem . Alternative theories have been proposed that do not require a large amount of undetected matter but instead modify the laws of gravity established by Newton and Einstein , but no alternative theory as been as successful as the cold dark matter proposal in explaining all extant observations .
+
+= = = Horizon problem = = =
+
+The horizon problem results from the premise that information cannot travel faster than light . In a universe of finite age this sets a limit — the particle horizon — on the separation of any two regions of space that are in causal contact . The observed isotropy of the CMB is problematic in this regard : if the universe had been dominated by radiation or matter at all times up to the epoch of last scattering , the particle horizon at that time would correspond to about 2 degrees on the sky . There would then be no mechanism to cause wider regions to have the same temperature .
+
+A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by inflationary theory in which a homogeneous and isotropic scalar energy field dominates the universe at some very early period ( before baryogenesis ) . During inflation , the universe undergoes exponential expansion , and the particle horizon expands much more rapidly than previously assumed , so that regions presently on opposite sides of the observable universe are well inside each other 's particle horizon . The observed isotropy of the CMB then follows from the fact that this larger region was in causal contact before the beginning of inflation .
+
+Heisenberg 's uncertainty principle predicts that during the inflationary phase there would be quantum thermal fluctuations , which would be magnified to cosmic scale . These fluctuations serve as the seeds of all current structure in the universe . Inflation predicts that the primordial fluctuations are nearly scale invariant and Gaussian , which has been accurately confirmed by measurements of the CMB .
+
+If inflation occurred , exponential expansion would push large regions of space well beyond our observable horizon .
+
+A related issue to the classic horizon problem arises because in most standard cosmological inflation models , inflation ceases well before electroweak symmetry breaking occurs , so inflation should not be able to prevent large @-@ scale discontinuities in the electroweak vacuum since distant parts of the observable universe were causally separate when the electroweak epoch ended .
+
+= = = Magnetic monopoles = = =
+
+The magnetic monopole objection was raised in the late 1970s . Grand unified theories predicted topological defects in space that would manifest as magnetic monopoles . These objects would be produced efficiently in the hot early universe , resulting in a density much higher than is consistent with observations , given that no monopoles have been found . This problem is also resolved by cosmic inflation , which removes all point defects from the observable universe , in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness .
+
+= = = Flatness problem = = =
+
+The flatness problem ( also known as the oldness problem ) is an observational problem associated with a Friedmann – Lemaître – Robertson – Walker metric . The universe may have positive , negative , or zero spatial curvature depending on its total energy density . Curvature is negative if its density is less than the critical density , positive if greater , and zero at the critical density , in which case space is said to be flat . The problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time , and yet the universe today remains very close to flat . Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the Planck time , 10 − 43 seconds , the fact that the universe has reached neither a heat death nor a Big Crunch after billions of years requires an explanation . For instance , even at the relatively late age of a few minutes ( the time of nucleosynthesis ) , the universe density must have been within one part in 1014 of its critical value , or it would not exist as it does today .
+
+= = Ultimate fate of the universe = =
+
+Before observations of dark energy , cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the universe . If the mass density of the universe were greater than the critical density , then the universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse . It would become denser and hotter again , ending with a state similar to that in which it started — a Big Crunch . Alternatively , if the density in the universe were equal to or below the critical density , the expansion would slow down but never stop . Star formation would cease with the consumption of interstellar gas in each galaxy ; stars would burn out leaving white dwarfs , neutron stars , and black holes . Very gradually , collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes . The average temperature of the universe would asymptotically approach absolute zero — a Big Freeze . Moreover , if the proton were unstable , then baryonic matter would disappear , leaving only radiation and black holes . Eventually , black holes would evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation . The entropy of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it , a scenario known as heat death .
+
+Modern observations of accelerating expansion imply that more and more of the currently visible universe will pass beyond our event horizon and out of contact with us . The eventual result is not known . The ΛCDM model of the universe contains dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant . This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems , such as galaxies , will remain together , and they too will be subject to heat death as the universe expands and cools . Other explanations of dark energy , called phantom energy theories , suggest that ultimately galaxy clusters , stars , planets , atoms , nuclei , and matter itself will be torn apart by the ever @-@ increasing expansion in a so @-@ called Big Rip .
+
+= = Speculations = =
+
+While the Big Bang model is well established in cosmology , it is likely to be refined . The Big Bang theory , built upon the equations of classical general relativity , indicates a singularity at the origin of cosmic time ; this infinite energy density is regarded as impossible in physics . Still , it is known that the equations are not applicable before the time when the universe cooled down to the Planck temperature , and this conclusion depends on various assumptions , of which some could never be experimentally verified . ( Also see Planck epoch . )
+
+One proposed refinement to avoid this would @-@ be singularity is to develop a correct treatment of quantum gravity .
+
+It is not known what could have preceded the hot dense state of the early universe or how and why it originated , though speculation abounds in the field of cosmogony .
+
+Some proposals , each of which entails untested hypotheses , are :
+
+Models including the Hartle – Hawking no @-@ boundary condition , in which the whole of space @-@ time is finite ; the Big Bang does represent the limit of time but without any singularity .
+
+Big Bang lattice model , states that the universe at the moment of the Big Bang consists of an infinite lattice of fermions , which is smeared over the fundamental domain so it has rotational , translational and gauge symmetry . The symmetry is the largest symmetry possible and hence the lowest entropy of any state .
+
+Brane cosmology models , in which inflation is due to the movement of branes in string theory ; the pre @-@ Big Bang model ; the ekpyrotic model , in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes ; and the cyclic model , a variant of the ekpyrotic model in which collisions occur periodically . In the latter model the Big Bang was preceded by a Big Crunch and the universe cycles from one process to the other .
+
+Eternal inflation , in which universal inflation ends locally here and there in a random fashion , each end @-@ point leading to a bubble universe , expanding from its own big bang .
+
+Proposals in the last two categories , see the Big Bang as an event in either a much larger and older universe or in a multiverse .
+
+= = Religious and philosophical interpretations = =
+
+As a description of the origin of the universe , the Big Bang has significant bearing on religion and philosophy . As a result , it has become one of the liveliest areas in the discourse between science and religion . Some believe the Big Bang implies a creator , and some see its mention in their holy books , while others argue that Big Bang cosmology makes the notion of a creator superfluous .
+
+= = = Books = = =
+
+Farrell , John ( 2005 ) . The Day Without Yesterday : Lemaitre , Einstein , and the Birth of Modern Cosmology . New York , NY : Thunder 's Mouth Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 56025 @-@ 660 @-@ 5 .
+
+Kolb , E. ; Turner , M. ( 1988 ) . The Early Universe . Addison – Wesley . ISBN 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 11604 @-@ 9 .
+
+Peacock , J. ( 1999 ) . Cosmological Physics . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 42270 @-@ 1 .
+
+Woolfson , M. ( 2013 ) . Time , Space , Stars and Man : The Story of Big Bang ( 2nd edition ) . World Scientific Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84816 @-@ 933 @-@ 3 .
+
+= Hasta la Raíz =
+
+Hasta la Raíz ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈasta la raˈis ] , " To the Root " ) is the sixth studio album by Mexican recording artist Natalia Lafourcade . It was released on March 17 , 2015 , by Sony Music Latin . After the success of her previous album , Mujer Divina , a tribute to Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Agustín Lara , Lafourcade decided to record an album with original recordings . Lafourcade spent three years writing the songs and searching for inspiration in different cities , resulting in songs that express very personal feelings regarding love . The record was produced by Lafourcade , with the assistance of Argentinian musician Cachorro López and Mexican artist Leonel García .
+
+Upon its release , Hasta la Raíz received favorable reviews from music critics , with some critics expressing skepticism about her songwriting and saying she had stayed within her comfort zone , and others praising her evolution as a musician and naming the album one of the best pop releases of the year . The record peaked at number eight on the US Billboard Latin Albums and number one in Mexico , where it was certified platinum , with over 60 @,@ 000 copies shipped in the country . Hasta la Raíz received a nomination for Album of the Year and won Best Alternative Music Album and Best Engineered Album at the 16th Latin Grammy Awards . The album also won Best Latin Rock , Urban or Alternative Album at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards .
+
+To promote the album , four singles were released , and Lafourcade launched the 2015 Hasta la Raíz Tour to several Latin American countries , the United States , and Europe . The album 's first two singles , the title track and " Nunca Es Suficiente " reached the top five in Mexico .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+In 2010 Natalia Lafourcade joined Mexican orchestra conductor Alondra de la Parra on the musical project Travieso Carmesí , an album created as part of the Bicentennial of Mexico celebration . While conducting research to find songs for that album , Lafourcade studied Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Agustín Lara 's catalog and decided to record a tribute album with his songs . Released in 2012 , Mujer Divina earned her accolades for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Long Form Music Video at the 14th Latin Grammy Awards . Two years later , Lafourcade traveled to Veracruz ( Mexico ) , Colombia , and Cuba in a search for musical inspiration and a balance between heart , mind and body . She has said that composition of her new music for Hasta la Raíz was closely woven with the experience of singing Lara 's music .
+
+Hasta la Raíz is Lafourcade 's sixth studio album and her first album of original material in seven years , since Hu Hu Hu ( 2009 ) . It was produced by Argentinean musician Cachorro López , Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Leonel García , and Lafourcade after another record producer became too expensive : " I could not afford a very famous producer who had his fees at exorbitant figures , I won 't say his name , so I decided to take refuge on my friends [ Cachorro and Leonel ] , doing songs with them as accomplices , and they understood " .
+
+= = Writing and recording = =
+
+After completing the album Hu Hu Hu ( 2009 ) Lafourcade experienced writer 's block , and felt that the songs she was writing were too similar to those in her previous albums . For her new work , she sought inspiration from Agustín Lara 's repertoire and her native country , Mexico . " One of the things I wanted to happen with this record was to find the connection with Mexico and its people again " . She said she was a Mexican and proud of the " very many " positive parts it has . Musically , she wanted more simplicity in her songs . Lafourcade forced herself to write " without judgement " , recording voice memos on her phone as part of the writing process . She was inspired by the works of Latin American songwriters such as Simón Díaz , Violeta Parra , Mercedes Sosa , Chavela Vargas , and Caetano Veloso . While recording demos , Lafourcade realized that the songs were more direct and emotional than her previous work . The writing took three years , resulting in approximately 30 songs . Since the album was about her personal life , she selected what she felt were " the strongest ones " , saying , " more than making an album , I wanted to have songs ... that could stand on their own " .
+
+The title track , " Hasta la Raíz " , was written by Lafourcade and Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Leonel García , with whom she had previously collaborated on her album Mujer Divina and on García 's album Todas Mías ( 2012 ) . García had an idea about the song ; they then wrote the music together . Laforcade referred to this collaboration as " magical " , saying the song was an anthem to human strength , and about not forgetting one 's roots . García played a huapango riff , and Lafourcade started singing along while producer Cachorro López recorded everything , and the final result is from that session .
+
+There are two songs about falling in love , " Mi Lugar Favorito " and " Vámonos Negrito " . The former , arranged to emulate emotional outbursts , was the most difficult to finish , and the singer had a hard time trying to find the right place for it on the album . " Vámonos Negrito " is a tribute to her Latin American roots that she started writing after a show in Colombia and finished in Cuba ; in this song , one of her favorites , she tried to create a musical landscape with instruments , textures , and harmonies . The bolero " Antes de Huir " , is a " sad and hopeful " song . It is about not letting go of the things we love . " Ya No Te Puedo Querer " is , according to Lafourcade , an obscure folk @-@ pop song about finding that one cannot be in a relationship anymore ; it was written during a concert tour in Monterrey .
+
+" Para Qué Sufrir " is a song about being all right and trusting someone . Lafourcade wrote the song in a short time but had problems with the chorus , so she asked Torreblanca 's lead singer Jose Manuel Torreblanca for help ; López did the arrangements . " Nunca es Suficiente " deals with emotions about a dysfunctional relationship and wanting something more . It was composed by Lafourcade and Daniela Azpiazu and was intended to be performed by Mexican artist Paulina Rubio , since both Lafourcade and Azpiazu wanted to write songs for other artists . However , upon finishing it , they decided to keep the song to themselves and use it either for Aziapizu 's project María Daniela y su Sonido Lasser or Lafourcade 's album . According to Beverly Bryan of The Village Voice , the song resembles Belle and Sebastian 's The Life Pursuit " in its treatment of Sixties @-@ era pop inspirations " . Mariano Prunes of AllMusic compared the track to the work of Spanish singer Jeanette on the song " Porque Te Vas " . Lafourcade decided upon the album 's title between the songs " Hasta la Raíz " and " Palomas Blancas " ; the latter was written in Las Vegas , during her trip to the Grammy Awards . It is a love story filled with metaphors about her love for Mexico , connection with the universe , and self @-@ preservation . The song had the most modified arrangement , being made with few chords .
+
+In order to create a balance in the tracklist , Lafourcade wrote " Te Quiero Ver " as a " simple song " about wanting to be with someone . The track was co @-@ written by Marian Ruzzi , and was inspired by the music of the 1970s , including a chorus with answering voices , emulating musical theatre . The lyrics for " Lo Que Construimos " , deals with the decision to leave someone and going separate ways . " Estoy Lista " is a ballad about being ready to be well , and Lafourcade worked on the track in her spare time , taking a year to finish it . The last track , " No Más Llorar " , was written during a family reunion with her father and sister in Chile . Lafourcade wrote it about a love that could not be , her mourning and search for stability , forgiveness , and healing . In live performances , the singer dedicates the track to Mexico , to send hope through her music and help people deal with situations such as the Iguala mass kidnapping . " I feel that nowadays is really important that we acknowledge the social part . We must look inward and work , see which aspects we can address to deliver something more positive to the world " .
+
+Regarding the musical arrangements , Lafourcade explained , " I felt that the arrangements had to function as the perfect embrace to the songs ... since each song had its own distinct personality . So it was like creating the ideal musical surroundings . I 'm very visual with music , so I always try to create atmospheres , panoramas , and images . Kind of like creating photographs through music " . She stated to Venue Magazine that the album sequence was selected to create a cycle , to have a beginning and an ending . Lissette Corsa of MTV Iggy said that the songs are " crafted as expansive , cinematic soundscapes that lend themselves to the mood of each song " .
+
+= = Critical reception = =
+
+Upon its release , Hasta la Raíz received positive reactions from music critics . Beverly Bryan of The Village Voice stated that the album " casts a spell with deep feeling , and melodies and lyrics that linger in the mind . Elegantly adorned with subtle strings and velvety production , it has the kind of warmth people are always saying they can hear on old vinyl records " . Bryan also predicted that this release would be recognized in the future as the singer 's " most profound and enduring statement " . In another positive review , Natalia Cano of the magazine Rolling Stone Mexico , referred to the album as " fresh and honest pop , a reflection of her musical maturity " , reiterating that the album " continues to place her as one of the most important composer and performer of Latin America . " AllMusic 's Mariano Prunes gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars ranking , and on his review stated that " these are extremely well @-@ written songs in the spirit of the great Latin America romantic tradition of which Lara was a founding father , but infused with a contemporary perspective " . Luis Romero of the website Coffee and Saturday said that the album is one of the best pop releases of the year , praising Lafourcade 's evolution as a musician , but was critical of Lafourcade for not having extended " her comfort zone " , since it is too early in her career to become settled in one type of music , " and the proof is that the best album tracks are those where she is helped by Leonel García , Torreblanca and María Daniela " . An editor from Televisa Espectáculos wrote a mixed review , commenting that the album has to be listened to twice to " fall in love with at least one song " , comparing positively the title track with Lafourcade 's work on her previous album ( Mujer Divina ) and the songs " Mi Lugar Favorito " and " Te Quiero Ver " with her album Hu Hu Hu , creating a " mix of sounds " on which Lafourcade shows all the things she learned after working with Agustín Lara 's catalog . Lissette Corsa , of MTV Iggy , stated that " despite moments of darkness and heartfelt sadness , Hasta la Raiz bristles with a sense of adventure and optimism " , and noted the influence of Chilean songwriter Violeta Parra in the track " Vámonos Negrito " , as part of Lafourcade 's " eclectic artistry " . Corsa also noted that the singer " drew from Joni Mitchell , Charles Bradley , and Amy Winehouse " .
+
+The album earned the accolades for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Engineered Album , and was nominated for Album of the Year , at the 16th Annual Latin Grammy Awards . About the nominations , Lafourcade said to the newspaper Al Día , " I am very grateful to the people because this album has allowed me to reach them in a closer way , create a complicity ... I feel very happy and with high expectations , regardless of whether we get the Latin Grammy or not " . Billboard columnist Leila Cobo , while reviewing the nominees for the Latin Grammy Award for Album of the Year , stated that this is a " breakthrough album " for the singer , since she is going " beyond her alt roots into commercial territory but with finesse and guts that stay close to her origins " . Hasta la Raíz won a Grammy Award for Best Latin Rock , Urban or Alternative Album . The album ranked at number @-@ one in the list for the " 10 Best Albums of 2015 in Mexico " by newspaper El País ; according to the reviewer Luis Pablo Beauregard , it is an album " naked and raw , where the lyrics and fragility of her voice draw the footprint of heartbreak " . The American edition of Rolling Stone magazine placed Hasta la Raíz at number 3 in the list for the " 10 Best Latin Albums of the Year " , arguing that " the loftiness of the album 's ambitions are tempered by Lafourcade 's masterful songwriting , which remains as deft as a Mesut Özil cross pass " . The editors of Billboard magazine ranked the album at number 2 in the list for the " 10 Best Latin Albums of 2015 " , stating that the singer " manages to be retro and futuristic at the same time ... the sound is so unexpected , that coupled with Lafourcade ’ s sweet vocals , it 's arresting " . Website AllMusic included the album on their list for the " Best of 2015 : Favorite Latin and World Albums " , explaining that Lafourcade " delivers an intimate , poignant , quietly powerful collection of heartbreak songs on this gem of an album " .
+
+= = Singles = =
+
+The title track , " Hasta la Raíz " , was released as the lead single on January 14 , 2015 . It peaked at number 5 in Mexico 's Monitor Latino Pop Chart and number 17 in the U.S. Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , and won Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Alternative Song at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2015 . The music video was directed by Alonso Ruizpalacios , at the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City , gathering 300 fans who responded to an ad published in social networks . " Nunca Es Suficiente " was released as a promo single on January 21 , 2015 . The music video was released on March 23 , 2015 , and was directed by Martín Bautista , and features actors Diana Lein , Gustavo Sánchez Parra and Tenoch Huerta . The video presents two couples during different stages of a love relationship . " Nunca Es Suficiente " peaked at number 4 in the Monitor Latino Pop Chart in Mexico . The track " Lo Que Construimos " was selected as the third single , with its music video also directed by Ruizpalacios and premiering on September 13 , 2015 . On December 10 , 2015 was announced that the track " Mi Lugar Favorito " was the fourth single from the album .
+
+= = Commercial reception = =
+
+In the United States , the album was available on March 17 , 2015 , as a digital download only and debuted at number 12 in the Billboard Latin Albums chart , selling 1 @,@ 000 digital units . On April 14 , the album was available on Amazon on Demand and on September 25 , 2015 , a physical CD was released . Following Lafourcade 's performance at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2015 , sales of the album increased 176 % and re @-@ entered the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart at number 7 , almost matching its initial peak ( number 6 ) . The album re @-@ entered the Latin Albums chart in the week of January 23 , 2016 , to achieve its highest peak at number 8 and also reached a highest position in the Latin Pop Album chart , at number 5 . In the week of April 16 , 2016 , reached a peak of number 4 at the Latin Pop Album Chart . In Mexico , Hasta la Raíz peaked at number one in the Top 100 Mexico chart and was certified platinum by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas for the shipment of 60 @,@ 000 copies . Hasta la Raíz peaked at number 73 in the Spanish Album Chart and 82 in the Italian Album Charts , spending one week on both record charts .
+
+= = Track listing = =
+
+= = Tour = =
+
+Lafourcade launched a promotional tour throughout Mexico and only performed at theaters that were at least 100 years old . The Village Voice , reporting on an interview with Lafourcade , noted , " There are enough such grand old structures in her country to make this possible " , although according to Lafourcade , " some of them are better maintained than others . " The " Hasta la Raíz Tour " opened in Tijuana on April 18 , 2015 , and also visited several cities in the United States such as San Francisco , Washington , D.C. , and New York City . In Hollywood , Lafourcade participated on the Latin Grammy Acoustic Sessions at the Fonda Theatre . A few dates in Argentina , Chile , Italy , and Spain were announced ; however , her record label , Sony Music , announced that due to illness the performance in Spain , set for June , would be canceled . In September , Lafourcade performed at " Festival DCODE 2015 " in Madrid , Spain . The singer also visited Colombia on October 1 , 2015 , performing at Bogotá 's Royal Center . On November 4 , 2015 , Lafourcade fulfilled a long @-@ held dream of performing for the first time at the Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City . " I 've been here with Julieta Venegas , and someone reminded me that I opened for Juanes a few years ago . When I was 13 years old , I ran away from home with my best friend to come to the Auditorio Nacional to see Christina Aguilera , and I wanted to be on stage , longing to have this opportunity . After many years of work , this became a reality . " To further promote the album , Lafourcade became the first Mexican female singer @-@ songwriter to record an acoustic session for the music streaming service Spotify . Titled Spotify Sessions , the live EP includes six tracks from Hasta la Raíz ( " Para Qué Sufrir " , the title track , " Nunca Es Suficiente " , " Ya No Te Puedo Querer " , " Palomas Blancas " , and " No Más Llorar " ) and a cover version of Rafael Hernández 's " Silencio " . Lafourcade performed " Hasta la Raíz " at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2015 . Lafourcade also presented the tour in a sold @-@ out show held at the Teatro Cariola in Santiago de Chile , Chile on November 25 , 2015 .
+
+= = Charts = =
+
+= = = Weekly charts = = =
+
+= = = Album certification = = =
+
+= = Release history = =
+
+= = Credits and personnel = =
+
+The following credits are from Hasta la Raíz album liner notes .
+
+= = = Performance credits by song = = =
+
+= = = Performance credits = = =
+
+= = = Technical credits = = =
+
+= Nebraska Highway 250 =
+
+Nebraska Highway 250 ( N @-@ 250 ) is a highway in northwestern Nebraska . Its southern terminus is at N @-@ 2 , east of Ellsworth . N @-@ 250 does not intersect any state maintained road , until it reaches its northern terminus at U.S. Highway 20 ( US 20 ) in Rushville . The route was designated in 1960 , and was extended south in 1996 .
+
+= = Route description = =
+
+All of the route is in Sheridan County . N @-@ 250 starts at N @-@ 2 , south of Lakeside . The road shortly crosses a railroad owned by BNSF Railway and enters Lakeside . N @-@ 250 shifts west slightly , and bends around a lake . The route travels north , through sand hills , and passing by small lakes and ponds . East of Thompson Lake , N @-@ 250 intersects the 304th Trail , a road that connects to other lakes . Fifteen miles ( 24 km ) later , the road 298th Trail , which connects the Twin Lakes to the highway . A few miles later , the highway passes the Smith Lake State Wildlife Management Area , and crosses over the Niobrara River later . N @-@ 250 soon straightens out , and travels north for 26 miles ( 42 km ) . The road enters Rushville as Chamberlain Street . It enters downtown , and ends at US 20 . In 2012 , the Nebraska Department of Roads ( NDOR ) calculated as many as 305 vehicles traveling on N @-@ 250 near Rushville , and as few as 90 vehicles traveling north of Lakeside . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year .
+
+= = History = =
+
+A metal @-@ surfaced road from US 20 in Rushville to north of the Niobrara River was constructed between 1940 and 1948 . It was extended south to north of Cravath Lake by 1953 . The road was removed from the highway system map in 1957 , and was re @-@ added in 1960 , as N @-@ 250 . A narrow road was extended from N @-@ 250 to N @-@ 2 around 1981 – 82 , but it was not part of N @-@ 250 until 1996 . The routing has not changed significantly since .
+
+= = Major intersections = =
+
+The entire route is in Sheridan County .
+
+= Americium =
+
+Americium is a radioactive transuranic chemical element with symbol Am and atomic number 95 . This member of the actinide series is located in the periodic table under the lanthanide element europium , and thus by analogy was named after the Americas .
+
+Americium was first produced in 1944 by the group of Glenn T. Seaborg from Berkeley , California , at the metallurgical laboratory of University of Chicago . Although it is the third element in the transuranic series , it was discovered fourth , after the heavier curium . The discovery was kept secret and only released to the public in November 1945 . Most americium is produced by uranium or plutonium being bombarded with neutrons in nuclear reactors – one tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100 grams of americium . It is widely used in commercial ionization chamber smoke detectors , as well as in neutron sources and industrial gauges . Several unusual applications , such as nuclear batteries or fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion , have been proposed for the isotope 242mAm , but they are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this nuclear isomer .
+
+Americium is a relatively soft radioactive metal with silvery appearance . Its common isotopes are 241Am and 243Am . In chemical compounds , americium usually assumes the oxidation state + 3 , especially in solutions . Several other oxidation states are known , which range from + 2 to + 8 and can be identified by their characteristic optical absorption spectra . The crystal lattice of solid americium and its compounds contain small instrinsic radiogenic defects , due to metamicitization induced by self @-@ irradiation with alpha particles , which accumulates with time ; this can cause a drift of some material properties over time , more noticeable in older samples .
+
+= = History = =
+
+Although americium was likely produced in previous nuclear experiments , it was first intentionally synthesized , isolated and identified in late autumn 1944 , at the University of California , Berkeley , by Glenn T. Seaborg , Leon O. Morgan , Ralph A. James , and Albert Ghiorso . They used a 60 @-@ inch cyclotron at the University of California , Berkeley . The element was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( now Argonne National Laboratory ) of the University of Chicago . Following the lighter neptunium , plutonium , and heavier curium , americium was the fourth transuranium element to be discovered . At the time , the periodic table had been restructured by Seaborg to its present layout , containing the actinide row below the lanthanide one . This led to americium being located right below its twin lanthanide element europium ; it was thus by analogy named after the Americas : " The name americium ( after the Americas ) and the symbol Am are suggested for the element on the basis of its position as the sixth member of the actinide rare @-@ earth series , analogous to europium , Eu , of the lanthanide series . "
+
+The new element was isolated from its oxides in a complex , multi @-@ step process . First plutonium @-@ 239 nitrate ( 239PuNO3 ) solution was coated on a platinum foil of about 0 @.@ 5 cm2 area , the solution was evaporated and the residue was converted into plutonium dioxide ( PuO2 ) by annealing . After cyclotron irradiation , the coating was dissolved with nitric acid , and then precipitated as the hydroxide using concentrated aqueous ammonia solution . The residue was dissolved in perchloric acid . Further separation was carried out by ion exchange , yielding a certain isotope of curium . The separation of curium and americium was so painstaking that those elements were initially called by the Berkeley group as pandemonium ( from Greek for all demons or hell ) and delirium ( from Latin for madness ) .
+
+Initial experiments yielded four americium isotopes : 241Am , 242Am , 239Am and 238Am . Americium @-@ 241 was directly obtained from plutonium upon absorption of one neutron . It decays by emission of a α @-@ particle to 237Np ; the half @-@ life of this decay was first determined as 510 ± 20 years but then corrected to 432 @.@ 2 years .
+
+<formula>
+
+The times are half @-@ lives
+
+The second isotope 242Am was produced upon neutron bombardment of the already @-@ created 241Am . Upon rapid β @-@ decay , 242Am converts into the isotope of curium 242Cm ( which had been discovered previously ) . The half @-@ life of this decay was initially determined at 17 hours , which was close to the presently accepted value of 16 @.@ 02 h .
+
+<formula>
+
+The discovery of americium and curium in 1944 was closely related to the Manhattan Project ; the results were confidential and declassified only in 1945 . Seaborg leaked the synthesis of the elements 95 and 96 on the U.S. radio show for children Quiz Kids five days before the official presentation at an American Chemical Society meeting on 11 November 1945 , when one of the listeners asked whether any new transuranium element beside plutonium and neptunium had been discovered during the war . After the discovery of americium isotopes 241Am and 242Am , their production and compounds were patented listing only Seaborg as the inventor . The initial americium samples weighed a few micrograms ; they were barely visible and were identified by their radioactivity . The first substantial amounts of metallic americium weighing 40 – 200 micrograms were not prepared until 1951 by reduction of americium ( III ) fluoride with barium metal in high vacuum at 1100 ° C.
+
+= = Occurrence = =
+
+The longest @-@ lived and most common isotopes of americium , 241Am and 243Am , have half @-@ lives of 432 @.@ 2 and 7 @,@ 370 years , respectively . Therefore , any primordial americium ( americium that was present on Earth during its formation ) should have decayed by now .
+
+Existing americium is concentrated in the areas used for the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted between 1945 and 1980 , as well as at the sites of nuclear incidents , such as the Chernobyl disaster . For example , the analysis of the debris at the testing site of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb , Ivy Mike , ( 1 November 1952 , Enewetak Atoll ) , revealed high concentrations of various actinides including americium ; but due to military secrecy , this result was published only until later in 1956 . Trinitite , the glassy residue left on the desert floor near Alamogordo , New Mexico , after the plutonium @-@ based Trinity nuclear bomb test on 16 July 1945 , contains traces of americium @-@ 241 . Elevated levels of americium were also detected at the crash site of a US Boeing B @-@ 52 bomber aircraft , which carried four hydrogen bombs , in 1968 in Greenland .
+
+In other regions , the average radioactivity of surface soil due to residual americium is only about 0 @.@ 01 picocuries / g ( 0 @.@ 37 mBq / g ) . Atmospheric americium compounds are poorly soluble in common solvents and mostly adhere to soil particles . Soil analysis revealed about 1 @,@ 900 times higher concentration of americium inside sandy soil particles than in the water present in the soil pores ; an even higher ratio was measured in loam soils .
+
+Americium is produced mostly artificially in small quantities , for research purposes . A tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100 grams of various americium isotopes , mostly 241Am and 243Am . Their prolonged radioactivity is undesirable for the disposal , and therefore americium , together with other long @-@ lived actinides , must be neutralized . The associated procedure may involve several steps , where americium is first separated and then converted by neutron bombardment in special reactors to short @-@ lived nuclides . This procedure is well known as nuclear transmutation , but it is still being developed for americium . The transuranic elements from americium to fermium occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo , but no longer do so .
+
+= = Synthesis and extraction = =
+
+= = = Isotope nucleosyntheses = = =
+
+Americium has been produced in small quantities in nuclear reactors for decades , and kilograms of its 241Am and 243Am isotopes have been accumulated by now . Nevertheless , since it was first offered for sale in 1962 , its price , about 1 @,@ 500 USD per gram of 241Am , remains almost unchanged owing to the very complex separation procedure . The heavier isotope 243Am is produced in much smaller amounts ; it is thus more difficult to separate , resulting in a higher cost of the order 100 @,@ 000 – 160 @,@ 000 USD / g .
+
+Americium is not synthesized directly from uranium – the most common reactor material – but from the plutonium isotope 239Pu . The latter needs to be produced first , according to the following nuclear process :
+
+<formula>
+
+The capture of two neutrons by 239Pu ( a so @-@ called ( n , γ ) reaction ) , followed by a β @-@ decay , results in 241Am :
+
+<formula>
+
+The plutonium present in spent nuclear fuel contains about 12 % of 241Pu . Because it spontaneously converts to 241Am , 241Pu can be extracted and may be used to generate further 241Am . However , this process is rather slow : half of the original amount of 241Pu decays to 241Am after about 15 years , and the 241Am amount reaches a maximum after 70 years .
+
+The obtained 241Am can be used for generating heavier americium isotopes by further neutron capture inside a nuclear reactor . In a light water reactor ( LWR ) , 79 % of 241Am converts to 242Am and 10 % to its nuclear isomer 242mAm :
+
+79 % : <formula>
+
+10 % : <formula>
+
+Americium @-@ 242 has a half @-@ life of only 16 hours , which makes its further up @-@ conversion to 243Am , extremely inefficient . The latter isotope is produced instead in a process where 239Pu captures four neutrons under high neutron flux :
+
+<formula>
+
+= = = Metal generation = = =
+
+Most synthesis routines yield a mixture of different actinide isotopes in oxide forms , from which isotopes of americium can be separated . In a typical procedure , the spent reactor fuel ( e.g. MOX fuel ) is dissolved in nitric acid , and the bulk of uranium and plutonium is removed using a PUREX @-@ type extraction ( Plutonium – URanium EXtraction ) with tributyl phosphate in a hydrocarbon . The lanthanides and remaining actinides are then separated from the aqueous residue ( raffinate ) by a diamide @-@ based extraction , to give , after stripping , a mixture of trivalent actinides and lanthanides . Americium compounds are then selectively extracted using multi @-@ step chromatographic and centrifugation techniques with an appropriate reagent . A large amount of work has been done on the solvent extraction of americium . For example , a 2003 EU @-@ funded project codenamed " EUROPART " studied triazines and other compounds as potential extraction agents . A bis @-@ triazinyl bipyridine complex was proposed in 2009 as such a reagent is highly selective to americium ( and curium ) . Separation of americium from the highly similar curium can be achieved by treating a slurry of their hydroxides in aqueous sodium bicarbonate with ozone , at elevated temperatures . Both Am and Cm are mostly present in solutions in the + 3 valence state ; whereas curium remains unchanged , americium oxidizes to soluble Am ( IV ) complexes which can be washed away .
+
+Metallic americium is obtained by reduction from its compounds . Americium ( III ) fluoride was first used for this purpose . The reaction was conducted using elemental barium as reducing agent in a water- and oxygen @-@ free environment inside an apparatus made of tantalum and tungsten .
+
+<formula>
+
+An alternative is the reduction of americium dioxide by metallic lanthanum or thorium :
+
+<formula>
+
+= = Physical properties = =
+
+In the periodic table , americium is located to the right of plutonium , to the left of curium , and below the lanthanide europium , with which it shares many similarities in physical and chemical properties . Americium is a highly radioactive element . When freshly prepared , it has a silvery @-@ white metallic lustre , but then slowly tarnishes in air . With a density of 12 g / cm3 , americium is less dense than both curium ( 13 @.@ 52 g / cm3 ) and plutonium ( 19 @.@ 8 g / cm3 ) ; but has a higher density than europium ( 5 @.@ 264 g / cm3 ) — mostly because of its higher atomic mass . Americium is relatively soft and easily deformable and has a significantly lower bulk modulus than the actinides before it : Th , Pa , U , Np and Pu . Its melting point of 1173 ° C is significantly higher than that of plutonium ( 639 ° C ) and europium ( 826 ° C ) , but lower than for curium ( 1340 ° C ) .
+
+At ambient conditions , americium is present in its most stable α form which has a hexagonal crystal symmetry , and a space group P63 / mmc with lattice parameters a
+
+= 346 @.@ 8 pm and c =
+
+1124 pm , and four atoms per unit cell . The crystal consists of a double @-@ hexagonal close packing with the layer sequence ABAC and so is isotypic with α @-@ lanthanum and several actinides such as α @-@ curium . The crystal structure of americium changes with pressure and temperature . When compressed at room temperature to 5 GPa , α @-@ Am transforms to the β modification , which has a face @-@ centered cubic ( fcc ) symmetry , space group Fm3m and lattice constant a = 489 pm . This fcc structure is equivalent to the closest packing with the sequence ABC . Upon further compression to 23 GPa , americium transforms to an orthorhombic γ @-@ Am structure similar to that of α @-@ uranium . There are no further transitions observed up to 52 GPa , except for an appearance of a monoclinic phase at pressures between 10 and 15 GPa . There is no consistency on the status of this phase in the literature , which also sometimes lists the α , β and γ phases as I , II and III . The β @-@ γ transition is accompanied by a 6 % decrease in the crystal volume ; although theory also predicts a significant volume change for the α @-@ β transition , it is not observed experimentally . The pressure of the α @-@ β transition decreases with increasing temperature , and when α @-@ americium is heated at ambient pressure , at 770 ° C it changes into an fcc phase which is different from β @-@ Am , and at 1075 ° C it converts to a body @-@ centered cubic structure . The pressure @-@ temperature phase diagram of americium is thus rather similar to those of lanthanum , praseodymium and neodymium .
+
+As with many other actinides , self @-@ damage of the crystal lattice due to alpha @-@ particle irradiation is intrinsic to americium . It is especially noticeable at low temperatures , where the mobility of the produced lattice defects is relatively low , by broadening of X @-@ ray diffraction peaks . This effect makes somewhat uncertain the temperature of americium and some of its properties , such as electrical resistivity . So for americium @-@ 241 , the resistivity at 4 @.@ 2 K increases with time from about 2 µOhm · cm to 10 µOhm · cm after 40 hours , and saturates at about 16 µOhm · cm after 140 hours . This effect is less pronounced at room temperature , due to annihilation of radiation defects ; also heating to room temperature the sample which was kept for hours at low temperatures restores its resistivity . In fresh samples , the resistivity gradually increases with temperature from about 2 µOhm · cm at liquid helium to 69 µOhm · cm at room temperature ; this behavior is similar to that of neptunium , uranium , thorium and protactinium , but is different from plutonium and curium which show a rapid rise up to 60 K followed by saturation . The room temperature value for americium is lower than that of neptunium , plutonium and curium , but higher than for uranium , thorium and protactinium .
+
+Americium is paramagnetic in a wide temperature range , from that of liquid helium , to room temperature and above . This behavior is markedly different from that of its neighbor curium which exhibits antiferromagnetic transition at 52 K. The thermal expansion coefficient of americium is slightly anisotropic and amounts to ( 7 @.@ 5 ± 0 @.@ 2 ) × 10 − 6 / ° C along the shorter a axis and ( 6 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 4 ) × 10 − 6 / ° C for the longer c hexagonal axis . The enthalpy of dissolution of americium metal in hydrochloric acid at standard conditions is − 620 @.@ 6 ± 1 @.@ 3 kJ / mol , from which the standard enthalpy change of formation ( ΔfH ° ) of aqueous Am3 + ion is − 621 @.@ 2 ± 2 @.@ 0 kJ / mol − 1 . The standard potential Am3 + / Am0 is − 2 @.@ 08 ± 0 @.@ 01 V.
+
+= = Chemical properties = =
+
+Americium readily reacts with oxygen and dissolves well in acids . The most common oxidation state for americium is + 3 , in which americium compounds are rather stable against oxidation and reduction . In this sense , americium is chemically similar to most lanthanides . The trivalent americium forms insoluble fluoride , oxalate , iodate , hydroxide , phosphate and other salts . Other oxidation states have been observed between + 2 and + 7 , which is the widest range among the actinide elements . Their color in aqueous solutions varies as follows : Am3 + ( colorless to yellow @-@ reddish ) , Am4 + ( yellow @-@ reddish ) , AmVO +
+
+2 ; ( yellow ) , AmVIO2 +
+
+2 ( brown ) and AmVIIO5 −
+
+6 ( dark green ) . All oxidation states have their characteristic optical absorption spectra , with a few sharp peaks in the visible and mid @-@ infrared regions , and the position and intensity of these peaks can be converted into the concentrations of the corresponding oxidation states . For example , Am ( III ) has two sharp peaks at 504 and 811 nm , Am ( V ) at 514 and 715 nm , and Am ( VI ) at 666 and 992 nm .
+
+Americium compounds with oxidation state + 4 and higher are strong oxidizing agents , comparable in strength to the permanganate ion ( MnO −
+
+4 ) in acidic solutions . Whereas the Am4 + ions are unstable in solutions and readily convert to Am3 + , the + 4 oxidation state occurs well in solids , such as americium dioxide ( AmO2 ) and americium ( IV ) fluoride ( AmF4 ) .
+
+All pentavalent and hexavalent americium compounds are complex salts such as KAmO2F2 , Li3AmO4 and Li6AmO6 , Ba3AmO6 , AmO2F2 . These high oxidation states Am ( IV ) , Am ( V ) and Am ( VI ) can be prepared from Am ( III ) by oxidation with ammonium persulfate in dilute nitric acid , with silver ( I ) oxide in perchloric acid , or with ozone or sodium persulfate in sodium carbonate solutions . The pentavalent oxidation state of americium was first observed in 1951 . It is present in aqueous solution in the form of AmO +
+
+2 ions ( acidic ) or AmO −
+
+3 ions ( alkaline ) which are however unstable and subject to several rapid disproportionation reactions :
+
+<formula>
+
+<formula>
+
+= = Chemical compounds = =
+
+= = = Oxygen compounds = = =
+
+Three americium oxides are known , with the oxidation states + 2 ( AmO ) , + 3 ( Am2O3 ) and + 4 ( AmO2 ) . Americium ( II ) oxide was prepared in minute amounts and has not been characterized in details . Americium ( III ) oxide is a red @-@ brown solid with a melting point of 2205 ° C. Americium ( IV ) oxide is the main form of solid americium which is used in nearly all its applications . As most other actinide dioxides , it is a black solid with a cubic ( fluorite ) crystal structure .
+
+The oxalate of americium ( III ) , vacuum dried at room temperature , has the chemical formula Am2 ( C2O4 ) 3 · 7H2O . Upon heating in vacuum , it loses water at 240 ° C and starts decomposing into AmO2 at 300 ° C , the decomposition completes at about 470 ° C. The initial oxalate dissolves in nitric acid with the maximum solubility of 0 @.@ 25 g / L.
+
+= = = Halides = = =
+
+Halides of americium are known for the oxidation states + 2 , + 3 and + 4 , where the + 3 is most stable , especially in solutions .
+
+Reduction of Am ( III ) compounds with sodium amalgam yields Am ( II ) salts – the black halides AmCl2 , AmBr2 and AmI2 . They are very sensitive to oxygen and oxidize in water , releasing hydrogen and converting back to the Am ( III ) state . Specific lattice constants are :
+
+Orthorhombic AmCl2 : a
+
+= 896 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 8 pm , b =
+
+757 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 8 pm and c
+
+= 453 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 6 pm
+
+Tetragonal AmBr2 : a =
+
+1159 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 4 and c
+
+= 712 @.@ 1 ± 0 @.@ 3 pm . They can also be prepared by reacting metallic americium with an appropriate mercury halide HgX2 , where X =
+
+Cl , Br or I :
+
+<formula>
+
+Americium ( III ) fluoride ( AmF3 ) is poorly soluble and precipitates upon reaction of Am3 + and fluoride ions in weak acidic solutions :
+
+<formula>
+
+The tetravalent americium ( IV ) fluoride ( AmF4 ) is obtained by reacting solid americium ( III ) fluoride with molecular fluorine :
+
+<formula>
+
+Another known form of solid tetravalent americium chloride is KAmF5 . Tetravalent americium has also been observed in the aqueous phase . For this purpose , black Am ( OH ) 4 was dissolved in 15 @-@ M NH3F with the americium concentration of 0 @.@ 01 M. The resulting reddish solution had a characteristic optical absorption spectrum which is similar to that of AmF4 but differed from other oxidation states of americium . Heating the Am ( IV ) solution to 90 ° C did not result in its disproportionation or reduction , however a slow reduction was observed to Am ( III ) and assigned to self @-@ irradiation of americium by alpha particles .
+
+Most americium ( III ) halides form hexagonal crystals with slight variation of the color and exact structure between the halogens . So , chloride ( AmCl3 ) is reddish and has a structure isotypic to uranium ( III ) chloride ( space group P63 / m ) and the melting point of 715 ° C. The fluoride is isotypic to LaF3 ( space group P63 / mmc ) and the iodide to BiI3 ( space group R3 ) . The bromide is an exception with the orthorhombic PuBr3 @-@ type structure and space group Cmcm . Crystals of americium hexahydrate ( AmCl3 · 6H2O ) can be prepared by dissolving americium dioxide in hydrochloric acid and evaporating the liquid . Those crystals are hygroscopic and have yellow @-@ reddish color and a monoclinic crystal structure .
+
+Oxyhalides of americium in the form AmVIO2X2 , AmVO2X , AmIVOX2 and AmIIIOX can be obtained by reacting the corresponding americium halide with oxygen or Sb2O3 , and AmOCl can also be produced by vapor phase hydrolysis :
+
+<formula>
+
+= = = Chalcogenides and pnictides = = =
+
+The known chalcogenides of americium include the sulfide AmS2 , selenides AmSe2 and Am3Se4 , and tellurides Am2Te3 and AmTe2 . The pnictides of americium ( 243Am ) of the AmX type are known for the elements phosphorus , arsenic , antimony and bismuth . They crystallize in the rock @-@ salt lattice .
+
+= = = Silicides and borides = = =
+
+Americium monosilicide ( AmSi ) and " disilicide " ( nominally AmSix with : 1 @.@ 87 < x < 2 @.@ 0 ) were obtained by reduction of americium ( III ) fluoride with elementary silicon in vacuum at 1050 ° C ( AmSi ) and 1150 − 1200 ° C ( AmSix ) . AmSi is a black solid isomorphic with LaSi , it has an orthorhombic crystal symmetry . AmSix has a bright silvery lustre and a tetragonal crystal lattice ( space group I41 / amd ) , it is isomorphic with PuSi2 and ThSi2 . Borides of americium include AmB4 and AmB6 . The tetraboride can be obtained by heating an oxide or halide of americium with magnesium diboride in vacuum or inert atmosphere .
+
+= = = Organoamericium compounds = = =
+
+Analogous to uranocene , americium forms the organometallic compound amerocene with two cyclooctatetraene ligands , with the chemical formula ( η8 @-@ C8H8 ) 2Am . It also makes the trigonal tricyclopentadienylamericium [ ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) 3Am ) ] complex with three cyclopentadienyl rings surrounding one atom of americium .
+
+Formation of the complexes of the type Am ( n @-@ C3H7 @-@ BTP ) 3 , where BTP stands for 2 @,@ 6 @-@ di ( 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 4 @-@ triazin @-@ 3 @-@ yl ) pyridine , in solutions containing n @-@ C3H7 @-@ BTP and Am3 + ions has been confirmed by EXAFS . Some of these BTP @-@ type complexes selectively interact with americium and therefore are useful in its selective separation from lanthanides and another actinides .
+
+= = Biological aspects = =
+
+Americium is an artificial element of recent origin , and thus does not have a biological requirement . It is harmful to life . It has been proposed to use bacteria for removal of americium and other heavy metals from rivers and streams . Thus , Enterobacteriaceae of the genus Citrobacter precipitate americium ions from aqueous solutions , binding them into a metal @-@ phosphate complex at their cell walls . Several studies have been reported on the biosorption and bioaccumulation of americium by bacteria and fungi .
+
+= = Fission = =
+
+The isotope 242mAm ( half @-@ life 141 years ) has the largest cross sections for absorption of thermal neutrons ( 5 @,@ 700 barns ) , that results in a small critical mass for a sustained nuclear chain reaction . The critical mass for a bare 242mAm sphere is about 9 – 14 kg ( the uncertainty results from insufficient knowledge of its material properties ) . It can be lowered to 3 – 5 kg with a metal reflector and should become even smaller with a water reflector . Such small critical mass is favorable for portable nuclear weapons , but those based on 242mAm are not known yet , probably because of its scarcity and high price . The critical masses of two other readily available isotopes , 241Am and 243Am , are relatively high – 57 @.@ 6 to 75 @.@ 6 kg for 241Am and 209 kg for 243Am . Scarcity and high price yet hinder application of americium as a nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors .
+
+There are proposals of very compact 10 @-@ kW high @-@ flux reactors using as little as 20 grams of 242mAm . Such low @-@ power reactors would be relatively safe to use as neutron sources for radiation therapy in hospitals .
+
+= = Isotopes = =
+
+About 19 isotopes and 8 nuclear isomers are known for americium . There are two long @-@ lived alpha @-@ emitters , 241Am and 243Am with half @-@ lives of 432 @.@ 2 and 7 @,@ 370 years , respectively , and the nuclear isomer 242m1Am has a long half @-@ life of 141 years . The half @-@ lives of other isotopes and isomers range from 0 @.@ 64 microseconds for 245m1Am to 50 @.@ 8 hours for 240Am . As with most other actinides , the isotopes of americium with odd number of neutrons have relatively high rate of nuclear fission and low critical mass .
+
+Americium @-@ 241 decays to 237Np emitting alpha particles of 5 different energies , mostly at 5 @.@ 486 MeV ( 85 @.@ 2 % ) and 5 @.@ 443 MeV ( 12 @.@ 8 % ) . Because many of the resulting states are metastable , they also emit gamma rays with the discrete energies between 26 @.@ 3 and 158 @.@ 5 keV .
+
+Americium @-@ 242 is a short @-@ lived isotope with a half @-@ life of 16 @.@ 02 h . It mostly ( 82 @.@ 7 % ) converts by β @-@ decay to 242Cm , but also by electron capture to 242Pu ( 17 @.@ 3 % ) . Both 242Cm and 242Pu transform via nearly the same decay chain through 238Pu down to 234U .
+
+Nearly all ( 99 @.@ 541 % ) of 242m1Am decays by internal conversion to 242Am and the remaining 0 @.@ 459 % by α @-@ decay to 238Np . The latter breaks down to 238Pu and then to 234U .
+
+Americium @-@ 243 transforms by α @-@ emission into 239Np , which converts by β @-@ decay to 239Pu , and the 239Pu changes into 235U by emitting an α @-@ particle .
+
+= = Applications = =
+
+= = = Ionization @-@ type smoke detector = = =
+
+Americium is the only synthetic element to have found its way into the household , where the most common type of smoke detector uses 241Am in the form of americium dioxide as its source of ionizing radiation . This isotope is preferred over 226Ra because it emits 5 times more alpha particles and relatively little harmful gamma radiation . Element collector Theodore Gray mentions in his book The Elements : A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe " You might think that a synthetic radioactive element that follows plutonium ( 94 ) — and has a significantly shorter half @-@ life — would be some kind of superbomb material , available only to scientists in secret laboratories . Perhaps a mad scientist is studying americium in a lair somewhere , but if you want some yourself you can simply walk into any neighborhood hardware store , supermarket , or Wal @-@ Mart and buy some , no questions asked . " He also adds " The reason is not that americium is fundamentally less dangerous than the elements around it . In fact , the commonly available isotope , 241Am , is significantly more radioactive than weapons @-@ grade plutonium , and at least as toxic . No , the difference is simply that there is a useful application for americium that requires only a very tiny amount , and for which a company was prepared to go through the effort required to carve out and get a regulatory exception . " The amount of americium in a typical new smoke detector is 1 microcurie ( 37 kBq ) or 0 @.@ 29 microgram . This amount declines slowly as the americium decays into neptunium @-@ 237 , a different transuranic element with a much longer half @-@ life ( about 2 @.@ 14 million years ) . With its half @-@ life of 432 @.@ 2 years , the americium in a smoke detector includes about 3 % neptunium after 19 years , and about 5 % after 32 years . The radiation passes through an ionization chamber , an air @-@ filled space between two electrodes , and permits a small , constant current between the electrodes . Any smoke that enters the chamber absorbs the alpha particles , which reduces the ionization and affects this current , triggering the alarm . Compared to the alternative optical smoke detector , the ionization smoke detector is cheaper and can detect particles which are too small to produce significant light scattering ; however , it is more prone to false alarms .
+
+= = = Radionuclide = = =
+
+As 241Am has a roughly similar half @-@ life to 238Pu ( 432 @.@ 2 years vs. 87 years ) , it has been proposed as an active element of radioisotope thermoelectric generators , for example in spacecraft . Although americium produces less heat and electricity – the power yield is 114 @.@ 7 mW / g for 241Am and 6 @.@ 31 mW / g for 243Am ( cf . 390 mW / g for 238Pu ) – and its radiation poses more threat to humans owing to neutron emission , the European Space Agency is considering using americium for its space probes .
+
+Another proposed space @-@ related application of americium is a fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion . It relies on the very high rate of nuclear fission of 242mAm , which can be maintained even in a micrometer @-@ thick foil . Small thickness avoids the problem of self @-@ absorption of emitted radiation . This problem is pertinent to uranium or plutonium rods , in which only surface layers provide alpha @-@ particles . The fission products of 242mAm can either directly propel the spaceship or they can heat up a thrusting gas ; they can also transfer their energy to a fluid and generate electricity through a magnetohydrodynamic generator .
+
+One more proposal which utilizes the high nuclear fission rate of 242mAm is a nuclear battery . Its design relies not on the energy of the emitted by americium alpha particles , but on their charge , that is the americium acts as the self @-@ sustaining " cathode " . A single 3 @.@ 2 kg 242mAm charge of such battery could provide about 140 kW of power over a period of 80 days . With all the potential benefits , the current applications of 242mAm are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this nuclear isomer .
+
+= = = Neutron source = = =
+
+The oxide of 241Am pressed with beryllium is an efficient neutron source . Here americium acts as the alpha source , and beryllium produces neutrons owing to its large cross @-@ section for the ( α , n ) nuclear reaction :
+
+<formula>
+
+<formula>
+
+The most widespread use of 241AmBe neutron sources is a neutron probe – a device used to measure the quantity of water present in soil , as well as moisture / density for quality control in highway construction . 241Am neutron sources are also used in well logging applications , as well as in neutron radiography , tomography and other radiochemical investigations .
+
+= = = Production of other elements = = =
+
+Americium is a starting material for the production of other transuranic elements and transactinides – for example , 82 @.@ 7 % of 242Am decays to 242Cm and 17 @.@ 3 % to 242Pu . In the nuclear reactor , 242Am is also up @-@ converted by neutron capture to 243Am and 244Am , which transforms by β @-@ decay to 244Cm :
+
+<formula>
+
+Irradiation of 241Am by 12C or 22Ne ions yields the isotopes 247Es ( einsteinium ) or 260Db ( dubnium ) , respectively . Furthermore , the element berkelium ( 243Bk isotope ) had been first intentionally produced and identified by bombarding 241Am with alpha particles , in 1949 , by the same Berkeley group , using the same 60 @-@ inch cyclotron . Similarly , nobelium was produced at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research , Dubna , Russia , in 1965 in several reactions , one of which included irradiation of 243Am with 15N ions . Besides , one of the synthesis reactions for lawrencium , discovered by scientists at Berkeley and Dubna , included bombardment of 243Am with 18O .
+
+= = = Spectrometer = = =
+
+Americium @-@ 241 has been used as a portable source of both gamma rays and alpha particles for a number of medical and industrial uses . The 59 @.@ 5409 keV gamma ray emissions from 241Am in such sources can be used for indirect analysis of materials in radiography and X @-@ ray fluorescence spectroscopy , as well as for quality control in fixed nuclear density gauges and nuclear densometers . For example , the element has been employed to gauge glass thickness to help create flat glass . Americium @-@ 241 is also suitable for calibration of gamma @-@ ray spectrometers in the low @-@ energy range , since its spectrum consists of nearly a single peak and negligible Compton continuum ( at least three orders of magnitude lower intensity ) . Americium @-@ 241 gamma rays were also used to provide passive diagnosis of thyroid function . This medical application is however obsolete .
+
+= = Health concerns = =
+
+As a highly radioactive element , americium and its compounds must be handled only in an appropriate laboratory under special arrangements . Although most americium isotopes predominantly emit alpha particles which can be blocked by thin layers of common materials , many of the daughter products emit gamma @-@ rays and neutrons which have a long penetration depth .
+
+If consumed , most of the americium is excreted within a few days , with only 0 @.@ 05 % absorbed in the blood , of which roughly 45 % goes to the liver and 45 % to the bones , and the remaining 10 % is excreted . The uptake to the liver depends on the individual and increases with age . In the bones , americium is first deposited over cortical and trabecular surfaces and slowly redistributes over the bone with time . The biological half @-@ life of 241Am is 50 years in the bones and 20 years in the liver , whereas in the gonads ( testicles and ovaries ) it remains permanently ; in all these organs , americium promotes formation of cancer cells as a result of its radioactivity .
+
+Americium often enters landfills from discarded smoke detectors . The rules associated with the disposal of smoke detectors are relaxed in most jurisdictions . In 1994 , 17 @-@ year @-@ old David Hahn extracted the americium from about 100 smoke detectors in an attempt to build a breeder nuclear reactor . There have been a few cases of exposure to americium , the worst case being that of chemical operations technician Harold McCluskey , who at the age of 64 was exposed to 500 times the occupational standard for americium @-@ 241 as a result of an explosion in his lab . McCluskey died at the age of 75 of unrelated pre @-@ existing disease .
+
+= Peter ( Fringe ) =
+
+" Peter " is the 16th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 36th episode overall .
+
+Considered a keystone episode of the series , " Peter " is a flashback episode , told as Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) reveals to Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) that his son Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) is really the Peter of the parallel universe . Walter explains the events that occurred in 1985 that led to this , and the impact it had on the parallel universe to be at war with the prime one .
+
+The episode 's story was written by Akiva Goldsman , J. H. Wyman , Jeff Pinkner , and Josh Singer . Its teleplay was written by Pinkner , Wyman , and Singer . David Straiton directed the episode . It was guest star Orla Brady 's first appearance as Walter 's wife Elizabeth .
+
+" Peter " first aired in the United States on April 1 , 2010 . An estimated 5 @.@ 8 million viewers watched the episode , giving it a 2 @.@ 2 rating share among those 18 – 49 . The episode received almost overwhelmingly positive reviews , with numerous critics considering it to be the best Fringe episode to date . Actor John Noble was lauded for his performance , and " Peter " topped many " best of television " lists for the year . It was ranked the best episode of the entire series by IGN and Den of Geek and the second best by Entertainment Weekly .
+
+= = Plot = =
+
+The introduction scene follows from " Jacksonville " , where Olivia ( Anna Torv ) has discovered , through her Cortexiphan @-@ induced abilities , that Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) is from the parallel universe , and Walter ( John Noble ) takes her aside to tell her how this came to pass , shown to the viewer in an extended flashback .
+
+In 1985 , Walter and William Bell had theorized the existence of a parallel universe , and created a window @-@ like device to observe it . Though they use their observations for military benefits , Walter has a more personal interest in the parallel universe , to seek a cure for a genetic disease crippling his son Peter ( Quinn Lord ) . " Walternate " , Walter 's doppelganger in the other universe , is also seeking a similar cure , his Peter suffering from the same disease .
+
+The prime universe 's Peter succumbs to his illness and dies , and Walter and his wife Elizabeth ( Orla Brady ) mourn their loss , supported by Walter and William 's friend , Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) and Walter 's lab assistant , Carla Warren ( Jenni Blong ) . Walter , through his window , shows Elizabeth the other Peter , and asserts they should be happy knowing another Peter exists . Later , Walter watches Walternate explore other cures . Walternate is distracted by the arrival of an Observer , September ( Michael Cerveris ) , and fails to see the telltale color change indicating a cure . Walter is able to recreate and stabilize Walternate 's cure , and then decides to use untested equipment to cross over to give the cure to Peter . Carla tries to stop Walter , knowing the technology could damage the fabric of space @-@ time , and contacts Nina for help . Separately , September informs his fellow Observers that he may have made a mistake and assures them he will correct it .
+
+Walter sets up his equipment on the frozen ice of Reiden Lake , near a cabin where Elizabeth and Peter are staying ; Walter theorizes the frozen waters will buffer the effects of the crossing . Carla arrives with Nina , and both try to talk him out of it . When Walter realizes William is not with them , he takes this as an implicit sign of William 's consent to his plan , and activates the portal . Nina attempts to tackle Walter as he steps through , but instead part of her arm disappears in the portal as it closes ; Carla rushes her to the hospital .
+
+In the parallel universe , Walter finds the cure vial shattered when Nina tackled him and he devises a new plan : to bring Peter back , administer a new batch of the cure , and return him . Meeting the parallel universe 's Elizabeth , he explains he is taking Peter back to the lab for some tests . As Walter walks Peter back across the lake to the portal , Peter realizes that Walter is not his real father . They cross through the portal safely , but the ice has weakened and both fall through , losing consciousness . Walter wakes to find September driving him and Peter back to Walter 's lab . September warns that " the boy must live " , and leaves Walter to drive the rest of the way . At the lab , as Peter receives the cure , Carla informs him that William will see to replacing Nina 's arm . Elizabeth arrives unannounced , and is overjoyed to see Peter , even though it is not her child . At that point , Walter realizes he will never be able to make himself return Peter to his proper universe--the pain of losing their child for the second time would be too great .
+
+In the show 's conclusion in the present day , Walter tells Olivia that his crossing is what caused the crack between the two universes , including the Pattern on their side , and leading to the oncoming " storm " that William warned Olivia about .
+
+= = Production = =
+
+The episode 's teleplay was co @-@ written by supervising producer Josh Singer and co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman , based on a story by Singer , Wyman , Pinkner , and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman . House M.D. veteran David Straiton served as episode director .
+
+Fringe began casting for an actress to play Walter 's wife Elizabeth in November 2009 . In their report , they were looking for a woman roughly forty years old who was described as being " strong ( yet broken ) , intelligent , attractive , likable , lovely and extremely versatile " . In December 2009 , Entertainment Weekly announced Irish actress Orla Brady had been cast as Elizabeth Bishop , a possible recurring character . Some critics questioned the casting , as they considered Brady to be too young and were unsure if she would appear in the present or a flashback sequence .
+
+" Peter " was set in 1985 , with a much younger Walter and Peter Bishop , and also features an appearance by Walter 's wife Elizabeth . Actor John Noble used material he had created since the airing of the pilot , which he explained was his sense of " what was this man like before he deteriorated . " The production crew tried different methods with the actor to create a younger Walter , such as changes to his hair , make @-@ up , and wardrobe ; they ultimately decided on using " tabs " to keep the wrinkles in his face back . He did not wear a wig , but the crew did add parts to the front and back . When asked what preparation went into playing a younger Walter , Noble explained :
+
+" Quite a lot , but in the sense in my preparation to find the Walter that we all know now , I had to go back to him right at the beginning to see where he came from . So that process was started before the pilot really , what was this man like before he deteriorated , so I was able to revisit that . Physically , of course , what I had to do was capture the energy , to capture the physicality of the man , the vocal physicality of the man , this was my task . I was aided enormously by my hair and makeup and special effects people here in terms of getting the overall , and indeed wardrobe helped a lot as well . And then we , the shot up through these beautiful lenses that we got a different feel to the episode than we would now . All of those elements work together ... to create this version that you see in the episode . "
+
+The episode was shot through special lenses to make it more reminiscent of the decade . At Peter 's funeral , actress Blair Brown wanted her character Nina Sharp to wear sunglasses , because she thought Nina would not share her emotions at the funeral . Unlike Noble , Brown wore a wig . The scenes at Reiden Lake were actually shot on a parking lot , and the crew placed a covering over it to simulate the cracks normally on a lake .
+
+To reflect the episode 's setting in 1985 , the typical title credit sequence was redone using different music , the Asimov font for early computer type for the show 's logo , and terms that were " fringe science " at the time , such as " virtual reality , " " genetic engineering , " and " personal computing " . Pinkner later recalled , " One of our writers said off @-@ handedly that if we ’ re doing a show from 1985 , shouldn ’ t we do a credit sequence from 1985 , and literally , we pounced on it " . He and Wyman asked J. J. Abrams , who wrote the original credit sequence melody , to write a 1980s version ; Abrams was " very , very happy to do that , " according to Wyman .
+
+As with other Fringe episodes , Fox and Science Olympiad released a lesson plan for grade school children based upon the science depicted in " Peter " ; the lesson 's intention was for " students [ to ] learn about the challenges of effectively communicating scientific principles and concepts , especially via non @-@ verbal methods . "
+
+= = Cultural references = =
+
+In viewing the parallel universe through the window , Walter and others witness a zeppelin docking at the Empire State Building , which was originally part of the building 's purpose until it was shown to be impractical . In a scene that takes place in the parallel universe , the Observers are seen leaving a theater having watched Back to the Future starring Eric Stoltz ; in reality , Eric Stoltz was originally cast in the role of Marty after Michael J. Fox was unavailable , but after filming for several weeks , Stoltz was replaced by Fox .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+= = = Ratings = = =
+
+On its first broadcast , " Peter " was watched an estimated 5 @.@ 8 million viewers , achieving a 3 @.@ 6 share in all households and 2 @.@ 2 share of viewers between 18 and 49 . In a Thursday night that had rating slumps from all the network shows , " Peter " was down 15 percent from the previous episode " Jacksonville " .
+
+= = = Reviews = = =
+
+" Peter " received widespread critical acclaim . As described by Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times , " ' Peter ' is exactly what Fringe needs to be " for the show to distinguish itself from others like The X @-@ Files , in that it teased hints of the episode 's reveal in earlier shows , and followed through by revealing the truth , leaving the viewer wanting to know even more . Ramsey Isler of IGN considered " Peter " " the most masterfully crafted episode Fringe has ever had " , praising the performance of Noble and Brady in delivering the emotion needed for the episode . Tim Grierson of New York Magazine also praised the emotional performance of John Noble , calling it his " showcase " and one where " he didn ’ t disappoint " . The A.V. Club 's Noel Murray considered the episode one of the best of 2010 up to that point , and that " the show came back with a sense of purpose and surety it ’ s rarely had , even at its best " .
+
+Since its airing and continuation into Season 3 , " Peter " has been considered a keystone episode for the series . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly called " Peter " the episode " when Fringe crossed over from fitfully great to just plain great " , and continues to maintain that quality throughout 2010 . Time 's James Poniewozik ranked " Peter " as the 5th best television episode of 2010 , stating that it both " fleshed out its mythology " and " deepened the emotional backstory " , and further praised Noble 's acting in the episode . The A.V. Club ranked Fringe the 15th best show of 2010 , highlighting " Peter " as an episode that " finally dramatized the moment that changed [ Peter 's ] life , giving the series ’ overarching storyline a devastating emotional core , based in a father ’ s love instead of in theoretical concept " . The Futon Critic ranked " Peter " as the 9th best episode of 2010 , calling it a " series defining episode that not only rationalized what appeared to be the unforgiveable but also raised the stakes on everything we had come to expect from the show thus far " .
+
+Similarly , BuddyTV rated it the seventh best episode of 2010 , praising it for " open [ ing ] the door to the show ’ s brilliant use of the alternate universe , " and calling Noble 's acting " one of the best performances on TV " . SFX ranked " Peter " among the twenty things they love about the series , calling it " the lynchpin episode on which all of Fringe rests . " Executive producers Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman , and co @-@ creator J. J. Abrams later said that " Peter " was one of their favorite episodes . In a 2013 list , Den of Geek ranked the episode as the best of the entire series .
+
+As one result of the high praise and fan appreciation for " Peter " , a future episode , " Subject 13 " ( originally named " 6 Months Later " ) in Fringe 's third season aired on February 25 , 2011 . It returned to the events within " Peter " but told from the perspective of the parallel universe , including the impact of Peter 's abduction on both Walter and Elizabeth . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Peter " the second best episode of the series , explaining that it " stands as a model for mythological storytelling that any sci @-@ fi / fantasy series would be wise to emulate . " In January 2013 , IGN ranked the episode as the best of the series :
+
+The quintessential episode of Fringe lore , ' Peter ' gave us a flawless peek at the past , and the events that caused all this universe @-@ clashing mess in the first place . The episode was marked by a pitch @-@ perfect pace , excellent " youthenizing " special effects , and a story that plays your heartstrings like an expert bard plucking out a tearful tune on a lyre . This episode brought us so many answers to the major questions of the series ... This was Fringe at its best .
+
+= = = Awards and nominations = = =
+
+Writers J.H. Wyman , Jeff Pinkner , Josh Singer , and Akiva Goldsman submitted " Peter " for consideration in the Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series category at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards . At the 2011 Young Artist Awards , Quinn Lord received a nomination for Best Performance in a TV Series under the category " Guest Starring Young Actor Ten and Under " .
+
+= Theory of Literature =
+
+Theory of Literature is a book on literary scholarship by René Wellek , of the structuralist Prague school , and Austin Warren , a self @-@ described " old New Critic " . The two met at the University of Iowa in the late 1930s , and by 1940 had begun writing the book ; they wrote collaboratively , in a single voice over a period of three years . Its contents were based on their shared understandings of literature .
+
+Originally consisting of twenty chapters – one was cut in later editions – Theory of Literature describes various aspects of literary theory , criticism , and history . After defining various aspects and relationships of literature in general , Wellek and Warren divide analysis of literature based on two approaches : extrinsic , relating to factors outside a work such as the author and society , and intrinsic , relating to factors within such as rhythm and meter . They stress the need to focus on the intrinsic elements of a work as the best way to truly understand it . In doing so they adapt the phenomenology used by Roman Ingarden .
+
+Published by Harcourt , Brace , and Company in December 1948 , Theory of Literature received mixed reviews from the academic community . It was used to teach literary theory beginning soon after publication and remained in common use into the 1960s . Its success has been credited as introducing European literary scholarship into the US and crystallizing a movement towards intrinsic literary criticism . Theory of Literature saw three editions and has been translated into more than twenty languages .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+René Wellek ( 1903 – 1995 ) was an Austrian @-@ born scholar from the structuralist Prague school of linguistics , studying under Vilém Mathesius . Wellek had training in classical literature and was fluent in several European languages , both Romance and Slavic . His theoretical training included the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl , as used in Roman Ingarden 's work , and the psychologically influenced linguistics of Karl Bühler . After Nazi Germany occupied Prague in 1939 , Wellek fled London – where he had been teaching – for the United States , teaching at the University of Iowa under Norman Foerster .
+
+There Wellek met Austin Warren ( 1899 – 1986 ) , an American literary scholar who considered himself an " old New Critic " . He had written extensively on literary criticism and was raised in , but later saw several limitations to , the New Humanist views promoted by Irving Babbitt and Paul Elmer More . Wellek and Warren were soon in agreement over several aspects of literature , and by 1940 they had begun considering collaboration on a book . Over the next several years they furthered their understandings of European and American literature theory through discussions with Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren , and extensive reading of contemporary European writings .
+
+= = Writing = =
+
+Owing to several academic commitments , work on Theory of Literature did not begin until 1945 , after Wellek and Warren received a stipend from the Rockefeller Foundation over a period of two summers . Wellek and Warren began dividing their responsibilities , at first evenly , but with more work done by Wellek as Warren dealt with the illness , and later loss , of his wife Eleanor in 1946 . During this period of writing Wellek transferred to Yale University ( 1946 ) and Warren to the University of Michigan ( 1948 ) , but collaboration continued .
+
+The title , according to Wellek and Warren , was " more than ordinarily difficult " to choose . Some titles , such as Theory of Literature and Methodology of Literary Study , were dismissed as too cumbersome . However , in a 1950 review for The Antioch Review , the literary scholar Herbert S. Benjamin wrote that a better title would have been Theory of the Methodology of the Literary Study ; he considered the book lacking the theory implied by the chosen title .
+
+The original publication of Theory of Literature consists of twenty chapters set in five sections based on thematic similarities ; one chapter and section was removed in later editions . Wellek contributed thirteen of the book 's chapters , while Warren wrote six ; the final chapter was written collaboratively . Although most of the chapters are credited as the work of one man , the two often copyedited and proofread each other 's work , at times inserting entire sentences or paragraphs . Each also suggested further references that the other could use in expanding his chapter .
+
+In their writing Wellek and Warren attempted to present a single voice despite the dominance of individuals . Their success in presenting such a voice has been debated . Wellek later recalled that people often told him it was difficult to tell who had written which chapter without consulting the book 's introduction . However , the literary scholar C. J. van Rees of Tilburg University notes that Wellek 's influences are prevalent in chapters authored by Warren . Aldo Scaglione , in a review of the second edition , wrote that " one immediately senses the change of hand " between chapters by different authors .
+
+= = Contents = =
+
+= = = Section 1 : Definitions and Distinctions . = = =
+
+The first section , entitled Definitions and Distinctions , consists of five chapters and details how Wellek and Warren define literature . This section also contrasts Wellek and Warren 's definition with those of others , such views of literature as everything in print and as only belles @-@ lettres ( accepted literary canon ) . They define literary scholarship as beyond the personal ( " super @-@ personal " ) and contrasted with the literary arts by its more scientific approach . Wellek and Warren suggest that neither a purely objective nor a purely subjective approach would be able to properly describe literature . They note that literary scholarship should not only examine what makes a work or author unique , but also its general characteristics that allow it to be compared to other works .
+
+Wellek and Warren limit their definition of literature to pieces of " imaginative literature " , which can gain artistic merit from their coherence and complexity . The language in literary works is contrasted from scientific and other language by the use of connotative ( non @-@ literal ) language and expressive content . Studies of literature must be literary and systematic , treating literature as literature and not part of another field . Wellek and Warren discuss several proposed functions of literature , beginning with Horace 's proclamation that literature must be " sweet and useful " ( dulce et utile ; have a coalescing aesthetic and functional role ) , and extending to literature as a substitute for travel and experience , a vehicle for truth or persuasion , to relieve or incite emotion , or as something without a function . They ultimately describe the main function of literature as being loyal to its own nature .
+
+They call for a systematic and integrated study of literature , uniting literary theory , which outlines the basic principles of literature ; criticism , which critiques individual works ; and history , which outlines the development of literature . Although these aspects have clear distinctions , they are in a dialectical relationship and should not be separated ; for example , a theory of literature is impossible without referring to works of literature . They reject Historicist approaches to literary history , which they find reduce literary history to " a series of discrete and hence finally incomprehensible fragments " and emphasize the author 's intent too greatly . Instead , Wellek and Warren argue that a work must be seen from the point of view of both its own period and all subsequent periods , as a work 's historical meaning is derived from " the history of its criticism by its many readers in many ages . " Criticism should not be limited to classical and medieval literature , but also include works by living authors .
+
+Wellek and Warren describe the term comparative literature as " troublesome " , noting that it has been used for the study of oral literature , the study of the literatures in two or more countries , and the study of a " general " , " universal " , or " world " literature ; this last use , according to the authors , obviates issues present in the other understandings of the term . This understanding of literature as a totality can be used to trace the development of the art , unlimited by differences between languages . Within this comparative literature other supernational literatures , which may be based on language families and schools , are also apparent . There are also national literatures which , although possibly of the same language , will still have thematic differentiations . These are also worthy of study .
+
+= = = Section 2 : Preliminary Operations = = =
+
+This section consists of a single chapter regarding the treatment , classification , annotation , and other aspects of working with manuscripts and related documentation . Wellek and Warren describe tasks such as authenticating manuscripts and establishing an author and date as important ones without which " critical analysis and historical understanding would be hopelessly handicapped " ; however , these tasks should be preliminary to the " ultimate task of scholarship " , analysis , and not a goal in themselves . Wellek and Warren note the importance of identifying forgeries , a task which can be completed in numerous ways : paleography , bibliography , linguistics , and history may all be involved . These forgeries may spark further investigation and literary debates which can result in a better understanding of the period , the writer , or the writer 's oevre .
+
+The authors identify two levels of operations when dealing with manuscripts : the assembly and preparation of the materials , and the establishment of aspects such as chronology and authorship . At the first level one must locate and identify materials to study , be they written , printed , or oral ; such a task may be difficult and depend on factors outside literature in its completion . Written and printed works must then be edited for readability ; this task , which requires " lucky guesswork " , entails deciphering illegible parts in the material , classifying it , and identifying possible changes made by scribes ( and thus bringing the material closer to its " author 's own " ) . Meanwhile , the second level may require greater initiative from the one studying a work ; it involves , among other things , selection of what should be published , how it is best arranged in a collection , the establishment of chronology and authorship through internal and external evidence , and the provision of proper annotation and commentary .
+
+= = = Section 3 : The Extrinsic Approach to the Study of Literature = = =
+
+The third section consists of five chapters discussing various elements extrinsic to works of literature , such as biography , psychology , social milieu , ideas , and other arts ; this is opposed to elements intrinsic to a work , which are explored in Section 4 . They write that research into extrinsic elements often results in an attempt to establish some causality between the extrinsic elements and a work . Although " [ n ] obody can deny that much light has been thrown on literature by a proper knowledge of the conditions under which it has been produced " , such studies " can never dispose of problems of description , analysis , and evaluation of an object such as a work of literary art . "
+
+Wellek and Warren describe three views of a biographical approach , of which only one – the biographical aspects relating to the production of a work – can be of use ; this use , however , is limited . They reject the views that works accurately reflect the author 's life or that the author 's life must be understood in order to understand a particular work . According to Wellek and Warren , works may indeed reflect the author 's experiences , but they may also reflect an author 's hopes and dreams , or literary tradition and convention , and as such are " not a document for biography " . Likewise , an understanding of personal style ( what makes a work " Miltonic " , " Keatsian " , " Shakespearean " , or " Virgilian " ) does not rely on knowledge of the author 's life . They conclude that " it seems dangerous to ascribe to [ biography ] any real critical importance " , and that such approaches , if undertaken at all , should be done with a " sense " of the distinctions outlined above .
+
+Wellek and Warren consider analysis of characters the only legitimate application of psychological analysis in literary study . Such an analysis , however , they find lacking on its own merits : individual characters do not fit psychological theories of the time they are written . Works which are true to certain psychological theories , meanwhile , are not necessarily better . Thus , they question the value of looking for psychological " truth " in how a work is presented . Additionally they outline and critique psychological theories that have been used to analyze authors and the creative process .
+
+Wellek and Warren write that literature is ultimately a social institution as several aspects of it are created or influenced through social conventions and norms . They reject a more specific understanding of social realities in literature . An author , for example , is a social being , raised and shaped by society and is in a dialectic relationship with the audience : the audience provides recognition and an income , and the author shapes audiences ' tastes and behavior . Intrinsic elements of the work , and indeed the " realization of certain aesthetic values " , can reflect contemporary society and its attitudes . Literature does not , however , " correctly " reflect society or life , and may exhibit little connection . As such , " social truth " should not become an artistic value of its own right , and literature should not be thought of as a " substitute for sociology or politics " .
+
+Wellek and Warren note arguments that literature is a form of philosophy or , alternatively , that it is devoid of such ideas . They reject extreme versions of these arguments . They write that " a knowledge of the history of philosophy and of general ideas " will be valuable for a researcher . However , they note that philosophical ideas may not have been consciously included in a work . Instead , they agree with the German scholar Rudolf Unger that " literature expresses a general attitude toward life , that poets usually answer , unsystematically , questions which are also themes of philosophy " , in a manner that differs over time . They outline attempts at classifying these ideas , including through Weltanschauung ( " world view " ) and Geistesgeschichte ( " time spirit " ) , before showing shortcomings in these systems . They then write that students of literature , an art which may ( but need not ) parallel philosophical development , should focus on how ideas enter the work . Wellek and Warren argue that a work does not necessarily become better with more philosophical content .
+
+Wellek and Warren write that the relationship between literature and other forms of art , such as architecture , sculpture , music , or visual art , is " highly various and complex " . For example , literature may inspire the other art forms , or vice versa . A work of literature may also attempt to have the same effect as another art , through visualization , musicality , or other techniques . However , literature remains a separate art form , and effects found within are conveyed imperfectly . The emotions triggered by a work , or the intentions or theories behind it , will likewise not completely parallel those of another art form ; individual forms of art have also " evolved " differently . Instead , Wellek and Warren suggest that works of art , like literature , can only be truly understood by looking at the works of art themselves and not their extrinsic aspects . A comparison between literature and another art form , thus , is secondary to establishing " outlines of strictly literary evolution " .
+
+= = = Section 4 : The Intrinsic Study of Literature = = =
+
+This section , almost twice the size of the others , consists of eight chapters regarding various elements intrinsic to works of literature . Wellek and Warren write that starting an analysis from elements intrinsic to the work is " natural and sensible " , given that " only the works themselves justify all our interest " in extrinsic issues . They outline different definitions of literature , including as artifacts , sequences of sounds pronounced when reading , the experiences of the reader or author , or the " sum of all past and possible experiences " ( alternatively " the experience common to all the experiences " ) related to a work . All these understandings they find lacking . Instead they suggest that literature is a " potential cause of experiences " consisting of a system of stratified norms – implicit in the work – which can only be partially realized by the reader ; it is neither purely material , mental , nor ideal , nor is it static or bereft of value .
+
+Wellek and Warren consider patterns of sound as inherent to the text ; these must be analyzed while keeping the meaning ( or general emotional tone ) in mind . They suggest two different aspects of sound systems : sounds in isolation , and sounds in relations with others . The sounds in isolation are used in a work establish a euphony or orchestration – a sound aesthetic which may be pleasing or harsh – while the relational aspect " may become the basis of rhythm and meter " . Regarding euphony , Wellek and Warren discuss issues of classification , rhyme , onomotopeia , and the " physiognomy " of sounds as part of orchestration . Of rhythm they explore varying definitions , applications , typology , and artistic value . They then discuss theories of meter and their shortcomings , noting that the metric foundation differs between languages and stressing that meaning should not be divorced from meter .
+
+Language , meanwhile , they describe as " quite literally the material of the literary artist " ; although a work is influenced by language , the writer 's style , the use of communicative language , may influence language . Rather than use a work to study linguistic history , they recommend examining works through stylistics , which in literature they define as " the study of a work of art or a group of works which are to be described in terms of their aesthetic function and meaning " . Such studies can be done either as a search for a " total meaning " or a " sum of individual traits " . Ideally , such a study should " establish some unifying principle , some general aesthetic " in a work or genre , although some may be more difficult than others . As such , they reject stylistic studies which focus mainly on " peculiarities of style " or which are linked to extrinsic elements .
+
+For other understandings of meaning , Wellek and Warren suggest a look at the sequence of image , metaphor , symbol , and myth , which they consider making up the " central poetic structure " of a work . In turns , they outline various historical definitions of the terms – which at times overlap – before writing that most of these theories have treated the sequence as " detachable parts of the works in which they appear . " This Wellek and Warren refuse , instead arguing that " the meaning and function of literature [ i ] s centrally present in metaphor and myth " . They show that the dominant form of figurative language shifts over time before overviewing two diverging typologies of metaphor , that of Henry W. Wells and Hermann Pongs . They finally discuss several aspects of " practical criticism " based on poetic language and its underlying assumptions . They reject approaches which attempt to understand the author through his or her words or which attempt to understand figurative language alone ; instead , it should be studied not in isolation but as " an element in the totality , the integrity , of the literary work " .
+
+After reiterating their views of the relationship between reality and literature , Wellek and Warren write that narrative fiction takes place in its own " worlds " , consisting of five codeterminant elements : narrative structure , characters , setting , world @-@ view , and tone . The latter two are discussed in the following chapter . They define the narrative structure as built around a pattern of dialog and description , and various concepts related to narrative ; these include time within a work , narrative points of view and voices , major types , plot , devices , and pacing . This is followed by a discussion of characterization , involving modes , types , and typologies , then setting ( the environment in a work ) . This world can serve as a basis for analysis and judgment of a work . Although they focus on the " world " in narrative fiction , drama shares similar aspects .
+
+Wellek and Warren consider genres as influencing " any critical and evaluative ... study " . All works of literature can be so classified , although the genres themselves are ( presumably ) not fixed . After outlining a brief history of the " ultimate " genres as understood by Aristotle ( poetry , prose , and drama ) , they show such an understanding as " scarcely promising of objective results " and overly prescriptive ; they also reject several alternative theories of genre . Instead , they suggest that genres should be understood descriptively , as based on the " outer form " ( meter , structure ) and the " inner form " ( attitude , tone , purpose ) , with the " outer form " emphasized . Wellek and Warren consider genres to be continually shifting , with good writers conforming to but ultimately expanding them .
+
+According to Wellek and Warren , evaluation of literary work should be done based on the work 's own nature , divorced from an author 's practical or scientific intent . They reject evaluation based on extra @-@ literary content , writing instead that literature – like all fine art – will provide an " aesthetic experience " which can be judged . They note various criteria used to identify " good " literature , rejecting Russian formalism 's criterion of defamiliarization and similar understandings for one based on the diversity of materials amalgamated within a work . They reject a static hierarchy or generationalist understanding of literary greats . Instead , they suggest that every work 's rank changes when a new work is introduced and that values within are " really , or potentially , present in the art object " . They note a dialectic relationship between evaluating and critically analyzing literature . This ties genre theory to the history of literature .
+
+Wellek and Warren – disapproving of contemporary histories of literature – opine that a history of literature is possible and should be based on elements intrinsic to works . Such a history should describe the development of " [ t ] he process of interpretation , criticism , and appreciation " or trace the development of works in small and large groups before tying it to universal literature . This " historical evolution " of related yet individual events they tie to " variable schemes of values " which must be " abstracted from history itself . " They suggest numerous ways in which this can be accomplished , including identifying the development of values , traits , forms , themes , and motifs . Periodization , they write , should not be based on chronological boundaries , but a " time section dominated by a system of literary norms , standards , and conventions , whose introduction , spread , diversification , integration , and disappearance can be traced " which must be extracted from history , with boundaries marked by both internal and external changes . They close the chapter by stating that existing methods are " clumsy " and that a new ideal and methods of literary history is necessary .
+
+= = = Section 5 : The Academic Situation = = =
+
+The final section of the book , removed in later editions , consists of a single chapter regarding the study of literature . Wellek and Warren bemoan that literary students are " offered no wider choice than between the ' historical method ' ... and dilettantism " , supporting instead a critically oriented literary scholarship . After finding faults with the literary scholarship in England , Germany , France , and Russia , Wellek and Warren suggest that the US is poised to start a new era in scholarship . They note that this opportunity may , however , be lost in a conflict between those advocating change and the inertia ( including persons defending the status quo ) in American literary studies and institutions .
+
+Rather than maintain the system of having scholars specialized in certain time periods and authors , Wellek and Warren push for scholars who have mastered certain approaches and thought patterns , preferably those who are from a literary background . They also recommend " sharper distinction between the teacher and the scholar " , allowing some individuals to devote their careers to research and not teaching . They emphasize a need for fluency in several modern languages rather than an understanding of the classical ones ; this coincides with their urge to establish departments teaching comparative literature . They recommend the teaching of literary methods and theories in combination with periods and authors , with a retooling of the doctoral dissertation procedures .
+
+= = Theoretical borrowings = =
+
+Theory of Literature was influenced by Russian formalism , a school of thought which sought to examine literature ( or , more precisely , what formalist @-@ turned @-@ structuralist Roman Jakobson 's termed literariness ) as an autonomous body , and the American New Criticism , which likewise denied external influences . The book borrowed formalism 's concepts of an aesthetic function and dominance of different elements of language . Unlike Russian formalism , however , Wellek and Warren 's theory recognized the possibility of factors outside the work being studied , although Wellek and Warren continued to emphasize aspects within the work itself . Also unlike their forerunners , Wellek and Warren saw aesthetic value as not the defamiliarization of the mundane , but an interaction among the strata derived from Roman Ingarden 's work : the phonological ( sound ) level at the base , then semantic ( meaning ) , and the " world " created by literature . This last strata they divided into paradigms and " metaphysical qualities " , the level which a reader contemplates . They did not , however , accept Ingarden 's teachings as a whole , writing that Ingarden " analyze [ d ] the work of art without reference to values " , a system which they found untenable .
+
+Wellek and Warren 's concept of aesthetics borrowed from the writings of Immanuel Kant , implying that a specific " aesthetic realm " was autonomous within the work and required a certain perspective to properly understand ; they emphasize this with a quote from the neo @-@ Kantian philosopher and literary critic Eliseo Vivas , that beauty is a " character of some things ... present only in the thing for those endowed with the capacity and the training through which alone it can be perceived " . Meanwhile , their depiction of a dynamic scale of values , as opposed to an anarchical one , is a reimagining of perspectivism , which Wellek and Warren define as " recogniz [ ing ] that there is one poetry , one literature , comparable in all ages , developing , changing , full of possibilities " . They explicitly denounce absolutism and relativism .
+
+= = Publication = =
+
+Theory of Literature was published by Harcourt , Brace , and Company in December 1948 , with a copyright notice dated 1942 , 1947 , and 1949 . Wellek notes that 1942 , often quoted as a year of publication in Europe , is in fact when his article " The Mode of Existence of a Literary Work of Art " was published in The Southern Review ; the article was reused as a chapter of Theory of Literature , leading to the inclusion of the year 1942 . Several other works by Wellek and Warren had been adapted for Theory of Literature .
+
+Translations of Theory of Literature began soon after it was published ; by 2010 the work had been translated into more than twenty languages , including Spanish , Korean , Hebrew , and Hindi . Two new editions were issued , first in 1956 then in 1962 . These new editions included updated bibliographies and clarified points ; the last chapter , " Study of Literature in the Graduate School " , was removed beginning in the second edition as Wellek and Warren considered the reforms suggested within already accomplished in several places . By 1976 Wellek was of the opinion that the book required updating , but asked rhetorically " who can master the astonishing and bewildering literature on theory which since [ 1949 ] has been produced in many countries ? " and noted that he and Warren were busy with their own projects .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+Academic reception of Theory of Literature was mixed . The philologist Helmut Hatzfeld , reviewing shortly after the book 's release , described Theory of Literature as " radical in its viewpoint , rich in ideas and bibliographical material , poised in its judgment of other approaches to literature " as well as a " landmark in literary studies . " Although Hatzfeld agreed with Wellek and Warren 's main points , he thought it lacking in references to theories and literature from the Romance languages and concrete interpretations . William Troy , writing in The Hudson Review , echoed the sentiment , stating that , although the book was " unusually difficult " to read , he felt " unqualified agreement with the main position " . He expected that the book would not succeed with " anyone ungifted from birth with some susceptibility to ... ' intrinsic ' elements " , a group which he believed comprised the majority of those teaching literature in the US . Seymour Betsky , writing in Scrutiny , praised the book 's summary and adjucation ; he wrote that it was " in its way impressive " , a " tour de force " which would " usher in a new era " . However , Betsky felt that the book lacked a " controlling purpose " and that it neglected to emphasize the need to differentiate between " the cheap commercial appeal and the genuine " literature .
+
+Edward G. Ballard , reviewing for The Journal of Philosophy , found the treatment lacking , with major terms left undefined and much of the book providing synopses of other writers ' theories ; he conceded , however , that it convincingly showed that " the intellectual study of literature qua literature has just begun " . In The Kenyon Review , Vivas wrote that the book 's discussion of the relation between literary criticism and scholarship " leaves nothing to be desired " , providing a " well balanced " look at the major points ; he found that no other such work existed in English at the time . Vivas opined , however , that Wellek and Warren lacked a single , non @-@ contradictory theory to use as a base for their conclusions . Kemp Malone , reviewing for Linguistics , discussed three chapters on elements of literature related to linguistics . He considered these to provide " food for thought " for linguists and suggested that Wellek was well @-@ versed in linguistics for a professor of literature , despite misusing several terms common in the discipline .
+
+Newton Arvin , writing in the Partisan Review , found Theory of Literature to excessively indulge in formalism and expressed concern that the idea of literary history may have " gone into the discard once and for all " . Benjamin found the book not something new , but a final assertion of the dominance of New Criticism in literary theory , a dominance which he considered untenable . Rather than emphasize theory , he found that Theory of Literature was " ninety @-@ nine parts a ' good offense ' against its slain and buried foes " with " exceptionally lucid and authoritative " discussions of literary problems . Scaglione opined that Theory of Literature 's plain , imprecise language had introduced numerous inconsistencies within its theoretical framework ; he also stated that the book led readers to believe they were approaching an understanding of literature without ever reaching the core essence of the subject .
+
+Ingarden , who believed his theories the basis of Wellek and Warren 's arguments , considered himself inadequately credited and took offense with the attribution of his ideas to " pure phenomenologists " . He also stated that they had misrepresented his views . George Grabowicz , prefacing his translation of Ingarden 's The Literary Work of Art , suggested that Theory of Literature was " instrumental " in spreading Ingarden 's ideas .
+
+= = Legacy = =
+
+At the time of publication Wellek and Warren considered Theory of Literature unparalleled in English @-@ language publications , an attempt to unite literary theory , criticism , history , and scholarship . Although they noted a similarity to existing German and Russian works , the authors considered those earlier works " eclectic " and " doctrinaire " , respectively . Ballard writes that Theory of Literature was published during a time of increasing focus on the art of literature , rather than its underlying philosophy .
+
+In an academic biography of Wellek , Michael Holquist of the University of Columbia writes that Theory of Literature established Wellek 's reputation as a literary scholar for the next three decades . The book proved to be Wellek 's only " book @-@ length scholarly manifesto " , a format which Holquist credits to Warren 's influence . Wellek 's other works were essays on literary theory and criticism which , even though bound in a single volume , did not provide a single coherent manifesto . Wellek would continue to use the theories contained in Theory of Literature into the late 1980s .
+
+The book was used to teach literary theory at universities beginning not long after publication and remained dominant into the mid @-@ 1960s , at which time an increasingly heterogeneous academia questioned the universal value of literature ; literary theorist Terry Eagleton finds that , after the 1960s , " it was no longer possible to take for granted what what literature was , how to read it , or what social functions it might serve " . Steven Mailloux describes Theory of Literature as crystallizing an American movement towards intrinsic literary criticism , as dominated by New Criticism , while van Rees credits the book with popularizing a text @-@ oriented interpretation . Grabowicz writes that its importance for both American and general literary studies is " indisputable " . Writing in 1987 , Jeremy Hawthorn described the book as an " excellent introductory study " , despite extrinsic studies having become more dominant in literary criticism , while Holquist found that the book could still " be usefully invoked " in literary debates of the early 21st century . In an obituary of Wellek , Robert Thomas Jr. credited Theory of Literature with " introduc [ ing ] European scholarship to the United States " and establishing a framework for comparative literature studies in the United States .
+
+The theoretical positions promulgated in Theory of Literature have generally been criticized by later writers . Van Rees , for example , considers Wellek and Warren 's distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic aspects of literature to be too sharply drawn , leading to the two aspects becoming binary opposites . Holquist notes that this distinction proceeds from a different understanding of literature . He writes that Wellek 's school of thought considered literature as a " unified subject " with definite boundaries which could be mastered , while more recent scholarship has rendered " [ t ] he very identity of literature as an object of study ... no longer clear . "
+
+= HMS Valiant ( 1863 ) =
+
+HMS Valiant was the second ship of the Hector @-@ class armoured frigates ordered by the Royal Navy in 1861 . Her builders went bankrupt shortly after she was laid down , which significantly delayed her completion . After being launched in 1863 , she waited a further five years to receive her guns due to supply issues . Upon being commissioned in 1868 the ship was assigned as the First Reserve guard ship for Southern Ireland , where she remained until she was decommissioned in 1885 . Valiant was hulked in 1897 as part of the stoker training school HMS Indus before becoming a storeship for kite balloons during the First World War . The ship was converted to a floating oil tank in 1926 and served in that role until sold for scrap in 1956 .
+
+= = Design and description = =
+
+The Hector @-@ class ironclads , like their immediate predecessors , the Defence class , were designed as smaller and cheaper versions of the Warrior @-@ class armoured frigates . They were modified versions of the Defence @-@ class ships with additional armour and more powerful engines .
+
+Valiant was 280 feet 2 inches ( 85 @.@ 4 m ) long between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 56 feet 4 inches ( 17 @.@ 2 m ) and a draft of 26 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . The ship was 300 long tons ( 300 t ) overweight and displaced 7 @,@ 000 long tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) . The hull was subdivided by watertight transverse bulkheads into 92 compartments and had a double bottom underneath the engine and boiler rooms . The ships of her class were designed with a very low centre of gravity and had a metacentric height of 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) . While handy in manoeuvring , they rolled quite badly .
+
+= = = Propulsion = = =
+
+Valiant had one 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting rod steam engine made by Maudslay Sons & Field driving a single 20 @-@ foot @-@ 2 @-@ inch ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) propeller . Six boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 25 psi ( 172 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . The engine produced a total of 3 @,@ 560 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 650 kW ) . During sea trials on 18 September 1865 Valiant had a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 65 knots ( 23 @.@ 43 km / h ; 14 @.@ 56 mph ) . The ship carried 450 long tons ( 460 t ) of coal , enough to steam 800 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 500 km ; 920 mi ) at full speed .
+
+The ship was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 24 @,@ 500 square feet ( 2 @,@ 276 m2 ) . Her funnel was semi @-@ retractable to reduce wind resistance while under sail alone . She was designed to allow the ship 's propeller to be hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag while under sail , but the hoisting gear was never fitted .
+
+= = = Armament = = =
+
+The armament of the Hector @-@ class ships was intended to be 32 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 68 @-@ pounder guns , 15 on each side on the main deck and one each fore and aft as chase guns on the upper deck . This was modified during construction to eight rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns and twenty @-@ four 68 @-@ pounders . The breech @-@ loading guns were a new design from Armstrong and much was hoped for them . Firing tests carried out in September 1861 against an armoured target , however , proved that the 110 @-@ pounder was inferior to the 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun in armour penetration and repeated incidents of breech explosions during the Battles for Shimonoseki and the Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 – 64 caused the navy to withdraw the gun from service shortly afterwards .
+
+Due to her extended construction time , Valiant never received the breech loaders , and was armed with sixteen 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) and two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The two 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted on the quarterdeck where they could be fought in all weathers and four 7 @-@ inch guns were also fitted on the upper deck . The remaining twelve 7 @-@ inch guns were carried on the main deck . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 9 long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 pounds ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
+
+= = = Armour = = =
+
+The Hector @-@ class ships had a wrought iron waterline armour belt , 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , that covered 216 feet ( 65 @.@ 8 m ) amidships and left the bow and stern unprotected . To protect against raking fire the belt was closed off by 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads at each end at lower deck level . The armour extended to 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline . The main deck was protected by a strake of armour that ran the full length of the ship . Amidships , it was 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch thick for a length of 216 feet and tapered to a thickness of 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) to the ends of the ship . The armour was backed by 18 inches ( 460 mm ) of teak . The lack of armour at the stern meant that the steering gear was very vulnerable .
+
+= = Service history = =
+
+HMS Valiant was laid down 1 February 1861 by Westwood , Baillie in Cubitt Town . This company went bankrupt in November 1861 and was ultimately bought by Thames Ironworks , which delayed the ship 's launching until 14 October 1863 . In August 1865 , after Valiant had been towed to Portsmouth for fitting out , the ship was inspected by French officers during a port visit by ironclads of the French Navy . Production of the new muzzle @-@ loaded rifles was slow and ships already in commission had priority so Valiant was not commissioned until September 1868 , nearly five years after she was launched .
+
+After Valiant was commissioned she became the First Reserve guard ship in Southern Ireland , where she remained until 1885 , an experience unique among the British ironclads , although she did have one break to have new boilers installed . From June to August 1878 the ship formed part of the Particular Service Squadron at the time of the Russian war scare during the Russo @-@ Turkish War , and sailed up the Dardanelles under the command of Admiral Hornby . On 20 July 1884 Valiant was accidentally rammed by the ironclad HMS Defence in Lough Swilly , damaging her hull and tearing off her boats , davits and fittings on one side of the ship . Valiant was paid off in 1885 , and saw no further front @-@ line service ; lying for thirteen years in a partially dismantled state at Devonport . In 1897 she was assigned to the HMS Indus stoker training establishment , briefly losing her name , before being renamed as Indus IV in 1904 . The ship was converted to a kite balloon storeship in 1915 , during World War I , and her name was changed to HMS Valiant III . She was offered for sale in 1922 , but there were no takers so that she was converted into a floating oil tank in 1926 and towed to Hamoaze , where she remained until 1956 . Valiant was sold in that year to Belgian ship breakers and towed to Bruges on 8 December 1956 .
+
+= George Macaulay =
+
+George Gibson Macaulay ( 7 December 1897 – 13 December 1940 ) was a professional English cricketer who played first @-@ class cricket for Yorkshire County Cricket Club between 1920 and 1935 . He played in eight Test matches for England from 1923 to 1933 , achieving the rare feat of taking a wicket with his first ball in Test cricket . One of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1924 , he took 1 @,@ 838 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 64 including four hat @-@ tricks .
+
+A leading member of the Yorkshire team which achieved a high level of success in the time he played , Macaulay was a volatile character who played aggressively . He left a job at a bank to become a professional cricketer , making his first @-@ class debut aged 23 as a fast bowler . Meeting limited success , he altered style to deliver off spin in addition to his pace bowling . This proved so effective that he was chosen to play for England in Test matches . However , his perceived poor attitude towards the game , and an unsuccessful match in the 1926 Ashes probably prevented him playing more Tests . His form slumped following injuries in the late 1920s , but a recovery in the early 1930s led to a recall by England , although he broke down in his second match back . Another injury in 1934 made cricket difficult for him and his first @-@ class career ended in 1935 , although he continued playing club cricket until the Second World War . A pilot officer in the Royal Air Force , he died of pneumonia on active service in the Second World War .
+
+= = Early life = =
+
+Macaulay was born in Thirsk on 7 December 1897 . His father was a well @-@ known local cricketer , as were his uncles . Macaulay was educated at Barnard Castle ; in later years , he took teams of famous cricketers to play annual matches against the school eleven . Upon leaving school , he worked as a bank clerk in Wakefield ; there , and in nearby Ossett , he played cricket and football . In the First World War , Macaulay served with the Royal Field Artillery ; afterwards he returned to work for the same bank as before , initially in London , then in Herne Bay , Kent , playing club cricket in his spare time .
+
+= = Playing career = =
+
+= = = Yorkshire debut = = =
+
+In 1920 , Yorkshire needed to strengthen its bowling attack . Of the team 's previously successful bowlers , Major Booth had been killed in the war , Alonzo Drake had died soon afterwards from illness , and George Hirst was past his best . Although Wilfred Rhodes was able to ease the shortfall by resuming his career as a frontline spin bowler , Yorkshire needed new bowlers , particularly pacemen . Macaulay had been spotted playing club cricket by Sir Stanley Christopherson , a former Kent player . Subsequently , Harry Hayley , a 19th @-@ century Yorkshire cricketer , saw Macaulay in action and was sufficiently impressed to recommend him for a trial with the county . At the beginning of the 1920 season , Macaulay played in two warm @-@ up games for Yorkshire , taking six wickets for 52 runs in a one @-@ day game and four for 24 and two for 19 in a two @-@ day game . This was good enough to earn a first @-@ class debut on 15 May 1920 against Derbyshire in the County Championship , although he only took one wicket . Playing in the early part of the season , he took five wickets for 50 runs , his first five wicket haul , against Gloucestershire , followed by six for 47 against Worcestershire . He continued to play until the middle of June before dropping out of the team after an unsuccessful match against Surrey . In ten first @-@ class matches , he had taken 24 wickets at an average of 24 @.@ 35 , and managed a top score of just 15 with the bat . Wisden said he " had neither the pace nor the stamina required " , while it later said he tried to bowl at speeds beyond his capability . Even so , he decided to become a professional cricketer . Hirst and Rhodes persuaded him to reduce his pace and concentrate on bowling a good length while trying to spin the ball . He practised through the winter of 1920 – 21 to be ready for the next season .
+
+Bowling a mixture of medium pace and his new style of off spin , Macaulay played 27 matches in 1921 . After taking wickets steadily at the start of the season , in his fourth game he took six wickets for ten runs as Warwickshire were bowled out for 72 . Four more wickets in the second innings gave Yorkshire a big victory and Macaulay had match figures of ten wickets for 65 runs , the first time he had taken ten wickets in a match . Macaulay then came to wider public attention by taking six wickets for three runs to bowl out Derbyshire for 23 runs . He later took ten wickets in the match against Surrey in a losing cause , and in total that season he took 101 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 33 , placing him third in the Yorkshire bowling averages . With the bat , he scored 457 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 59 , surprising commentators with his ability . This included a maiden first @-@ class century against Nottinghamshire . His innings of 125 not out took Yorkshire from 211 for seven wickets when he came in to bat ( 228 for eight soon after ) to a total of 438 for nine declared , a lead of 264 ; Yorkshire went on to a comfortable win . His overall success in the season meant that his place in the team was secure .
+
+Macaulay improved his bowling record in 1922 , taking more wickets at a lower average ( 133 wickets at an average of 14 @.@ 67 ) , and scoring another century . Helping Yorkshire to win the first of four County Championships in a row , Macaulay finished second to Rhodes in the team 's bowling averages . The first two matches of the season brought Macaulay figures of six for eight and five for 23 in a ten wicket win over Northamptonshire and six for 12 out of an opposition total of 78 in an innings win over Glamorgan . While he took only one wicket in the second innings , his first three innings had given him 17 wickets for 43 runs . He continued to pick up wickets , but his most significant performance came in June . In front of Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) members at Lord 's , he took five for 31 as Middlesex were bowled out for 138 . Those watching were impressed and he was selected for the Players against the Gentlemen at the same ground in July . He took three for 97 out of a total of 430 in one of the most important matches of the season . These performances earned his selection for the MCC tour to South Africa that winter , although there were concerns his fitness was insufficient . Statistically , Macaulay 's best performance came shortly afterwards against Gloucestershire ; he took seven for 47 and twelve wickets in the match . Macaulay also scored 486 runs at an average of 17 @.@ 35 .
+
+= = = Test debut = = =
+
+Macaulay played eight first @-@ class matches in South Africa in 1922 – 23 , taking 29 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 37 . His best first @-@ class performances were six for 18 against Pretoria and eight wickets in the match against Transvaal , while he was effective in minor matches , taking five for 40 against East Rand and six for 19 against Zululand . After England lost the first Test match , which Wisden attributed to a weakness in bowling , Macaulay replaced Greville Stevens and made his Test match debut for England in the second Test . He took the wicket of George Hearne with his first ball . He was the fourth player to take a wicket with his maiden delivery in Test cricket . In total , he took two for 19 in the first innings . In the second innings , South Africa were comfortably placed with a score of 157 for one , but four wickets fell to Macaulay while 13 runs were scored . Macaulay ended the innings with five wickets for 64 . Wisden commented that he bowled very finely in this match . He hit the winning run , batting at number eleven , to seal a one @-@ wicket win for England . He played in the remaining three Tests , finishing with 16 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 37 . England won the series 2 – 1 , but the Wisden correspondent for the tour was not impressed by the English performances , noting that no really effective bowlers had emerged .
+
+With his health improved by the tour , Wisden reported that Macaulay was in excellent form for the whole of the 1923 season . His performances earned him selection as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The citation praised his stamina , spin and ability to bowl on all kinds of pitches but noted that he was easily discouraged and had a negative attitude if circumstances went against him . He achieved his highest season total of wickets to date , taking 166 at an average of 13 @.@ 84 , and came third in both the Yorkshire and national bowling averages . His best performance came in the first match of the season , when he took seven wickets for 13 against Glamorgan as they were dismissed for 63 . Later in the season , he took a hat @-@ trick against Warwickshire while claiming five for 42 . With the bat , Macaulay scored 463 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 52 . There were no international matches that season , but Macaulay was selected for The Rest in a Test trial against England in which he took just one wicket .
+
+In 1924 , Macaulay further increased his total of wickets to 190 and lowered his bowling average to 13 @.@ 23 , placing him first in the national averages . His batting declined as he scored 395 runs at an average of 11 @.@ 96 . Although selected for another Test trial , Macaulay did not play in the series against the touring South African team until the third Test at Leeds , where he took one wicket in each South African innings , but was omitted from the final two Tests . Despite his success in the season , he was not chosen to tour Australia with the MCC that winter , even though Maurice Tate , the leading bowler on the tour , lacked support . Macaulay had been involved in controversy on the field in 1924 . At the time , the Yorkshire team were notorious for their aggressive attitude while fielding . In a match against Middlesex in 1924 at Sheffield , the hostility of the crowd provoked an MCC inquiry which found that Yorkshire bowler Abe Waddington had incited the spectators . Further incidents followed against Surrey . The editor of Wisden blamed Yorkshire 's poor discipline on a small group of approximately four players . Without naming Macaulay as one of them , he noted that Lord Hawke , the Yorkshire president , believed Macaulay should have been in the team to Australia , and that " it was entirely his own fault he was not chosen " . It is also possible that during a match at this time , Macaulay openly criticised the captaincy and bowling of Arthur Gilligan , the England captain .
+
+Since 1923 , Macaulay had run a cricket outfitters in Leeds and Wakefield with his Yorkshire team @-@ mate Herbert Sutcliffe , borrowing £ 250 from his mother to help establish the business . During the winter of 1924 – 25 , the shop became a limited company and Macaulay one of its directors . According to Sutcliffe 's biographer Alan Hill , Macaulay quickly lost interest , and the partnership was dissolved a year later , but Sutcliffe made the lone venture a success . Macaulay received £ 900 from the outfitters upon his resignation .
+
+= = = Mid @-@ 1920s career = = =
+
+Macaulay 's most successful season in terms of wickets was 1925 , despite a very dry summer which produced a succession of good batting pitches . He took 211 wickets at an average of 15 @.@ 48 , coming top of the Yorkshire averages . Exactly 200 of his wickets were taken for Yorkshire — only Wilfred Rhodes and George Hirst had previously reached 200 wickets for Yorkshire , and only Bob Appleyard has done so since , as of 2013 . One of Macaulay 's highest profile performances in 1925 came for Yorkshire against Sussex , who were chasing 263 to win the game . Just after lunch on the final day , the score was 223 for three wickets . A possibly apocryphal story suggests that Macaulay drank champagne in the interval . He then delivered a spell of five wickets for eight runs in 33 balls to bowl out his opponents and finish with figures of seven for 67 . He then left the field exhausted . The cricket historian Mick Pope describes the match as a " lasting testimony to [ Macaulay 's ] belief that no cause was ever lost " . Macaulay was again selected for the Players against the Gentlemen at Lord 's , and took five wickets in the match . With the bat , Macaulay scored 621 runs at an average of 23 @.@ 88 , although he only passed fifty twice .
+
+Yorkshire 's reign as County Champions ended in 1926 , the first season since 1921 when Yorkshire did not win the Championship . Wisden noted that the Yorkshire attack , with the exception of Rhodes , was less effective than previously . Macaulay bowled less overs and took fewer wickets at a higher bowling average ; his 134 wickets , at an average of 17 @.@ 78 , placed him second in the Yorkshire averages . Selected for a Test trial , he failed to take a wicket . Wisden described his performance as " lifeless " , while cricket writer Neville Cardus noted that he had " yet again ... fallen below his best away from the Yorkshire XI " . He was not chosen for the Gentlemen v Players match , never representing the Players again .
+
+Macaulay was selected for the third Test against Australia at Headingley , possibly because Arthur Carr , the England captain , expected the pitch to favour spinners . The Australians were concerned that Macaulay represented a threat to their batting , but the match did not work out in Macaulay 's favour as a bowler ; having been dropped at the start of play , Charlie Macartney played what Wisden called one of the best innings of his career and vigorously attacked the England bowling , achieving the rare feat of scoring a century before the lunch interval . The Australian batsman had asked his captain if he could attack Macaulay in particular , and the Yorkshire bowler suffered as Macartney quickly dominated him . Macaulay eventually had Macartney caught after hitting a short ball in the air , but it was Macaulay 's only success in the innings . Macaulay conceded 123 runs in 32 overs as Australia scored 494 . When Macaulay came into bat from number ten in the batting order , England were 182 for eight wickets and facing defeat . He played an attacking innings of 76 , hitting ten fours , in a partnership of 108 with George Geary . This began an England recovery which helped the team to escape with a draw . Nevertheless , Macaulay did not play in the final two Tests of the series . Later in the season , he took fourteen wickets for 92 runs against Gloucestershire , including eight for 43 in the second innings . These were the best bowling figures of his career that he achieved in a match . Apart from his batting success in the Test match , Macaulay scored another two fifties and in the match against Somerset achieved a century .
+
+= = = Decline = = =
+
+Over the next four seasons , Yorkshire failed to win the Championship , although they never finished lower than fourth in the table . The team displayed an unaccustomed weakness in bowling , particularly after the death of Roy Kilner in 1928 . The effectiveness of the main bowlers was reduced by age and injury ; only Macaulay remained at something approaching his bowling peak . However , his performances worsened each year . His bowling figures in the 1927 season were similar to his achievements in 1926 , showing only a slight decline , but his total of wickets fell each season until 1930 .
+
+In 1927 , Macaulay took 130 wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 26 . However , he suffered a foot injury in 1928 , and took time to recover his best form . His wicket tally fell to 120 and his average climbed to 24 @.@ 37 . His total of wickets decreased further to 102 in 1929 and his average remained above 20 . Hampered by another foot injury throughout 1930 , Macaulay failed to take 100 wickets for the first time since his debut season ; his average of 25 @.@ 12 was the highest of his career . In these seasons , he was only selected for one representative match , a Test trial in 1928 in which he failed to take a wicket . At the same time , his batting faded . In 1927 , Macaulay scored his highest run aggregate and passed fifty six times while hitting 678 runs at an average of 25 @.@ 11 . He improved his batting average in 1928 , accumulating 517 runs at 25 @.@ 85 with four more fifties . However , after 1928 , he never averaged more than 16 @.@ 26 with the bat and only scored two more fifties in his career , both in 1929 .
+
+= = End of first @-@ class career = =
+
+= = = Return to form = = =
+
+From the 1931 season , Yorkshire once again dominated the County Championship , winning three consecutive trophies . A large part of the success was an increase in bowling strength . In 1931 , Macaulay slightly increased his haul of wickets from 91 to 97 , and his average dropped from 25 @.@ 12 to 15 @.@ 75 . This placed him third in the Yorkshire averages , behind Hedley Verity and Bill Bowes , who both took over 100 wickets and led a very strong bowling attack . That season , Macaulay was awarded a benefit match against Surrey which raised £ 1 @,@ 633 , worth approximately £ 82 @,@ 700 in 2008 . At the time , this was considered a poor reward for a Yorkshire cricketer . The following season , Macaulay took fewer wickets , managing 84 at an average of 19 @.@ 07 , which placed him fifth in the Yorkshire averages . He achieved his best bowling figures in first @-@ class cricket when he took eight for 21 against the Indian touring side . By now , Macaulay was a specialist spinner and had largely abandoned pace bowling ; Bill Bowes and Arthur Rhodes opened the Yorkshire bowling .
+
+The 1933 season signalled a return to form for Macaulay . Wisden judged that he " recovered fully his length , spin and command over variations in pace " . He bowled more overs than anyone else in the team and passed 100 wickets for the first time since 1929 , the tenth and final time he did so , taking 148 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 45 . Against Northamptonshire , he took seven for nine as the team was bowled out for 27 . He finished the match with thirteen for 34 . Against Lancashire , when his match figures were twelve for 49 , he took a hat @-@ trick in a sequence of four wickets in five balls ; he also took twelve wickets against Leicestershire . His form won a recall to the Test side after seven years . Not picked initially , a decision described by Wisden as unfair , he played in the first Test when E. W. Clark dropped out of the team before the match . Macaulay took one wicket in the first innings but had figures of four for 57 in the second innings to earn approval from Wisden . He was picked for the second Test but bowled only 14 overs before injuring his foot when fielding ; he was unable to take any further part in the game . He did not play in the third Test but was selected in festival game at Scarborough for the team selected from the MCC party which toured Australia in the previous winter . He played instead of an injured player , even though he did not take part in the tour . Macaulay ended second in the Yorkshire bowling averages . In its review of the season , Wisden stated that his form in the early part of the season would have placed his among the best cricketers in the world .
+
+= = = Final seasons = = =
+
+Macaulay 's final two seasons were affected by injury , as he was increasingly bothered by rheumatism . In the 1934 season , while trying to take a catch , he injured the finger he used to spin the ball . He did not appear for Yorkshire until June , but went on to take 55 wickets at an average of 23 @.@ 43 . The next season was his final one . He only played nine matches , taking 22 wickets at 20 @.@ 09 . At the end of the year , he retired from first @-@ class cricket and Yorkshire awarded him a special grant of £ 250 . Yorkshire did have a replacement in mind ; Frank Smailes was considered to be versatile enough in his bowling style to take Macaulay 's place , but it was not until Ellis Robinson secured a place in 1937 that a new specialist off @-@ spinner was found .
+
+Macaulay ended his career with 1 @,@ 837 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 65 . In eight Test matches , he took 24 of those wickets at an average of 27 @.@ 58 . In addition , he scored 6 @,@ 055 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 07 and held 373 catches . He took 100 wickets in a season ten times , a record only surpassed by four others for Yorkshire , while only three other Yorkshire bowlers have taken 200 wickets in a season . He also took four hat @-@ tricks .
+
+= = = Post @-@ Yorkshire career = = =
+
+Following his retirement , Macaulay initially attempted to market a patented rheumatic medicine , but the business quickly failed . He then established an athletic outfitting shop in Leeds . This business also was unsuccessful ; Macaulay blamed a lack of money and competition from other businesses . Consequently , he filed for bankruptcy in 1937 . Macaulay accused Yorkshire of worsening his situation by withholding most of his benefit money — of the total raised , he received only £ 530 . He believed that he was owed the balance , and continued his business under that assumption , but Yorkshire had invested the amount and he only received the interest . The matter arose in court , and when asked why he thought the money would be paid to him , Macaulay answered : " Because I had earned it " . He also rejected the accusation that he spent his time drinking in public houses , and another that he had neglected his two failed businesses . The Official Receiver found that Macaulay 's complaint against Yorkshire was without justification . Macaulay suggested that he should arrange for the invested money to be paid to his creditors in his will . Macaulay secured new employment , and a few days after the hearing it was announced that he would play professional cricket in Wales .
+
+Macaulay played league cricket in Wales and Lancashire until the Second World War . During 1937 , he was the professional at Ebbw cricket club , and in 1938 and 1939 , he played in the Lancashire League as the professional for Todmorden , for whom he took nine wickets for 10 runs against Ramsbottom in the Worsley Cup final . Ramsbottom were bowled out for 47 to give Macaulay 's team a 26 @-@ run win .
+
+When the Second World War began , Macaulay joined the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Volunteer Reserve in 1940 as a Pilot Officer , and was stationed at Church Fenton , close to Barkston Ash where he lived with his wife Edith . Later in the year , he was stationed in the Shetland Islands , where he was bothered by the cold . Six days after his 43rd birthday , he died of pneumonia at the Sullom Voe RAF station on 13 December 1940 . He was buried in Lerwick Cemetery on Shetland .
+
+= = Style and personality = =
+
+As a batsman , Macaulay was reasonably good and possibly better than his statistics would suggest . He was capable of batting well in a crisis but may have been prevented from honing his batting skills by the Yorkshire leadership who wished him to focus on bowling . He generally batted low down in the order after the all @-@ rounders in the team . Macaulay 's fielding was also very effective . He was excellent at close range to the batsmen , particularly from his own bowling .
+
+As a bowler , Macaulay fulfilled two roles . At the start of an innings , when the ball was new and hard , he opened the bowling with medium @-@ fast deliveries that swung away from right @-@ handed batsmen . In this style , he was very accurate and bowled a variety of deliveries to unsettle his opponents . Cricket writer R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow considered him to be better than any similar bowler in the 1920s except Maurice Tate , the leading medium paced bowler in England . Macaulay could vary his pace from medium to fast depending on the needs of the match situation and the type of pitch . When the pitch was suitable for spinning the ball , he bowled medium @-@ paced off breaks . Wisden said that his spin made him more effective than other bowlers of his speed on a sticky wicket , a pitch which has been affected by rain , making it erratic and difficult to bat on . His obituary further stated : " Under suitable conditions for using the off @-@ break , batsmen seemed at his mercy . " This was because he could bowl deliveries which were almost impossible for batsmen to play without getting out , but at the same time it was very difficult to score runs against him . Robertson @-@ Glasgow wrote that " on a rain @-@ damaged pitch he was in his glory . " He would make small adjustments to the positions of his fielders or bowl from different sides of the wicket , often making gestures or facial expressions as he did so . Robertson @-@ Glasgow said that " only the best could survive the onslaught except by a miracle " , and described Macaulay as a great bowler . The cricket writer Jim Kilburn suggested that Macaulay was " a great cricketer . He was great not so much in mathematical accomplishment ... as in cricketing character . "
+
+Macaulay 's bowling action was relaxed and effortless , being admired by his contemporaries . Kilburn wrote : " His run @-@ up was half @-@ shambling , his steps short and his shoulders swaying , but his feet were faultlessly placed and his aim was high at the instant of delivery " . However , critics and team @-@ mates more widely knew him as passionate , hostile and fiery when bowling . Kilburn said that batsmen were Macaulay 's " mortal enemies " . He knew many tricks to dismiss or unsettle them , including the tactic of bowling the ball straight at their head without pitching , which was usually considered dangerous and unfair . Kilburn observed that " should the batsman survive he would be rewarded with a glare of concentrated venom calculated to stagger any but the stoutest heart ... Every scrap of his heart and soul went into every ball he bowled . He never gave up and his persistence was invariably triumphant sooner or later " . The Yorkshire Post , after his death , observed : " Macaulay will always be remembered for the fierceness of his enthusiasm when there was a fighting chance of victory " .
+
+Macaulay displayed a temper when matters went against him . Robertson @-@ Glasgow described him as an unusual man , " fiercely independent , witty , argumentative , swift to joy and anger . He had pleasure in cracking a convention or cursing an enemy ... A cricket @-@ bag came between him and his blazer hanging on a peg ; and he 'd kick it and tell it a truth or two , then laugh . " Bill Bowes described how , when he was bowling , he would glare and mutter under his breath ; he seemed to be " filled with a devilish energy " . He would make sharp or biting comments , particularly if a fielder made a mistake when he was bowling and although often amusing , it could at times hurt the recipients , and his anger made his team @-@ mates wary of him . Yet , he could also express appreciation when a skillful batsmen hit a good shot from his bowling ; the result was that his colleagues were never sure what to expect from him , even after playing with him for years . Herbert Sutcliffe said he could be charming when not playing , but his wit could be sharp . Robertson @-@ Glasgow nevertheless described him as " a glorious opponent ; a great cricketer ; and a companion in a thousand " .
+
+= A Trick of the Tail =
+
+A Trick of the Tail is the seventh studio album from the English progressive rock band Genesis . It was released in February 1976 on Charisma Records and was the first album to feature drummer Phil Collins as lead vocalist following the departure of Peter Gabriel . It was a critical and commercial success in the UK and U.S. , reaching No. 3 and No. 31 respectively .
+
+Following Gabriel 's decision to leave the band , the remaining members wanted to carry on and show they could still write and record successful material . The group wrote and rehearsed new songs during mid @-@ 1975 , and listened to around 400 audition tapes for a replacement frontman . They entered Trident Studios in October with producer David Hentschel to record the album without a definitive idea of who was going to perform lead vocals . Eventually , Collins was persuaded to sing " Squonk " , and the performance was so strong , he sang lead on the rest of album .
+
+Upon release , critics were impressed by the improved sound quality and the group 's ability to survive the loss of Gabriel without sacrificing the quality of the music . The group went out on tour with Collins as frontman and Bill Bruford as an additional drummer , and the resulting performances in the US raised Genesis ' profile there . The album has been reissued on CD several times , including a deluxe package with bonus tracks in 2007 .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+Founding member and lead singer Peter Gabriel decided to leave Genesis in late 1974 , midway through the tour for the album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway . The other members hoped he would reconsider , as they were still in debt and felt his departure could destroy the band 's future , but ultimately accepted that he would leave . The remaining members felt they still wanted to collaborate musically , and show journalists and critics they were primarily a song writing team that could still produce good music . Keyboardist Tony Banks had been close to Gabriel personally , and did not want the band to split up on top of seeing less of one of his best friends . He had written a number of songs for a possible solo project before deciding they should be used on the new Genesis album .
+
+Following the end of the tour , guitarist Steve Hackett recorded a solo album , Voyage of the Acolyte with guitarist / bassist Mike Rutherford and drummer Phil Collins , feeling unsure that Genesis would survive . He reconvened with the remaining group members in July 1975 . Banks and Rutherford were particularly keen to write and record new material so that critics and fans would accept Gabriel 's departure . The group began rehearsals in a basement studio in Acton , and quickly wrote material they were happy with , but had not yet found a replacement lead singer . They placed an anonymous advertisement in the music paper Melody Maker for " a singer for a Genesis @-@ type group " , which received around 400 replies . Some applicants sent photographs of themselves in costume and wearing masks , as Gabriel had done on stage . A few weeks into rehearsals , Melody Maker managed to find out about Gabriel leaving the band , and their story made the front page of the 16 August issue , where journalist Chris Welch declared Genesis dead . The group spoke to the music papers to deny they were splitting up and explaining they had an album finished and waiting to be recorded .
+
+= = Recording = =
+
+Recording began in Trident Studios in October 1975 with producer David Hentschel . Hentschel had served as tape op and then engineer on earlier Genesis albums and Collins had become a fan of his album Startling Music , a re @-@ recording of Ringo Starr 's album Ringo on an ARP 2500 synthesizer . Collins thought the group could carry on as an instrumental act , but other group members felt that it would be boring without vocals . The group had still not decided on a replacement singer , so they decided to start recording backing tracks and audition singers as they went .
+
+Some songs such as " Ripples ... " were written with the intention that Collins could sing them , similar to " More Fool Me " on Selling England by the Pound , but he did not want to take over as a permanent replacement , opting instead to teach potential lead singers the songs . The group still wanted a regular frontman for live performances , as they thought Collins would not be able to handle all the material , and it would be problematic trying to sing Gabriel 's vocal parts while drumming on tour . One of the auditionees , Mick Stickland , was invited into the studio to sing , but the backing tracks were in a key outside of his natural range and the band decided not to work with him . Having failed to produce a suitable vocalist , Collins reluctantly went in the studio to sing " Squonk " . His performance was well received by the band , and they decided that he should be their new lead vocalist . Hentschel stayed on as co @-@ producer for future Genesis albums up to 1980 's Duke .
+
+= = Songs = =
+
+The opening track , " Dance on a Volcano " was the first song written for the album . Rutherford felt in contrast to the material on The Lamb ... , it was easy to write , and was intended to show how Genesis would move forward . " Entangled " was mostly written by Hackett , with help from Banks . Rutherford recalled that Hackett " started writing verses which were very airy @-@ fairy and then he came down with a bang . " " Squonk " is based on the North American tale of the Squonk which , when captured , dissolves in a pool of tears . The song combines a main theme written by Rutherford against a middle section written by Banks , and was designed to sound like Led Zeppelin 's " Kashmir " .
+
+" Robbery , Assault and Battery " was mostly written by Banks , in an attempt to capture some of the humorous lyrics that Gabriel had written for earlier albums . Collins sang the song in character , inspired by his earlier role as the Artful Dodger in Oliver ! before he became a professional musician . " Ripples ... " was a combination of a 12 @-@ string guitar piece composed by Rutherford and a piano @-@ led middle section written by Banks . The title track was inspired by Banks reading William Golding 's The Inheritors and described an alien visiting Earth and the reaction to it .
+
+The closing song , " Los Endos " , was written by the whole band . Collins came up with the basic rhythmic structure , inspired by his work in side project Brand X and wanting to take the looser playing style into Genesis , while Banks and Hackett wrote the main themes , including reprises of " Dance on a Volcano " and " Squonk " . The opening piece was recorded for a completely different song , " It 's Yourself " , which was later released as a B @-@ side . The track became a live favourite , and continued to be played through to the 2007 Turn It On Again tour . In 2014 , Hackett added the song to the playlist of his extended Genesis Revisited II tour .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+A Trick of the Tail had a positive reception from music critics , who were impressed that the group could not only survive the loss of Gabriel but still deliver a good album . The sound quality had improved from previous albums as a result of Hentschel 's production skills . The album reached No. 3 in the UK , remaining on the charts for 39 weeks , and No. 31 in the U.S. It was certified Gold in the UK by the British Phonographic Institute in June and in the US by the RIAA in March 1990 . The album remained in the UK charts for 39 weeks and recouped a significant amount of $ 400 @,@ 000 worth of debt they had accumulated by the time Gabriel left .
+
+For the first time in their career , Genesis filmed promotional videos for their songs . The first to be filmed was the title track , which features the band playing to the song together around a piano , including composite shots of a miniature Collins hopping around on a piano and a guitar . The group also produced promotional films of " Ripples ... " and " Robbery , Assault and Battery " .
+
+= = Tour = =
+
+Even after the album had been completed , Collins was unhappy about leaving the drumkit to sing lead , and the band were unsure he would be comfortable as frontman on tour . The group decided to try anyway , and needed someone to drum while Collins was singing . Collins insisted on choosing the touring drummer himself , selecting Bill Bruford , who he had already worked with in Brand X. Collins continued to drum during instrumental sections .
+
+The new line @-@ up rehearsed in Dallas for a North American tour , starting in London , Ontario . Collins was nervous about what to say to the audience between songs , so Rutherford and Hackett helped with some announcements . Unlike Gabriel 's theatrical approach , Collins developed a humorous rapport with the audience , and it was immediately successful . Audiences were happy for Collins to sing old material such as " Supper 's Ready " in concert as he had been recruited as frontman from within the group . The resulting tour raised Genesis ' profile in the U.S. , where they had been relatively unknown while Gabriel was in the band .
+
+= = Track listing = =
+
+This is the first Genesis album to credit songwriters individually , as opposed to the band as a whole .
+
+= = = 2007 SACD / CD / DVD release = = =
+
+A new version of A Trick of the Tail was released in the UK and Japan in 2007 as part of the Genesis 1976 – 1982 box set . This includes the entire album in remixed stereo , surround sound , and related video tracks . A further DVD release includes audio and video tracks , including an interview with the band , the promotional videos , and the film Genesis : In Concert , filmed during the 1976 tour promoting the album .
+
+= = Personnel = =
+
+Genesis
+
+Mike Rutherford – 12 @-@ string guitar , bass , bass pedals
+
+Tony Banks – pianos , synthesizers , organ , Mellotron , 12 @-@ string guitar , backing vocals
+
+Phil Collins - drums , percussion , lead & backing vocals
+
+Steve Hackett – electric guitar , 12 @-@ string guitars
+
+Production
+
+Genesis – production
+
+David Hentschel – production , engineering
+
+Nick " Haddock " Bradford – engineering
+
+Tex and Jeff – equipment
+
+Neal , John and Terry – liquid sustenance
+
+Hipgnosis – sleeve design
+
+Colin Elgie – sleeve design
+
+Special thanks to Tony Smith , Alex Sim and Regis
+
+Recorded at Trident Studios , London
+
+= = Certifications = =
+
+= James Graham ( British Army soldier ) =
+
+James Graham ( 1791 – 1845 ) was an Irish non @-@ commissioned officer ( NCO ) in the British Army during the Napoleonic wars , recognised as the " bravest man in the army " . Serving in the Coldstream Guards , he was commended for his gallantry during the defence of Hougoumont , at Waterloo . Graham saved the life of an officer , and his own brother , and was among the small group responsible for closing the North Gate at Hougoumont after a French attack – an act which won the Duke of Wellington 's encomium . He was rewarded with a specially cast gallantry medal and an annuity . Graham continued to serve with distinction , and was credited with saving the life of Lord Frederick FitzClarence during the arrest of the Cato Street conspirators . After later serving in the 12th Royal Lancers , Graham was discharged in 1830 for ill health , and died at the Royal Hospital Kilmainham in 1845 .
+
+= = Early life and service = =
+
+James Graham was born in 1791 , in Clones , County Monaghan , Ireland . One of three brothers to serve in the British Army , Graham enlisted in the 2nd Battalion of the Coldstream Guards in 1813 , which was then stationed in England . Almost all soldiers at the time signed on for life in exchange for a " bounty " of £ 23 17s 6d , a large portion of which was absorbed by the cost of outfitting " necessities " . Graham was assigned to the battalion 's light company , and by 1815 had been made a corporal . It was not unusual for Irishmen to join English or Scottish regiments after the Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland . Most battalions during the Napoleonic wars had a proportion of Irish soldiers . The Coldstream Guards were a regiment of Foot Guards , a group of elite infantry regiments of the British Army . In background and natural attributes , recruits to the Foot Guards differed little from those recruited into other regiments , but they received superior training and were expected to maintain rigorous discipline . Wellington considered Guards NCOs to be among the best in the army .
+
+= = The road to Waterloo = =
+
+The United Kingdom and her Allies had been at war against Napoleon 's French Empire since 1803 , but by early 1814 Wellington 's army had fought its way through the Peninsula to France , and the eastern Allies were threatening France 's eastern borders . On 31 March 1814 , allied armies entered Paris , and Napoleon abdicated on 6 April . Within a month of Napoleon 's abdication , he had been exiled to Elba . It appeared that the war was over , and arrangements for the peace were discussed at the Congress of Vienna . But on 26 February 1815 , Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France , where he raised an army .
+
+The Allies assembled another army and planned for a summer offensive . The combatant Coldstream companies had been garrisoned in Brussels and Ath , where they were joined by the 2nd Battalion 's remaining four companies in early 1815 . In preparation for the coming offensive , Graham 's battalion joined with the 2nd Battalion of the Scots Guards to form the 1st Division 's 2nd Brigade . Basing themselves in Belgium , the Allies formed two armies , with the Duke of Wellington commanding the Anglo @-@ Allies , and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher commanding the Prussians . Napoleon marched swiftly through France to meet them , and split his army to launch a two @-@ pronged attack . On 16 June 1815 , Napoleon himself led men against Blücher at Ligny , while Marshall Ney commanded an attack against Wellington 's forward army at the Battle of Quatre Bras .
+
+Wellington had received news of Napoleon 's position on the night of 15 June , and issued orders to his army to hold the ground at Quatre Bras . Graham 's battalion , along with the rest of the 2nd Brigade , left Enghien , where they were quartered , at 3 a.m. on the morning of the 16th , for a twenty @-@ five mile march to Quatre Bras . They reached Quatre Bras at 4 p.m. , by which time the battle had been engaged for two hours . The Coldstream Guards immediately deployed into position to support the 1st Foot Guards , who were engaged with the enemy at Bossu Wood . Once the wood was cleared of French , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel James Macdonnell led the 2nd Brigade 's light companies ( including Graham 's ) in a counter @-@ attack against Jérôme Bonaparte 's Frenchmen , with other Guards companies in support . The various Guards battalions sustained heavy losses , but by 6 @.@ 30 p.m. Wellington 's position had strengthened . By 9 p.m. , Ney had withdrawn his men , and Wellington held the field . The French had lost 4 @,@ 000 men , the Allies 4 @,@ 800 .
+
+Wellington held Quatre Bras , but the Prussians were not so successful at Ligny , and were forced to retreat . Hearing of Blücher 's defeat on the morning of 17 June , Wellington ordered his army to withdraw level with his ally ; they took position near the Belgian village of Waterloo . Graham 's company , and the Scots Guards ' light company , masked the retreat from the right , and did not leave Quatre Bras until mid @-@ afternoon .
+
+The field at Waterloo was 5 @.@ 5 km wide , with two parallel ridges running west to east , creating a shallow valley 1 @.@ 4 km across . On the allied right lay the chateau of Hougoumont , a collection of walled farm buildings lying closer to the French line than the Allies ' line . Recognising its defensive importance , Wellington ordered Hanoverian and Nassau troops to occupy the farm . In allied hands , it would provide cover for flanking fire against any French assault of the main allied line ; in French hands , it would provide a bastion from which they could launch attacks . Since it defended the Nivelles road as well as the Allies ' right flank , Wellington ordered that it was to be held at all costs .
+
+= = Hougoumont = =
+
+The day 's battle began on 18 June 1815 at about 11 a.m. with a French attack on Hougoumont from the south @-@ west , led by Napoleon 's brother Jerome . The French gained control of much of the chateau 's park , but the Allies retained possession of the farmhouse and courtyard surrounds . Jerome continued his attempts to take the farmhouse throughout the day , making four or five assaults , most of which were repulsed by the defenders , who fired through loopholes , windows , and doorways . One assault at about 12 @.@ 30 p.m. breached the north gate , which had been left open to allow allied troop and supply movements . Sous @-@ Lieutenant Legro , of the French 1st Light Infantry , broke through the wooden doors with an axe , allowing French soldiers to flood the courtyard . Graham 's commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel James Macdonnell , led his men through the melee in the courtyard to the gates , in an attempt to shut them against the pressing French . This was done with the help of three officers ( Captain Wyndham , Ensign Hervey , and Ensign Gooch ) , Corporal Graham , and a few other soldiers including Graham 's brother Joseph . James Graham was the one to slot the bar in place . Flagstones , carts , and debris were then piled against the gates to hold them secure . The Frenchmen trapped within the courtyard were all killed , apart from a young drummer @-@ boy .
+
+Wellington monitored the action at Hougoumont until about 1 p.m. , by which time he was content enough with the position 's security to concentrate his own attention on the allied centre . With the chateau secure , the 3 @,@ 500 British and German troops in the vicinity were able to defend the strongpoint against an estimated 14 @,@ 500 French soldiers . About 8 @,@ 000 French soldiers died attacking Hougoumont over the day .
+
+During the battle , Graham also saved the life of Captain Wyndham – one of those who had shut the gate – by shooting a sniper whose musket was trained on the officer . Mid @-@ afternoon , a fire broke out in one of the farm buildings following a bombardment of incendiary shells . Graham 's brother Joseph was lying wounded within , and Graham requested permission to fall out , so he might rescue his brother ; given permission , he retrieved his brother and returned to his post . Joseph Graham died of wounds five days later .
+
+At 7 p.m. the defenders at Hougoumont were still resisting , despite the burning buildings and their own dwindling ammunition . Within a couple of hours , the action in the rest of the field had resulted in a victory for the Allies : the French were in retreat . Afterwards , Wellington declared that " the success of the battle turned upon closing the gates at Hougoumont . " It seems likely that if the gates had not been shut so quickly the men holding the perimeter at Hougoumont would have been killed . It was a costly defence : the Coldstream Guards lost 8 officers , with 300 casualties among the men . James Graham was promoted to sergeant for his bravery at Hougoumont , and received a special medal for gallantry .
+
+= = " The bravest man at Waterloo " = =
+
+Wellington 's respect for those who served in Hougoumont was well known . After the battle he wrote : " You may depend upon it , no troops could have held Hougoumont but the British , and only the best of them . " But among those " best soldiers " , Graham stood out as being exceptional . In August 1815 , John Norcross , the Rector of Framlingham , sought to make over the income from a freehold farm to the " most deserving soldier at Waterloo " ; he approached the Duke of Wellington , who nominated Graham . Graham received an annuity from the farm of £ 10 a year for two years until the vicar became bankrupt . Wellington 's Supplementary Dispatches ( Vol . 11 ) make mention of Graham :
+
+[ He ] assisted Lieutenant @-@ colonel Macdonnell in closing the gates , which had been left open for the purpose of communication , and which the enemy were in the act of forcing . His brother , a corporal in the regiment , was lying wounded in a barn , which was on fire , and Graham removed him so as to be secure from the fire , and then returned to his duty . He had been 3 2 / 12 years in the regiment .
+
+This honour is noted in his service record now held at the Public Record Office , with the words : " The most valorous NCO at the battle of Waterloo selected by the Duke of Wellington . "
+
+The Reverend Norcross died in 1837 . It was reported in a number of books and newspapers in the years following that Norcross had recovered his fortunes enough to leave £ 500 in his will to " the bravest man in England " and that , once appealed to , Wellington again turned to the events in Hougoumont , selecting Colonel Macdonnell . Macdonnell apparently split the bequest with Graham , since they had shut the gate together . There remains some doubt concerning this second bequest . Graham 's entry in the Dictionary of National Biography records only the initial annuity , and states that " various apparently incorrect versions of the Norcross gift have been published . " Archibald Murray ( in 1862 ) made reference to " the alleged sum of £ 500 " given to Colonel Macdonnell and reported investigations made by a fellow researcher who could find no proof of this bequest ; Murray concluded that the reports arose from a misrepresentation of the original annuity . In his history of Waterloo , Colonel Siborne provided a full account of Graham 's action at Hougoumont and the later annuity , but made no reference to the second bequest , despite reporting Graham 's own death at Kilmainham Hospital . Siborne had personally interviewed Graham .
+
+= = Later career = =
+
+Graham continued to serve in the Coldstream Guards after Waterloo . The 2nd Battalion advanced on Paris with the army , remaining there until 1816 as part of the army of occupation , after which they were posted to Cambrai . In November 1818 they returned to England . While stationed in London in 1820 , a detachment of Guards were ordered to support the police with the arrest of the Cato Street conspirators , under the command of Captain FitzClarence ( later given the title Lord Frederick FitzClarence ) , one of the illegitimate sons of the Duke of Clarence . The arrest was not straightforward , and a scuffle ensued . The Naval and Military Gazette ( May 1845 ) identified Sergeant Graham as the man who saved FitzClarence 's life .
+
+Graham was discharged from the Guards in 1821 , and enlisted in the 12th Royal Lancers as a private . When Graham joined the Lancers , they were stationed in Ireland , and returned to England in 1824 . In 1826 , two squadrons saw service in Portugal before returning to England . Graham was discharged for ill health – " an injured chest and worn out " – in July 1830 , and received a Chelsea pension .
+
+James Graham died in 1845 , at the Royal Hospital , Kilmainham . He was buried with military honours . A memorial plaque was erected at the Hospital , and it was later transferred to St Tiernach 's Church , in Clones .
+
+His obituary appeared in The Gentleman 's Magazine under the name " John Graham " :
+
+23 April . At the Royal Hospital of Kilmainham , Sergeant John Graham , formerly in the light company of the 2nd battalion of Coldstream Guards , the individual selected by the Duke of Wellington as " the bravest of the brave " in the desperate combat at Waterloo , in order to profit by the generous offer of the Rev. Mr. Norcross , Rector of Framlingham , to confer a pension , during life , upon the soldier most distinguished in the brigade of guards on that glorious day . After the most minute inquiry , carried out by Sir John Byng 's directions , the laurel was awarded to an Irishman , John Graham , a native of Cloona [ sic ] , co . Monaghan .
+
+= = Enduring legacy = =
+
+James Graham 's exploits at Waterloo became much celebrated throughout Great Britain , and many accounts of the battle make reference to his actions , including a biography of Wellington , the memoirs of another sergeant , and Charles Dickens ' magazine Household Words . The shutting of the gate was portrayed by artist Robert Gibb in 1903 ; the painting is currently held by the National Museums of Scotland . A watercolour portrait of Sergeant Graham himself is held at the National Gallery of Ireland .
+
+The actions of Graham and Macdonnell continue to be remembered as an iconic moment in the battle of Waterloo . In 1915 , cigarette manufacturers W.D. & H.O. Wills portrayed Graham and Macdonnell on one of the cigarette cards printed to commemorate the centenary of Waterloo . Since then , many authors of fiction concerning Waterloo have recreated the events at the gate , and even if they include their own fictional heroes they attribute the closing of the gate to Macdonnell and Graham .
+
+The efforts of the Coldstream Guards at Waterloo , and Graham 's gallantry , remain celebrated by the Regiment . Every December the Sergeants ' Mess commemorate Graham 's bravery with a ceremonial game " Hanging the Brick " . The " Brick " – a stone from Hougoumont – is paraded through the barracks and hung up in the Sergeants ' Mess with all the honour due to regimental colours . Also retained by the Regiment are Graham 's Waterloo Medal and gallantry medal . In 2004 the Regiment named a new sergeants ' accommodation block after him , in Lille Barracks , Aldershot . A plaque on the building is inscribed with the words :
+
+" In Memory of Sergeant James Graham WM , 2nd Battalion Coldstream Guards , " The Bravest Man in England " , Following His Actions in Closing The Gates at Hougoumont Farm , Waterloo , 18 June 1815 . "
+
+= Hanky Panky ( Madonna song ) =
+
+" Hanky Panky " is a song by American recording artist Madonna from her soundtrack album I 'm Breathless . It was released on June 30 , 1990 , by Sire Records as the album 's second and final single . Written and produced by Madonna and Patrick Leonard , the song was developed from a line in the parent film , Dick Tracy , talking about a woman who enjoys being spanked by her partner . Performed in an almost comical style , " Hanky Panky " is a jazz and swing song with a changing bassline and minor to major key @-@ shift in the chorus . It caused some controversy in Ireland because of its innuendo and racy lyrics , with women 's groups deeming them as harmful ; Madonna later clarified that the lyrics were intended as a joke .
+
+The song garnered positive response from music critics , many of them highlighting its lyrical content . It was a moderate success , becoming a top @-@ ten hit in many countries including Australia , Ireland , Italy , the United Kingdom and the United States , while topping the chart in Finland . Madonna has performed the song on two of her concert tours ; on the 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour , and 14 years later on the Re @-@ Invention World Tour . The song has been covered by several tribute acts , and was also performed on the television series Ally McBeal ( 1997 ) .
+
+= = Background and release = =
+
+In 1990 , Madonna starred in the film Dick Tracy as Breathless Mahoney — a new role introduced for her — with Warren Beatty , her boyfriend at the time , playing the titular character . After the shooting for Dick Tracy was over , Madonna started working on the soundtrack . She had begun recording three songs by Stephen Sondheim for the film — " Sooner or Later " , " More " and " What Can You Lose " — which would be part of the album , but also had to write and develop new songs comparable in style to her previous releases . She produced the entire album , including the Sondheim songs . " I want people to think of me as a musical comedy actress . That 's what this album is about for me . It 's a stretch . Not just pop music , but songs that have a different feel to them , a theatrical feel " , she said at the time .
+
+Madonna recruited producer Patrick Leonard and engineer Bill Bottrell to help her with the project . She and Leonard toiled to create music that would fit the style and production of the film , set in the days of the Untouchables law enforcement . " Hanky Panky " was written and produced by Madonna and Leonard and was released as the second and final single from I 'm Breathless on June 30 , 1990 . The cassette and the 7 " versions had " More " , another song from the album as its B @-@ side , while the 12 " releases had additional two remixes of the song by Kevin McGuilbert . Cover photograph for the single was done by Patrick Demarchelier with Jeri Heiden designing the sleeves .
+
+= = Recording and composition = =
+
+" Hanky Panky " was recorded within the three weeks time taken for the whole project . Personnel working on the song included Leonard on keyboards , Jeff Porcaro on drums , Guy Pratt on bass and Donna De Lory , Niki Haris and N 'Dea Davenport on background vocals . Lyrically , the song deals with sadomasochistic themes and is centered around a girl who celebrates the pleasures of a " good spanking " . It is performed in an almost comical style , and stemmed from a line in the film , where Breathless says to Tracy , " You don 't know whether to hit me or kiss me " . The track has a false introduction and starts slowly with piano , but changes after a few moments into a large jazz and swing song , with a changing bassline and minor to major key @-@ shift in the chorus . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , the song is set in common time , with a moderately slow groove tempo of 70 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of D minor , with Madonna 's vocals spanning from B ♭ 3 to D5 . The song has a basic sequence of Dm – C – Bm – A7sus in the beginning and changes to Dm – A – B ♭ 9 – A7 – Dm – C when the swing starts . During an interview with Rolling Stone , Madonna explained :
+
+The spanking thing started because I believed that my character in Dick Tracy liked to get smacked around and that 's why she hung around with people like Al Pacino 's character . Warren [ Beatty ] asked me to write some songs , one of them , the Hanky Panky song , was about that . I say in the song ' Nothing like a good spanky ' , and in the middle I say , ' Ooh , my bottom hurts just thinking about it ' . When it came out everybody started asking , ' Do you like to get spanked ? ' and I said : ' Yeah . Yeah , I do ' .
+
+The singer had to tone down some of the suggestive lyrics to please the officers at Disney , the producers of Dick Tracy , who were worried about their image . In Ireland , the song was subject to controversy after two women 's organizations accused Madonna of glorifying violence against women , specifically on the line " I 'll settle for the back of your hand " ; one of the groups , the National Women 's Council of Ireland , labelled the song " highly dangerous " while the other group , Ireland 's Women 's Aid , said the line was " extremely harmful " . Although initially approving of the idea of " getting spanked " — even admitting her fondness on The Arsenio Hall Show — Madonna later backed down from the theme of spanking , explaining that the lyrics were written as a joke and believed that it was instead her character Breathless Mahoney that liked to get spanked . She added that it should have been obvious that the song was humorous in nature , since Madonna believed her image was more of a dominant person who took charge , contrary to the song 's characterization .
+
+= = Critical response = =
+
+J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , commented that " the steamrolling ' Hanky Panky ' simply sounds like a silly innocent romp until you realize what she 's going on and on is about ( ' Warren 's favorite pastime ' ) ... being spanked ! " . The author also felt Madonna sang with " just a little too much authority " . Academic Georges Claude Guilbert , author of Madonna As Postmodern Myth , called it " a comic hymn to spanking " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic described it as a " double entendre @-@ laden hit " . Music critic Robert Christgau highlighted " Hanky Panky " as one of the best tracks on I 'm Breathless ; calling it a " fake period piece " but praising its " risqué s & m @-@ lite " sound as " all her " . Rolling Stone 's Mark Coleman wrote that the song , alongside " Cry Baby " and " I 'm Going Bananas " , was one of the " more @-@ legitimate sounding and confidently sung show tunes without a trace of disco " on the album . He also noted that " its titles alone are enough to conjure up visions of the elaborate production numbers on Madonna 's summer tour . " People magazine called it a " paean to kink " . Billboard 's Keith Caulfield referred to the song as a " goofy ( but catchy ! ) ditty about having a ' good spanky ' " .
+
+Greg Sandow , from Entertainment Weekly , called it a " delightful challenge to censorship " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt it was a " cheeky " song , also writing that it touched on themes Madonna would go on to explore more explicitly later in the 1990s . Stephen Holden of The New York Times described it as a " big @-@ band blues [ song ] in which she endorses sexual spanking [ ... ] a calculated bid for outrage " . Ray Boren from The Deseret News described " Hanky Panky " as " naughty " , comparing it to the 1928 jazz song " Makin ' Whoopee " by Eddie Cantor . Dave Tianen from The Milwaukee Sentinel , while reviewing I 'm Breathless noted that " one aspect of Madonna remains constant even when you push her back in time . ' Hanky Panky ' is one of the few pop tunes to explore the erotic entertainment value in a good spanking . " Writing for The Pittsburgh Press , Peter B. King believed that the subject matter of " Hanky Panky " would surely receive " flank " , but defended Madonna saying that she had been singing about such topics for years by then . The Huffington Post ranked the song fifth on their list of " The 13 Most Underrated Madonna Songs " ; author Pandora Boxx hailed it as " a great fusion of ' 90s pop and vintage ' 30s " , but noted that " it 's ' scandalous ' subject matter ruffled too many feathers to make it a big hit " . A negative review came from Royal S. Brown , author of Film Musings : A Selected Anthology from Fanfare Magazine , who called it " ridiculous " .
+
+= = Chart performance = =
+
+Following its release , " Hanky Panky " was initially blacklisted at some radio stations when they faced objections from audiences about the lyrical content . Nevertheless , it debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 40 the week of June 30 , 1990 , as " Vogue " was descending from the top ten . The single quickly climbed up the chart , ultimately peaking at number ten the week of July 28 , 1990 . It was eventually certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on September 19 , 1990 , for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Billboard ranked it at number 36 on their list of " Madonna 's 40 Biggest Hits " on the Hot 100 . In Canada , the song debuted at number 92 on the RPM Top Singles chart , and reached a peak of number 18 on the week of September 1 , 1990 . It was present for a total of 13 weeks on the chart .
+
+In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 14 on the UK Singles Chart and after two weeks , reached its peak of number two the week of July 27 , 1990 ; spending a total of nine weeks within the top 100 of the chart . It was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on August 1 , 1990 , for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . According to the Official Charts Company , the single has sold over 210 @,@ 000 copies as of October 2010 . In Australia , " Hanky Panky " debuted at number 18 on the ARIA Singles Chart the week of July 29 , 1990 , and peaked at number six four weeks later . It was ranked at number 45 on the ARIA year end chart . In New Zealand , the single debuted at number 23 on RIANZ Singles Chart and , after fluctuating for the next three weeks , reached a peak of number six , becoming Madonna 's 18th top @-@ ten single in the country . In the European nations , " Hanky Panky " reached the top @-@ ten of the charts in Ireland and Italy , as well as topping the charts in Finland . On the year @-@ end Italian charts , the song was ranked at number 38 . In other countries such as Austria , Belgium , Germany , Spain , Switzerland and the Netherlands , it managed to peak within the top 20 of the charts .
+
+= = Live performances and covers = =
+
+" Hanky Panky " was first performed on Madonna 's third concert tour , the Blond Ambition World Tour of 1990 . She performed the song dressed in a green and white striped vaudeville @-@ style corset , playing the part of a nightclub singer , standing in front of a microphone . Near the end of the performance , Madonna joked : " You all know the pleasures of a good spanking , don 't you ? [ ... ] When I hurt people , I feel better , you know what I mean ? " . Regarding the " shameless promotion " of Dick Tracy in this segment , author Lucy O 'Brien said that " along with her yen for artistic expression , Madonna has always had an eye on the bottom dollar ... [ But ] the Dick Tracy section is the least dynamic part of the show " . Two different performances were released on video , the first was included in Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90 , taped from the performance at Yokohama Stadium in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the other once included on Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped at the Stade de l 'Ouest in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .
+
+Fourteen years later , Madonna performed an energetic , showgirl themed version of " Hanky Panky " as part of her 2004 Re @-@ Invention World Tour . She appeared onstage dressed in a circus themed outfit , consisting of black hot pants and a bustier ; this ensemble resembled like a 1920s flapper in red and white stripes . Sean Piccoli , from the Sun @-@ Sentinel , praised Madonna 's ability to " summon the vampy humor of ' Hanky Panky ' — a Bette Midler moment if ever [ Madonna ] had one " . On May 2000 , the song was performed by actress Alicia Witt on the third season finale of the American television series Ally McBeal , titled " The Musical , Almost " . An Indie cover version by the band Killer Nannies In America , was included on the 2000 tribute album The Material Girl : A Tribute to Madonna . The Gary Tesca Orchestra included an instrumental version of the song on their album Who 's That Girl : The Madonna Story , Vol . 1 ( 2006 ) .
+
+= = Track listings and formats = =
+
+US cassette / 7 " single
+
+" Hanky Panky " – 3 : 57
+
+" More " – 4 : 56
+
+AUS / US / EUR maxi @-@ single
+
+" Hanky Panky " ( Bare Bones Single Mix ) – 3 : 57
+
+" Hanky Panky " ( Bare Bottom 12 " Mix ) – 6 : 36
+
+" More " – 4 : 56
+
+= = Credits and personnel = =
+
+Madonna – writer , vocals , producer
+
+Patrick Leonard – writer , producer , keyboards
+
+Jeff Porcaro – drums
+
+Guy Pratt – bass
+
+Donna De Lory – background vocals
+
+Niki Haris – background vocals
+
+N 'Dea Davenport – background vocals
+
+Kevin McGuilbert – remix and additional production
+
+Patrick Demarchelier – cover photographer
+
+Jeri Heiden – designer
+
+Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
+
+= = Charts = =
+
+= = Certifications = =
+
+= Tucker : The Man and His Dream =
+
+Tucker : The Man and His Dream is a 1988 American biographical comedy @-@ drama film directed by Francis Ford Coppola and starring Jeff Bridges . The film recounts the story of Preston Tucker and his attempt to produce and market the 1948 Tucker Sedan , which was met with scandal between the " Big Three automobile manufacturers " and accusations of stock fraud from the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission . Joan Allen , Martin Landau , Elias Koteas , Frederic Forrest and Christian Slater appear in supporting roles .
+
+In 1973 , Coppola began development of a film based on the life of Tucker , originally with Marlon Brando in the lead role . Starting in 1976 , Coppola planned Tucker to be both a musical and an experimental film with music and lyrics written by Leonard Bernstein , Betty Comden and Adolph Green . The project eventually collapsed when Coppola 's American Zoetrope experienced financial problems . Tucker was revived in 1986 when Coppola 's friend , George Lucas , joined as a producer .
+
+The film received critical praise , but was a box office disappointment . Nonetheless , Tucker : The Man and His Dream produced a spike in prices of Tucker Sedans , as well as a renewed appreciation for Tucker and his automobiles .
+
+= = Plot = =
+
+Detroit engineer Preston Tucker ( Jeff Bridges ) has been interested in building cars since childhood . During World War II he designed an armored car for the military and made money building gun turrets for aircraft in a small shop next to his home in Ypsilanti , Michigan . Tucker is supported by his large , extended family , including wife Vera ( Joan Allen ) and eldest son Preston Jr ( Christian Slater ) .
+
+As the war winds down , Tucker has a dream of finally building the " car of the future . " The " Tucker Torpedo " will feature revolutionary safety designs including disc brakes , seat belts , a pop out windshield , and head lights which swivel when you turn . Tucker hires young designer Alex Tremulis ( Elias Koteas ) to help with the design and enlists New York financier Abe Karatz ( Martin Landau ) , to arrange financial support . Raising the money through a stock issue , Tucker and Karatz acquire the enormous Dodge Chicago Plant to begin manufacturing . Abe hires Robert Bennington ( Dean Goodman ) to run the new Tucker Corporation on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis .
+
+Launching " the car of tomorrow " in a spectacular way , the Tucker Corporation is met with enthusiasm from shareholders and the general public . However , the Tucker company board of directors , unsure of his ability to overcome the technical and financial obstacles ahead , send Tucker off on a publicity campaign , and attempt to take complete control of the company . While Tucker travels the country , Bennington and directors change the design of Tucker 's car to a more conventional design , eliminating the safety and engineering advances Tucker was advertising . At the same time , Tucker faces animosity from the Big Three and the authorities led by Michigan Senator Homer S. Ferguson ( Lloyd Bridges ) .
+
+Tucker returns from his publicity tour and confronts Bennington , who curtly informs him that he no longer has any power in the company to make decisions , and the engine originally planned for the car is not viable . Tucker then receives a call from Howard Hughes ( Dean Stockwell ) , who sends a private plane to bring Tucker to his aircraft manufacturing site . Hughes advises Tucker to purchase Air Cooled Motors , which can supply both the steel Tucker needs , as well as a small , powerful helicopter engine that might replace Tucker 's original " 589 " power plant .
+
+Faced with being unable to change Bennington 's design , Tucker modifies the new engine and installs it in a test Tucker in the secrecy of his backyard tool and die shop . This prototype proves successful in both durability and crash testing . However , Tucker is confronted with allegations of stock fraud . Ferguson 's investigation with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) , causes Karatz , once convicted of bank fraud , to resign , fearful that his criminal record will prejudice the hearings . Yellow journalism starts ruining Tucker 's public image even though the ultimate courtroom battle is resolved when he parades his entire production run of 50 Tucker Torpedoes , proving that he has reached production status .
+
+After giving a speech to the jurors on how capitalism in the United States is harmed by efforts of large corporations against small entrepreneurs like himself , Tucker is acquitted on all charges . Nevertheless , his company falls into bankruptcy and Preston Tucker dies of lung cancer seven years later , never able to realize his dream of producing a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art automobile .
+
+The film ends with all 50 Tucker Sedans being driven down the streets of downtown Chicago , admired by everyone as they pass .
+
+= = Cast = =
+
+= = Background = =
+
+From childhood , Coppola envisioned a film about the Tucker automobile and while attending the UCLA School of Theater , Film and Television in the early 1960s , further refined a film concept based on the life of Preston Tucker . In June 1973 , during the filming of The Godfather Part II ( 1974 ) , Coppola announced his intention to start development at American Zoetrope as writer , producer and director . He had already approached Marlon Brando for the lead role . He then purchased the rights from the Tucker Estate in 1976 , and , in addition to Brando , discussed the leading role with Jack Nicholson and also considered Burt Reynolds . Taking inspiration from Citizen Kane ( 1941 ) , Kabuki theater and the work of Bertolt Brecht , Coppola initially planned to make Tucker as a " dark kind of musical . " He later said that the idea approximated the style of an experimental film , similar to Mishima : A Life in Four Chapters ( 1985 ) , which he produced .
+
+The musical would have featured Tucker predominantly , but storylines would have interwoven Thomas Edison , Henry Ford , Harvey Samuel Firestone and Andrew Carnegie as supporting characters . Leonard Bernstein agreed to write the music , and Betty Comden and Adolph Green were hired to write the lyrics . They all spent a week at Coppola 's home in California , planning the musical which resulted in Bernstein writing one song . Coppola also approached Gene Kelly as a consultant for the dance choreography . However , financing for Tucker fell through when Coppola 's production company , American Zoetrope , filed for bankruptcy after the box office failures of One from the Heart ( 1982 ) and The Cotton Club ( 1984 ) . Coppola abandoned Tucker for the time being and went to work on Peggy Sue Got Married ( 1986 ) .
+
+In 1986 , during the production of Captain EO ( 1986 ) , Coppola 's friend George Lucas encouraged him to revive development for Tucker , believing it to be " the best film Francis had ever been involved with . " In addition , Lucas agreed to serve as executive producer and offered the use of his filmmaking companies , Lucasfilm and Industrial Light & Magic . He also convinced Coppola to drop the musical idea in favor of doing a homage to the films of Frank Capra , especially Mr. Smith Goes to Washington ( 1939 ) . Coppola became interested in the American Dream aspect of the storyline , as well as post @-@ World War II capitalism and politics . At one point , Coppola approached Capra to produce the film with Lucas , however , Capra thought Tucker was a failure and Coppola dropped that plan .
+
+Coppola originally intended to write the screenplay himself , but due to his commitment to the filming of Gardens of Stone ( 1987 ) , engaged Arnold Schulman who scripted Capra 's A Hole in the Head ( 1959 ) . Schulman eventually collaborated with David Seidler on the Tucker project . Subsequently , Coppola rewrote the Schulman and Seidler scripts , but an attempt to get a co @-@ writing credit on the film was overruled by the Writers Guild of America , as an arbitration committee determined Coppola did not contribute enough to the script to warrant an on @-@ screen writing credit . The filmmakers devised a $ 24 million production budget , but Universal Pictures , Walt Disney Pictures , TriStar Pictures and Paramount Pictures wanted Coppola and Lucas to lower it to $ 15 million . Distributors were also dubious about working with Lucas after the 1986 commercial and critical failures of both Labyrinth and Howard the Duck . Lucas decided to cover the $ 24 million budget himself , and pre @-@ production proceeded .
+
+= = Production = =
+
+Development and production for Tucker : The Man and His Dream included the involvement of Tucker 's children and grandchildren . Jeff Bridges was cast in the title role and , for research , studied Preston Tucker 's mannerisms and movements through home movies . Tucker 's descendants also granted Bridges the opportunity to sport the man 's black pearl ring and cuff links for his wardrobe . Preston 's son , John Tucker , said that Bridges has " got it all in the mannerisms and the look . My father was very positive , always thinking of what came next . Jeff captures that . " Martin Landau was enthusiastic about accepting the pivotal role of Abe Karatz as a means to avoid typecasting . The construct of family values played a crucial role in the Tuckers ' life and Coppola studiously selected Joan Allen for the part of Vera , Tucker 's devoted wife while Christian Slater and Elias Koteas fill in the other central roles of eldest son and Tucker 's friend and confederate , Alex Tremulis . Coppola 's family was undergoing a stressful time during the production and he dedicated the film to Gio , his eldest son , who died before filming began .
+
+Principal photography started with first unit shooting on April 13 , 1987 in the Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant in Richmond , California , doubling for the Dodge Chicago Plant . The majority of outdoor filming took place in Marin County , California as well as various locations including Oakland , Novato , and San Francisco . Forty @-@ seven of the original 52 Tucker ' 48s still exist , and many are in excellent condition . Twenty @-@ one of the cars were borrowed from members of the Tucker Automobile Club of America and were extensively used as both " set dressing " and in starring roles . Three cars were used to film the crash scene , a " before " version , with a fiberglass body , the car used to do the actual rollover was a Studebaker modified to look like a Tucker ( this car is currently in a privately owned museum in Tallahassee , Florida ) , and an " after crash " version which was another fiberglass body fitted to a Ford LTD chassis . The production is notable as the first film to have audio mixing work done at Lucas 's Skywalker Ranch . Production wrapped on July 17 , 1987 , and in the following month , Lucas convinced Paramount Pictures to distribute the film and cover the majority of the budget . He was helped by the fact that the studio was courting Coppola to direct The Godfather Part III ( 1990 ) . Prior to final editing , the studio insisted on amplifying the title to Tucker : The Man and His Dream .
+
+= = Historical accuracy = =
+
+Coppola had a certain amount of personal affinity with the short @-@ lived legacy of Preston Tucker . His father , Carmine Coppola , had been one of the original investors in Tucker stock and purchased one of the cars off the production line . Coppola included the involvement of Preston Tucker 's children , grandchildren and members of the Tucker Estate during the development of Tucker in the late 1970s , as well as during filming in 1987 . Coppola and Lucas acknowledged that they purposely intended to portray Tucker in an entirely sympathetic way . Both filmmakers each owned two Tuckers , although Lucas eventually sold one of his cars in September 2005 for $ 385 @,@ 500 . The Tucker Automobile Club made up of a legion of Tucker owners and collectors pronounced in their trade journal , TACA , that the " basic theme of the movie is quite accurate ... " although " the film compresses time and often takes artistic license with facts in order to more effectively present the story . "
+
+Anahid Nazarian , Coppola 's librarian , spoke of the historical inaccuracies . " Preston Tucker didn 't really have an assembly line ; there 's one in the film . He actually had five kids ; there are only four in the film . Our story takes place in one year ; the real story took place over four years . People who know the story will find a lot of what they call errors . I 'm sure I 'll be deluged with letters . " Nazarian 's research , collected over several years , consisted of books , some 350 articles , interviews with the Tucker family , hundreds of photographs , home movies and information from the Tucker Automobile Club of America who the production company considered important arbiters of the Tucker mystique . " We knew the facts , " she continued , " but to fit the spirit of the story in a film that is exciting and has characters you love and characters you hate - that made us change a lot of things . Things like the president of the Tucker Company was a good guy really , but we needed a villain , so we made him a villain . " Alex Tremulis who served as one of the historical consultants during production , is depicted as the chief car designer of the Tucker Torpedo rather than as the stylist , and the film ignores the involvement of designer Philip Egan .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+= = = Box office = = =
+
+Tucker : The Man and His Dream was released in the United States on August 12 , 1988 , earning $ 3 @,@ 709 @,@ 562 in its opening weekend in 720 theaters . The film eventually grossed $ 19 @.@ 65 million in US totals and was declared a box office bomb because it did not reimburse its $ 24 million production budget , despite positive reviews . Pocket Books published a novelization written by Robert Tine to coincide with the release of the film . Paramount Home Video released Tucker : The Man and His Dream on DVD in October 2000 , which included audio commentary by Coppola , the 1948 promotional film Tucker : The Man and the Car ( with optional commentary by Coppola ) , as well as a making @-@ of featurette , Under the Hood : Making Tucker .
+
+= = = Critical reception = = =
+
+Critical reaction was mainly positive . Based on 37 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 84 % of the critics enjoyed the film with an average score of 7 @.@ 2 / 10 . By comparison Metacritic calculated an average score of 74 / 100 , based on 13 reviews . Richard Schickel of Time magazine praised the film for its exaggerated kitsch style . He also believed the role of Preston Tucker to be Jeff Bridges ' best performance . Janet Maslin from The New York Times agreed , writing that Coppola , known for his dark approach on his previous films , " found the directorial range to actually make a feel @-@ good movie . " In addition , Desson Thomson , writing in The Washington Post , called the film a " satisfying commercial breakthrough for Coppola , " and praised the cinematography of Vittorio Storaro , as well as the ubiquitous approach for Dean Stockwell 's cameo appearance as Howard Hughes . Roger Ebert gave a mixed review . " Preston Tucker lacks an ounce of common sense or any notion of the real odds against him . And since the movie never really deals with that - never really comes to grips with Tucker 's character - it begins as a saga but ends in whimsy . "
+
+Although Coppola enjoyed his working relationship with Lucas , he commented in a July 1988 The New York Times interview with Robert Lindsey that " I think it 's a good movie - it 's eccentric , a little wacky , like the Tucker car - but it 's not the movie I would have made at the height of my power . " Coppola was able to stoically accept the critical and commercial reaction to Tucker : The Man and His Dream . " Every time in my career I tried to make , dare I say it , an art film , it never did well . "
+
+Despite helming his " labor of love , " Coppola was insistent that Tucker : The Man and His Dream would be his last Hollywood project . He reiterated a long @-@ held dream of his own , embarking on a " period of amateurism and experimentation as a Hollywood dropout . " One of the unexpected benefits of the film 's release was a renewed interest in the Tucker automobile and a boost in the collector 's value of the Tucker 48 ; a recent auction of a low @-@ mileage example topped the $ 1 million mark .
+
+= = Awards = =
+
+At the 61st Academy Awards , Martin Landau was nominated for Best Supporting Actor , while production and set designers Dean Tavoularis and Armin Ganz ( Art Direction ) and Milena Canonero ( Costume Design ) were also nominated for their work . Landau did end up winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture , while Tavoularis won the BAFTA Award for Best Production Design . Casting directors Jane Jenkins and Janet Hirshenson received a nomination for Feature Film Casting- Drama by the Casting Society of America . The film was nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics . Music composer Joe Jackson received a Grammy Award nomination .
+
+= Aggie Bonfire =
+
+Aggie Bonfire was a long @-@ standing tradition at Texas A & M University as part of the college rivalry with the University of Texas at Austin . For 90 years , Texas A & M students — known as Aggies — built and burned a bonfire on campus each autumn . Known to the Aggie community simply as " Bonfire " , the annual autumn event symbolized Aggie students ' " burning desire to beat the hell outta t.u. " , a derogatory nickname for the University of Texas . The bonfire was traditionally lit around Thanksgiving in conjunction with festivities surrounding the annual college football game . Although early bonfires were little more than piles of trash , as time passed the annual event became more organized . Over the years the bonfire grew to an immense size , setting the world record in 1969 . In 1999 , the Bonfire collapsed during construction , killing twelve people , eleven students and one former student , and injuring twenty @-@ seven others . The accident led Texas A & M to declare a hiatus on an official Bonfire . However , since 2002 , a student @-@ sponsored coalition has constructed an annual unsanctioned , off @-@ campus " Student Bonfire " in the spirit of its predecessor .
+
+= = Early years = =
+
+The students of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas , known as Aggies , burned their first bonfire on November 18 , 1907 to congratulate the football team on a recent win . The first on @-@ campus Aggie Bonfire , a heap of trash and debris , was burned in 1909 to generate enthusiasm for a variety of sporting events . A decade later , the focus of the event narrowed to the annual rivalry game between Texas A & M and the University of Texas , held near Thanksgiving Day . Little information was recorded about the early Bonfires ; the 1921 Texas A & M yearbook mentioned the " final rally " of the students before the game against Texas , but did not refer to a bonfire . Six years later , the school yearbook published a photograph of the event .
+
+Freshmen were expected to build the early Bonfires to help prove their worth . For almost two decades , the students constructed Bonfire from debris and wood acquired through various , sometimes illicit , means , including appropriating lumber intended for a dormitory in 1912 . In 1935 , a farmer reported that students carried off his entire barn as fuel for Bonfire . To prevent future incidents , the university made Bonfire a school @-@ sanctioned event . The following year , for the first time , the school provided axes , saws , and trucks for the students and pointed them toward a grove of dead trees on the edge of town .
+
+During the 1940s , the school paper described Bonfire as " the greatest event of the football season " . The 1947 Corps handbook stated that " bonfire symbolizes two things : a burning desire to beat the team from the University of Texas , and the undying flame of love that every loyal Aggie carries in his heart for the school " ; this was often shortened to " the burning desire to beat the hell out of t.u. " The Bonfire design changed in 1942 . Universal Studios , filming the movie We 've Never Been Licked on the Texas A & M Campus , built a bonfire as a prop for the movie . Their structure used a design similar to a teepee , where all the logs rested against each other in a conical shape . The logs were placed at an angle between 23 and 30 degrees , giving it " a tremendous vertical and horizontal resistance " . This allowed Bonfire to grow from 25 feet ( 8 m ) tall to over 50 feet ( 20 m ) tall . Subsequent Aggies adopted the new idea , and the teepee design became standard for Bonfires for the next twenty @-@ five years .
+
+Beginning in 1952 , the bonfires were constructed entirely from fresh @-@ cut logs . The event suffered its first fatality in 1955 , when a student was struck by a swerving car . The same year ( for unrelated reasons ) , Bonfire was moved from Simpson Drill Field in front of the Memorial Student Center to Duncan Field , near the dorms of the Corps of Cadets ( whose leaders oversaw construction ) . In 1957 , the structure collapsed two days before Bonfire was to be held , but students worked around @-@ the @-@ clock to rebuild it , and the bonfire burned as scheduled .
+
+During this period , University of Texas students attempted several stunts , trying to light the stack early , but to no avail . In both 1933 and 1948 , students from UT rented an airplane and tried to drop fire bombs onto the stack . In one of these instances , the plane ran low on fuel , and was forced to land at Easterwood Airport in College Station — the wooden portions of the plane found themselves part of Bonfire that year . In 1956 , there was an unsuccessful attempt to plant explosives at the Bonfire site , and , in the late 1970s , a College Station police officer was fired after trying to ignite the bonfire several days ahead of schedule . Students spotted the officer before he could succeed and chased him across campus . In 1999 , a Longhorn fan hired someone to build a six @-@ foot model airplane designed to carry a bomb into the wood stack to ignite it prematurely . " He was actually in the process of building that plane when they had the tragedy at bonfire " , Mel Stekoll said . " At that point , we scrapped the plan . It would have been the next year that we planned to try it . "
+
+= = Organizational change and expansion = =
+
+In 1965 , membership in the Corps of Cadets became voluntary for students at Texas A & M. Before , Corps leaders directed construction of Bonfire . However , because the Corps had no authority over the " non @-@ regs " , or civilian students , a separate Bonfire leadership structure was instituted . The new leaders were designated with colored hard hats , or pots , with the overall leaders known as redpots .
+
+The first Bonfire built with both Corps and non @-@ reg participation was in 1963 . The stack was scheduled to burn only days after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy . Out of respect , the students dismantled the stack . As Head Yell Leader Mike Marlowe explained , " It is the most we have and the least we can give . "
+
+In the following years the structure became more elaborate , and in 1967 the flames could be seen 25 miles ( 40 km ) away . In 1969 , the stack of logs set the world record for the height of a bonfire at 109 ft 10 in ( 33 m ) tall . Out of concern for the safety of participants and the community , the university limited the size to 55 feet ( 17 m ) tall and 45 feet ( 14 m ) in diameter . As an added precaution , nearby campus buildings were equipped with rooftop sprinkler systems . Despite the new height restrictions , in the 1970s , the Guinness Book of Records listed Aggie Bonfire as the largest Bonfire in the world .
+
+= = Design change = =
+
+In 1978 , Bonfire shifted from its previous teepee design to a wedding cake style , in which upper stacks of logs were wedged on top of lower stacks . The structure was built around a fortified center pole , made from two telephone poles spliced together by cutting matching notches , approximately 10 feet ( 3 m ) long , and with 5 US gallons ( 19 L ) of glue . Four steel plates were bolted to the two poles , and a 3 ⁄ 8 inch ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) cable wrapped around the joint and secured to the pole with steel staples . Four perimeter poles were placed 150 feet ( 46 m ) away and ropes were stretched between the perimeter poles to center poles and tension placed on them to hold the center pole together . After the center pole was erected , logs were placed vertically around it in a multi @-@ tiered wedding cake design composed of thousands of logs . By 1984 , the logs were sloping only 14 degrees . The spiral arrangement of the logs was designed to make Bonfire collapse into itself in a twisting motion , thus protecting spectators . Although the tradition stated that if Bonfire burned through midnight then A & M would win the following day 's football game , the introduction of the wedding cake design drastically reduced the time it took for Bonfire to fall , sometimes burning for only 30 or 45 minutes .
+
+Despite the complexity of the design , there were no formal written instructions or architectural blueprints for the construction of Bonfire . Knowledge on how to build the structure was passed verbally from one redpot to the next . By 1999 , the only written documentation on the building of Bonfire was the rough schematic printed on the back of the official Bonfire T @-@ shirt worn by participants from the freshman honors dormitory , Lechner .
+
+While the Bonfires of the 1960s were constructed in five to ten days , working primarily in daylight , by the late 1970s , changes in the school led to a more elaborate and lengthy construction schedule . Construction began in late October with " Cut " , obtaining wood by cutting down trees with axes , which took several weekends . After Cut , students brought the logs to campus during " Load " , a process by which the logs were loaded by hand onto flatbed trucks and brought to campus . In early November , crews began " Stack " , a three @-@ week period in which the logs were wired together and Bonfire took shape . Near the end of stack , known as " Push " , students worked around the clock in rotating shifts . The first four of the six stacks were built with the efforts of all safety @-@ trained participants . The day before Bonfire was scheduled to burn , junior redpots would build the fifth stack , and then senior redpots would build the sixth .
+
+During Cut , all logs were felled by hand , with students working in teams to chop down each tree with their axes . The manual labor ensured that participants were invested in each log that went into the Bonfire . Once the trees had fallen , brownpots , the " executive lumberjacks " , used chainsaws to cut limbs and prepare the logs .
+
+To ensure safety during the Stack period , the organizers maintained a perimeter around the working area , and allowed only safety @-@ trained students through . Cranes , donated by local construction companies , assisted in getting logs onto the upper tiers , and volunteers from those companies were on @-@ hand at all times to offer advice . Emergency medical technicians were also required to be on site at all times and no more than 70 students at a time were allowed on the stack . Once the stack was finished , " an outhouse constructed by the freshmen of Texas A & M 's " Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band " and painted orange [ symbolizing a ] t.u. frat house " was bedecked with derogatory statements about rival University of Texas at Austin and then placed on top of the stack .
+
+Although between two and five thousand students participated in the construction of Bonfire each year , most worked only part @-@ time , and many worked only one or two shifts . Student workers were organized by dormitories or Corps units , with a separate off @-@ campus student team . Many former students participated with teams they belonged to as students . Each team had assigned shifts , although individuals were not limited to working only the assigned shifts . Students working on Bonfire wore " grodes " — old T @-@ shirts , jeans , and boots . By tradition , grodes were either not washed until after Bonfire burned or not washed at all .
+
+In 1983 , the city of College Station began manufacturing Austin city limits signs for students to place at the summit of the Bonfire so that students would stop stealing signs from Austin . The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band began building the outhouse , ending the tradition of stealing Bonfire 's components .
+
+= = Controversy = =
+
+Although women were allowed to serve coffee and provide first aid in the late 1960s , in 1974 they were officially banned from both Cut and Stack . The ban was partially rescinded in 1979 , when women were again allowed to participate in Cut , and completely rescinded in 1981 . Few women participated in the early years , as female volunteers were subject to verbal abuse from their male counterparts . In 1987 , two female photographers from the school yearbook alleged that male workers shouted obscenities and threw dirt on them as they tried to take pictures of the raising of the center pole . The redpots responded that women were always welcome to participate as long as they did their share of the work , and that the photographers were standing dangerously close to the stack . To find their own place in the Bonfire hierarchy , female students founded the all @-@ female Bonfire Reload Crew to provide refreshments to those working at Cut and Stack .
+
+Injuries plagued the construction process . In 1981 , student Wiley Keith Jopling died after being run over by a tractor at the Cut site . At the 1985 Cut site , one student broke his hip , and , in 1989 , another student lost two fingers when logs crushed his hand . Fractures and amputations were rare , but many students suffered cuts , scrapes , or exposure to poison ivy . Hazing , including beatings with ax handles , was common .
+
+The 1980s also saw increased alcohol consumption during the Bonfire ceremony . In 1988 , police issued 140 Minor in Possession ( of alcohol ) citations and arrested six people . The following year , the local police department brought a paddywagon to the site for the first time , as they anticipated mass arrests for alcohol violations . As many as 150 police officers were on duty during the Bonfire burning from the Texas A & M and College Station police departments and the Texas Alcoholic Beverage Commission .
+
+In 1989 , the Campus Ministry Association , representing 17 religious denominations , unanimously approved a resolution asking the university to change Bonfire because of concerns about safety , participant academic performance , humanitarian considerations , and the environment . Shortly afterwards , the Faculty Senate 's Committee of the Whole approved a resolution asking for a panel to explore alternatives to Bonfire .
+
+Although students protested Bonfire 's environmental impact since 1970 , no changes were made for decades . In 1990 , student Scott Hantman asked the Bonfire leadership to help him address the problem . The group solicited volunteers , and in the spring of 1991 , they planted 400 trees . The tradition , Aggie Replant , has been repeated annually . The Replant organization became independent of Bonfire in 1994 when it gained its own Student Government Committee .
+
+= = Later years = =
+
+After being held at the Duncan Intramural Fields on the south side of A & M 's campus for twenty @-@ seven years , in 1992 , Bonfire was relocated to the Polo Fields on the northeast corner of campus . This more isolated site , with a larger area for people to gather , made it a safer location . After heavy rains in 1994 , the partially completed Bonfire began to slowly lean to the side as the soil underneath shifted . Student officials had enough warning to clear the area and tear down the Bonfire one week before its scheduled burn date . Nine tractors , two bulldozers , and two forklifts dismantled the stack on October 26 , 1994 , which , at 70 % completed , stood 40 feet ( 12 m ) tall and 45 feet ( 14 m ) wide .
+
+The 1999 collapse of Bonfire was witnessed by thousands of people around the world . The Texas A & M Department of Computer Science set up a camera aimed at the Bonfire site that took a picture every 10 minutes and posted it on the Internet . On the day of the collapse over 29 @,@ 000 visitors visited the web page , at a time when only 20 million people worldwide had Internet access .
+
+Students and alumni flocked to the Polo Fields , working around the clock , to rebuild the Bonfire in time for the game . It was completed only hours before it was scheduled to burn . After the 1994 Bonfire was burned , two tons of lime were spread on the Polo Fields to stabilize the ground . This layer hardened to a consistency similar to concrete .
+
+In 1996 a student , Greg White , died in a car accident on his way home from Cut . The student and several companions were riding in the bed of a pickup truck when the driver lost control and the truck rolled . Nine other students were injured .
+
+In its later years , students building Bonfire used logs donated by local landowners who wanted their land cleared for construction or farming . Over 8000 logs were used each year in the late 1990s , taking about 5000 students a combined 125 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours to construct . After being doused in 700 lb ( 318 kg ) of jet fuel , applied by staff members at A & M 's Fire Training School , the Yell Leaders , Drum Majors , and Redpots then lit the stack with torches the night before the annual football game against the University of Texas when at home and two nights before the game when it was played in Austin .
+
+This event was popular amongst current and former students and people traveled from all over the state and the nation to observe the burning of Bonfire . Hotel rooms within 65 miles ( 105 km ) of College Station were booked weeks or months in advance of the date Bonfire burned . Crowds ranged from 30 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 people , depending on the weather and the strength of the Aggie football team . The 1998 Bonfire was broadcast live on Fox Sports Southwest .
+
+= = 1999 collapse = =
+
+At approximately 2 : 42 a.m. on November 18 , 1999 , the 59 @-@ foot high stack , consisting of about 5000 logs , collapsed during construction . Of the 58 students and former students working on the stack , 12 were killed and 27 were injured . Immediately after the collapse , Emergency Medical Technicians and trained First Responders of the Texas A & M Emergency Care Team ( TAMECT ) , the student @-@ run , volunteer first @-@ responder service of Texas A & M University , who staffed every stage of construction of Bonfire , triaged patients and administered first aid . TAMECT medics radioed an alert to University Police and Texas A & M University EMS ( also a student @-@ run service ) , who dispatched all remaining university medics , and requested mutual aid from the surrounding EMS , Fire , and Police agencies . In addition to the mutual aid received from the College Station and Bryan , Texas EMS , Fire , and Police Departments , members of Texas Task Force 1 , the state 's elite emergency response team , arrived to assist the rescue efforts .
+
+Rescue operations took over 24 hours ; the pace was hampered by the decision to remove many of the logs by hand for fear that using heavy equipment to remove them would cause further collapses , resulting in further injuries to those still trapped . Students , including the entire Texas A & M football team and many members of the university 's Corps of Cadets , rushed to the site to assist rescue workers with the manual removal of the logs . The Texas A & M civil engineering department was also called on to examine the site and help the workers determine the order in which the logs could be safely removed , and , at the request of the Texas Forest Service , Steely Lumber Company in Huntsville , Texas sent log @-@ moving equipment and operators . Bonfire survivor John Comstock was the last living person to be removed from the stack . He spent months in the hospital following amputation of his left leg and partial paralysis of his right side . Comstock returned to A & M in 2001 to finish his degree .
+
+= = = Response = = =
+
+Within minutes of the collapse , word of the accident spread among students and the community . Before sunrise , the accident was the subject of news reports around the world . Within hours , 50 satellite trucks were broadcasting from the Texas A & M campus . At noon , students held an impromptu prayer service in the center of campus , at Rudder Fountain . An official memorial service was held less than seventeen hours after the collapse . Over 16 @,@ 000 mourners , including then Texas Lieutenant Governor Rick Perry , packed Reed Arena to pay tribute to those who died and those who had spent all day trying to rescue the injured . At the end of the service , as A & M University President Ray Bowen presented roses to the families of the dead and injured students , the crowd spontaneously stood in silence , linking arms with those standing next to them , before quietly singing " Amazing Grace " . Only after all of the rescue workers and family members had left the facility did the audience depart .
+
+On November 25 , 1999 , the date that Bonfire would have burned , Aggies instead held a vigil and remembrance ceremony . Over 40 @,@ 000 people lit candles and observed up to two hours of silence at the site of the collapse , before walking to Kyle Field for yell practice . At the stadium , fans spontaneously relit their candles as the Parsons Mounted Cavalry fired the Aggie cannon twelve times , once for each victim . Former President George H. W. Bush and his wife Barbara and Texas Governor George W. Bush and his wife Laura attended the remembrance ceremony .
+
+The following day , the Aggies upset the Texas Longhorns , winning 20 – 16 in the annual rivalry game . The game began with a flyover of F @-@ 16 jets , all piloted by former A & M students , in the missing man formation . This flyover was donated by Senator Phil Gramm who , as an elected official , had the title of a fly @-@ over reserved for his death and asked that the fly @-@ over be given instead in the honor of the 12 Aggies that died . At halftime , the Texas Longhorn Band dedicated their performance to the students lost and injured in the collapse , and ended by playing Amazing Grace and Taps , then removing their white hats in a show of respect as they walked off the field . The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band also played a tribute to the fallen and , contrary to the usual tradition , marched off the field in a silent cadence . Aggie students , who normally sit only when the opposing band plays , stood throughout both performances and gave both standing ovations .
+
+The Bonfire Memorial Commission collected the hundreds of thousands of items that were left by grieving visitors at the site of the collapse . At the Systems Building , Texas A & M leaders erected pictures of the deceased students . There , over a dozen seniors left behind their Aggie rings , permanently donating them to the students who did not live long enough to earn their own . Various organizations also established funds in memory of the victims and to help with expenses incurred because of the accident . In total , the funds received exceeded US $ 250 @,@ 000 .
+
+= = = Cause , aftermath , and controversy = = =
+
+A commission created by Texas A & M University discovered that a number of factors led to the Bonfire collapse , including " excessive internal stresses " on the logs and " inadequate containment strength " in the wiring used to tie the logs together . The wiring broke after logs from upper tiers were " wedged " into lower tiers .
+
+Detractors further blamed the school for the accident , saying that , in the name of tradition , administrators turned a blind eye to an unsafe structure being constructed with minimal engineering and safety protocols . Before the collapse , some people expressed concerns about the safety of the Bonfire , citing the partial collapse that occurred in a previous Bonfire , the progressively shorter Bonfire burn times ( collapse of the stack after lighting ) which had dropped from several hours to less than 20 minutes , and numerous incidents involving alcohol or unsafe horseplay at the Bonfire site . One of the students killed in the 1999 Bonfire collapse was under the legal drinking age yet a toxicology test showed high blood @-@ alcohol levels ; however , lower readings in a second test and inconsistencies in the initial sampling and annotation methods led to questions about the accuracy of the original tests .
+
+Parents of students injured or killed in the 1999 collapse filed lawsuits against Texas A & M officials , including President Ray Bowen , Vice President of Student Affairs J. Malon Southerland , the 1999 redpots , and the university . In one of the six lawsuits , plaintiffs alleged that A & M officials violated the Bonfire victims ' right of due process by placing those victims in a " state @-@ created danger " by not ensuring Bonfire 's structural integrity and by allowing unqualified students to work on the stack . The plaintiffs pointed to a $ 2 million liability policy the university obtained in 1996 and accidental death and dismemberment insurance policies that the university obtained for student workers as early as 1987 as proof that the administrators knew of the dangers of Bonfire . Texas A & M maintains that the insurance policies were actually purchased by an advisory committee to Bonfire and not the university . On May 21 , 2004 , Federal Judge Samuel B. Kent dismissed all claims against the Texas A & M officials . In 2005 , 36 of the 64 original defendants , including all of the redpots , settled their portion of the case for an estimated $ 4 @.@ 25 million , paid by their insurance companies . The 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals dismissed the remaining lawsuits against Texas A & M and its officials in April 2007 . In October 2007 , the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the appeals court ruling .
+
+The Texas Board of Professional Engineers announced in 2000 that the Aggie Bonfire met the requirements to be considered a complex construction project that should be regulated by state engineering laws . If Bonfire is resumed by the university in its former state , it will have to be designed and overseen by a professional engineer .
+
+For the next two years , the university pondered options for reinstating the tradition . Bowen formed a task force , which proposed a new design . The task force recommended that students be allowed to participate in building the Bonfire as long as they were monitored by professional construction experts . Current and former students debated whether the proposed division of labor could be considered a student project . The debate was rendered moot when the university discovered liability insurance for the revamped project would cost more than $ 2 million per year . In 2002 , Bowen announced that Bonfire was officially cancelled . Bowen 's successor Robert Gates upheld this decision , stating that a " change in the status quo regarding the future of Bonfire would be inappropriate while litigation is still on @-@ going " .
+
+On October 28 , 2008 , Texas A & M settled the final lawsuit filed against them by the victims and their families . The university agreed to pay $ 2 @.@ 1 million and promised that if Bonfire returned to campus that " engineering oversight " would be provided . The final lawsuit , filed against two companies that provided crane operators and cranes for the bonfire , was settled in April 2014 .
+
+= = Bonfire Memorial = =
+
+A memorial was constructed on the university polo fields , the site of the accident . Construction began in October 2003 and was completed by November 2004 . On November 18 , 2004 , five years following the incident , the Bonfire Memorial was officially dedicated . The memorial is composed of three design elements :
+
+Tradition Plaza – Marks the entrance to the memorial and reflects on Aggie traditions .
+
+History Walk – Consists of 89 stones representing the 89 previous years of Bonfire . A gap in the timeline signifies the 1963 Bonfire , which did not burn due to the John F. Kennedy assassination . The three previous Bonfire @-@ related deaths are also memorialized on this time line .
+
+Spirit Ring – The ring surrounds the site of the collapse and represents the spirit that brought the students together . Twelve portals are placed around the ring , oriented toward each student 's hometown . Twenty @-@ seven stones complete the ring , representing the 27 students injured in the collapse .
+
+The memorial design has been recognized by several organizations as an outstanding architectural design and masonry accomplishment . The American Institute of Architects , San Antonio Chapter , recognized the memorial as a winner of the 2005 AIA San Antonio Design Award . The memorial also was recognized as a winner of the 2005 MCAA International Excellence in Masonry Awards .
+
+To further honor the victims , in 2000 , the Aggie Replant Committee planted twelve live oak trees at the Polo Grounds .
+
+= = Continuation : Student Bonfire = =
+
+Shortly after the university officially cancelled Bonfire , students began planning an unofficial bonfire for November 2002 . Known as the " Unity Project " , it became the first unofficial Bonfire since the 1930s . This fire consisted of three piles of wood , with the center stack being 35 feet ( 11 m ) high . Despite a lack of official advertisement , over one thousand spectators attended .
+
+The following year , the unofficial event was rebranded Student Bonfire . Now a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization , Student Bonfire has official bylaws and a Board of Directors comprising former students . The bylaws specify the design that must be used each year , and no changes have been permitted since the first burn in 2003 . This design , based on the recommendation of the 2002 university task force and approved by a structural engineer , results in a Bonfire less than half the size of those from the 1960s . In a departure from tradition , every log in the stack touches the ground . To maintain the traditional wedding @-@ cake design , the logs are cut to different heights , with the tallest set reaching 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) high . The lowered height eliminates the need for a spliced center pole . Instead , a single utility pole , sunk 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) into the ground , serves as the center pole . As in the pre @-@ 1999 versions of Bonfire , each log is tied to the log next to it with baling wire . To further fortify the structure , aircraft @-@ grade steel cable is wrapped around each tier . For added support , four 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) poles are spaced evenly around the stack and then bolted to the 45 @-@ foot ( 14 m ) center pole , each with a steel pipe . These poles are known as Windle @-@ sticks , after Levi Windle , a staunch supporter of Student Bonfire who died in an unrelated accident in 2003 .
+
+The Board changed or eliminated many of the minor traditions that had proliferated during Aggie Bonfire , primarily for safety reasons . Alcohol is no longer permitted , and hazing has been banned . The Bonfire leadership structure has remained in place , although in 2014 only 10 of the 26 dorms were represented by Bonfire crews . Attendance for Student Bonfire ranges from 8 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 people and the event is held in Brazos County or one of the surrounding counties . The 2013 Student Bonfire attracted 12 @,@ 000 people , despite being postponed until January due to flooding .
+
+= George Pickett =
+
+George Edward Pickett ( January 16 , 1825 – July 30 , 1875 ) was a career United States Army officer who became a major general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War . He is best remembered for his participation in the futile and bloody Confederate offensive on the third day of the Battle of Gettysburg that bears his name , Pickett 's Charge .
+
+Pickett graduated last out of 59 cadets in the West Point Class of 1846 . He served as a second lieutenant in the United States Army during the Mexican @-@ American War , and is noted for his service in the Battle of Chapultepec in September 1847 . After this , he served in the Washington Territory , and eventually reached the rank of captain . Pickett participated in the Pig War of 1859 . Near the beginning of the American Civil War , he enlisted in the Confederate Army , and he attained the rank of brigadier general in January 1862 . He commanded a brigade that saw heavy action during the Peninsula Campaign of 1862 . Pickett was wounded at the Battle of Gaines 's Mill on June 27 .
+
+He did not return to command until September , following the Battle of Antietam , when he was given command of a division in the Right Wing of the Army of Northern Virginia , commanded by Major General James Longstreet , which became the I Corps that December . His division was lightly engaged at the Battle of Fredericksburg , and , along with most of Longstreet 's Corps , missed the Battle of Chancellorsville while participating in the Suffolk Campaign in 1863 . During the Gettysburg Campaign , his division was , much to Pickett 's frustration , the last to arrive on the field . However , it was one of three divisions under the command of General Longstreet to participate in a disastrous assault on Union positions on July 3 , the final day of the battle . The attack has been given the name " Pickett 's Charge " . In February 1864 , Pickett commanded the Confederate forces at the Battle of New Bern , and ordered the execution of 22 Confederate deserters found to be fighting amongst the U.S. troops . On April 1 , 1865 , he was defeated while in overall command of Confederate troops at the Battle of Five Forks .
+
+Following the war , Pickett feared prosecution for his execution of deserters and temporarily fled to Canada . He returned to Virginia in 1866 , where he died at age 50 in 1875 . Legend says that after the war he remained bitter and dwelt extensively upon the loss of his men at Gettysburg .
+
+= = Early life = =
+
+George Edward Pickett was born in his grandfather 's shop in Richmond , Virginia on January 16 , 1825 . He was the first of the eight children of Robert and Mary Pickett , a prominent family of Old Virginia of English origins , and one of the " first families " of Virginia . He was the cousin of future Confederate general Henry Heth . He went to Springfield , Illinois , to study law , but at the age of 17 he was appointed to the United States Military Academy . Legend has it that Pickett 's West Point appointment was secured for him by Abraham Lincoln , but this is largely believed to be a story circulated by his widow following his death . Lincoln , as an Illinois state legislator , could not nominate candidates , although he did give the young man advice after he was accepted . Pickett was actually appointed by Illinois Congressman John T. Stuart , a friend of Pickett 's uncle and a law partner of Lincoln .
+
+Pickett was popular as a cadet at West Point . He was mischievous and a player of pranks , " ... a man of ability , but belonging to a cadet set that appeared to have no ambition for class standing and wanted to do only enough study to secure their graduation . " At a time when often a third of the class left before graduation , Pickett persisted , working off his demerits and doing enough in his studies to graduate , ranking last out of the 59 surviving students in the Class of 1846 . It is a position held with some backhanded distinction , referred to today as the " goat " , both for its stubbornness and tenacity . Pickett 's cousin Henry Heth graduated last in the Class of 1847 .
+
+= = United States Army Career = =
+
+Pickett was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the U.S. 8th Infantry Regiment . He soon gained national recognition in the Mexican – American War when he carried the American colors over the parapet during the Battle of Chapultepec in September 1847 . Wounded at the base of the wall , Pickett 's friend and colleague Lieutenant James Longstreet handed him the colors . Pickett carried the flag over the wall and fought his way to the roof of the palace , unfurling it over the fortress and announcing its surrender . He received a brevet promotion to captain following this action .
+
+In 1849 , while serving on the Texas frontier after the war , he was promoted to first lieutenant and then to captain in the 9th U.S. Infantry in 1855 . In 1853 , Pickett challenged a fellow junior officer , future Union general Winfield Scott Hancock , to a duel ; ( they had met only briefly when Hancock was passing through Texas ) . Hancock declined the duel , a response not unlikely as dueling had fallen out of favor at the time .
+
+In January 1851 , Pickett married Sally Harrison Minge , the daughter of Dr. John Minge of Virginia , the great @-@ great @-@ grandniece of President William Henry Harrison , and the great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of Benjamin Harrison , a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence . Sally died during childbirth that November , at Fort Gates , Texas .
+
+Pickett next served in the Washington Territory . In 1856 he commanded the construction of Fort Bellingham on Bellingham Bay , in what is today the city of Bellingham , Washington . He also built a frame home that year which still stands ; Pickett House is the oldest house in Bellingham and the oldest house on its original foundation in the Pacific Northwest . While posted to Fort Bellingham , Pickett married a Native American woman of the Haida tribe , Morning Mist , who gave birth to a son , James Tilton Pickett ( 1857 – 1889 ) ; Morning Mist died a few months later . " Jimmy " Pickett made a name for himself as a newspaper artist , before dying of tuberculosis at the age of 32 near Portland , Oregon .
+
+In 1859 Pickett was dispatched in command of Company D , 9th U.S. Infantry , to garrison San Juan Island in response to discord that had arisen there between American farmers and the Hudson 's Bay Company . The confrontation was instigated when American farmer Lyman Cutler shot and killed a pig that had repeatedly broken into his garden . The pig belonged to the Hudson 's Bay Company , and though Cutler was prepared to pay a fair price for the pig , the Company was not satisfied , insisting he be brought before the British magistrate , thus initiating the territorial dispute that came to be known as the Pig War . In response to the U.S. forces , the British sent a force of three warships and 1000 men . The British commander demanded that Pickett and his men leave . Pickett declined , and the British officer returned to his frigate , threatening to land his own men . Pickett with his 68 men appeared to be fully prepared to oppose a British landing , ordering them into a line of battle near the beach . " Don 't be afraid of their big guns , " he told his men , " We 'll make a Bunker Hill of it . " Pickett 's presence and determination prevented the landing , the British being under orders to avoid armed conflict with United States forces , if possible . After initial tensions passed the crisis was averted , both sides being unwilling to go to war over a pig . President James Buchanan dispatched Brevet Lieutenant General Winfield Scott to negotiate a settlement between the parties .
+
+= = Civil War = =
+
+= = = Early assignments = = =
+
+On April 19 , after the firing on Battle of Fort Sumter and President Lincoln 's call for 75 @,@ 000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion , Virginia joined four more Southern states in seceding from the Union . Native son Pickett journeyed from Oregon to serve his state . Arriving after the First Battle of Bull Run , he resigned his commission in the U.S. Army on June 25 , 1861 ; he had been holding a commission as a major in the Confederate States Army Artillery since March 16 . Within a month he was appointed colonel in command of the Rappahannock Line of the Department of Fredericksburg , under the command of Major General Theophilus H. Holmes . Holmes 's influence obtained a commission for Pickett as a brigadier general , dated January 14 , 1862 .
+
+Pickett made a colorful general . He rode a sleek black charger named " Old Black , " and wore a small blue kepi @-@ style cap , with buffed gloves over the sleeves of an immaculately tailored uniform that had a double row of gold buttons on the coat , and shiny gold spurs on his highly polished boots . He held an elegant riding crop whether mounted or walking . His moustache drooped gracefully beyond the corners of his mouth and then turned upward at the ends . His hair was the talk of the Army : " long ringlets flowed loosely over his shoulders , trimmed and highly perfumed , his beard likewise was curling and giving up the scent of Araby . "
+
+Pickett 's first combat command was during the Peninsula Campaign , leading a brigade that was nicknamed the Gamecocks ( the brigade would eventually be led by Richard B. Garnett in Pickett 's Charge ) . Pickett led his brigade ably in the battles of Williamsburg and Seven Pines , earning commendations from his superiors . At Gaines 's Mill he was shot off his horse while leading his brigade in its first assault . Pickett continued to move forward with his men for a while , leading his horse on foot . A second assault by Pickett 's brigade , led by Colonel Eppa Hunton , along with the brigade led by Cadmus Wilcox , broke the Union line . Pickett feared that he had taken a mortal blow to his shoulder , but the wound was initially assessed by others as minor . The shoulder wound turned out to be severe enough that , while not fatal , Pickett was out of action for the next three months , and his arm would remain stiff for at least a year .
+
+When Pickett returned to the Army in September 1862 , following the Battle of Antietam , he was given command of a two @-@ brigade division in the corps commanded by his old colleague from Mexico , Major General Longstreet . Pickett was promoted to major general on October 10 . Shortly afterwards it was upgraded to five brigades , commanded by Generals Garnett , James Kemper , Lewis Armistead , Montgomery Dent Corse and Micah Jenkins . The division was only lightly engaged at the Battle of Fredericksburg in December . His division would not see serious combat until the Gettysburg Campaign the following summer . Longstreet and two of his divisions @-@ those commanded by Pickett and John Bell Hood @-@ were detached from Lee 's main army in April while participating in the Suffolk Campaign . They thus missed the Battle of Chancellorsville . The Suffolk Campaign was minor and inconclusive , while the Battle of Chancellorsville was an enormous Confederate victory .
+
+Before the Gettysburg Campaign , Pickett fell in love with a Virginia teenager , LaSalle " Sallie " Corbell ( 1843 – 1931 ) , commuting back and forth from his duties in Suffolk to be with her . Although Sallie would later insist that she met him in 1852 ( at age 9 ) , she did not marry the 38 @-@ year @-@ old widower until November 13 , 1863 . The couple had two children , George Edward Pickett , Jr . ( born July 17 , 1864 ) and David Corbell Pickett ( born 1865 or 1866 ) . David died in late 1873 or January 1874 of measles .
+
+= = = Gettysburg and Pickett 's Charge = = =
+
+Pickett 's division arrived at the Battle of Gettysburg on the evening of the second day , July 2 , 1863 . It was reduced to 3 brigades present , Corse 's still being detached in Virginia and Jenkins ' transferred . It had been delayed by the assignment of guarding the Confederate lines of communication through Chambersburg , Pennsylvania . After two days of heavy fighting , General Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia , which had initially driven the Union Army of the Potomac to the high ground south of Gettysburg , had been unable to dislodge the Union soldiers from their position . Lee 's plan for July 3 called for a massive assault on the center of the Union lines on Cemetery Ridge , calculating that Meade had concentrated his forces to protect his flanks while leaving his center weak . Lee directed General Longstreet to assemble a force of three divisions for the attack — two divisions from the corps of Lieutenant General A.P. Hill , under the temporary command of J. Johnston Pettigrew and Major General Isaac R. Trimble , which had both seen action on July 1 , and Pickett 's fresh division from Longstreet 's own corps . The center was occupied by the Union II Corps , commanded by Major General Winfield S. Hancock . Longstreet was technically in command , not Pickett . Nevertheless , the attack became known as " Pickett 's Charge " . In addition , much of the mythology of the Charge arose from newspaper reports . As Pickett was the only major general from Virginia to participate in the charge , the Virginia newspapers both played up their native son 's role and made the assault a more " glamorous " event .
+
+Following a two @-@ hour artillery barrage meant to soften up the Union defenses , the three divisions stepped off across open fields almost a mile from Cemetery Ridge . Pickett inspired his men by shouting , " Up , Men , and to your posts ! Don 't forget today that you are from Old Virginia . " Pickett 's division , with the brigades of Brigadier Generals Armistead , Garnett , and Kemper , was on the right flank of the assault . It received punishing artillery fire , and then volleys of massed musket fire as it approached its objective . Armistead 's brigade made the farthest progress through the Union lines . Armistead was mortally wounded , falling near " The Angle " , at what is now termed the " High Water Mark of the Confederacy " . Neither of the other two divisions made comparable progress across the fields ; Armistead 's success was not reinforced , and his men were quickly killed or captured .
+
+Pickett 's Charge was a bloodbath . While the Union suffered 1 @,@ 500 casualties , the Confederates had over 6 @,@ 000 . Over 50 % of the men sent across the fields were killed or wounded . Pickett 's division alone , out of about 5 @,@ 500 men , lost 224 killed , 1 @,@ 140 wounded , and 1 @,@ 499 missing / captured . Pickett 's three brigade commanders and all thirteen of his regimental commanders were casualties . Kemper was wounded , Garnett killed , and Armistead mortally wounded . Trimble and Pettigrew were the most senior casualties of the entire Confederate assault , the former losing a leg and the latter wounded in the hand and later mortally wounded during the retreat to Virginia . Pickett has received some historical criticism for establishing his final position well to the rear of his troops , most likely at the Codori farm on the Emmitsburg Road . Thomas R. Friend , who served Pickett as a courier , defended Pickett by writing that he " went as far as any Major General , Commanding a division , ought to have gone , and farther . "
+
+As soldiers straggled back to the Confederate lines along Seminary Ridge , Lee feared a Union counteroffensive and tried to rally his center , telling returning soldiers that the failure was " all my fault . " Pickett was inconsolable . When Lee told Pickett to rally his division for the defense , Pickett allegedly replied , " General Lee , I have no division . " Pickett 's official report for the battle has never been found . It is rumored that Lee rejected it for its bitter negativity and demanded that it be rewritten , and an updated version was never filed .
+
+= = = North Carolina = = =
+
+After the Battle of Gettysburg , Pickett commanded the Department of Southern Virginia and North Carolina . In February , Pickett was ordered to capture New Bern , North Carolina from Federal forces . The subsequent Battle of New Bern resulted in a Confederate defeat . Following the battle , Pickett ordered the execution of 22 Confederate deserters who were found to have joined the United States Army .
+
+= = = Overland Campaign and Siege of Petersburg = = =
+
+Pickett then served as a division commander in the Defenses of Richmond . After P.G.T. Beauregard bottled up Benjamin Butler in the Bermuda Hundred Campaign , Pickett 's division was detached in support of Robert E. Lee 's operation in the Overland Campaign , just before the Battle of Cold Harbor , in which Pickett 's division occupied the center of the defensive line , a place in which the main Union attack did not occur . His division participated in the Siege of Petersburg .
+
+= = = Battle of Five Forks = = =
+
+General Pickett had received orders from Robert E. Lee to , with the Cavalry divisions of Major Generals William Henry Fitzhugh Lee and Thomas L. Rosser , hold the vital railroad crossing at Five Forks at all costs . On April 1 , at the Battle of Five Forks , their troops were attacked by a combined force under Major General Philip Henry Sheridan , which consisted of the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac , commanded by Major General Gouverneur K. Warren , and the Cavalry Corps of the Army , commanded by Brigadier General Wesley Merritt . Pickett , W.H.L. Lee , and Rosser were located behind the lines of their troops at the time of the attack , enjoying a shad bake while failing to inform their subordinate officers of their location . Meanwhile , Warren 's troops overwhelmed their left flank , and the Cavalry troops pinned the Confederates down elsewhere . By the time the Confederate commanders realized the catastrophe , it was too late to prevent the defeat . The result of the battle helped lead to the eventual capture of Richmond and the surrender of Lee 's army .
+
+= = = Relief controversy = = =
+
+A controversy existed over whether or not Pickett was relieved of his command in the final days of the war . After the war , Lee 's Chief of Staff , Lieutenant Colonel Walter H. Taylor , wrote that following the Battle of Sayler 's Creek on April 6 , 1865 , he had issued orders for Lee relieving Major Generals Richard H. Anderson and Bushrod R. Johnson , whose forces had been lost in the battle and who thereby no longer had troops under their command . In fact , Anderson had returned to his home in South Carolina following the battle . In addition , Taylor recollected that he had issued an order relieving Pickett as well . Pickett 's division was still intact , though reduced in number to about the size of a brigade . No copies of these orders exist . Douglas Southall Freeman , a biographer of Lee , supported this assertion , writing in 1935 that at the same time Lee relieved Anderson of command , he took the same action regarding Pickett and Bushrod Johnson , but the order regarding Pickett apparently never reached him . As late as April 11 he signed himself , " Maj. Genl . Commdg . "
+
+In contradiction to this assertion , in his 1870 book Pickett 's Men Walter Harrison reprinted an order from Lieutenant Colonel Taylor to Pickett dated April 10 , 1865 , in which Taylor addressed Pickett as " Maj Gen G E Picket [ sic ] , General Commanding " The order was a request for an account of the movements and actions of Pickett 's Division from the time of the Battle of Five Forks on April 1 to the surrender at Appomattox on April 9 . In the report Pickett submitted he said :
+
+The second day after the battle referred to ( Five Forks ) not being able to find General Anderson 's headquarters , I reported to Lieut . Gen. Longstreet , and continued to receive orders from him until the army was paroled and disbursed . "
+
+Pickett 's official report to Taylor was signed " G.E. Pickett , Major @-@ Gen. , Commd 'g . " This is April 11 report mentioned by Freeman above . Thus in Pickett 's official report to Taylor he speaks of commanding his men and interacting with his superior officer right up until the surrender at Appomattox . Taylor attempted to explain the apparent contradiction by telling Fitzhugh Lee that he addressed his request in the manner he did because Pickett was not dismissed from the Army , and for the period in question Pickett was initially in command . This explanation , however , leaves unanswered the question of how Taylor expected Pickett to answer for the period of time Pickett purportedly was not in command . The explanation does not explain Pickett 's report which covered the entire period , nor the fact that Pickett signed the report as the acting commander , nor did it explain Longstreet 's interactions with Pickett over this period of time . Furthermore , there is no record of Taylor requesting reports from any other officers dismissed from the service on the movements of their former troops , nor of his referring to such officers in a manner which would connote active command .
+
+The medical officer of Pickett 's division , Dr. M. G. Elzey , was with Pickett at the time of these events . Years later when an elderly Colonel John Mosby raised this issue in 1911 , Elzey wrote a letter to the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch in answer to Mosby :
+
+I was General Pickett 's personal medical advisor , and continued to be such until the time of his death . We rode together a greater part of the way during the retreat of our army from Petersburg to Appomattox . We escaped together from the battlefield at Sailor 's Creek and were constantly together until we reached Appomattox . I repeat it , therefore , with all confidence , that I am a competent witness to the fact that he was never under arrest , but remained in command of his Division until the last scene at Appomattox .
+
+M. G. Elzey
+
+In Longstreet 's final report , he makes no mention of any other officer being in charge of the unit . In point of fact his final report makes no mention of Pickett or his division . Pickett commanded the men remaining in his division and reported to Longstreet . These men surrendered with Pickett at Appomattox . Regarding Pickett and his division , no source can be produced which asserts anything otherwise .
+
+= = = Appomattox = = =
+
+On April 9 Pickett commanded his remaining troops in the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse , forming up in the final battle line of the Army of Northern Virginia . He surrendered with Lee 's army and was paroled at Appomattox Court House on April 9 , 1865 .
+
+A legend told by Pickett 's widow stated that when the Union Army marched into Richmond , she received a surprise visitor . He acted graciously and inquired whether he had found the Pickett house . Abraham Lincoln himself had come to determine the fate of an old acquaintance before the wars , and Sallie , astonished , admitted she was his wife and held out her infant for the president to cradle . Lincoln historian Gerald J. Prokopowicz has called this story a " fantasy " .
+
+= = Postbellum life = =
+
+Fearing prosecution for his execution of 22 deserters following the Battle of New Bern , which was then under investigation , Pickett fled with his wife and son to Canada . He remained out of the country for a year until hearing that , at the recommendation of Ulysses S. Grant , the investigation had ended . Pickett returned to the United States with his family in 1866 to work as an insurance agent and farmer in Norfolk , Virginia .
+
+On June 23 , 1874 House Resolution 3086 , an " act to remove the political disabilities of George E. Pickett of Virginia " , was passed by the U.S. Congress . Pickett was granted a full pardon , about a year before his death .
+
+Pickett lamented his men , lost in great number at Gettysburg . Late in his life , Colonel John Singleton Mosby , who had served under General J.E.B. Stuart , was present when Lee and Pickett met briefly after the war . He claimed their interaction was cold and reserved . Others present at the meeting refuted this , stating Lee only acted in his usual reserved and gentlemanly fashion . Pickett , Mosby said , complained bitterly after this meeting , saying to Mosby : " That man destroyed my division . " Mosby allegedly replied " Yes , but he made you immortal . " Most historians find the encounter as Mosby interpreted it unlikely . Asked by reporters why Pickett 's Charge failed , Pickett frequently replied : " I 've always thought the Yankees had something to do with it . "
+
+George E. Pickett died in Norfolk , Virginia , on July 30 , 1875 . The cause of death was a liver abscess , although whether it was amoebic or bacterial is not clear . He was initially interred in Cedar Grove Cemetery in Norfolk . His remains were disinterred on October 23 and he was buried in Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond , Virginia on October 24 , 1875 . More than 40 @,@ 000 people lined the funeral route while another 5 @,@ 000 marched in the funeral procession . A memorial to Pickett was erected over his grave site and dedicated on October 5 , 1888 . The memorial was not , however , placed directly above Pickett 's burial site , and the exact location of his remains is not clear .
+
+LaSalle Corbell Pickett died on March 22 , 1931 , having outlived her husband by more than 55 years . Initially , Hollywood Cemetery declined to allow her to be buried next to her husband . Pickett 's grandson , Lieutenant George E. Pickett III , threatened to have his grandfather disinterred and moved to Arlington National Cemetery where both grandparents could be buried side @-@ by @-@ side . Hollywood Cemetery quickly agreed to permit LaSalle 's interment at Hollywood , but this did not immediately occur for reasons which are not clear , and LaSalle was cremated and buried at Abbey Mausoleum in Arlington County , Virginia . Originally a mausoleum for the wealthy , it went bankrupt in 1968 . The structure fell into disrepair , and it was vandalized many times and several graves desecrated . In early 1998 , the Military Order of the Stars and Bars and United Daughters of the Confederacy worked together to pay for LaSalle 's disinterment and reburial in front of the George E. Pickett Memorial in Hollywood Cemetery . LaSalle Pickett was buried on Saturday , March 21 , 1998 . She was the first woman interred in the Confederate military burial section .
+
+= = Legacy = =
+
+Decades after Pickett 's death , his widow LaSalle ( also known as " Sallie " and " Mother " ) became a well @-@ known writer and speaker on " her Soldier , " eventually leading to the creation of an idealized Pickett who was the perfect Southern gentleman and soldier . Much controversy attends LaSalle Pickett 's lionizing of her husband . LaSalle was the author of Pickett and His Men , a history of her husband 's military campaigns , which was published in 1899 . She published two other books in her deceased husband 's name , The Heart of a Soldier , As Revealed in the Intimate Letters of Gen 'l George E. Pickett ( published in 1913 ) and Soldier of the South : General Pickett 's War Letters to His Wife ( 1928 ) . These two writings have been described as " unreliable works that were fictionalized by Pickett 's wife . " As a result , General Pickett has become a figure partially obscured by " Lost Cause " mythology . Pickett today is widely perceived as being a tragic hero of sorts — a flamboyant officer who wanted to lead his troops into a glorious battle , but always missed the opportunity until the disastrous charge at Gettysburg .
+
+Historian John C. Waugh wrote of Pickett , " An excellent brigade commander , he never proved he could handle a division . " He quotes George B. McClellan , the Union general , as saying : " Perhaps there is no doubt that he was the best infantry soldier developed on either side during the Civil War . "
+
+Pickett 's grave is marked by a memorial in Hollywood Cemetery , which was placed there in 1888 . A monument to Pickett also stands in the American Camp on San Juan Island , Washington , erected by the Washington University Historical Society on October 21 , 1904 .
+
+Fort Pickett in Blackstone , Virginia , is named in his honor . It was completed in 1942 and served as an active U.S. Army training facility in World War II and is currently occupied by the Virginia National Guard .
+
+= = In popular media = =
+
+Actor Stephen Lang portrayed George Pickett in the 1993 film Gettysburg . Billy Campbell portrayed Pickett in the 2003 prequel Gods and Generals .
+
+Pickett also appeared in two episodes of the 1985 mini @-@ series North and South , depicting his cadet years at West Point , at which time he was a friend of George Hazard and Orry Main , the two main fictional characters of the series .
+
+= Hurricane Fred ( 2015 ) =
+
+Hurricane Fred was the first hurricane to move through the Cape Verde Islands since 1892 . The second hurricane and sixth named storm of the 2015 Atlantic hurricane season , Fred originated from a well @-@ defined tropical wave over West Africa in late August . Once offshore , the wave moved northwestward within a favorable tropospheric environment and strengthened into a tropical storm on August 30 . The next day , Fred further grew to a Category 1 hurricane with peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) as it approached Cape Verde . After passing Boa Vista and moving away from Santo Antão , it entered a phase of steady weakening , dropping below hurricane status by September 1 . Fred then turned to the west @-@ northwest and endured increasingly hostile wind shear , but maintained its status as a tropical cyclone despite repeated forecasts of dissipation . It fluctuated between a minimal tropical storm and tropical depression through September 4 – 5 before curving sharply to the north . By September 6 , Fred 's circulation pattern had diminished considerably , and it dissipated later that day .
+
+At the threat of the hurricane , all of Cape Verde was placed under a hurricane warning for the first time in history . Gale @-@ force winds battered much of the Barlavento region through August 31 , downing numerous trees and utility poles . On the easternmost islands of Boa Vista and Sal , Fred leveled roofs and left several villages without power and phone services for several days . About 70 percent of the houses in Povoação Velha were damaged to some degree . Throughout the northern islands , rainstorms damaged homes and roads , and São Nicolau lost large amounts of its crop and livestock . Monetary losses exceeded $ 1 @.@ 1 million ( 2015 USD ) across Cape Verde , though the rain 's overall impact on the agriculture was positive . Swells from the hurricane produced violent seas along West African shores , destroying fishing villages and submerging large swaths of residential area in Senegal . Between the coasts of West Africa and Cape Verde , maritime incidents related to Fred resulted in nine deaths .
+
+= = Meteorological history = =
+
+Early on August 28 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring a tropical wave — an elongated area of low air pressure — inland over West Africa . Traced by widespread cloudiness , the wave tracked toward the open Atlantic throughout the remainder of the day . A broad cyclonic rotation began to develop within the lower atmosphere on August 29 , near the Guinea coastline . The disturbance veered toward the northwest and emerged offshore near Conakry around 18 : 00 UTC that day . By then , the NHC predicted a favorable environment for tropical cyclone development within the next 48 hours . Heavy thunderstorms thrived overnight , and consolidated near a well @-@ defined low @-@ pressure center . On the morning of August 30 , satellite images and scatterometer data confirmed that a tropical depression had formed about 300 mi ( 480 km ) west @-@ northwest of Conakry , with wind speeds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) .
+
+Although tropical cyclones in the extreme eastern Atlantic are normally propelled westward by high pressure from a subtropical ridge , this depression moved toward the northwest , along a breach in the ridge caused by another disturbance . Its cyclonic structure steadily improved : a sharply curved rainband tightened around the center , resembling the precursor to an eye . At 06 : 00 UTC on August 30 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fred about 390 mi ( 625 km ) east @-@ southeast of Praia , Cape Verde — one of the four easternmost locations for a tropical storm since modern record @-@ keeping began in 1851 . Intensification trends continued at a steady pace while Fred trekked through a region with ample tropical moisture , light upper winds , and above @-@ average sea surface temperatures ; the storm developed a thick , circular central dense overcast with good outflow , and the eye feature became well established at all levels of the circulation . Based on a combination of these characteristics and satellite estimates of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds , Fred was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane at 00 : 00 UTC on August 31 . Then centered 120 mi ( 195 km ) east @-@ southeast of Praia , Cape Verde , it was the easternmost tropical cyclone ever to attain hurricane status in the tropical Atlantic .
+
+A compact cyclone , Fred quickly reached its peak intensity with a minimum central pressure of 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 12 inHg ) and 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) winds . Through the rest of August 31 , the hurricane traversed the Barlavento Islands of Cape Verde . The eye barely skirted the southern coast of Boa Vista around 12 : 00 UTC , decreasing in definition over the next 12 hours as it passed north of São Nicolau and then north @-@ northeast of Santo Antão . On September 1 , drier air and increasing wind shear aloft dispersed the inner convection , which caused Fred to weaken to a tropical storm . Rebuilding high pressure to the north over the eastern Atlantic turned the weakening storm slightly toward the west @-@ northwest over considerably cooler waters . Through much of September 1 – 4 , convection was limited to intermittent flare @-@ ups , with the associated thunderstorms continuously blown away from the center by the strong upper winds . Despite the adverse environment and its lack of stable convection , Fred retained a robust spiral of low @-@ level clouds and gales during this period , defying the NHC 's repeated forecasts of its dissipation .
+
+Around 12 : 00 UTC , September 4 , a waning wind circulation prompted the NHC to downgrade Fred to a tropical depression ; though its winds briefly reincreased to tropical storm force the next day , it continued as a depression with minimal convection throughout the remainder of its existence . Concurrently , a deep @-@ altitude disturbance a few hundred miles east of Bermuda began to erode the southern edge of the high @-@ pressure ridge that Fred had circumnavigated for most of its journey . This changed the steering pattern in the region , turning the depression abruptly to the north on September 6 . Over the following hours , Fred became increasingly indistinguishable as a result of its progressively worsening surroundings . It officially lost its status as a tropical cyclone at 18 : 00 UTC , degenerating into a trough , about 1 @,@ 210 mi ( 1 @,@ 945 km ) southwest of the Azores . The remnants were absorbed into a frontal boundary shortly thereafter .
+
+= = Preparations and impact = =
+
+= = = Cape Verde = = =
+
+A tropical storm warning was issued for Cape Verde upon the storm 's formation , as well as a hurricane watch in light of forecasts for further development . When Fred showed definitive signs of strengthening , the alerts were replaced by a hurricane warning , marking the first occasion of a hurricane @-@ level threat in the nation 's recorded history . On the morning of August 31 , TACV Cabo Verde Airlines suspended its flights from the capital of Praia to Dakar ; all operations at the airports of Boa Vista , Sal and São Vicente were halted soon after squally conditions across the islands . Officials ordered shipping interests on all islands to remain in port and to secure their vessels . A national music festival was canceled in Porto Novo , on the northernmost island of Santo Antão .
+
+As it traversed the easternmost Cape Verde Islands on the afternoon of August 31 , Fred brought strong winds and thunderstorms to Boa Vista that uprooted trees , damaged roofs and plaster , and knocked out power to most of the population . Cellphone service from a local carrier went down due to a toppled transmission tower in Sal Rei . Two inhabitants were taken to hospital when their home partially collapsed , but they remained in good condition . Floods affected low @-@ lying areas of Rabil and cut off the main road to surrounding towns , hampering mobilization efforts . The southern village of Povoação Velha bore the brunt of the storm ; about 70 percent of the houses experienced some degree of damage , from broken tiles and windows to crumbled walls , with repair costs of 3 million escudos ( 2015 value ; $ 30 @,@ 000 in USD ) . A compromised infrastructure left the village without power and telephone services for at least five days . Throughout Boa Vista , Fred led to losses of 76 million escudos ( U $ 770 @,@ 000 ) , an estimated 50 million ( US $ 500 @,@ 000 ) occurring in the private sector .
+
+Similar effects were felt in parts of the other eastern islands . Along the southern shore of Sal , Fred 's storm surge sunk or stranded dozens of vessels and destroyed an important tourist pier in Santa Maria . Hotels , restaurants , and other beach facilities were flooded , and roads in the town became impassable . High winds leveled the roof of a sport center at a gymnasium , which had initially been set up as a storm shelter to about 100 citizens . Elsewhere on the island , the hurricane knocked out power to homes in Palmeira , and caused minor structural damage to Sal International Airport . At the height of the storm , flooding forced nearly 130 people living in the impoverished outskirts of Terra Boa and Espargos to relocate to shelters . On the island of Santiago , the most significant impact was due to heavy rainfall peaking at 6 @.@ 3 inches ( 160 mm ) . The rains filled a large dam in São Salvador do Mundo to maximum capacity , which prompted residents from adjacent areas to evacuate . In São Miguel , floods and fallen trees obstructed traffic and caused 2 million escudos ( US $ 20 @,@ 000 ) in damage .
+
+Fred produced gusts and downpours across the northern Barlavento Islands , with a maximum 7 @.@ 9 in ( 200 mm ) of rainfall recorded on São Nicolau . Many old trees were uprooted across that island , and several villages lost power . The storm damaged 70 homes in Ribeira Brava , the main town , leaving several families homeless . Local farmers suffered great losses following the destruction of greenhouses and a farm . Strong winds in Cabeçalinho downed power poles and wrecked the roof of a church . In Carriçal , heavy rainfall and flooding ruined fruit and hydroponic crops , as well as damaging roads and homes . Much of the island 's livestock was lost in the storm . Damage to homes and the agriculture — in particular banana and sugarcane — on São Nicolau totaled 30 million escudos ( US $ 305 @,@ 000 ) , although considerable disruptions in the infrastructure due to broken roads and telecommunication antennae were unaccounted for . On the neighboring islands of São Vicente and Santo Antão , impact from the storm was mostly limited to power outages , floods , and damaged crops . About 35 people in Porto Novo , on the latter island , were moved to secure locations . Flooding there isolated two neighborhoods and destroyed carrot , cabbage , and tomato plantations . On São Vicente , roads were closed in and around Laginha , and a few people suffered minor injuries when a tree fell on their car .
+
+Throughout Cape Verde , the hurricane displaced more than 50 families and caused 108 million escudos ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) in damage , largely to the agricultural and private sectors of the Barlavento region . Although there were no casualties onshore , two fishermen navigating through the storm were presumed dead after never returning to port in Boa Vista . Nonetheless , rainfall from Fred had a generally positive effect on the larger @-@ scale agriculture of the islands , refilling many rivers and dams and irrigating drought @-@ stricken farmland across the Sotavento region .
+
+= = = West Africa = = =
+
+Swells from Fred reached stretches of West African coastline , producing high surf as far north as Senegal . Along the shores of Dakar , rough seas devastated fishing districts and harbor towns , stranding boats and damaging roads and bridges . About 200 houses were demolished in the district of Hann , many of which experienced total wall collapse . In the suburb of Rufisque , the waves overtopped dams , entered homes and cemeteries , and destroyed a mosque . Outside the capital , several villages were completely isolated from their surroundings . Victims across the affected region received over 100 tons ( 220 @,@ 000 lbs ) of rice and 12 million CFA francs ( US $ 20 @,@ 000 ) in relief funds .
+
+Farther south , in Guinea @-@ Bissau , a storm surge flooded roads and low @-@ lying establishments such as offices and military barracks . Vast amounts of cropland in the Tombali Region were submerged by sea water , resulting in great losses of rice . Offshore , waves as high as 23 ft ( 7 m ) capsized a fishing boat with a crew of 19 ; 12 were rescued shortly , though the remaining seven disappeared at sea and were presumed dead .
+
+= Lake Vostok =
+
+Lake Vostok ( Russian : Озеро Восток , Ozero Vostok , lit . " Lake East " ) is the largest of Antarctica 's almost 400 known subglacial lakes . Lake Vostok is located at the southern Pole of Cold , beneath Russia 's Vostok Station under the surface of the central East Antarctic Ice Sheet , which is at 3 @,@ 488 m ( 11 @,@ 444 ft ) above mean sea level . The surface of this fresh water lake is approximately 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 100 ft ) under the surface of the ice , which places it at approximately 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) below sea level .
+
+Measuring 250 km ( 160 mi ) long by 50 km ( 30 mi ) wide at its widest point , and covering an area of 12 @,@ 500 km2 ( 4 @,@ 830 sq mi ) and an average depth of 432 m ( 1 @,@ 417 ft ) , it has an estimated volume of 5 @,@ 400 km3 ( 1 @,@ 300 cu mi ) . The lake is divided into two deep basins by a ridge . The liquid water over the ridge is about 200 m ( 700 ft ) , compared to roughly 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) deep in the northern basin and 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) deep in the southern .
+
+The lake is named after Vostok Station , which in turn is named after the Vostok ( Восток ) , a sloop @-@ of @-@ war ship , which means " East " in Russian . The existence of a subglacial lake in the Vostok region was first suggested by Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa based on seismic soundings made during the Soviet Antarctic Expeditions in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet . The continued research by Russian and British scientists led by 1993 to the final confirmation of the existence of the lake by J.P. Ridley using ERS @-@ 1 laser altimetry .
+
+The overlying ice provides a continuous paleoclimatic record of 400 @,@ 000 years , although the lake water itself may have been isolated for 15 to 25 million years . On 5 February 2012 , a team of Russian scientists completed the longest ever ice core of 3 @,@ 768 m ( 12 @,@ 400 ft ) and pierced the ice shield to the surface of the lake .
+
+The first core of freshly frozen lake ice was obtained on 10 January 2013 at a depth of 3 @,@ 406 m ( 11 @,@ 175 ft ) . However , as soon as the ice was pierced , water from the underlying lake gushed up the borehole , mixing it with the Freon and kerosene used to keep the borehole from freezing . A new " clean " borehole was drilled and an allegedly pristine water sample was obtained in January 2015 . The Russian team plans to eventually lower a probe into the lake to collect water samples and sediments from the bottom . It is hypothesized that unusual forms of life could be found in the lake 's liquid layer , a fossil water reserve . Lake Vostok contains an environment sealed off below the ice for millions of years , in conditions which could resemble those of the ice @-@ covered ocean of Jupiter 's moon Europa , and Saturn 's moon Enceladus .
+
+= = Discovery = =
+
+Russian scientist Peter Kropotkin first proposed the idea of fresh water under Antarctic ice sheets at the end of the 19th century . He theorized that the tremendous pressure exerted by the cumulative mass of thousands of vertical meters of ice could increase the temperature at the lowest portions of the ice sheet to the point where the ice would melt . Kropotkin 's theory was further developed by Russian glaciologist I.A. Zotikov , who wrote his Ph.D. thesis on this subject in 1967 .
+
+Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa used seismic soundings in the region of Vostok Station made during the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet . Kapitsa was the first to suggest the existence of a subglacial lake in the region , and the subsequent research confirmed his hypothesis .
+
+When British scientists in Antarctica performed airborne ice @-@ penetrating radar surveys in the early 1970s , they detected unusual radar readings at the site which suggested the presence of a liquid freshwater lake below the ice . In 1991 , Jeff Ridley , a remote sensing specialist with the Mullard Space Science Laboratory at University College London , directed the ERS @-@ 1 satellite to turn its high @-@ frequency array toward the center of the Antarctic ice cap . The data from ERS @-@ 1 confirmed the findings from the 1973 British surveys , but these new data were not published in the Journal of Glaciology until 1993 . Space @-@ based radar revealed that this subglacial body of fresh water is one of the largest lakes in the world , and one of some 140 subglacial lakes in Antarctica . Russian and British scientists delineated the lake in 1996 by integrating a variety of data , including airborne ice @-@ penetrating radar imaging observations and space @-@ based radar altimetry . It has been confirmed that the lake contains large amounts of liquid water under the more than 3 @-@ kilometer ( 2 mi ) thick ice cap . The lake has at least 22 cavities of liquid water , averaging 10 kilometers ( 6 mi ) each .
+
+The lake is named after Vostok Station , which in turn is named after the Vostok ( Восток ) , the 900 ton sloop @-@ of @-@ war ship sailed by one of the discoverers of Antarctica , Russian explorer Admiral Fabian von Bellingshausen . The word Bосток means " East " in Russian , and the name of the station and the lake also reflects the fact that they are located in East Antarctica .
+
+In 2005 an island was found in the central part of the lake . Then , in January 2006 , the discovery of two nearby smaller lakes under the ice cap was published ; they are named 90 Degrees East and Sovetskaya . It is suspected that these Antarctic subglacial lakes may be connected by a network of subglacial rivers . Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling glaciologists propose that many of the subglacial lakes of Antarctica are at least temporarily interconnected . Because of varying water pressure in individual lakes , large subsurface rivers may suddenly form and then force large amounts of water through the solid ice .
+
+= = Geological history = =
+
+Africa separated from Antarctica around 160 million years ago , followed by the Indian subcontinent , in the early Cretaceous ( about 125 million years ago ) . About 66 million years ago , Antarctica ( then connected to Australia ) still had a tropical to subtropical climate , complete with marsupial fauna and an extensive temperate rainforest .
+
+The Lake Vostok basin is a small ( 50 km / 30 mi wide ) tectonic feature within the overall setting of a several hundred kilometer wide continental collision zone between the Gamburtsev Mountain Range , a subglacial mountain range and the Dome C region . The lake water is cradled on a bed of sediments 70 meters ( 230 ft ) thick , offering the possibility that they contain a unique record of the climate and life in Antarctica before the ice cap formed .
+
+= = Traits = =
+
+The lake water is estimated to have been sealed off under the thick ice sheet about 15 million years ago . Initially , it was thought that the same water had made up the lake since the time of its formation , giving a residence time in the order of one million years . Later research by Robin Bell and Michael Studinger from the Lamont – Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University suggested that the water of the lake is continually freezing and being carried away by the motion of the Antarctic ice sheet , while being replaced by water melting from other parts of the ice sheet in these high pressure conditions . This resulted in an estimate that the entire volume of the lake is replaced every 13 @,@ 300 years — its effective mean residence time .
+
+The coldest temperature ever observed on Earth , − 89 ° C ( − 128 ° F ) , was recorded at Vostok Station on 21 July 1983 . The average water temperature is calculated to be around − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) ; it remains liquid below the normal freezing point because of high pressure from the weight of the ice above it . Geothermal heat from the Earth 's interior may warm the bottom of the lake , while the ice sheet itself insulates the lake from cold temperatures on the surface .
+
+Lake Vostok is an oligotrophic extreme environment , one that is expected to be supersaturated with nitrogen and oxygen , measuring 2 @.@ 5 litres ( 0 @.@ 088 cu ft ) of nitrogen and oxygen per 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of water , that is 50 times higher than those typically found in ordinary freshwater lakes on Earth 's surface . The sheer weight and pressure around 345 bars ( 5 @,@ 000 psi ) of the continental ice cap on top of Lake Vostok is estimated to contribute to the high gas concentration .
+
+Besides dissolving in the water , oxygen and other gases are trapped in a type of structure called a clathrate . In clathrate structures , gases are enclosed in an icy cage and look like packed snow . These structures form at the high @-@ pressure depths of Lake Vostok and would become unstable if brought to the surface .
+
+In April 2005 , German , Russian , and Japanese researchers found that the lake has tides . Depending on the position of the Sun and the Moon , the surface of the lake rises about 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) . The lake is under complete darkness , under 355 bar ( 5 @,@ 150 psi ) of pressure , and expected to be rich in oxygen , so there is speculation that any organisms inhabiting the lake could have evolved in a manner unique to this environment . There is a 1 microtesla magnetic anomaly on the east coast of the lake , spanning 105 by 75 km ( 65 by 47 mi ) . Researchers hypothesize that the anomaly may be caused by a thinning of Earth 's crust in that location .
+
+Living Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus micro @-@ organisms have been found in Lake Vostok 's deep ice core drillings ; they are an extant surface @-@ dwelling species . This suggests the presence of a deep biosphere utilizing a geothermal system of the bedrock encircling the subglacial lake . There is optimism that microbial life in the lake may be possible despite high pressure , constant cold , low nutrient input , potentially high oxygen concentration and an absence of sunlight . Jupiter 's moon Europa and Saturn 's moon Enceladus may also harbor lakes or oceans below a thick crust of ice . Any confirmation of life in Lake Vostok could strengthen the prospect for the presence of life on icy moons .
+
+= = Research = =
+
+Researchers working at Vostok Station produced one of the world 's longest ice cores in 1998 . A joint Russian , French , and United States team drilled and analyzed the core , which is 3 @,@ 623 m ( 11 @,@ 886 ft ) long . Ice samples from cores drilled close to the top of the lake have been assessed to be as old as 420 @,@ 000 years . The assumption is that the lake has been sealed from the surface since the ice sheet formed , 15 million years ago . Drilling of the core was deliberately halted roughly 100 m ( 300 ft ) above the suspected boundary between the ice sheet and the liquid waters of the lake . This was to prevent contamination of the lake with the 60 ton column of Freon and kerosene used to prevent the borehole from collapsing and freezing over .
+
+From this core , specifically from ice that is thought to have formed from lake water freezing onto the base of the ice sheet , extremophile microbes were found , suggesting that the lake water supports life . Scientists suggested that the lake could possess a unique habitat for ancient bacteria with an isolated microbial gene pool containing characteristics developed perhaps 500 @,@ 000 years ago .
+
+In January 2011 , the head of the Russian Antarctic Expedition , Valery Lukin , announced that his team had only 50 m ( 200 ft ) of ice left to drill in order to reach the water . The researchers then switched to a new thermal drill head with a " clean " silicone oil fluid to drill the rest of the way . Instead of drilling all the way into the water , they said they would stop just above it when a sensor on the thermal drill detected free water . At that point , the drill was to be stopped and extracted from the bore hole . Removal of the drill would lower the pressure beneath it , drawing water into the hole to be left to freeze , creating a plug of ice in the bottom of the hole . Drilling stopped on 5 February 2011 at a depth of 3 @,@ 720 m ( 12 @,@ 200 ft ) so that the research team could make it off the ice before the beginning of the Antarctic winter season . The drilling team left by aircraft on 6 February 2011 .
+
+By plan , the following summer , the team was to drill down again to take a sample of that ice and analyze it . The Russians resumed drilling into the lake in January 2012 and reached the upper surface of the water on 6 February 2012 . The researchers allowed the rushing lake water to freeze within the bore hole and months later , they collected ice core samples of this newly formed ice and sent to the Laboratory for Glaciology and Environmental Geophysics in Grenoble , France , for analysis .
+
+= = = Biology results = = =
+
+= = = = United Kingdom and United States = = = =
+
+Scientists first reported evidence of microbes in the accretion ice in 1999 . Since then , a different team led by Scott O. Rogers has been identifying a variety of bacteria and fungi from accretion ice ( not from the subglacial water layer ) collected during U.S. drilling projects in the 1990s . According to him , this indicates that the lake below the ice is not sterile but contains a unique ecosystem . Then Scott Rogers published in July 2013 that his team performed nucleic acid ( DNA and RNA ) sequencing and the results allowed deduction of the metabolic pathways represented in the accretion ice and , by extension , in the lake . The team found 3 @,@ 507 unique gene sequences , and approximately 94 % of the sequences were from bacteria and 6 % were from Eukarya . Taxonomic classifications ( to genus and / or species ) or identification were possible for 1 @,@ 623 of the sequences . In general , the taxa were similar to organisms previously described from lakes , brackish water , marine environments , soil , glaciers , ice , lake sediments , deep @-@ sea sediments , deep @-@ sea thermal vents , animals and plants . Sequences from aerobic , anaerobic , psychrophilic , thermophilic , halophilic , alkaliphilic , acidophilic , desiccation @-@ resistant , autotrophic , and heterotrophic organisms were present , including a number from multicellular eukaryotes .
+
+However , microbiologist David Pearce of the University of Northumbria in Newcastle , UK , stated that the DNA could simply be contamination from the drilling process , and not representative of Lake Vostok itself . The old ice cores were drilled in the 1990s to look for evidence of past climates buried in the ice , rather than for life , so the drilling equipment was not sterilized . Also Sergey Bulat , a Lake Vostok expert at the Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute in Gatchina , Russia , doubts that any of the cells or DNA fragments in the samples would belong to organisms that might actually exist in the lake . He says that it is very probable that the samples are heavily contaminated with tissue and microbes from the outside world .
+
+= = = = Russia and France = = = =
+
+Russian and French scientists have been carrying out molecular DNA studies of the water from Lake Vostok that was frozen in the borehole , by constructing numerous DNA libraries , which are collections of fragments of DNA that allow scientists to identify which species of bacteria may belong to . Samples taken from the lake so far contain about one part of kerosene per 1000 of water , and they are contaminated with bacteria previously present in the drill bit and the kerosene drilling fluid . So far , the scientists have been able to identify 255 contaminant species , but also have found an unknown bacterium when they initially drilled down to the lake 's surface in 2012 , with no matches in any international databases , and they hope it may be a unique inhabitant of Lake Vostok . However , Vladimar Korolev , the laboratory head of the study at the same institution , said that the bacteria could in principle be a contaminant that use kerosene — the antifreeze used during drilling — as an energy source .
+
+Critics from the scientific community state that no valuable information can be obtained until they can test clean samples of lake water , uncontaminated by drilling fluid . Regardless of the contamination issues , in May 2013 the drilling facility at the Russian Vostok Antarctic station was declared a historic monument as " the result of the recognition of the achievements of the Russian research of Antarctica by the international scientific community , and of the unique operations on opening the subglacial Lake Vostok performed by Russian scientists on February 5 , 2012 . "
+
+In January 2015 , the Russian press stated that Russian scientists have made a new " clean " borehole into Lake Vostok using a special 50 kg probe that collected about 1 liter of water not adulterated by the antifreezing fluid . It was predicted that the water would rise 30 – 40 m in the bottom part of the borehole , but in fact the water rose from the lake to a height of more than 500 m . In October of that same year , the work was suspended for that southern summer because of insufficient funding by the federal Russian government .
+
+= = = Contamination due to drilling = = =
+
+The drilling project has been opposed by some environmental groups and scientists who have argued that hot @-@ water drilling would have a more limited environmental impact . The main concern is that the lake could become contaminated with the antifreeze that the Russians used to keep the bore hole from refreezing . Scientists of the United States National Research Council have taken the position that it should be assumed that microbial life exists in Lake Vostok and that after such a long isolation , any life forms in the lake require strict protection from contamination .
+
+The original drilling technique employed by the Russians involved the use of Freon and kerosene to lubricate the borehole and prevent it from collapsing and freezing over ; 60 short tons ( 54 t ) of these chemicals have been used thus far on the ice above Lake Vostok . Other countries , particularly the United States and Britain , have failed to persuade the Russians not to pierce to the lake until cleaner technologies such as hot @-@ water drilling are available . Though the Russians claim to have improved their operations , they continue to use the same borehole , which has already been contaminated with kerosene . According to the head of Russian Antarctic Expeditions , Valery Lukin , new equipment was developed by researchers at the St. Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute that would ensure the lake remains uncontaminated upon intrusion . Lukin has repeatedly reassured other signatory nations to the Antarctic Treaty System that the drilling will not affect the lake , arguing that on breakthrough , water will rush up the borehole , freeze , and seal the other fluids out .
+
+Some environmentalist groups remain unconvinced by these arguments . The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition has argued that this manner of drilling is a profoundly misguided step which endangers Lake Vostok and other subglacial lakes in Antarctica ( which some scientists are convinced are inter @-@ linked with Lake Vostok ) . The coalition has asserted that " it would be far preferable to join with other countries to penetrate a smaller and more isolated lake before re @-@ examining whether penetration of Lake Vostok is environmentally defensible . If we are wise , the Lake will be allowed to reveal its secrets in due course . "
+
+However , Lukin claims that hot @-@ water drilling is much more dangerous for the microbiotic fauna , as it would ' boil ' the living species , plus disturb the entire structure of water layers of the lake . Additionally , hot @-@ water drilling would have required more power than the Russian expedition could have generated at their remote camp .
+
+= Get Sexy =
+
+" Get Sexy " is a song by English girl group Sugababes , taken from their seventh studio album , Sweet 7 ( 2010 ) . It was written by Fred Fairbrass , Richard Fairbrass , Rob Manzoli , Philip Lawrence , Ari Levine , Bruno Mars and produced by the latter three under their stage name The Smeezingtons . The song was released on 30 August 2009 as the album 's lead single . Musically , " Get Sexy " is an uptempo electropop song with influences of dance and techno . The song features an interpolation of Right Said Fred 's " I 'm Too Sexy " . It is the last single to feature founding member Keisha Buchanan .
+
+" Get Sexy " received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics ; some reviewers criticised its lack of originality , while others praised its production and lyrics . The song peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart and number three on the Irish Singles Chart . It also charted on the singles charts in Australia , Austria , Belgium , the Czech Republic , Germany , Slovakia , Sweden and Turkey . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Emil Nava and features the group 's members in a house of mirrors , a bird cage and a room covered in graffiti .
+
+The song was featured in the titles of the first series of Serbia 's Next Top Model .
+
+= = Background and release = =
+
+In April 2009 , Sugababes travelled to the United States to work on their seventh studio album , Sweet 7 . They signed a contract with Jay Z 's record label , Roc Nation , resulting in working with high @-@ profile produceers . " Get Sexy " , which was selected as the album 's lead single , was written by Fred Fairbrass , Richard Fairbrass , Rob Manzoli , Philip Lawrence , Ari Levine , Bruno Mars and produced by the latter three under their stage name The Smeezingtons . Working with The Smeezingtons was described by group member Amelle Berrabah as an " amazing " and " great opportunity " . Berrabah also stated in an interview with Bang Showbiz that the song " doesn 't sound like anything we have ever done before " . On 6 July 2009 , Sugababes announced the release date of " Get Sexy " as 31 August 2009 . The song premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 7 July 2009 in a show presented by Scott Mills . In an interview for Digital Spy , Buchanan said that the response to the song was great , saying : " From the beginning there 's been a real buzz about the track . It 's had a great response from so many people , even if they say , ' Forget about the rest of them , this one I love ' . " Later , on 27 September 2013 , Keisha Buchanan said of the Bruno Mars penned song that , " I just didn 't feel like that was a representation of who we were as a band but we didn 't , at that point , have a lot of say . " However , " It was amazing working with Bruno , and we 'd love to work with him in this line @-@ up "
+
+" Get Sexy " was digitally released on 30 August 2009 , while the CD single was made available the following day . During the single release interval between the release of " Get Sexy " and " About a Girl " , Buchanan controversially left the group . As a result of the group line @-@ up change , " Get Sexy " was re @-@ recorded along with a number of other tracks to feature the vocals of new member Jade Ewen and the removal of the vocals by ex @-@ member Buchanan for the release of Sweet 7 in 2010 .
+
+= = Composition = =
+
+" Get Sexy " is an uptempo electropop song , with dance , techno and R & B influences . David Balls and Nick Levine of Digital Spy described it as an " electro @-@ R & B club banger " . The song has a length of three minutes and 14 seconds . The song was composed in the key of E minor , with a beat set in common time and a tempo moving at 124 beats per minute . " Get Sexy " makes use of techno synthesizers that are present immediately before the song 's chorus , which has been described as " siren @-@ peaked " . Balls also called the song a " slamming dance anthem " .
+
+" Get Sexy " features an interpolation of Right Said Fred 's song " I 'm Too Sexy " , which was composed by Christopher Fairbrass , Richard Fairbrass , and Robert Manzoli . It samples the trademark lyric , " I 'm too sexy for my shirt , too sexy for my shirt , so sexy it hurts " , but replaces " for my shirt " with " in this club " . According to Digital Spy , in an interview with Teletext , Buchanan revealed that inspiration for the song came " by accident " , saying : " The producers were messing around going , ' I 'm too sexy for the studio ' . We were like , ' That sounds cool ' , and [ the producer ] said , ' You remember that Right Said Fred song ? ' We were like , ' Do you think we can do it ? ' By accident it came together . " Balls and Levine compared the song to " Boom Boom Pow " by Black Eyed Peas .
+
+= = Critical reception = =
+
+" Get Sexy " garnered mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian described the song as a " grinding , fiercely catchy R & B number " . David Balls of Digital Spy gave the song a four out of five star rating , saying : " ' Get Sexy ' is a dancefloor stomper that nestles somewhere between ' Boom Boom Pow ' and ' Bonkers ' in its blend of electropop , techno and R & B sounds . It may not be massively original , nor an instant classic to rival ' About You Now ' or ' Push the Button ' , but with a Right Said Fred @-@ sampling hook , a thundering chorus and plenty of attitude – most noticeably from Amelle – it returns Sugababes right to the forefront of the pop landscape . ' Popjustice positively reviewed " Get Sexy " , saying " ' Get Sexy ' is a punchy , explosive pop single which while not being quite as adventurous as it thinks it could never be described as a pedestrian " . Fraser McAlpine of BBC gave the single a mainly negative review , calling it a " mess " which has " not bothered to make it rhyme " in the way the original , ' I 'm Too Sexy ' did . McAlpine went on to say : " the ' shut up and watch me walk ' bit is pilfered from the Ting Tings . [ ... ] [ Amelle 's ' silly boys ' bit – which is brilliant , by the way – may have more than a passing acquaintance with ' My Humps ' . [ ... ] the chorus is desperate for someone to scream ' will.i.am drop the beat now ' .
+
+= = Chart performance = =
+
+During the first week of its release , " Get Sexy " was ahead of its nearest competitor , " Run This Town " , by Jay @-@ Z featuring Rihanna and Kanye West , at number one . Eventually , " Get Sexy " debuted at number two on the UK Singles Chart , selling 55 @,@ 707 copies in its first week of release . The song spent 9 weeks inside the UK Singles Chart . " Get Sexy " has sold 165 @,@ 000 copies in the UK , making it their eighth best @-@ selling single in that country . The single debuted and peaked at number three on the Irish Singles Chart , becoming the band 's highest charting single in Ireland since " About You Now " . It remained on the chart in the country for seven weeks .
+
+" Get Sexy " peaked at number 42 on the singles chart in Sweden , becoming the group 's first single since " About You Now " to chart in the country . The song peaked at number 41 on the German Singles Chart and number 72 on the Austrian Singles Chart . It also charted on the singles charts in the Czech Republic and Slovakia , both at number 48 . The song also impacted the charts in Belgium , peaking at numbers 21 and 37 on the Flanders and Wallonia charts , respectively . " Get Sexy " also became the group 's first single since " About You Now " to chart in Australia when it debuted at number 76 on the Australian Singles Chart . The following week , it rose to its peak of number 75 .
+
+= = Music video = =
+
+The music video for " Get Sexy " was directed by Emil Nava and choreographed by LaVelle Smith . Nava has also directed the music video for Tinchy Stryder 's number one UK single " Never Leave You " , which features Berrabah . " Get Sexy " ' s music video premiered on 1 August 2009 on More4 . The video features Berrabah in a bird cage , Buchanan posing on a couch and Heidi Range in a house of mirrors shot at by intense light beams . During the chorus , all three members are seen standing together with chains around their waists and arms , tying them together . The video ends with the Sugababes in a room covered in graffiti . Popjustice praised the video , saying that it " seems to feature Sugababes 3 @.@ 0 as ' the full package ' , and makes sense of this lineup , for the first time . This is a good thing . "
+
+= = Track listing = =
+
+= = Credits and personnel = =
+
+Credits adapted from the liner notes of Sweet 7 .
+
+= = Charts = =
+
+= = Release history = =
+
+= Operation Pedestal =
+
+Operation Pedestal ( referenced in Italian sources as the Battaglia di Mezzo Agosto ) was a British operation to get desperately needed supplies to the island of Malta in August 1942 , during the Second World War . Malta was the base from which surface ships , submarines and aircraft attacked Axis convoys carrying supplies to the Italian and German armies in North Africa . From 1940 to 1942 , Malta was under siege , blockaded by Axis air and naval forces . To sustain Malta , the United Kingdom had to get convoys through at all costs . Despite serious losses , just enough supplies were delivered for Malta to continue resistance , although it ceased to be an effective offensive base for much of 1942 . The most crucial supply was fuel delivered by the SS Ohio , an American @-@ built tanker with a British crew . The operation officially started on 3 August 1942 and the convoy sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar on the night of 9 / 10 August .
+
+The convoy is also known as the Battle of Mid @-@ August in Italy and as the Konvoj ta ' Santa Marija in Malta ; the arrival of the last ships of the convoy on 15 August 1942 , coincided with the Feast of the Assumption ( Santa Marija ) . The name Santa Marija Convoy or Sta Marija Convoy is still used and the day 's public holiday and celebrations , in part , honour the arrival of the convoy . The attempt to run fifty ships past bombers , E @-@ boats , minefields and submarines has gone down in military history as one of the most important British strategic victories of the Second World War . More than 500 Merchant and Royal Navy sailors and airmen were killed and only five of the 14 merchant ships reached Grand Harbour . The arrival of the remains of the convoy did not break the siege , which continued until the Allied reconquest of Egypt and Libya . The Second Battle of El Alamein ( 23 October – 11 November ) and Operation Torch ( 8 – 16 November ) in the western Mediterranean , transformed the strategic situation and enabled land @-@ based aircraft to escort merchant ships to the island .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+= = = Allied operations = = =
+
+The Allies waged the Western Desert Campaign ( 1940 – 43 ) in North Africa , against the Axis forces of Italy aided by Germany , that had sent the Deutsches Afrika Korps and substantial Luftwaffe detachments to the Mediterranean in late 1940 . Up to the end of the year , 21 ships with 160 @,@ 000 long tons ( 160 @,@ 000 t ) of cargo had reached Malta without loss and a reserve of seven months ' supplies had been accumulated . Three convoy operations to Malta in 1941 lost only one merchant ship . From January 1941 to August 1942 , 46 ships had delivered 320 @,@ 000 long tons ( 330 @,@ 000 t ) but 23 ships had been sunk and modern , efficient , merchant ships , naval and air forces had been diverted from other routes for long periods ; 31 supply runs by submarines had been conducted . Reinforcements for Malta , included 19 costly and dangerous aircraft carrier ferry operations to deliver fighters . From August 1940 to the end of August 1942 , 670 Hurricane and Spitfire fighters had been flown off carriers in the western Mediterranean . Many of these used Malta as a staging post and then continued to North Africa and the Desert Air Force .
+
+Malta was also a base for air , sea and submarine operations against Axis supply lines and from 1 June and 31 October 1941 , British forces sank about 220 @,@ 000 long tons ( 220 @,@ 000 t ) of Axis shipping on the African convoy routes , 94 @,@ 000 long tons ( 96 @,@ 000 t ) by the navy and 115 @,@ 000 long tons ( 117 @,@ 000 t ) by the RAF and Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) . Loaded ships sailing to Africa accounted for 90 percent of the ships sunk and Malta @-@ based squadrons were responsible for about 75 percent of those ships sunk by aircraft . Military operations from Malta and using the island as a staging post , led to Axis air campaigns against the island in 1941 and 1942 . By late July , the 80 fighters on the island averaged wastage of 17 per week ; the remaining aviation fuel was only sufficient for the fighters , making it impractical to send more bombers and torpedo @-@ bombers for offensive operations .
+
+= = = Malta , 1942 = = =
+
+Operation Harpoon from Gibraltar and Operation Vigorous from Alexandria ( 12 – 15 / 16 June ) were costly failures . Only two merchantmen from Harpoon reached the island , as the Vigorous convoy was forced to turn back and many merchantmen , including the only tanker in Harpoon and several convoy escorts were sunk . By August , the fortnightly ( two @-@ weekly ) ration on Malta for one person was 14 ounces ( 400 g ) sugar , 7 ounces ( 200 g ) fats , 10 @.@ 5 ounces ( 300 g ) bread and 14 ounces ( 400 g ) of corned beef . An adult male worker had a daily intake of 1 @,@ 690 calories and women and children received 1 @,@ 500 calories . In August a mass slaughter of livestock began on the island to reduce the need for fodder imports and to convert grazing land for crop growing ; the meat was supplied to the public through Victory Kitchens .
+
+Malta would be forced to surrender if fuel , food and ammunition were not delivered before September and Air Vice @-@ Marshal Keith Park , the local air commander since July , warned that there remained only a few weeks ' supply of aviation fuel . The Admiralty had the fast minelayer HMS Welshman converted to carry fuel and submarines were pressed into service , to run supplies of aviation fuel , anti @-@ aircraft ammunition and torpedoes through the blockade , to keep the remaining aircraft operational . The First Lord of the Admiralty A. V. Alexander and Admiral of the Fleet Dudley Pound , the First Sea Lord ( professional head of the Royal Navy ) , concurred with Churchill that the loss of Malta would be
+
+... a disaster of [ the ] first magnitude to the British Empire , and probably [ would be ] fatal in the long run to the defence of the Nile Valley .
+
+and prepared a new convoy operation from Gibraltar , with an unprecedented number of escorts , using ships taken from the Far East and from the Home Fleet , that had vessels to spare since Arctic convoys had been suspended , following the disaster to Convoy PQ 17 .
+
+= = = Axis command = = =
+
+The Axis command structure in the Mediterranean was centralized at the top and fragmented at the lower levels . Mussolini had monopolised authority over Italian armed forces in 1933 , by taking the offices of Minister of War , Minister of the Navy and Minister of the Air Force . Feldmarschall Albert Kesselring of the Luftwaffe commanded the German ground forces in the theatre as Oberbefehlshaber Süd ( OB Süd ) but had no authority over Axis operations in North Africa or the organization of convoys to Libya . Fliegerkorps II and Fliegerkorps X were subordinate to the normal chain of command of the Luftwaffe . Since November 1941 , Kesselring had some influence over the conduct of the German naval operations in the Mediterranean , as nominal commander of Naval Command Italy ( Marinekommando Italien ) but this was subordinate to the Kriegsmarine chain of command . German service rivalries obstructed co @-@ operation and there was little unity of effort between German and the Italian forces in the Mediterranean . Kesselring had the authority only to coordinate plans for combined operations by German and Italian forces and some influence on the use of the Regia Aeronautica for the protection of convoys to North Africa . The Italian Navy resisted all German attempts to integrate its operations , ships in different squadrons never trained together and Supermarina constantly overruled lower @-@ level commanders .
+
+= = Prelude = =
+
+= = = Allied plans = = =
+
+= = = = Operation Pedestal = = = =
+
+Admiralty planning for Operation Pedestal began in late July 1942 , under the direction of Vice @-@ Admiral Neville Syfret , Rear Admirals Lumley Lyster and Harold Burrough and the Naval Staff . Syfret transferred to HMS Nelson on 27 July when Nelson and HMS Rodney returned to Scapa Flow from Freetown , West Africa . Syfret convened a conference on 29 July , for Flag and Commanding Officers of the naval forces for Pedestal at Scapa , to consider the orders for the operation . Several smaller operations were also planned , to be carried out concurrently with Pedestal . The convoy comprised 14 merchant vessels , the most important being SS Ohio , the only large , fast tanker available , an American ship loaned to the British , with a British crew . As insurance against the loss of Ohio and its 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) of oil , the other ships were to carry fuel in drums . The convoy was to be protected by two battleships , three aircraft carriers , seven cruisers , 32 destroyers and seven submarines , the largest escort force yet .
+
+The combined group was named Force F , the convoy and escorts from Britain to the rendezvous became Force P , the aircraft carriers Victorious , Argus and escorts were named Force M on the voyage to the meeting point . The aircraft carrier Eagle and its escort from Gibraltar to the rendezvous became Force J , the carrier Indomitable and its escorts from Freetown were Force K ; during Operation Berserk , all the carriers and escorts became Force G , Force R was made up of the fleet refuelling vessels RFA Brown Ranger , RFA Dingledale , escorted by four corvettes and an ocean @-@ going tug , RFA Abbeydale a Dale @-@ class oiler and escorts were named Force W also for Operation Berserk , Force X formed the close escort to Malta , Force Z was made up of the heavy ships of Force F , that were to turn back to Gibraltar and Force Y was to conduct Operation Ascendant , a run from Malta to Gibraltar , by the two ships that had reached the island during Operation Harpoon and escorts , as Pedestal entered the Mediterranean .
+
+Embarked on Victorious were 809 Squadron and 884 Squadron FAA with 16 Fairey Fulmars and 885 Squadron with six Sea Hurricanes ; on Indomitable , 806 Squadron had ten Grumman Martlets , 800 Squadron and 880 Squadron had 24 Sea Hurricanes , 827 Squadron and 831 Squadron had 14 Fairey Albacores . On Eagle were 801 Squadron and 813 Squadron with 16 Sea Hurricanes . Based on Malta were five Baltimores , six PRU Spitfires and five Wellington Mk VIII reconnaissance aircraft . Reinforcements were sent temporarily from Egypt , raising the maximum number of operational aircraft to 100 Spitfires , 36 Beaufighters , 30 Beauforts , 3 Wellingtons , 2 Liberators , 2 Baltimores and three FAA Albacores and Swordfish .
+
+The convoy was given the bogus title WS.5.21.S ( genuine Winston 's Specials were convoys from Britain to Suez via the Cape of Good Hope ) . After the usual convoy conference , just before sailing , Burrough met with the Convoy Commodore , A. G. Venables and the masters of the merchant ships on board his flagship , HMS Nigeria to brief them . A similar meeting was held with radio operators of the merchantmen , to explain fleet communications and procedures . Envelopes marked " Not to be opened until 08 : 00 hours August 10 " were handed to the ships ' masters , containing personal messages signed by the First Lord of the Admiralty wishing the masters " God Speed " . The convoy sailed from the River Clyde on the night of 2 / 3 August , escorted by HMS Nigeria , HMS Kenya and destroyers , to rendezvous with the other escorts the following morning .
+
+= = = = Operation Bellows = = = =
+
+Shortly before the departure from Scapa , the Admiralty decided that Furious should carry out Operation Bellows , to reinforce Malta ( known informally as a Club Run ) with Spitfires at the same time as Operation Pedestal . The departure of Furious was delayed by technical difficulties caused by the flight deck , that sloped upwards to a point amidships . A Spitfire made a practice take @-@ off , with wooden wedges in the flaps to ensure a 25 ° angle and Furious steaming at 30 knots ( 35 mph ) , into a 10 @-@ knot ( 12 mph ) wind . The Spitfire was thrown into the air by the rise on the flight deck , bounced onto the forward slope , fell off the front near stalling speed and narrowly avoided ditching . An immediate request was made to the Air Ministry for Constant @-@ speed propellers and two days later , a Spitfire with the new propeller took off easily , leaving 38 aircraft still on board to be flown to Malta . In company with HMS Manchester , she joined Nelson and the convoy three days before the start of Operation Pedestal .
+
+= = = = Operations Berserk and Ascendant = = = =
+
+On 31 July , Nelson , Rodney , HMS Victorious , HMS Argus , HMS Sirius and destroyers sailed from Scapa to rendezvous with HMS Eagle and HMS Charybdis from Gibraltar and HMS Indomitable and HMS Phoebe , from Freetown , for Operation Berserk . The operation took place between the Azores and Gibraltar from 6 – 9 August and included exercises with the merchant ships in anti @-@ aircraft gunnery , emergency turns and in changing cruising formations , communicating with signal flags and short range wireless telegraphy ( W / T ) . The risk to security in breaking W / T silence during the exercises , was accepted by Allied planners and according to Cunningham , the convoy attained an efficiency in manoeuvring " comparable to that of a fleet unit . " The aircraft of the force performed dummy air attacks in the afternoon of 8 August , to exercise radar reporting , the fighter direction organisation and to give anti @-@ aircraft gun crews aircraft recognition practice , followed by a fly past . In Operation Ascendant , Troilus and Orari , the two merchant ships that had survived the Harpoon fiasco in June , were to sail from Malta for Gibraltar , with a screen of two destroyers ( Force Y ) on the night of the first day of Operation Pedestal . Force Y was to be disguised and show Italian deck markings and sortie from Malta , to 30 nmi ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) to the south of Lampedusa , then sail past Kelibia on Cap Bon , keeping close to the Tunisian coast as far as the Galita Channel and from there make for Gibraltar . ( Force Y left Malta about 20 : 30 on 10 August , reached Cap Bon the next day and arrived at Gibraltar at about 10 : 00 on 14 August . )
+
+= = = Axis plans = = =
+
+The Germans and Italians planned separately and although they co @-@ operated to an extent , their forces operated independently in the operation against the convoy ; Fliegerkorps II in Sicily co @-@ ordinated plans with the local Regia Aeronautica commanders but conducted its attacks separately . Supermarina the Italian Navy headquarters , considered four contingencies , that the Allies would use their naval strength to protect a convoy , that a sortie would be made by the main Allied battle fleet to provoke the Italians to react , to use a powerful covering force for a convoy to force a passage to the north of Pantelleria instead of turning westward at the entrance to Skerki Bank or to use aircraft @-@ carriers for attacks on Sardinian airfields to ease the passage of a convoy . The Regia Aeronautica had 328 aircraft ( 90 torpedo @-@ bombers , 62 bombers , 25 dive @-@ bombers and 151 fighters ) and the Luftwaffe 456 aircraft ( 328 dive @-@ bombers , 32 high @-@ level bombers and 96 fighters ) . Most Luftwaffe torpedo @-@ bombers had been sent to Norway in June and did not return in time for the operation . About 20 Ju @-@ 88s from Fliegerkorps X Air Corps on Crete arrived at Sicily on 11 August , were ready for operations the next morning and another 8 Ju @-@ 88s arrived from Crete the same day , after completing convoy escort duties in the Aegean .
+
+The Regia Marina had four battleships , three heavy and ten light cruisers , 21 destroyers , 28 torpedo boats and 64 submarines but most of the capital ships were non @-@ operational , for lack of fuel and air cover . The navy had received only 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel in June , equivalent to 20 percent of fuel consumption by convoys and the Italian battleships had to refuel the smaller vessels . Because of the acute fuel @-@ shortage , Mussolini suggested to Hitler that a Malta convoy should be opposed only by submarines and land @-@ based aircraft . Supermarina managed to prepare the 3rd Cruiser Division with three eight @-@ inch cruisers ( Gorizia , Bolzano and Trieste ) and seven destroyers , along with the 7th Cruiser Division with three six @-@ inch cruisers ( Eugenio di Savoia , Raimondo Montecuccoli and Muzio Attendolo ) and five destroyers plus 18 submarines , 19 torpedo boats ( six Ms and 13 Mas ) ; the Germans had three U @-@ boats and four S @-@ boats . The Axis air forces lacked the fighters to escort surface ships , bombers and torpedo bombers and Mussolini preferred to use the fighters as bomber escorts and as cover for surface forces . Kesselring rejected the Italian request to provide air cover for the Italian fleet , because the Luftwaffe did not have enough fighters for bomber and ship escorts .
+
+Kesselring doubted that the Italian heavy cruisers could succeed even with air cover and used the lack of fuel as a pretext but Admiral Eberhard Weichold , the German naval attaché in Rome , wanted the Luftwaffe to give air cover for Italian ships . Marshal Ugo Cavallero , Chief of the General Staff ( Capo di Stato Maggiore Generale ) , also wanted Italian surface forces to participate in the operation but Supermarina did not want its big ships to operate without air cover . Axis tactics were similar to those used against Operation Harpoon in June ; a joint special air reconnaissance of the western Mediterranean by Axis aircraft on 11 and 12 August and Axis aircraft in Sicily and Sardinia , Italian submarines and German U @-@ boats , Axis torpedo boats and minefields would be used as successive barriers . The four barriers were to cause the convoy to disperse and be vulnerable to a force of cruisers and destroyers . Twenty @-@ two torpedo @-@ bombers , about 125 dive @-@ bombers all with fighter escorts and 40 high @-@ level bombers , were to be used in a synchronized attack . Priority was given to the destruction of aircraft carriers , to prevent them from intervening when Italian surface forces closed in on the remnants of the convoy . The Axis navies had 19 submarines available in the western Mediterranean and nine boats were to be stationed north of Algeria between longitudes 01 ° 40 ' E and 02 ° 40 ' E and ten submarines were to wait between Fratelli Rocks and the northern entrance to the Skerki Bank , some arrayed north @-@ west of Cap Bon , to operate in co @-@ operation with aircraft . An Italian submarine was to patrol west of Malta , one off Navarino ( Greece ) and three more about 87 nautical miles ( 100 mi ) west @-@ south @-@ west of Crete .
+
+From June 1940 to April 1942 , the Regia Marina laid about 2 @,@ 320 mines between Cap Granitola at the south @-@ west end of Sicily and Pantelleria , 1 @,@ 020 mines between Pantelleria and Ras el Mustafa , Tunisia , 6 @,@ 880 mines between the Aegadian Islands and Cap Bon and 1 @,@ 040 mines between Bizerte and Keith Rock . The Italians also intended to lay a temporary minefield off Cap Bon on the night of 11 / 12 August , just before the convoy passed through . On the night of 12 / 13 August , 13 Mas and six Ms torpedo boats and four S @-@ boats were to lie in wait south of Marettimo ( one of the Aegades ) and off Cap Bon , then later off Pantelleria . The 3rd Cruiser Division and the 7th Cruiser Division would be about 100 nmi ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) north of Pantelleria during the afternoon of 12 August and then sail on an interception course south of Pantelleria through the night , to attack the remains of the convoy and its close escort just before dawn . It was assumed that at this time , Axis aircraft could provide fighter cover against the larger number of British aircraft from Malta . An Allied convoy from Egypt would be attacked by the 8th Cruiser Division based at Navarino in Greece , because of a lack of readiness , the division was ordered on 12 August , into the Ionian Sea to support the 3rd Cruiser Division .
+
+= = = Axis preparations = = =
+
+Axis planners lacked information about Allied plans but had fair knowledge of the Allied order of battle and the movement of Allied forces inside the Mediterranean from the reports of Abwehr agents near Gibraltar , the Spanish enclave of Ceuta ( opposite the Strait of Gibraltar ) and from reconnaissance aircraft and submarines . Reports from the Abwehr on 5 August , convinced Kesselring that the Allies were preparing a big operation to supply Malta from the west , in conjunction with a simultaneous attack on Mersa Matruh in Egypt . Allied bomber aircraft on Malta were expected to attack Italian naval forces as Malta fighters covered the passage of a convoy through the Sicilian Narrows . The Germans also considered a threat to Crete when the convoy had reached Malta and Kesselring ordered increased readiness of Luftwaffe units in Sicily and Crete , ordering the transfer of aircraft from Crete to Sardinia and Sicily .
+
+Fliegerkorps II reduced operations to increase serviceability and prepared facilities at Elmas in Sardinia for reinforcements from Fliegerkorps X in the eastern Mediterranean and Kesselring began discussions with the Regia Aeronautica , for employment of the German and Italian forces in the forthcoming operation . The Allies learned through Enigma that the Luftwaffe had supply difficulties in Sardinia , preventing the movement there of long @-@ range bombers and of fighter operations to the extent intended and that the Luftwaffe had sent 40 – 45 long @-@ range bombers and six twin @-@ engined fighters from the eastern Mediterranean ; Fliegerführer Afrika was forced to divert aircraft for convoy escorts in the Tobruk area . On the morning of 8 August , a report erroneously indicated that an Argus @-@ class carrier and four destroyers had sailed into Gibraltar and Abwehr agents reported much shipping in the Strait of Gibraltar on the night of 8 / 9 August . By 10 August , 220 Luftwaffe aircraft were on Sicily along with 300 aircraft of the Regia Aeronautica and another 150 Italian aircraft assembled on Sardinia . As soon as it was clear that a convoy was sailing eastwards , 20 long @-@ range bombers from Crete and ten torpedo @-@ bombers from the training school at Grosseto were to be transferred to Sardinia . In Sicily , 15 dive @-@ bomber crews resting from operations were alerted and six Bf 110 long @-@ range fighters were sent from Africa , bringing the total to 701 aircraft .
+
+= = Battle = =
+
+= = = 9 / 10 August = = =
+
+Force R left Gibraltar on 9 August , ready to meet the convoy at a rendezvous south of Majorca and Force F made an uneventful passage of the Straits in dense fog , during the night of 9 / 10 August . Fishing boats and one merchant vessel were passed at close quarters but due to the moonless night and the fog , Syfret thought it improbable that the force had been sighted from the shore . Abwehr agents near Gibraltar and Ceuta had sighted the convoy and the British decrypted their Enigma messages , learning how well @-@ informed the Axis were and their plans to defeat the convoy . At about 08 : 00 on 10 August , German reconnaissance aircraft detected the convoy and at 12 : 45 reported that the convoy was about 70 north of Algiers .
+
+At 17 : 00 a French aircraft reported two aircraft carriers , two battleships , two cruisers , fourteen destroyers and twelve merchant vessels about 50 nmi ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) north of Oran . Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft reported at 19 : 00 that a convoy of two battleships , two carriers , two cruisers , fourteen destroyers and twelve merchantmen was on an easterly course , 55 nmi ( 102 km ; 63 mi ) north @-@ north @-@ east of Oran . By the afternoon of 10 August , Kesselring and Supermarina were aware that a convoy of forty to fifty ships , including possibly two carriers and nineteen freighters , was in the western Mediterranean , sailing on an easterly course at a speed of 13 – 14 nmi ( 24 – 26 km ; 15 – 16 mi ) . The convoy was expected to be south of Majorca by 06 : 00 on 11 August and south of Sardinia by the same time on 12 August . Fliegerkorps II in the western Mediterranean was alerted and Fligerkorps X was ordered to reconnoitre the eastern Mediterranean beyond the 25 ° E line of latitude after dawn on 11 August .
+
+= = = 11 August = = =
+
+Despite Axis submarines , three cruisers and twenty @-@ six destroyers refuelled from the tankers Dingledale and Brown Ranger of Force R by dawn . ( Previous Malta convoys had refuelled at Malta but now the island had no oil to spare . ) The convoy was south of the Balearic Islands on course for Cap Bon at daybreak and at about 06 : 20 , a U @-@ boat sighted the convoy . At 08 : 15 a Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft reported that the convoy was 95 nmi ( 176 km ; 109 mi ) north @-@ west of Algiers ; fifteen minutes later , a Ju @-@ 88 began to shadow the convoy at 20 @,@ 000 – 24 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 – 7 @,@ 300 m ) and continued throughout the day . At noon , the convoy was about 75 nmi ( 139 km ; 86 mi ) south of Majorca , sailing due east on a zigzag course . Furious conducted Operation Bellows between 12 : 30 and 15 : 15 , flying off 38 Spitfires for the 555 – 584 nmi ( 1 @,@ 028 – 1 @,@ 082 km ; 639 – 672 mi ) journey to Malta and then turned round with her escorts for Gibraltar ( 37 of the aircraft reached Malta ) . During the evening , HMS Wolverine one of the destroyers escorting Furious , rammed and sank the Italian submarine Dagabur .
+
+Enigma decrypts showed that at 11 : 55 , the light cruisers Eugenio di Savoia , Raimondo Montecuccoli , Muzio Attendolo of the 7th Cruiser Division at Cagliari had been ordered by Supermarina to be at two hours ' notice from 18 : 00 and that with the heavy cruisers Gorizia , Bolzano and Trieste of the 3rd Cruiser Division at Messina , had been informed at 13 : 00 that Italian submarines were operating north of Bizerte . Three Axis submarines were seen departing Cagliari at 20 : 45 and the British learned that at 18 : 00 the 7th Cruiser Division with 17 destroyers , had sailed east and that 3rd Cruiser Division had departed from Messina and Naples . Allied intelligence also learned that Panzerarmee Afrika in Egypt believed that the convoy was a threat to Tobruk . Kesselring thought that a landing on the North African coast might be attempted and next day issued an order of the day , that landings would influence operations in Africa and must be prevented . Luftgau Afrika ( Air District Africa ) expected a landing at Tripoli on 13 or 14 August .
+
+At 13 : 15 , the aircraft carrier Eagle was hit by four torpedoes from U @-@ 73 ( Kapitänleutnant Helmut Rosenbaum ) and sank eight minutes later , 70 nmi ( 130 km ; 81 mi ) south of Cape Salinas and 80 nmi ( 150 km ; 92 mi ) north of Algiers . About 900 of the 1 @,@ 160 crew were rescued by the destroyers but 200 men and all the aircraft were lost , about 25 percent of the fighter strength of the convoy . The Luftwaffe attacked just after sunset at 20 : 56 , when the convoy was about 200 nmi ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) from Sardinia , with 36 Ju @-@ 88 and He @-@ 111 bombers and torpedo bombers , that evaded the British fighters in the dusk . The aircraft scored no hits and the fleet anti @-@ aircraft gunners claimed three attackers destroyed . During the night the Axis airfields in Sardinia were attacked by B @-@ 24 Liberators and Beaufighters , which set a hangar on fire and destroyed several aircraft .
+
+= = = = Night , 11 / 12 August = = = =
+
+On the night of 11 / 12 August , the Italian 7th and 3rd Cruiser divisions and 17 destroyers , sailed from Cagliari , Messina and Naples to engage the British convoy . The RAF at the Malta Operations Room sent orders in plain language to a Wellington bomber that dropped flares and sent messages in clear , supposedly guiding a fictitious B @-@ 24 Liberator force , to bluff the Italian ships away from the convoy . ( Supermarina ( Italian Naval Headquarters ) had actually cancelled the operation before the British signals were received , because of a lack of air cover . ) At 00 : 20 , the British discovered from Enigma that Italian intelligence had sighted four British cruisers and ten destroyers and thought that part of the convoy might be proceeding to the eastern Mediterranean . Enigma also revealed operation orders from Fliegerkorps II to the fighters of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 ) at Elmas in Sardinia , to expect a convoy the Sicilian Narrows early on 12 August . Fliegerkorps II was to co @-@ operate with the Regia Aeronautica in Sicily and Sardinia , flying in waves with fighter escorts against the convoy .
+
+British intelligence concluded that the convoy and its huge escort force had caused the Axis commanders to be apprehensive of a landing anywhere along the North African coast or on Crete . Axis precautionary measures had been taken on the assumption that if Crete was the target , landings would occur before 14 August . Defensive measures were also taken in the Benghazi – Tripoli area of Libya , where a squadron of Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and the long @-@ range bombers based at Derna were alerted to move to Benghazi or Tripoli , supported by Ju @-@ 52 transport aircraft . Panzerarmee Afrika prepared detachments to repel landings and moved forces to the Sollum – Mersa Matruh area , to defend the coast east of Tobruk . At 07 : 00 , all ship movements from North Africa to Italy and the Aegean were suspended and by late afternoon , the British knew that the Luftwaffe anticipated a landing at Tripoli on 13 or 14 August . Fighter and dive @-@ bomber reinforcements were sent from Sicily and Enigma intercepted a message from Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring , the commander in chief of the Luftwaffe , ordering that the Luftwaffe
+
+... will operate with no other thought in mind than the destruction of the British convoy ... The destruction of this convoy is of decisive importance .
+
+and that the attacks were to be directed against the British aircraft carriers and merchantmen .
+
+= = = 12 August = = =
+
+= = = = Morning = = = =
+
+Axis aircraft resumed shadowing at 05 : 00 and Indomitable launched Martlets at 06 : 00 to shoot down two shadowing aircraft . The carriers then launched Sea Hurricanes for air cover . At 09 : 15 when the convoy was about 130 nmi ( 240 km ; 150 mi ) south @-@ south @-@ west of Sardina , 19 Junkers Ju 88s dive @-@ bombers attacked and eight were shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire and fighters for the loss of one FAA fighter . The biggest attack came at noon , when a combined attack by about 80 torpedo bombers , dive bombers and fighter @-@ bombers used a mixture of weapons , including new Motobomba pattern @-@ running torpedoes . Ten Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.79 bombers carrying Motobomba torpedoes were followed by German fighter @-@ bombers to disorganise the convoy before the main force of torpedo bombers attacked five minutes later .
+
+= = = = Afternoon = = = =
+
+The attack was not synchronised as intended and lasted from 12 : 15 to 14 : 45 , the main force being intercepted by FAA Martlets and Sea Hurricanes and forced to drop their torpedoes at long range ; the merchant ships implemented the evasive manoeuvres practised in Operation Berserk and were not hit . Two Re.2001G / Vs modified to carry a 640 kg ( 1 @,@ 410 lb ) bomb each and escorted by Re.2001s , joined Sea Hurricanes on their landing approach to Victorious and were not recognised by the anti @-@ aircraft gunners ; one bomb struck the flight deck but broke apart and the other missed . A force of dive bombers hit Deucalion and forced it out of the convoy , escorted by HMS Bramham . Enigma decrypts showed the British that at 18 : 30 on 12 August , an S @-@ boat flotilla was due to sail at 16 : 00 from Porto Empedocle in Sicily for Cap Bon , to operate in the area until about 04 : 30 on 13 August . At 21 : 45 , a Fliegerkorps II assessment revealed that the Axis thought that there were 51 ships in the western Mediterranean , including two carriers , two battleships , seven cruisers and twenty destroyers . The Germans mistakenly thought that a US Yorktown @-@ class aircraft carrier was present but correctly identified Rodney and Nelson . The convoy was thought to consist of 13 freighters of 105 @,@ 000 long tons ( 107 @,@ 000 t ) , protected by 10 – 16 fighters and plenty of anti @-@ aircraft guns .
+
+During the afternoon , there were many submarine alarms and the convoy was approached by Italian submarine Cobalto and Emo . Emo was depth charged and prevented from attacking and HMS Ithuriel rammed and sank Cobalto ; Ithuriel was badly damaged and had to return to Gibraltar . The Italian submarine Brin was driven off by destroyers and a Sunderland flying boat attacked and damaged the Giada off Algiers and a later attack by another flying boat caused more damage . Giada shot down the Sunderland before heading for shelter to the Spanish port of Valencia ( where she remained until the 14 August ) . Between 18 : 00 and 18 : 50 , the convoy was attacked by about 40 Ju @-@ 88s and Ju @-@ 87s , co @-@ ordinated with about twenty CANT Z.1007 torpedo @-@ bombers . A SM.79 drone and a CANT Z.1007bis guide aircraft , escorted by five FIAT G.50 fighters , attacked the convoy . The pilot of the SM.79 pointed the aircraft towards the ships and parachuted , for the Z.1007bis crew to guide the bomb by radio . The radio failed and the SM 79 drone flew on until it ran out of fuel and crashed into Mount Khenchela on the Algerian mainland .
+
+Foresight had to be scuttled after a torpedo detonation on the stern sent crewmen flying spread @-@ eagled through the air and Junkers Ju 87s wrecked the flight deck of Indomitable with three bomb hits along with two or three near misses , leaving Victorious the last operational carrier . Several fighters on Victorious were ditched to make room and Indomitable was able to maintain a speed 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 8 mph ) ; a torpedo bomber hit the destroyer Foresight , which was later sunk by the British . Syfret intended Force Z to turn west upon reaching the Skerki Bank at 19 : 15 but ordered the turn at 18 : 55 , because the Axis air attacks caused a twenty @-@ minute delay , the turn not being noticed by the Axis until 20 : 30 . Because of the number of aircraft in the attacks up to 18 : 50 , Syfret thought that there could be no more before dark and that the danger at the Skeri Bank would come from torpedo boats in the night and aircraft after dawn , not Axis submarines .
+
+At 18 : 55 , Burrough with the close escort of Force X continued towards Malta with the merchant ships as Force R cruised in the western Mediterranean in case it was needed , until ordered to return to Gibraltar ( arriving in the morning of 16 August ) . An hour later , to pass through the Skerki Channel , the convoy manoeuvred from four to two columns , Nigeria , HMS Cairo and SS Ohio were torpedoed by the Italian submarine Axum . Destroyers were still with the damaged ships and when long @-@ range Beaufighter aircraft arrived and were fired on by the convoy gunners . Ashanti and HMS Penn laid a smokescreen to cover the light western horizon but the merchantman Empire Hope was hit by a dive @-@ bomber and sunk . The Axis air forces had flown 180 – 220 escorted bomber sorties during the day and the Germans believed that they had damaged an aircraft carrier , a cruiser , a destroyer and a large merchant ship .
+
+The captain of Kenya described the state of the convoy as " chaotic " and there are several versions of events . At about 21 : 00 Italian submarine Alagi reported that it had sunk the merchant ship Empire Hope and damaged the cruiser Kenya . While Kenya turned to avoid a torpedo , Bronzo reported that it had sunk Deucalion . Clan Ferguson was torpedoed and was later destroyed by an ammunition detonation and Brisbane Star was hit in the bows ( possibly by Alagi ) but kept going . At 21 : 30 , Tenente di Vascello Sergio Puccini of the Alagi noted that
+
+... from 180 degrees around to 140 degrees we could see a continuous line of flame from the burning , sinking ships ... A burning ship blows up .
+
+The torpedoing of HMS Nigeria and Cairo , the diversion of HMS Ashanti to become Burrough 's new flagship and the detachment of four Hunt @-@ class destroyers to stand by the damaged cruisers , temporarily deprived Force X of its commander , the two columns of their leaders , lost the convoy nearly half its escort and its two Fighter Direction ships . On hearing that Nigeria and Cairo had been torpedoed , Syfret ordered Force Z to send back HMS Charybdis , HMS Eskimo and HMS Somali to reinforce Force X. Nigeria and the other damaged ships turned back to Gibraltar , escorted by HMS Wilton and HMS Bicester .
+
+= = = 13 August = = =
+
+= = = = Operation MG 3 = = = =
+
+In the eastern Mediterranean , the British Operation MG 3 decoy had begun when convoy MW12 with three freighters had sailed from Port Said after dusk on 10 August , escorted by two cruisers , ten destroyers and two escorts . One merchant ship escorted by two cruisers and three destroyers left Haifa at 03 : 00 the next day . The two forces had rendezvoused early on 11 August and sailed west to the longitude of Alexandria , then turned back . German aircraft had spotted the movements and early on 12 August , Kesselring informed Fliegerkorps X that four merchant vessels , six cruisers and an unknown number of destroyers were at 33 ° 40 ' N , 28 ° 34 ' E , sailing north @-@ east at 12 knots ( 14 mph ) . Kesselring thought that the convoy was a British wireless @-@ telegraphy spoof but might also be a supply convoy for Malta . Fliegerkorps X was ordered to reconnoitre all of the eastern Mediterranean on the morning of 12 August . During the night of 12 / 13 August , British cruisers and destroyers had bombarded the port of Rhodes and during the day , the RAF attacked Maritsa airfield on Rhodes and a British submarine landed commandos at Simeto south of Catania on the east coast of Sicily , to sabotage electricity pylons . The Italian 8th Cruiser Division remained at port and the Germans detached one destroyer to reinforce the Italians ; local traffic along the North African coast and shipping traffic between Italy and Greece was suspended but MG 3 failed to divert Axis attention from Operation Pedestal .
+
+= = = = Night , 12 / 13 August = = = =
+
+Around midnight , the convoy passed south of Zembra Island towards Kelibia on Cap Bon , to avoid the minefields between Africa and Sicily around midnight , still out of formation . Three minesweeping destroyers sailed ahead , followed by the cruisers Kenya , Manchester and two freighters . Charybdis and the destroyers Eskimo and Somali from Force Z were still some hours behind and Ashanti was steaming fast to overhaul the main body . Three destroyers remained with nine of the merchantmen and Bramham was en route after Deucalion had been sunk . The main part of the convoy was attacked at 00 : 40 by eight Italian and seven German torpedo @-@ boats , which made fifteen attacks ; the long line of merchant ships and the reduced number of escort ships providing an easy target . At 01 : 20 off Cap Bon , Manchester was hit by a torpedo from either MS @-@ 16 or MS @-@ 22 , that wrecked three of its four propeller shafts and left the ship listing , stopped in the water . Power was restored , 156 men were taken on board HMS Pathfinder and at 05 : 00 , the captain ordered that the Manchester be scuttled and the remaining crew to make for the Tunisian coast .
+
+Between 03 : 15 and 04 : 30 about 15 nmi ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) off Kelibia , the torpedo boats hit and sank Wairangi , Almeria Lykes ( US ) , Santa Elisa ( US ) and Glenorchy , as they took a short cut to catch up with the convoy . Rochester Castle was torpedoed but escaped at 13 knots ( 15 mph ) and caught up with the main body by 05 : 30 , by when Charybdis , Eskimo and Somali had arrived , increasing the escort to two cruisers and seven destroyers escorting Rochester Castle , Waimarama and Melbourne Star . Ohio and its destroyer were slowly closing the distance and further back were Port Chalmers and two destroyers . Dorset was sailing independently and Brisbane Star lurked near the Tunisian coast , ready to make a run for Malta after dark . Dawn brought an end to the torpedo boat attacks and at 07 : 30 , Burrough sent Eskimo and Somali back to help Manchester but they arrived too late , took on survivors who had not reached the shore and made for Gibraltar .
+
+= = = = Morning = = = =
+
+An attack by the Italian cruisers appeared imminent , after air reconnaissance had sighted them the previous evening , heading south about 80 nmi ( 150 km ; 92 mi ) from the west end of Sicily , on course to reach the convoy at dawn . At 01 : 30 the cruisers had turned east and run along the north coast of Sicily ; British aircraft from Malta had conducted a ruse to decoy the cruisers but the main attacking force on Malta was held back , in case the Italian battleships sailed from Taranto . Some of the Italian cruisers were ordered to return to port and the rest were sent through the Straits of Messina to join the 8th Cruiser Division against the decoy convoy in the eastern Mediterranean . The cruisers were attacked by the British submarines HMS Safari and Unbroken and Unbroken torpedoed the Bolzano in the oil tank and the ship was run aground ; the light cruiser Muzio Attendolo was hit forward and 60 ft ( 18 m ) of her bow was blown off .
+
+At 07 : 00 the convoy was about 120 nmi ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) from Malta and twelve Junkers Ju 88s attacked at 08 : 00 despite Beaufighters and Spitfires overhead . Waimarama was hit and disintegrated , the aviation fuel on deck burst into flame and HMS Ledbury passed through the fires , rescuing 27 survivors of the ship 's complement of 107 men . The wreckage of Waimarama showered flaming debris on Melbourne Star and several of her crew abandoned ship prematurely , some of whom were later rescued by Ledbury . At 10 : 50 , Ohio was disabled by several near @-@ misses from Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers and one crashed onto the deck ; Rochester Castle was torpedoed and set ablaze but kept going and Dorset was hit and stopped . The crew of Port Chalmers found a torpedo caught in the starboard paravane ( a minesweeping device ) but it exploded harmlessly ; two destroyers were left behind with the disabled ships and another air attack at 11 : 50 had no effect . The main body of the convoy , with Port Chalmers , Melbourne Star and Rochester Castle sailed on and when it was within 80 nmi ( 150 km ; 92 mi ) of Malta , further air attacks were prevented by 407 Spitfire sorties from the island .
+
+= = = = Afternoon = = = =
+
+The remnants of the convoy steamed on to meet the 17th Minesweeper Flotilla of the Malta Escort Force at 14 : 30 and Force X turned for Gibraltar , the convoy reaching Grand Harbour in Valletta at 16 : 30 , where Operation Ceres , the immediate unloading of the ships began . Another aerial attack at dusk hit Ohio and Dorset was sunk . Penn tried to tow Ohio but the tanker was listing and snapped the tow line . During another attack , Ohio broke its keel when a bomb hit the same area as a previous torpedo hit . The crew , led by Captain D. W. Mason , temporarily abandoned the ship , as Italian torpedo bombers attacked . Brisbane Star evaded a U @-@ boat and managed to steam at 5 – 9 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 – 16 @.@ 7 km ; 5 @.@ 8 – 10 @.@ 4 mi ) despite the damage to its bows . While off Tunisia , Brisbane Star was boarded by the Sousse harbour master who tried to impound the vessel , until persuaded to relent and let the ship sail on after dark .
+
+= = = 14 – 15 August = = =
+
+Brisbane Star arrived at Valetta Harbour with Spitfires circling overhead , during the afternoon of 14 August . Ohio was surrounded by ships to nurse the tanker to Grand Harbour and several American volunteers from Santa Eliza , manned anti @-@ aircraft guns on Ohio during the tow . The weight of the tanker kept breaking the tow lines , while constant air attacks were made by 20 bombers that destroyed the rudder , made a hole in her stern and brought the decks awash . The tanker was towed in by the destroyers Ledbury and Penn lashed on either side , with the minesweeper HMS Rye acting as a stabilizer at the stern . More air attacks disrupted the towing formation , until it was re @-@ established with Bramham replacing Ledbury for the remainder of the journey . Ohio was towed into Grand Harbour at 09 : 30 on 15 August , to cheering crowds and a band playing Rule Britannia . The crowd fell silent as the ships entered harbour , men removed their hats , women crossed themselves and a bugle sounded Still . The tanker discharged oil into two tankers and water was pumped in at the same time , to reduce the chance of structural failure . Ohio settled on the bottom just as the last of the fuel was emptied .
+
+= = Aftermath = =
+
+= = = Analysis = = =
+
+German reports on 17 August , stated that all the tankers in the recent Mediterranean convoy had been sunk and none of the transports had reached their destination ( assumed to be Egypt ) . In August , with Malta still besieged , 35 percent of Axis convoy shipping to North Africa was lost . The Allies had lost 13 vessels sunk , including nine merchantmen , one aircraft carrier ( Eagle ) , two cruisers ( Manchester and Cairo ) and a destroyer ( Foresight ) but the Royal Navy and the Merchant Navy had saved Malta . The arrival of about 32 @,@ 000 short tons ( 29 @,@ 000 t ) of general cargo , together with petrol , oil fuel , kerosene and diesel fuel , was enough to give the island about ten more weeks supply beyond the few weeks that the existing stocks could maintain . Later that year , Weichold summed up the German navy 's analysis ,
+
+.... To the continental observer , the British losses seemed to represent a big victory for the Axis , but in reality the facts were quite different , since it had not been possible to prevent a British force , among which were five merchant vessels , from reaching Valetta .... Thanks to these new supplies Malta was now capable of fighting for several weeks , or , at a pinch , for several months . The main issue , the danger of air attack on the supply route to North Africa , remained . To achieve this objective no price was too high , and from this point of view the British operation , in spite of all the losses , was not a defeat , but a strategical failure of the first order by the Axis , the repercussions of which will one day be felt ...
+
+Royal Navy gunners and Fleet Air Arm fighters shot down 42 of about 330 Axis aircraft that flew against the convoy . In 1994 , Sadkovich wrote that Operation Pedestal was a tactical disaster for the British , of a magnitude comparable to the German attack on Convoy PQ @-@ 17 . In 2002 , Giorgerini wrote that the operation was an Italian success , the Italian submarines had adopted more offensive tactics and sank a cruiser and two merchantmen , damaged two cruisers and the Ohio . For the British and the other Allies , Operation Pedestal was a strategic victory , raising the morale of the people and garrison of Malta , averting famine and an inevitable surrender . In September and October , Malta was supplied by submarines ( Otus , Rorqual on the Magic Carpet run and Clyde had sailed during the operation with ammunition , aviation fuel and torpedoes ) . Submarines Parthian , Clyde , Traveller and Thrasher made more Magic Carpet runs and the fast minelayer Welshman made a dash from Gibraltar with 300 long tons ( 300 t ) of food .
+
+= = = Casualties = = =
+
+In 1956 , Playfair wrote that the Fleet Air Arm lost 13 aircraft in action and 16 when Eagle was sunk , the RAF lost 5 aircraft and 35 Axis aircraft were shot down , including losses over Malta . In 1957 , Santoro wrote that the Regia Aeronautica lost 24 aircraft ( excluding those lost in British raids on Sardinian airfields and the radio @-@ controlled SM 79 bomber ) and that the Germans lost 24 aircraft , plus an unknown number of reconnaissance aircraft operating against the convoy . In 2003 Malcolm listed 160 men killed on Eagle , 132 on Manchester , 52 on Nigeria , 50 on Indomitable , 24 on Cairo , 5 on Foresight , 3 on Kenya . Merchant Navy casualties were 83 on Waimarama , 18 on Clan Ferguson , 7 on Glenorchy , 5 on Melbourne Star , 4 on Santa Elisa , 1 on Deucalion , 1 on Ohio and 1 on Brisbane Star . In 2010 , Vego wrote that about 350 men had been killed , Ohio never sailed again and the British lost one carrier ( Eagle ) , two cruisers ( Manchester and Cairo ) and the destroyer Foresight . One carrier ( Indomitable ) , two cruisers ( Nigeria and Kenya ) and three destroyers were damaged and under repair for some time and the Fleet Air Arm lost thirteen aircraft on operations and sixteen Sea Hurricanes when Eagle was sunk . The Allies could not risk such losses again and another large convoy to Malta was not attempted until November 1942 , when the re @-@ capture of airfields in Egypt and Libya after the Second Battle of El Alamein made it much easier to provide land @-@ based air cover . Two Italian cruisers ( Bolzano and Muzio Attendolo ) were damaged and not operational for the rest of the war , the Italian submarines Cobalto and Dagabur were sunk , Giada was damaged and 42 Axis aircraft were shot down .
+
+= = = Subsequent operations = = =
+
+From 16 to 18 August , HMS Furious made another Club Run from Gibraltar and dispatched 29 Spitfires to Malta in Operation Baritone . In September , with Malta supplied , Allied forces sank 100 @,@ 000 long tons ( 100 @,@ 000 t ) of Axis shipping , including 24 @,@ 000 long tons ( 24 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel destined for Rommel , leaving the Axis forces in Egypt consuming supplies faster than receipts , contributing to tactical paralysis during the Second Battle of El Alamein ( 23 October – 11 November ) and Operation Torch ( 8 – 16 November ) . Submarines and Bristol Beaufort torpedo @-@ bombers escorted by Bristol Beaufighters , regularly attacked Axis supply ships , known to the Allies through Ultra intercepts from Bletchley Park . An attempt to run a disguised merchant ship to Malta early in November failed and then Operation Stoneage ( 17 – 21 November ) , a convoy of four merchant ships from Alexandria , arrived undamaged ( the light cruiser Arethusa was torpedoed with 155 men killed and had to be towed back to port ) . Force K was re @-@ established at Malta and in Operation Portcullis ( 1 – 5 December ) , five ships were dispatched and arrived safely . Chariot manned torpedoes began to operate from Malta that month and from late December to January 1943 , four convoys , Quadrangle A , B , C and D , with pairs of merchantmen each , delivered 200 @,@ 000 long tons ( 200 @,@ 000 t ) of stores without loss and empty ships were retrieved from the island .
+
+= = Commemoration = =
+
+In recognition of their fortitude during the siege and air attacks during all of the Mediterranean campaign , Malta was awarded the George Cross in the months immediately preceding this operation . Vice @-@ Admiral Syfret was appointed as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath for his " bravery and dauntless resolution in fighting an important convoy through to Malta in the face of relentless attacks by day and night from enemy submarines , aircraft , and surface forces . " The master of the tanker Ohio , Dudley Mason , was awarded the George Cross for showing " skill and courage of the highest order and it was due to his determination that , in spite of the most persistent enemy opposition , the vessel , with her valuable cargo , eventually reached Malta and was safely berthed . " Several other officers , crew members and commanders of both the Royal and Merchant Navies , including the commander of HMS Ledbury , Roger Hill , received military awards ranging from the Distinguished Service Order and Conspicuous Gallantry Medal to Mentioned in Despatches , for the bravery and intrepidity shown in ferrying the merchantmen to Malta . The Merchant Marine Distinguished Service Medal was awarded to Junior Third Officer Frederick August Larsen , Jr. and to Cadet @-@ Midshipman , U.S. Merchant Marine Academy , Francis A. Dales for " Heroism beyond the call of duty " . Operation Pedestal was the subject of a 1953 black and white British film , Malta Story , that interspersed archive footage of the SS Ohio with scripted studio scenes .
+
+= = Order of battle = =
+
+= Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes =
+
+Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes is the second solo album by Thom Yorke of the English alternative rock band Radiohead , released on 26 September 2014 . It was produced by Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich , with artwork by Radiohead artist Stanley Donwood . The album blends Yorke 's vocals and piano playing with electronic beats and textures .
+
+Yorke first released Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes independently via a paid @-@ for BitTorrent bundle . He and Godrich expressed their wish to find " an effective way of handing some control of internet commerce back to people who are creating the work " . The album was downloaded over a million times within six days of release , and became the most @-@ downloaded legal torrent of 2014 ; by February 2015 , it had been downloaded over 4 @.@ 5 million times .
+
+A vinyl edition was also sold from the official site , and in August 2015 a CD edition was released in Japan by Hostess Entertainment . On 26 December 2014 , Yorke released Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes on the online music shop Bandcamp alongside a new song , " Youwouldn 'tlikemewhenI 'mangry " . The album received generally positive reviews and Rolling Stone named it one of the best of 2014 .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+In 2007 , Radiohead released their album In Rainbows independently as a pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want download . Matt Mason , chief content officer at BitTorrent Inc , said the release was the " gold standard for how to do something direct @-@ to @-@ fan on the internet " , and began talks with Radiohead 's managers about the future of online music distribution . Radiohead singer Yorke and Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich had expressed concern about how the internet has affected the music business , and accused the music streaming service Spotify of not compensating new artists fairly . In 2013 , Godrich stated : " [ Streaming ] cannot work as a way of supporting new artists ' work . Spotify and the like either have to address that fact and change the model for new releases or else all new music producers should be bold and vote with their feet . " Mason told The Guardian that Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes was " born out of these conversations we had on how the internet should work for artists : the vision we both share , which is that at present we don 't have a sustainable business model for artists on the internet . "
+
+In 2013 , Yorke contributed music to The UK Gold , a documentary about tax avoidance in the UK ; the soundtrack includes an early version of the Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes track " A Brain in a Bottle " . The following year , elements of Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes were used in the soundtrack for the second version of the Polyfauna app , released on 1 September 2014 , before the album 's announcement . The app , for Android and iOS phones , is an " experimental collaboration " between Radiohead and the British digital arts studio Universal Everything . Later that month , Yorke posted a photo of an unidentified vinyl record on Tumblr , prompting media speculation about a new album release .
+
+= = Release = =
+
+Yorke and producer Nigel Godrich announced Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes on 26 September 2014 . It was released the same day via the peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing protocol BitTorrent using BitTorrent Inc 's " bundles " initiative , whereby creators distribute their work in packaged torrent files . It was the first album to use BitTorrent 's " pay @-@ gate " feature ; customers pay US $ 6 ( £ 3 @.@ 69 ) to download the Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes torrent bundle containing eight MP3 files , cover artwork by Stanley Donwood , and a music video for " A Brain in a Bottle " featuring Yorke in boxing gloves . Users can also download a free torrent bundle containing only the " Brain in a Bottle " MP3 and video , or order a " deluxe " vinyl edition of the album packaged in a bespoke antistatic bag .
+
+In a press release announcing the album , Yorke and Godrich wrote :
+
+= = = Other formats = = =
+
+On 26 December 2014 , Yorke released Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes in MP3 and FLAC formats for £ 3 @.@ 86 on the online music shop Bandcamp . He also released a free new song , " Youwouldn 'tlikemewhenI 'mangry " , which Godrich described as a " complimentary addendum " to the album . On 30 June 2015 , the album was made available to stream with the launch of Apple Music , Apple 's streaming service . In August 2015 , a CD version was released in Japan by Hostess Entertainment .
+
+= = Music = =
+
+Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes blends Yorke 's vocals and piano playing with electronic beats and textures . Critics described it as " eerie " and " neurotic " , with " a quiet , restrained sense of dread " . The AV Club likened its music to the Radiohead tracks " Like Spinning Plates " ( from 2001 's Amnesiac ) and " The Gloaming " ( 2003 's Hail to the Thief ) .
+
+The opening track , " A Brain in a Bottle " , combines Yorke 's falsetto with a stuttering beat and " old @-@ school " oscillator effects . Radiohead bassist Colin Greenwood is credited for beat programming on " Guess Again ! " , which features " decaying " piano and " crunchy " backbeats . " Interference " is a minimal " mumbled love song " with " chilly " synth pads . Slant Magazine described " The Mother Lode " as melodic and dubstep @-@ inspired , with an " intoxicating " house beat . The album 's second half features a ten @-@ minute ambient suite led by the " percussive " looping track " There is No Ice ( For My Drink ) " . Rolling Stone described the final track , " Nose Grows Some " , as a " dread @-@ soaked hymn of emotional defeat " , likening it to Radiohead finales such as " Motion Picture Soundtrack " from Kid A ( 2000 ) .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+= = = Commercial = = =
+
+Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes was downloaded over 100 @,@ 000 times in the first 24 hours of release and over a million times in its first six days . Excluding internet piracy , it was the most torrented album of 2014 . By February 2015 , it had been downloaded over 4 @.@ 5 million times . These figures include downloads of the free torrent bundle containing only the " Brain in a Bottle " MP3 and music video ; sales figures for the full album bundle have not been released .
+
+Stereogum and Gigaom estimated that Yorke may have made $ 20 million from the release , more than he would likely have made through a traditional album release . Stereogum wrote that " this sort of album @-@ release strategy only works for artists who are already astronomically famous , but salute Thom Yorke for figuring out ways to keep stacking cash while keeping his artistic autonomy . " However , Billboard argued that , assuming the ratio of people who paid for the full album was comparable to subscription numbers of Spotify and Pandora Radio , earnings between $ 1 and 6 million were more likely : " not bad showing for a self @-@ released , direct @-@ to @-@ fan album that allowed Yorke to circumvent major download stores and gather customer information — but it 's no Hollywood starring role , either . "
+
+In November 2015 , asked if the BitTorrent release had been a success , Yorke said : " No , not exactly . But I wanted it to be an experiment ... I wanted to show that , in theory , today one could follow the entire chain of record production , from start to finish , on his own . But in practice it is very different . We cannot be burdened with all of the responsibilities of the record label . But I 'm glad I did it , for having tried to . "
+
+= = = Critical = = =
+
+At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes has an average score of 72 based on 29 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
+
+AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine described the album as " deliberately underwhelming , an old @-@ fashioned grower that doesn 't startle upon first listen but rather slowly unfolds ... instead of wallowing in alienation , Yorke has found comfort within it on Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes and the difference is palpable . " Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone wrote that Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes " demands deep listening " and praised " Nose Grows Some " as the strongest track . Slant Magazine critic Franklin Jones wrote : " This is paranoia with a soul , and occasionally a heart ... Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes maintains the trademark elements of a Thom Yorke release while injecting subtle moments of fresh invention . " Barry Nicholson of the NME wrote : " It 's hardly love at first listen … Yet across repeat plays , the album 's charms begin to unfurl . " Rolling Stone ranked the album number 30 in its list of the best albums of 2014 .
+
+The A.V. Club gave the album a positive review , but wrote : " Flashes of brilliance aside , the result sounds an awful lot like something Yorke dashed off to pass the time before delving into the new Radiohead album . " Mark Beaumont of The Guardian called it " deviously understated " , but found that its unconventional release was " more impactful than the product . " Larry Fitzmaurice of Pitchfork wrote : " There 's precious little to grab on to in terms of melody and feeling , and you won 't find yourself humming along to anything here . That said , certain elements of Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes , if given the right amount of attention , can be enjoyable to luxuriate in . " Chris Barton of the Los Angeles Times found the album too similar to Yorke 's previous solo album The Eraser ( 2006 ) and his work with Atoms for Peace , writing that " it ’ s just a bit disappointing that Yorke 's path seems short on new directions . "
+
+= = Track listing = =
+
+All songs written and composed by Thom Yorke except " Guess Again ! " by Thom Yorke and Colin Greenwood .
+
+= = Personnel = =
+
+Adapted from the Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes vinyl packaging .
+
+Stanley Donwood – artwork
+
+Nigel Godrich – production and editing
+
+Colin Greenwood – beat programming on " Guess Again ! "
+
+Bob Ludwig – mastering
+
+Thom Yorke – artwork ( credited as " Tchocky " ) , music and vocals
+
+= = Chart positions = =
+
+= El Celler de Can Roca =
+
+El Celler de Can Roca is a restaurant in Girona , Catalonia , Spain which was opened in 1986 by the Roca brothers , Joan , Josep and Jordi . It was first located next to their parent 's restaurant Can Roca , but moved to its current purpose built building in 2007 . It has been received warmly by critics , and holds three Michelin stars . In 2013 , it was named the best restaurant in the world by the magazine Restaurant , after having been ranked second in 2011 and 2012 . In 2014 , it was named second best restaurant in the world . In 2015 , it was once again named the best restaurant in the world by the magazine Restaurant .
+
+= = Style and Cuisine = =
+
+The cuisine served by the restaurant is traditional Catalan , but with twists to the extent that the Michelin Guide describes it as " creative " . The restaurant has a large wine cellar with some 60 @,@ 000 bottles . Dishes served include those based on perfumes , and with unusual presentations such as caramelised olives served on a bonsai tree .
+
+= = Description = =
+
+El Celler de Can Roca was founded in 1986 by the Roca brothers next to their family 's main restaurant Can Roca which had been open on the site since 1967 . The oldest brother , Joan Roca is the head chef ; Josep Roca , the middle brother , is the sommelier , and the youngest brother , Jordi Roca , is in charge of desserts . Because of their work at the restaurant , the brothers have appeared at Harvard University in the United States as part of the Science and Cooking program .
+
+= = Modernism = =
+
+In late 2007 the restaurant moved to a modern building custom @-@ built for the restaurant about 100 meters from the prior location , with the original location still being used for staff meals . The new layout features wooden floors , with simply dressed tables . On each table sits three stones to signify the three Roca brothers , while the tableware is Rosenthal china . The enlarged kitchen in the new location includes space for thirty chefs to work and also features Joan Roca 's open plan office , so that he can keep an eye on the chefs even while he is doing more administrative tasks . At least one of the three brothers is present for every service . There is a capacity for 45 diners .
+
+= = Media = =
+
+El Celler de Can Roca appeared on the UK television series MasterChef : The Professionals on 13 December 2011 . The three finalists in the competition were asked to cook their own creations for the three Roca brothers , as well as cooking six of the restaurant 's signature dishes for a group of invited guests . Mark Birchall , the 2009 winner of the Roux Scholarship elected to work at El Celler de Can Roca as part of his prize . Birchall was head chef of L 'Enclume in Cartmel , England , under chef @-@ patron Simon Rogan . This resulted in the restaurant appearing on the featured chef series of British chef networking website " The Staff Canteen " .
+
+= = = Menu = = =
+
+The restaurant primarily uses local ingredients from the Catalan area . Simple flavour combinations are combined with molecular gastronomy techniques and unusual presentations of food , including caramelised olives which are presented on a bonsai tree . The Michelin Guide describes the type of cuisine produced by El Celler de Can Roca simply as " creative " , while Edward Owen of The Times said it was a " fusion of traditional dishes with surrealist touches " . Techniques include the freezing of calamari with liquid nitrogen and then blended in order to be piped and baked into a cracker .
+
+When diners first arrive , they are given a selection of small bites from a section of the kitchen called " El Món " , who only produce small snack portions for the guests . They typically demonstrate flavours from around the world and come in sets of five . These introduce the diner to the unusual techniques and presentations of the restaurants . For example , a small ball of frozen spiced fish stock coated in cocoa butter represents Thailand , while the set comes on a purpose @-@ built wooden holder . While there are typical fine dining ingredients including in the menu such as lobster and foie gras , due to the Catalan influence on the menu , ingredients such as pigeon , hake and pig 's trotters also appear . Fish dishes include a crayfish velouté , accompanied by spring onions with cocoa and mint .
+
+They have created some dishes and desserts based on perfumes such as Calvin Klein 's Eternity , Carolina Herrera , Lancôme and Bulgari . This has resulted in a perfume being released by the restaurant itself , called Nuvol de Ilimona . It was based on a dessert served at the restaurant called Lemon Distillation , and was developed to spray as a mist over the diners as they ate the dish . The wine list is split into separate lists for red and white , and is delivered on a trolley to each table .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+El Celler de Can Roca has been praised by fellow chefs , with Michel Roux describing it as " one of the top restaurants in Europe " , and Michel Roux , Jr. stating that it was his favourite restaurant . Nicholas Lander reviewed the restaurant for the Financial Times in 2008 and also praised the veal tartare , but was impressed by the main of kid goat , and the dessert of sheep 's milk ice cream .
+
+Jonathan Gold of the Wall Street Journal wrote of the presentation of the caramelised olives , describing it as " delectable and unforgettable " . In September 2011 , it was included in a list of the top ten places to eat by Tony Turnbull , The Times food editor . Critic A. A. Gill compared the restaurant to former restaurant El Bulli saying that it wasn 't a direct replacement and was an " outstanding kitchen , and part of the great confident wave of new Spanish food that is complex , technically exhausting , aware of the landscape , history and politics " . The comparison is commonly made , with El Celler de Can Roca often being referred to as the successor to El Bulli which was once ranked as the number one restaurant in the world .
+
+The restaurant was awarded its first Michelin star in 1995 , its second in 2002 and was awarded three star status in 2009 . It remains at that level of accolade as of the 2013 Michelin Guide . El Celler de Can Roca has been listed in The World 's 50 Best Restaurants by Restaurant magazine since 2006 when it was ranked 21st . In 2009 it was ranked fifth and was awarded the prize for being the highest climbing restaurant on the list . In 2010 , it rose one place to fourth and in 2011 , 2012 and 2014 , it was ranked in second place behind Danish New Nordic cuisine restaurant Noma , with fellow Spanish restaurant Mugaritz in third place . On 29 April 2013 the restaurant was named the best in the world . In The Daily Meal 's inaugural list of the best 101 restaurants in Europe in 2012 , El Celler de Can Roca was ranked twelfth . During the same year , it was named as restaurant of the year by The Sunday Telegraph .
+
+= 2012 Delhi gang rape =
+
+The 2012 Delhi gang rape case involved a rape and fatal assault that occurred on 16 December 2012 in Munirka , a neighbourhood in South Delhi . The incident took place when a 23 @-@ year @-@ old female physiotherapy intern , Jyoti Singh was beaten , gang raped , and tortured in a private bus in which she was traveling with her friend , Awindra Pratap Pandey . There were six others in the bus , including the driver , all of whom raped the woman and beat her friend . Thirteen days after the assault , she was transferred to a hospital in Singapore for emergency treatment , but died from her injuries two days later . The incident generated widespread national and international coverage and was widely condemned , both in India and abroad . Subsequently , public protests against the state and central governments for failing to provide adequate security for women took place in New Delhi , where thousands of protesters clashed with security forces . Similar protests took place in major cities throughout the country . Because India does not allow the press to publicise a rape victim 's name , the victim has become widely known as Nirbhaya , meaning " fearless " , and her life and death have come to symbolise women 's struggle to end rape and the long @-@ held practice of blaming the victim rather than the perpetrator .
+
+All the accused were arrested and charged with sexual assault and murder . One of the accused , Ram Singh , died in police custody from possible suicide on 11 March 2013 in the Tihar Jail . According to some published reports , the police say Ram Singh hanged himself , but defense lawyers and his family suspect he was murdered . The rest of the accused went on trial in a fast @-@ track court ; the prosecution finished presenting its evidence on 8 July 2013 . The juvenile was convicted of rape and murder and given the maximum sentence of three years ' imprisonment in a reform facility . On 10 September 2013 , the four remaining adult defendants were found guilty of rape and murder and three days later were sentenced to death by hanging . On 13 March 2014 , Delhi High Court in the death reference case and hearing appeals against the conviction by the lower Court , upheld the guilty verdict and the death sentences .
+
+As a result of the protests , in December 2012 , a judicial committee was set up to study and take public suggestions for the best ways to amend laws to provide quicker investigation and prosecution of sex offenders . After considering about 80 @,@ 000 suggestions , the committee submitted a report which indicated that failures on the part of the government and police were the root cause behind crimes against women . In 2013 , the Criminal Law ( Amendment ) Ordinance , 2013 was promulgated by President Pranab Mukherjee , several new laws were passed , and six new fast @-@ track courts were created to hear rape cases . Critics argue that the legal system remains slow to hear and prosecute rape cases , but most agree that the case has resulted in a tremendous increase in the public discussion of crimes against women and statistics show that there has been an improvement in the number of women willing to file a crime report . However , in December 2014 , the two @-@ year anniversary of the attack , the girl 's father called the promises of reform unmet and said that he felt regret in that he had not been able to bring justice for his daughter and other women like her . A BBC documentary titled India 's Daughter based on the attack was broadcast in the UK on 4 March 2015 .
+
+= = Incident = =
+
+The victims , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old woman , Jyoti Singh , and her friend , Awindra Pratap Pandey , were returning home on the night of 16 December 2012 after watching the film Life of Pi in Saket , South Delhi . They boarded an off @-@ duty charter bus at Munirka for Dwarka that was being driven by joyriders at about 9 : 30 pm ( IST ) . There were only six others on the bus , including the driver . One of the men , a minor , had called for passengers telling them that the bus was going towards their destination . Pandey became suspicious when the bus deviated from its normal route and its doors were shut . When he objected , the group of six men already on board , including the driver , taunted the couple , asking what they were doing alone at such a late hour .
+
+During the argument , a scuffle ensued between Pandey and the group of men . He was beaten , gagged and knocked unconscious with an iron rod . The men then dragged Jyoti to the rear of the bus , beating her with the rod and raping her while the bus driver continued to drive . Medical reports later said that she suffered serious injuries to her abdomen , intestines and genitals due to the assault , and doctors said that the damage indicated that a blunt object ( suspected to be the iron rod ) may have been used for penetration . That rod was later described by police as being a rusted , L @-@ shaped implement of the type used as a wheel jack handle .
+
+According to police reports Jyoti attempted to fight off her assailants , biting three of the attackers and leaving bite marks on the accused men . After the beatings and rape ended , the attackers threw both victims from the moving bus . Then the bus driver allegedly tried to drive the bus over Jyoti , but she was pulled aside by her male friend . One of the perpetrators later cleaned the vehicle to remove evidence . Police impounded it the next day .
+
+The partially clothed victims were found on the road by a passerby at around 11 pm ( IST ) . The passerby called the Delhi Police , who took the couple to Safdarjung Hospital , where Jyoti was given emergency treatment and placed on mechanical ventilation . She was found with injury marks , including numerous bite marks , all over her body . According to reports , one of the accused men admitted to having seen a rope @-@ like object , assumed to be her intestines , being pulled out of the woman by the other assailants on the bus . Two blood @-@ stained metal rods were retrieved from the bus and medical staff confirmed that " it was penetration by this that caused massive damage to her genitals , uterus and intestines " .
+
+= = Victims = =
+
+Jyoti Singh was born and raised in Delhi while her parents were from a small village in the Ballia district of Uttar Pradesh . Her father sold his ancestral land to educate her , and worked double shifts to continue to pay for her schooling . In an interview he related that as a youth he had dreamed of becoming a school teacher , but at that time education was not considered important and girls were not even sent to school . " Attitudes are changing back home now , but when I left 30 years ago , I vowed never deny my children so sending them to school was fulfilling my desire for knowledge . " He said that he put his daughter 's education above that of even his two sons . " It never entered our hearts to ever discriminate . How could I be happy if my son is happy and my daughter isn 't ? And it was impossible to refuse a little girl who loved going to school . "
+
+In compliance with Indian law , the real name of the victim was initially not released to the media , so pseudonyms were used for her by various media houses instead , including Jagruti ( " awareness " ) , Jyoti ( " flame " ) , Amanat ( " treasure " ) , Nirbhaya ( " fearless one " ) , Damini ( " lightning " , after the 1993 Hindi film ) and Delhi braveheart .
+
+Awindra Pratap Pandey , the man who was attacked , is a software engineer from Gorakhpur , Uttar Pradesh , who lives in Ber Sarai , New Delhi ; he suffered broken limbs but survived .
+
+Delhi police registered a criminal case against the editor of a Delhi @-@ based tabloid , Mail Today , for disclosing the female victim 's identity , as such disclosure is an offence under section 228 ( A ) of Indian Penal Code . Shashi Tharoor , then a union minister , suggested that if the parents had no objection , her identity could be made public , with a view to showing respect for her courageous response by naming future laws after her , but Tharoor 's remark created controversy . Speaking to a British press reporter on 5 January , the victim 's father was quoted as saying , " We want the world to know her real name . My daughter didn 't do anything wrong , she died while protecting herself . I am proud of her . Revealing her name will give courage to other women who have survived these attacks . They will find strength from my daughter . " Indian law forbids revealing the name of a rape victim unless the family agrees to it and , following the news article which published the father 's reported quote and the victim 's name , some news outlets in India , Germany , Australia , and the United States also revealed her name . However , the following day Zee News quoted the father as saying , " I have only said we won 't have any objection if the government uses my daughter 's name for a new law for crime against women that is more stringent and better framed than the existing one . " During a protest against the juvenile convict 's release on December 16 , 2015 , the victim 's mother said that the victim 's name was Jyoti Singh and she was not ashamed of disclosing her name .
+
+= = Medical treatment and death = =
+
+On 19 December 2012 , Jyoti underwent her fifth surgery , removing most of her remaining intestine . Doctors reported that she was in " stable but critical " condition . On 21 December , the government appointed a committee of physicians to ensure she received the best medical care . By 25 December , she remained intubated , on life support and in critical condition . Doctors stated that she was running a fever of 102 to 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) and that internal bleeding due to sepsis , a severe blood infection that can lead to organ failure , was somewhat controlled . It was reported that she was " stable , conscious and meaningfully communicative " .
+
+At a cabinet meeting chaired by Manmohan Singh on 26 December , the decision was made to fly her to Mount Elizabeth Hospital in Singapore for further care . Mount Elizabeth is a multi @-@ organ transplant specialty hospital . Some doctors criticised the decision as political , questioning the need to transfer an intensive care unit ( ICU ) patient for organ transplants that were not scheduled for weeks or even months later . Government sources indicate that the Chief Minister of Delhi , Sheila Dikshit , was personally behind the decision . Hours earlier , Union Minister P. Chidambaram had stated that Jyoti was not in a condition to be moved . An anonymous source quoted by The Sunday Guardian stated that the decision to move her was taken " when it was already clear that she would not survive the next 48 hours " .
+
+During the six @-@ hour flight by air @-@ ambulance to Singapore on 27 December , Jyoti suddenly went into a " near collapse " , which a later report described as a cardiac arrest . The doctors on the flight created an arterial line to stabilise her , but she had been without pulse and blood pressure for nearly three minutes and never regained consciousness in Singapore .
+
+On 28 December , at 11 am ( IST ) , her condition was extremely critical . The chief executive officer of the Mount Elizabeth Hospital said that the girl suffered brain damage , pneumonia , and abdominal infection , and that she was " fighting for her life . " Her condition continued to deteriorate , and she died at 4 : 45 am on 29 December , Singapore Standard Time ( 2 : 15 am , 29 December , IST ; 8 : 45 pm , 28 December , UTC ) . Her body was cremated on 30 December in Delhi under high police security . The Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) , the country 's main opposition party , criticised the high security levels , stating that they were reminiscent of the Emergency Era , during which civil liberties were suspended .
+
+= = Arrests = =
+
+Police found and arrested some suspects within 24 hours of the crime . From recordings made by a highway CCTV vehicle , a description of the bus , a white charter bus with a name written on it , was broadcast . Other operators identified it as being contracted by a South Delhi private school . They then traced it and found its driver , Ram Singh . Police obtained sketches of the assailants with the help of the male victim , and used a cell phone stolen from the two victims to find one of the assailants .
+
+Six men were arrested in connection with the incident . They included Ram Singh , the bus driver , and his brother , Mukesh Singh , who were both arrested in Rajasthan . Ram and Mukesh Singh lived in Ravidas camp , a slum in South Delhi . Vinay Sharma , an assistant gym instructor , and Pawan Gupta , a fruit seller , were both arrested in Delhi . A seventeen @-@ year @-@ old juvenile from Badayun , Uttar Pradesh , was arrested at the Anand Vihar terminal in Delhi . The juvenile had only met the others that day . Akshay Thakur , who had come to Delhi seeking employment , was arrested in Aurangabad .
+
+According to reports , the group had been eating and drinking together and " having a party " earlier in the day . Although the charter bus which Ram Singh drove on weekdays was not permitted to pick up public passengers or even to operate in Delhi because of its tinted windows , they decided to take it out " to have some fun " . A few hours before committing the gang rape , the attackers had robbed a carpenter . The carpenter was 35 @-@ years old Ram Adhar who boarded the bus which was being driven by Mukesh Singh . The juvenile convict had lured him into the bus saying it was going to Nehru Place . He was then beaten up , robbed of his cellphone and ₹ 1500 in cash . After robbing him , the group dumped him at the IIT Flyover . Ram reported about the group in the bus robbing him to three police constables Kailash , Ashok and Sandeep who were passing nearby . They however refused to take action saying that the crime scene wasn 't under their purview as they were from the Hauz Khas police station and he will have to report the incident to the Vasant Vihar police station .
+
+Shortly after the attacks , Gupta said he accepted his guilt and should be hanged . Mukesh Singh , who was placed in Tihar Jail after his arrest , was assaulted by other inmates and was kept in solitary confinement for his own protection .
+
+Ram Singh was presented before the Metropolitan Magistrate on 18 December 2012 . He refused to participate in an identification process . Investigation revealed a history of frequent drinking that resulted in " blinding rage " , " bad temper " , and quarrels with employers , that had led friends to call him " mental " . On 11 March , Ram Singh was discovered hanging from a ventilator shaft in his cell at about 5 : 45 am . Authorities said it was unclear whether it was a suicide or a murder .
+
+= = Trial = =
+
+The male victim , Awindra Pratap Pandey , testified in court on 19 December 2012 . Pandey recorded his statement with a sub @-@ divisional magistrate at the Safdarjung Hospital on 21 December , in the presence of the Deputy Commissioner of police .
+
+On 21 December , the government promised to file the charge sheet quickly and seek the maximum penalty of life imprisonment for the perpetrators . Following public outrage and a demand for a speedy trial and prosecution , on 24 December , the police promised to file the charge sheet within one week . The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Home Affairs met on 27 December to discuss the issue , and Union Home Secretary R. K. Singh and Delhi Police Commissioner Neeraj Kumar were summoned to appear . The Delhi High Court approved the creation of five fast @-@ track courts to try rape and sexual assault cases . The first of the five approved fast @-@ track courts was inaugurated on 2 January 2013 by Altamas Kabir , Chief Justice of India , in Saket court complex of South Delhi .
+
+On 21 December , the Delhi High Court reprimanded the Delhi police for being " evasive " in a probe status report providing details of officers on patrol duty in the area covered by the bus route . A further court hearing on the matter was scheduled for 9 January 2013 . The following day , the Delhi Police initiated action against three Hauz Khas police station personnel for alleged inaction of an alleged robbery committed against the carpenter by the occupants of the bus in which the gang rape and assault occurred . On 24 December , two Assistant Commissioners of Police were suspended for failing to prevent the gang rape incident .
+
+= = = Juvenile defendant = = =
+
+The juvenile defendant whose name according to some reports was Mohammed Afroz , was declared as 17 years and six months old on the day of the crime by the Juvenile Justice Board ( JJB ) , which relied on his birth certificate and school documents . The JJB rejected a police request for a bone ossification ( age determination ) test for a positive documentation of his age .
+
+On 28 January 2013 , the JJB determined that he would not be tried as an adult . A petition moved by Janata Party president Subramanian Swamy seeking the prosecution of the minor as an adult because of the extremely violent nature of his alleged crime was rejected by the JJB . The minor was tried separately in a juvenile court .
+
+A verdict in the case was scheduled to be announced on 25 July , but was deferred until 5 August and then deferred again to 19 August . On 31 August , he was convicted of rape and murder under the Juvenile Justice Act and given the maximum sentence of three years ' imprisonment in a reform facility , inclusive of the eight months he spent in remand during the trial . The juvenile was released on 20 December 2015 .
+
+= = = Adult defendants = = =
+
+Five days after Jyoti 's death , on 3 January 2013 , the police filed charges against the five adult men for rape , murder , kidnapping , destruction of evidence , and the attempted murder of the woman 's male companion . Senior lawyer Dayan Krishnan was appointed as the special public prosecutor . Mukesh Singh , Vinay Sharma , Akshay Thakur and Pawan Gupta denied the charges . Some of the men had confessed earlier , however their lawyers said that their clients had been tortured and that their confessions had been coerced .
+
+On 10 January , one of their lawyers , Manohar Lal Sharma , said in a media interview that the victims were responsible for the assault because they should not have been using public transportation and , as an unmarried couple , they should not have been on the streets at night . He went on to say : " Until today I have not seen a single incident or example of rape with a respected lady . Even an underworld don would not like to touch a girl with respect . " He also called the male victim " wholly responsible " for the incident because he " failed in his duty to protect the woman " .
+
+The Delhi police filed a charge sheet against the defendants on March 13 in the robbery of Ram Adhar .
+
+The four surviving adult defendants went on trial in a fast @-@ track court . The prosecution presented evidence including witness statements , the victim 's statement , fingerprints , DNA testing , and dental modelling . It completed its case on 8 July .
+
+= = = = Conviction and sentencing = = = =
+
+On 10 September 2013 , the four adult defendants were found guilty of rape , murder , unnatural offences and destruction of evidence . All four men faced the death penalty , and demonstrators outside the courthouse called for the hanging of the defendants . The victim 's father also called for the defendants to be hanged , stating , " We will get complete closure only if all the accused are wiped off from the face of the earth . " Lawyers for three of the four stated that their clients intended to appeal the verdict . The four men were sentenced on 13 September to death by hanging . Judge Yogesh Khanna rejected pleas for a lesser sentence saying the case has " shocked the collective conscience of India " , and that " courts cannot turn a blind eye to such crimes " . The victim 's family was present for the sentencing and her mother expressed satisfaction over the verdict saying , " We were waiting with bated breath , now we are relieved . I thank the people of my country and the media . " After the verdict was delivered , the people waiting outside the courtroom applauded .
+
+On 13 March 2014 , the Delhi High Court found all the defendants guilty of rape , murder , unnatural offences and destruction of evidence . With the verdict , the High Court confirmed death sentence for all four men convicted in September 2013 . The court noted that the crime , which stirred widespread protests over sexual crimes against women in the country , fell into the judicial system 's " rarest of rare category " that allows capital punishment . The lawyers of the four men said they will appeal to the Supreme Court .
+
+On 15 March 2014 , the Supreme Court of India stayed the execution of two of the four convicts , Mukesh Singh and Gupta to allow them to make their appeal against their conviction on 31 March . This was further extended by the court to the second week of July . On 2 June , the two other convicts , Sharma and Thakur also asked the Supreme Court to stay their execution to allow them to make an appeal of their convictions . On 14 July , their execution was also stayed by Supreme Court . As of December 2014 , two years following the attack , the Supreme Court has not yet handed down their decision . On 27 August 2015 , Vinay , Akshay , Mukesh and Pawan were convicted of robbing Ram Adhar and were later sentenced to 10 @-@ years imprisonment .
+
+= = Public protests = =
+
+= = = After the incident = = =
+
+Public protests took place in New Delhi on 21 December 2012 at India Gate and Raisina Hill , the latter being the location of both the Parliament of India and Rashtrapati Bhavan , the official residence of the President of India . Thousands of protesters clashed with police and battled Rapid Action Force units . Demonstrators were baton charged , shot with water cannon and tear gas shells , and arrested .
+
+Similar protests occurred throughout the country . More than 600 women belonging to various organisations demonstrated in Bangalore . Thousands of people silently marched in Kolkata . Protests occurred online as well on the social networking sites Facebook and WhatsApp , with users replacing their profile images with a black dot symbol . Tens of thousands signed an online petition protesting the incident .
+
+Yoga guru Baba Ramdev and former Army chief General Vijay Kumar Singh were among the demonstrators who clashed with Delhi Police at Jantar Mantar . On 24 December , activist Rajesh Gangwar started a hunger strike , saying about the accused men , " If my death shakes the system and gets them hanged , I am ready to die " . Gangwar ended his fast after 14 days , saying , " My fight to demand a strict law against rape will be continued in the future ... I have dedicated myself for this cause " .
+
+Seven metro rail stations in New Delhi were closed on 22 December to discourage protesters from gathering at Raisina Hill . On 24 December , police blocked roads leading to India Gate and Raisina Hill to prevent possible mass protests , and closed nine metro stations , affecting thousands of transit patrons . News reporters were not allowed to reach India Gate and Raisina Hill . In addition to CrPC section 144 , which disallows assembly of groups larger than five , curfew was imposed near the presidential residence . The Hindustan Times accused police of using excessive force against the protestors , reporting that 375 tear gas canisters were used at India Gate and elsewhere in Delhi to disperse the crowds . An article in First Post criticised the Indian government as well , saying that they failed to act positively or give credible assurances to the protesters and instead used police force , lathi @-@ charging , pushing the media out of the scene , and shutting down metro rail stations .
+
+Police stated that peaceful protests had been " hijacked " by hooligans and political activists .
+
+During one protest , a police constable named Subhash Tomar collapsed and later died in hospital . Two witnesses claimed that Tomar collapsed without being hit by any protesters , while a third disputed this . Hospital doctors and the post @-@ mortem gave contradictory reports : he died due to cardiac arrest , but it is not known if the heart attack was caused by blunt @-@ force injuries that he suffered to his chest and neck . Some experts state that his chest injuries may have been a side effect of the administration of CPR . The Delhi Police arrested 8 young men and charged them with Tomar 's murder and rioting at India Gate . Later in March 2013 , the police admitted in the High Court they had no evidence against the eight and gave them a clean chit . The youths said the move by the commissioner of police to charge them with murder had been " irresponsible " .
+
+= = = After the victim 's death = = =
+
+After Jyoti Singh 's death on 29 December 2012 , protests were staged all over India , including Kolkata , Chennai , Bengaluru , Hyderabad , Kochi , Thiruvananthapuram , Mumbai and Visakhapatnam . Many of the mourners carried candles and wore black dress ; some pasted black cloth across their mouths .
+
+The following day a large number of people staged protests near Jantar Mantar , New Delhi . There were minor clashes between some groups of protesters and the police ; the police then removed some protesters from the area . One group of protesters also observed a one @-@ day hunger strike at Jantar Mantar . All roads leading to India Gate were closed by police and areas where protesters had gathered during the previous week were out of bounds to the public . Some of the protesters drew graffiti and slogans on papers spread on the road , condemning the incident and demanding stricter laws and speedy judgement . The BJP renewed its demand for a special parliament session to discuss the case and to adopt stricter laws on crime against women .
+
+New Year 's celebrations were scaled down to a large extent , with the Indian armed forces and some clubs and hotels in Delhi cancelling their New Year parties .
+
+The Indian protests also sparked protests across south Asia , including marches and rallies in Nepal , Sri Lanka , Pakistan and Bangladesh . In Nepal , hundreds of demonstrators in Kathmandu called for legal reforms and an overhaul of attitudes to women . In Bangladesh the human rights group Ain o Salish Kendra ( ASK ) said the protests in Delhi had given fresh impetus to protests against sexual violence . According to an ASK spokesperson , " although previous demonstrations on similar issues were largely dominated by women , men were now protesting too . The protests had also drawn people from a broad range of society . "
+
+In Paris , people participated in a march to the Indian embassy where a petition was handed over asking for action to make India safer for women .
+
+An author for the South Asia Analysis Group explained the protests as expressions of middle @-@ class angst arising out of a collapse of a social contract between them and the liberal state . New Delhi has the highest number of sex crimes among India 's major cities . Police figures show a rape reported on average every 18 hours ; reported rape cases rose by nearly 17 percent between 2007 and 2011 . Only one of 706 rape cases filed in Delhi in 2012 ended in conviction . Between 16 December and 4 January , 501 calls for harassment and 64 calls for rape were recorded by the Delhi Police , but only four were followed up by inquiries . The regional programme director for U.N. Women South Asia said , " There are rape cases in almost all cities and rural areas , where the victim dies immediately because of the brutality of the crime ... This time , it was like , ' Wake up . ' "
+
+= = Reactions = =
+
+Members of the Indian parliament demanded severe punishment for the perpetrators . The then Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha , Sushma Swaraj , stated : " The rapists should be hanged " . Sonia Gandhi visited the Safdarjang Hospital and met doctors on duty in the anaesthesia and surgery departments for an update on the woman 's health . Bahujan Samaj Party chief , Mayawati , said that proper investigation was required , and that " action should be so strict that no one should dare to act in such a manner again " . Actress and member of the Rajya Sabha , Jaya Bachchan said that she was " terribly disturbed " over the incident , and felt " ashamed " sitting in the House , feeling " helpless " for " not being able to do anything " . Meira Kumar , Speaker of the Lok Sabha , told reporters a " new law should be brought in and must get passed to ensure the safety of women . " She went on to say : " The laws at present are not enough , we need stricter laws . "
+
+Sheila Dikshit , who at that time was the Chief Minister of Delhi , said that she did not have the courage to meet the victim and described Delhi as a " rape capital " in interviews . She said that senior police officials should be held accountable for the failure to take adequate measures to stop such incidents and called for " immediate setting up of fast @-@ track courts to try rape cases and to get justice in a time @-@ bound manner " . The three constables who had refused to take action upon Ram Adhar 's complaint of robbery were suspended for deriliction of duty .
+
+On 24 December 2012 , in his first official reaction after the incident , Prime Minister Manmohan Singh appealed for calm , stressing that " violence will serve no purpose " . In a televised address , he assured that all possible efforts would be made to ensure the safety of women in India . Singh expressed empathy , saying : " As a father of three daughters I feel as strongly about the incident as each one of you " . As a tribute to Nirbhaya , the prime minister cancelled all his official events to celebrate the new year . The Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh , Akhilesh Yadav , announced a package of financial assistance ₹ 2 million ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 ) and a government job to Pandey 's family .
+
+Speaking out against the protesters , President Pranab Mukherjee 's son Abhijit Mukherjee argued that the women protesters did not appear to him to be students , saying , " What 's basically happening in Delhi is a lot like Egypt or elsewhere , where there 's something called the Pink Revolution , which has very little connection with ground realities . In India , staging candle @-@ lit marches , going to discothèques ... I can see many beautiful women among them – highly dented @-@ painted ... [ but ] I have grave doubts whether they 're students ... " The remark was widely condemned as sexist . His sister Sharmistha said that she and their father the president both disapproved . Then Maharashtra Chief Minister Prithviraj Chavan also expressed disapproval . Abhijit quickly withdrew his comment and apologised . Spiritual guru Asaram Bapu also provoked extensive criticism from the public by saying that the victim was also to blame for her own assault because she could have stopped the attack if she had " chanted God 's name and fallen at the feet of the attackers " . In 2014 , Finance minister Arun Jaitley commented that " ' one small incident of rape in Delhi ' advertised world @-@ over is enough to cost us billions of dollars in terms of lower tourism " .
+
+= = = International = = =
+
+The American embassy released a statement on 29 December 2012 , offering their condolences to Nirbhaya 's family and stated " we also recommit ourselves to changing attitudes and ending all forms of gender @-@ based violence , which plagues every country in the world " . Nirbhaya was posthumously awarded one of the 2013 International Women of Courage Awards of the US State Department . The citation stated that " for millions of Indian women , her personal ordeal , perseverance to fight for justice , and her family 's continued bravery is helping to lift the stigma and vulnerability that drive violence against women . "
+
+UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon stated , " Violence against women must never be accepted , never excused , never tolerated . Every girl and woman has the right to be respected , valued and protected " . UN Women called on the Government of India and the Government of Delhi " to do everything in their power to take up radical reforms , ensure justice and reach out with robust public services to make women 's lives more safe and secure " .
+
+In the wake of remarks against India in Western media , Jessica Valenti , writing in The Nation , argued that such rapes are also common in the United States , but US commentators exhibit a double standard in denying or minimising their systemic nature while simultaneously attacking India for an alleged rape culture . Author and activist Eve Ensler , who organised One Billion Rising , a global campaign to end violence against women and girls , said that the gang rape and murder was a turning point in India and around the world . Ensler said that she had travelled to India at the time of the rape and murder and that after
+
+having worked every day of my life for the last 15 years on sexual violence , I have never seen anything like that , where sexual violence broke through the consciousness and was on the front page , nine articles in every paper every day , in the centre of every discourse , in the centre of the college students ' discussions , in the centre of any restaurant you went in . And I think what 's happened in India , India is really leading the way for the world . It 's really broken through . They are actually fast @-@ tracking laws . They are looking at sexual education . They are looking at the bases of patriarchy and masculinity and how all that leads to sexual violence .
+
+= = Results of protests = =
+
+In view of the widespread protests , governments at the centre and various states announced several steps to ensure the safety of women . The Government of Karnataka announced the launch of a 24 / 7 dedicated helpline ( 1091 ) to be operated by the state police to register sexual abuse complaints from women . It also is checking the possibility of setting up fast @-@ track courts to dispose of pending cases pertaining to crimes against women . The Government of Tamil Nadu also announced a 13 @-@ point action plan to ensure safety of women in Tamil Nadu and said that incidents of sexual assault would be treated as a grave crime , and probes would be entrusted to top police officials . The chief minister also said that daily hearings would be conducted in all sexual abuse cases in the state for speedy trials at specially constituted fast @-@ track courts , and women prosecutors would be appointed as government counsels . The Jammu and Kashmir government also announced plans to change the state 's laws against sexual offences and gender crimes . The Government of Himachal Pradesh decided to set up state and district @-@ level committees to review progress of all cases of crimes against women .
+
+= = = Justice Verma Committee and changes in law = = =
+
+On 22 December 2012 , a judicial committee headed by J. S. Verma , a former Chief Justice of India and one of India 's most highly regarded Chief Justices and eminent jurists , was appointed by the Central government to submit a report within 30 days to suggest amendments to criminal law to sternly deal with sexual assault cases . The committee urged the public in general and particularly eminent jurists , legal professionals , NGOs , women 's groups and civil society to share " their views , knowledge and experience suggesting possible amendments in the criminal and other relevant laws to provide for quicker investigation , prosecution and trial , and also enhanced punishment for criminals accused of committing sexual assault of an extreme nature against women . " . The Committee held its first meeting on 26 December 2012 ; it had received more than 6000 emails with suggestions by then . The Justice Verma Committee report was submitted after 29 days , after considering 80 @,@ 000 suggestions received during the period . The report indicated that failures on the part of the government and police were the root cause behind crimes against women . Suggestions in the report included the need to review the Armed Forces ( Special Powers ) Act , 1958 ( AFSPA ) in conflict areas , and setting the maximum punishment for rape as life imprisonment rather than the death penalty . The committee did not favour lowering the age of a juvenile from 18 to 16 .
+
+On 26 December 2012 , a Commission of Inquiry headed by former Delhi High Court judge Usha Mehra was set up to identify lapses , determine responsibility in relation to the incident , and suggest measures to make Delhi and the wider National Capital Region safer for women . On 1 January 2013 , a task force headed by the Union Home Secretary was established to look into women 's safety issues in Delhi and review the functioning of the city police force on a regular basis .
+
+On 3 February 2013 , the Criminal Law ( Amendment ) Ordinance , 2013 was promulgated by President Pranab Mukherjee . It provides for amendment of the Indian Penal Code , Indian Evidence Act , and Code of Criminal Procedure , 1973 , on laws related to sexual offences . The ordinance provides for the death penalty in cases of rape . According to Minister of Law and Justice Ashwani Kumar , 90 percent of the suggestions given by the Verma Committee Report were incorporated into the Ordinance . However , critics state that many key suggestions of the commission have been ignored , including the criminalisation of marital rape and trying military personnel accused of sexual offences under criminal law .
+
+In a December 2013 interview , Nirbhaya 's parents , Badri Nath Singh and Asha Devi , said they were trying to get the juvenile law changed in such crimes as the rape and murder of their daughter . They petitioned the Supreme Court to try the juvenile , just short of 18 when he committed the crime , in a criminal court instead of a Juvenile Justice court .
+
+In a March 2015 interview with The Tribune , Women and Child Development Minister Maneka Gandhi said that Government is going ahead with a law treating juveniles as adults in grave crimes .
+
+On 22 December 2015 , Rajya Sabha passed the Juvenile Justice Bill , which proposed that the accused who are above 16 years of age will be treated as an adult in the court of law .
+
+= = Legacy = =
+
+= = = Anniversary memorials = = =
+
+On 16 December 2013 , the anniversary of the attack , activists held memorials throughout New Delhi in memory of the victim widely known as Nirbhaya , meaning " fearless " . Members of women 's organisations lit candles in her memory and protested against exploitation of women . University students and others organised a candlelight march at the bus stand in South Delhi where Nirbhaya and her friend , Pandey , boarded the bus in which the rape and beatings took place . At a commemorative prayer meeting political leaders resolved to increase efforts to improve women 's security . Speaking with the victim 's mother , former chief minister Sheila Dikshit said that Delhi 's society and the various authorities will work together to build a permanent legacy to her daughter : " ... whatever you will want in her memory , we will try to fulfill . And we will try with a conviction that such an incident is not repeated with anybody else in the future " . The victim 's parents spoke at a memorial saying that they were proud of the courage that their daughter showed , which they believe " has spurred more women to speak out instead of hiding the crimes committed against them " .
+
+In December 2014 , the two @-@ year anniversary of the attack , referring to a woman who was raped in an Uber cab , the parents remarked to the press that not much had changed : " Nothing in India has changed since December 16 , 2012 . All promises and statements made by our leaders and ministers have turned out to be shallow . Our suffering gives them their moment in limelight . My daughter asks me what I have done to get her justice . She asks what am I doing so that many more like her get justice and I wake up to realise how helpless and trivial I am ... "
+
+" Nirbhaya Chetna Diwas " , a public event organised by women 's and citizens groups , candle light vigils , prayer meetings , and other events were held on 16 December 2015 at the Jantar Mantar to pay homage to Jyoti on the third anniversary of her death . In what was called " a brave homage to her daughter " , Jyoti 's mother , Asha Devi , said , " My daughter 's name was Jyoti Singh and I am not ashamed to name her . Those who commit heinous crimes like rape , their heads should hang in shame , not the victims or their families . " Devi spoke out against the upcoming release of the juvenile and put forth four demands for justice :
+
+On the third death anniversary of our death , we are seeing the release of the juvenile convict . Where is justice in that ? I do not know whether he is 16 or 18 . I only know that he has committed a brutal crime and there should be no age limit for punishment ; [ ... ] the juvenile convict should be sentenced to death , fast @-@ track courts be set up in all the courts to offer speedy justice to sexual assault victims , amendments to the Juveniles Justice Act be passed and utilisation of Nirbhaya Fund for setting up high quality forensic labs in all states .
+
+= = = Improvements to the legal system = = =
+
+The outpouring of anger and grief following the rape and murder gave rise to hopes for change in India . The government responded with the passage of several new sexual assault laws , including a mandatory minimum sentence of 20 years for gang rape , and six new fast @-@ track courts created solely for rape prosecutions . As an indicator of the scope of the problem of rape prosecution , the " Nirbhaya " case was the only conviction obtained among the 706 rape cases filed in New Delhi in 2012 . Between 16 December 2012 and 4 January 2013 , Delhi police recorded 501 allegations of harassment and 64 of rape , but only four inquiries were launched . However , it appears that the " Nirbhaya " case has had an effect on the willingness of rape or molestation victims to report the crime ; police records show that during the final nine months of 2013 almost twice as many rape victims filed a police report and four times as many allegations of molestation were made . A recent report released by the National Crime Records Bureau shows that 95 percent of the cases brought to the police were classified as a crime . However , there is a large backlog of cases with fewer than 15 percent of those charged tried in 2012 , leaving 85 percent waiting to come to trial .
+
+On 16 December 2013 , the one @-@ year anniversary of the rape was commemorated in London with a public memorial to honor the victim . Speakers included Meera Syal , whose parents are from New Delhi . Speaking of the anger that was expressed at the time of the rape , she said , " We need to hold onto that anger and demand that the Indian Government enforces all the promised changes of its recent Criminal Law Amendment Act , which changed laws to expand the definition of rape and incorporated new offences including acid attack , sexual harassment , voyeurism and stalking " . She also said that activists need to act in solidarity with other organisations to stop violence against women and girls around the world .
+
+Following the incident the government set up the Nirbhaya Fund to address violence against women . The Fund is administered by Department of Economic Affairs of the finance ministry . However , as of March 2015 , very little of the funds have been spent to ensure women 's safety .
+
+= = = Public discussions about violence against women = = =
+
+Observers agree that Pandey 's ordeal has brought a change to public conversations about women 's issues , with men joining in the discussions as well . A young woman who had taken part in the protests at the time of the rape said a year later , " A welcome change is that the taboo on discussing rape and sexual violence has been broken . The protests brought debates and discussions to our homes . " She also said that since the rape and protests the media is now providing coverage of sexual violence . However , she saw " absolutely no change in the rape culture and related brutality . The streets are not safe . Teasing [ Eve teasing ] and catcalling or worse are to be found everywhere . Sexual harassment in public places as well as inside the home is still rampant . " She added , " I do acknowledge , however , that a year is too less to undo what patriarchy has done over centuries . It is too embedded in our homes , our institutions and in our laws . The police may be a little more receptive , but it is not out of a sense of duty but out of the fear of censure " .
+
+= = = Nirbhaya Trust = = =
+
+In December 2013 the family of the victim established the Nirbhaya Trust , an institute formed to assist women who have experienced violence to find shelter and legal assistance . Due to the fact that Indian laws do not allow the publishing of a rape victim 's name , it was named Nirbhaya which means fearless in Hindi , after the name used by the media . The victim 's father stated , " So many people supported us , so ... we want [ to ] help those girls who have no one . "
+
+= = = BBC Storyville : India 's Daughter = = =
+
+India 's Daughter ( 2015 ) is a documentary film directed and produced by Leslee Udwin , and is part of the BBC 's ongoing Storyville series . It was scheduled to be broadcast on International Women 's Day , 8 March 2015 , in India on NDTV 24x7 and in UK on BBC Four . On 1 March , it was revealed that the filmmakers had interviewed one of the rapists while he was being held in the Tihar jail . Soon , the news was picked up by Indian media outlets . The Indian government blocked its broadcast in India by obtaining a court order on 4 March . The BBC said it would comply with the order and did not broadcast the film in India . In the UK however , the BBC moved the transmission forward to 4 March , and it was shown on that date . The film was also uploaded on YouTube and soon went viral with various shares on social media . On 5 March , the Indian government directed YouTube to block the video in India and YouTube complied with the order . The film has generated a great deal of controversy in both India and worldwide .
+
+Because India does not permit a rape victim 's name to be published the victim was called " Nirbhaya " , which means fearless , because of her efforts to fight off her rapists and her insistence on making a detailed statement to the police before she died . However , following the death of their daughter , the parents were quoted in several media articles as saying they had no objections to using their daughter 's name . In the film the father states he is " happy " to reveal her name , Jyoti Singh Pandey , and on 5 March the father was quoted as saying he thought " everyone should watch the documentary , which showed ' the bitter truth ' about attitudes to women in India " . Even still , on 6 March , the news outlet The Hindu ran an article " Father objects to revealing gangrape victim ’ s name in ' India 's Daughter ' " in which they quoted the father as saying that he planned to take legal action because her name was used .
+
+The film 's director and producer Leslee Udwin said that it was the courage and bravery shown by the unprecedented numbers of men and women who protested the rape and murder that inspired her to make the film . Speaking in an interview , Udwin said :
+
+Courageous and impassioned ordinary men and women of India braved the December freeze to protest in unprecedented numbers , withstanding an onslaught of teargas shells , lathi charges [ baton charges ] and water canons , to make their cry of ‘ enough is enough ’ heard . In this regard , India led the world by example . In my lifetime , I can ’ t recall any other country standing up with such commitment and determination for women ’ s rights .
+
+Speaking of the film , Pandey 's father , Badrinath Singh , said that the film " holds up a mirror to society " and that the showing of the film is important " so that the struggle that my daughter was part of continues . " Singh said that since the death of their daughter " every girl on the street is like a daughter " to him and his wife and that people need to understand that sons need to be taught to respect women . Speaking on 5 March , Singh said :
+
+My wife and I brought up our children with the sole intention of making them good citizens . I can proudly say that we have achieved that . Our daughter has shown society its true face . She has changed the lives of many young girls . She remains an inspiration even after her death . She fought back those devils . We are proud of our daughter .
+
+= = = Literary works = = =
+
+Motivated by Jyoti 's rape and murder , Ram Devineni , Lina Srivastava , and Dan Goldman released the comic book Priya 's Shakti . The storyline of the comic focuses on Priya , a human woman and ardent devotee of the Goddess Parvati , who has experienced a brutal rape and the social stigma and isolation resulting from it . Inspired by the goddess , Priya fights against gender @-@ based sexual violence in India and around the world , supporting the movement against patriarchy and misogyny .
+
+A book on the Nirbhaya case titled Courting Injustice : The Nirbhaya Case and its Aftermath was authored by Rajesh Talwar , and published by Hay House in 2013
+
+On 5 September 2014 , Bandaru Dattareya , a member of Parliament and BJP National Vice President , inaugurated " Wo Desh Ki Beti " ( Nation 's Daughter ) , a social event at Hyderabad showcasing a collection of sixteen poems authored by Sunil Kumar Verma which depicted the pain of a nation at the gang rape of its daughters .
+
+= = = General = = =
+
+= = = Rape cases = = =
+
+= = = Other related cases = = =
+
+Bwizamani Singh - a journalist shot by law enforcement as he covered the protests in Manipur
+
+= Boden Fortress =
+
+Boden Fortress ( Swedish : Bodens fästning ) is a modern fortress consisting of several major and minor forts and fortifications surrounding the city of Boden , Norrbotten , in northern Sweden . The fortress was originally intended to stop or delay attacks from the east or coastal assaults , which at the time of construction meant Russian attacks launched from Finland . It was primarily the expansion of the railway net in Norrland , which in turn was a consequence of the rising importance of the northern iron ore fields , that led to the increased strategic value of northern Sweden and the construction of the fortress . Although the main forts were finished in 1908 , many of the supporting fortifications were not completed until the start of the First World War . Improvements were also continuously made during , and between , both World Wars .
+
+Boden Fortress is made up of five primary self @-@ supporting forts excavated out of the bedrock in five of the mountains surrounding Boden : Degerberget , Mjösjöberget , Gammelängsberget , Södra Åberget and Rödberget . Eight fortified secondary artillery positions were constructed between the forts to give flanking support and to cover areas not in range of the main forts ' artillery . In addition , 40 bunkers for infantry , along with dugouts and other fortifications , were built to cover even more terrain . During the Second World War anti @-@ tank gun emplacements and additional bunkers and shelters were built , and tens of kilometres of dragon 's teeth were placed around the fortress and the city itself . Owing to the end of the Cold War and the reduction of the threat from the Soviet Union , Boden Fortress became less important to the defence of Sweden , and began to be decommissioned . The last fort of the complex was decommissioned on 31 December 1998 , and is now used as a tourist attraction . All five forts as well as some of the supporting structures have been declared historic buildings , to be preserved for the future , by the Swedish government .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+= = = Central and peripheral defence = = =
+
+The two dominating theories of how to use fortifications in the operational perspective during the 18th and 19th century were the central fortress system ( centrala fästningssystemet ) and the peripheral fortress system ( perifera fästningssystemet ) , the latter also called the cordon system . The two systems were also known as central defence and peripheral defence . The peripheral defence theory was based on building smaller fortifications in advance positions to meet the enemy at an early stage , while the central defence theory was meant to weaken the enemy step by step in minor skirmishes and ambushes carried out by forces supplied and supported by central fortresses not located in the front line . In short , one theory advocated many minor fortifications built to directly engage the enemy , while the other advocated only a few major fortifications built not to directly engage the enemy , but to support the troops that engaged the enemy .
+
+In the beginning of the 19th century the peripheral system — at least in Sweden — was deemed unmodern , due to the extremely long border and coastline of the country , which required a lot of personnel to maintain and support , leading to high costs and a neglectance of the more mobile armed forces . The peripheral system was also meant to contain the enemy to a specific area , the coast and borders , but as time went and new tactics were taken into practice , the thin line of fortifications would be easily penetrated by the enemy forces , and when the enemy had advanced through the peripheral line , there would not be enough troops in the hinterland to stop the attacker . The central fortress system was better adjusted to defence in depth , it was not until the enemy attack had reached its culminating point that full counter @-@ attacks would be launched . The central defence had also proven effective in the Seven Years ' War — used by Frederick II of Prussia — and in Napoleon 's Invasion of Russia — used by the Russians . Carl von Clausewitz , in his military treatise On War , even mentioned Sweden 's good conditions for this kind of war of attrition :
+
+The fourth principle , the Assistance of the Theatre of War , is naturally an advantage on the side of the defensive . [ ... ] the army on the defensive continues to keep up its connection with everything , that is , it enjoys the support of its fortresses , is not weakened in any way , and is near to its sources of supply . [ ... ] The campaign of 1812 , gives as it were in a magnifying glass a very clear illustration of the effect of the means specified under principles 3 and 4 . [ ... ] It is true that with the exception of Sweden there is no country in Europe which is situated like Russia , but the efficient principle is always the same , the only distinction being in the greater or less degree of its strength .
+
+= = = Fortification of Sweden = = =
+
+Sweden had just lost one third of its population , as Russia had conquered the eastern part and created the Grand Duchy of Finland out of it during the Finnish War in 1808 – 1809 . Shortly after , in 1814 , the west flank had been secured by the personal union with Norway , and after the Napoleonic Wars , the former main enemy of Sweden in the south , Denmark , was no longer any threat . The only threat left was Russia , which now stood just across the border in the north , and had possession of the Åland Islands less than 150 km from the Swedish capital Stockholm . The Swedish Navy was considered superior to the Russian in the Gulf of Bothnia , so a seaborne invasion against the coast of Norrland was not likely . And even though the Russians had invaded northern Sweden via Finland in the previous war , the general opinion was that in case of a new war , their main attack would be conducted towards Stockholm and southern Sweden .
+
+This opinion led to the thought of finding a good rear defence area where the Estates and the Swedish government could move if the capital was in danger . This in turn naturally strengthened the central defence theory . The core land ( kärnlandet ) would be the place from where the main part of the field army would conduct its operations , supported by a few fortresses . The area between the two large lakes of Vänern and Vättern was the choice for this core land , with approximately the same border as Skaraborg County . Sweden above the province of Dalarna was not even considered to be included in this strategy . The realisation of the middle Sweden central defence system was finally made 5 February 1819 when King Charles XIV John decided that one main fortress , the central fortress , and two smaller " operational fortresses " were to be built . The central fortress became Karlsborg Fortress at Karlsborg , while the two operational fortresses meant to be located at either end of Vättern never were built due to lack of funds .
+
+While Norrland was not supposed to be included in this main central defence strategy , studies on how to defend this major part of the country were still conducted . However , northern Sweden was generally considered of very limited military interest and unsuitable for larger military operations due to the bad state of most of the roads , the large uninhabited areas , the large rivers and the very limited economical gain that the lands provided . The first of these studies , laid down by the Fortification Committee of 1819 ( 1819 års befästningskommitté ) — which was largely influenced by the committee 's secretary Johan Peter Lefrén — led to nothing more than the opinion that the large rivers up north — especially the Ångerman River — would benefit the defence and that no major fortifications were to be built . In another study from 1824 , colonel — and much later Swedish Minister for War — Gustaf Oscar Peyron suggested that it would be better to fortify positions just south of Boden — along the more northern Lule River — for example at Sävast or Avan . However no major changes were made , partially due to the limited military interest , but also because of the large amounts of money that was spent on building Karlsborg Fortress and modernizing other older fortifications in southern Sweden .
+
+= = = Railroads speed up planning = = =
+
+It was not until fifteen years later , when yet another committee — the Coastal Fortification Committee of 1839 ( 1839 års kustbefästningskommitté ) — studied the defence of Norrland , that the Swedish Armed Forces started to focus a bit more on the northern provinces . This study however mainly presented plans for middle Norrland , and the provinces of Medelpad , Ångermanland and Jämtland . Those provinces had a more significant role as it was there that the main roads of Sweden started to intersect with the road network of Norway , which at the time was allied with Sweden . The road network north of this area consisted of the large coastal road — the only major north – south road — from Haparanda and all the way through Norrland down to Gävle . All the other major roads exclusively ran southeast – northwest — following the run of the large rivers — before ending in wilderness and thus did not provide any route further west into Norway and on to the Atlantic coast . The plans to strengthen Norrland by building a central fortress either on Frösön outside Östersund , or closer to the coast at Borgsjö outside Ånge , once again fell flat due to lack of money and lower priority compared to fortifications in southern Sweden .
+
+By the 1860s , the first Swedish railway main lines ( stambanor ) were completed in the southern part of the country , and by 1881 the Northern Main Line had reached Ånge . This , and the opening of the railway line connecting Sundsvall – Östersund – Trondheim ( the Central and Meråker Lines ) a year later strengthened the plans for a defensive line in the middlemost provinces of Norrland . At the same time , on the other side of the Bothnian Gulf , the Finnish main railway to Oulu had almost been completed , and would soon be of great use for the Russians to transport military personnel and supplies towards the Swedish border in case of war . Combined with the planned Luleå – Boden – Gällivare – Kiruna – Narvik railway stretch ( the Iron Ore and Ofoten Lines ) , this would pose a great opportunity for the Russians to fulfill their latent wish to seize control of northern Scandinavia and the Atlantic ports on the Norwegian coast . At least according to some officers — both Swedish and Norwegian — which in the second half of the 1880s noticed the increased strategic importance of northern Scandinavia and Lapland as an effect of the construction of the railway lines in the area . This was also noticed by the Riksdag member Johan Erik Nyström from Norrbotten 's electoral district who — worried about the railway to Oulu — put forward a motion about strengthening the Upper Norrland defence in 1885 . The length of the railway lines started to affect strategic planning , and in some cases military decisions influenced the planning of new railway lines .
+
+Even though the northernmost stretch of the Main Line Through Upper Norrland had long been planned , it was not until 1887 and the victory of the Lantmanna Party 's protectionist wing in that year 's election that the financial means — from increased trade tariff income — and the political will allowed the completion of the railway through Överluleå , which Boden was sometimes called . The " slumbering resources and the rapid expansion " in Upper Norrland were two reasons to build a railway to the sparsely populated area ; another factor that had a big part in the decision to complete the main line was the government 's takeover of the Luleå – Gällivare line , which had previously been in the hands of an English company . The stretch was very lucrative , as it considerably eased the transport of iron ore from the ore fields around Kiruna and Gällivare down to the coast for further transport by boat . Another English company had in the 1860s tried to construct a combination of a railway and a canal — the English Canal — for the stretch , but went bankrupt before their plans were completed . The company contracted for the new railway line experienced similar economic difficulties and the Swedish state decided to buy the nearly completed line to finish it in 1891 .
+
+The decision to complete the railway through to Boden sparked interest in Norrbotten among the members of the Swedish General Staff , and the chief , Axel Rappe , conducted a survey trip to the region in 1887 . His report mentioned the changed strategic options due to the railway lines on both sides of the Gulf and a need for some kind of fortification in Boden , but he also toned down the earlier thoughts on the Russian interest in the Luleå – Narvik line . Rappe 's report directly affected the future stretch of the railway line in Norrbotten . His recommendations , largely based on his and the General Staff 's military planning , not to build the line along the coast , or build it all the way to the Swedish @-@ Finnish border at Haparanda were later followed . The subsequent report completed in 1890 by the Neutrality Committee of 1888 ( 1888 års neutralitetskommitté ) — with Axel Rappe as one of its members — suggested that a credible neutrality required an increased defence of the north @-@ eastern border and proposed a budget of 1 @.@ 3 million Swedish kronor , corresponding in today 's money to around US $ 11 million ( as of 2011 ) , for the construction of permanent fortifications in Boden .
+
+= = Reason and decision = =
+
+= = = Why Boden ? = = =
+
+The following year , in 1891 , Rappe wrote a memorandum that explained in more detail the budget , which suddenly had risen to 4 @.@ 5 million kronor , and would finance the construction of two strongholds at Paglaberget and Åberget with a total of six long cannon , ten howitzers and eight quick @-@ firing cannon , all in armoured turrets , along with machine guns and bunkers , barracks and supply depots . The plan included a reserve battalion of 1 @,@ 000 men , an artillery battalion of 600 men , an engineer company of 120 men , and supply and depot personnel . Axel Rappe 's large study on the permanent fortifications of Sweden — a mandate given to him in 1882 — was published in 1892 and cemented the view that a central fortress was needed in Boden to support and supply troops gathering between the Lule River and the eastern border , alongside the strengthening of the coastal defences at Stockholm , Gothenburg and Karlskrona .
+
+Although Rappe did not completely rule out the possibility of a German or British attack on southern Sweden if the opportunity arose , he felt that Russia was the most realistic threat . There were only two plausible scenarios for war with Russia : either Sweden would become involved in a war between Germany and Russia which would feature southern and central Sweden as the battleground — and Rappe made no attempt to hide which country the General Staff wanted Sweden to side with in that case — or Russia would make a limited attack on Norrbotten to reach northern Norway and the Atlantic , an attack that Rappe earlier said was not very likely . Rappe had played down the strategic importance of the Ofoten and Iron Ore Lines and played up the importance of the main railway line to Boden , which was under discussion at that time , to speed up its completion . The railway to Boden was nearly finished by 1892 , negating the need for Rappe to play that political game any longer . A railway line to Boden was of utmost need to be able to bring up troops to Lule River — the main line of defence — and a future fortress there .
+
+During the following years a fierce debate raged between the supporters of the army on one side and the navy on the other . The proposed expansion of Swedish fortifications nationwide , which in turn would see less money spent on the fleet , upset many naval proponents , amongst them Wilhelm Dyrssen — later Minister for Defence — and Fredrik von Otter — later Admiral and Prime Minister of Sweden . They argued that the theory of central defence would leave large swathes of Swedish land in the hands of the enemy , and instead suggested smaller fortifications at the border , along with a strengthened navy . The debate was inconclusive and a request for 500 @,@ 000 kronor to initiate construction of the fortress was not accepted by the government . Instead , they wanted a committee to further investigate all Swedish fortifications and possible new constructions of such . Thus the Fortification Committee of 1897 ( 1897 års fästningskommitté ) was formed . The committee , led by chairman Jesper Crusebjörn , discussed and examined the defence of Norrland thoroughly , and also travelled to Boden where they climbed most of the heights and mountains that were considered for the fortifications . The selection of Boden as the most suitable place for the fortification , according to the committee 's final report published 25 July 1898 , had numerous reasons :
+
+The main rail line through Norrland crossed Lule River there .
+
+The intersection of the main line and the Luleå – Narvik line was located there .
+
+The most important road intersection in Norrbotten was located there .
+
+The most suitable river crossing sites over Lule River were located there .
+
+The distance to the coast was long enough to prevent a surprise attack by a naval landing force .
+
+The topography of the area was suitable for a modern fortress .
+
+= = = Final decision = = =
+
+The report calculated the costs at 8 @.@ 7 million kronor which corresponds in today 's money to around $ 70 million ( as of 2011 ) , spent over a total construction schedule of one four @-@ year period and two three @-@ year periods . The cost was still considerably lower than that of many of the recently built or modernised fortifications on the continent ; Belgium had spent the equivalent of 62 million kronor on the fortified positions of Liège and Namur along the Meuse while Romania had spent 63 million kronor to strengthen the defence of Bucharest and 16 million kronor on fortifications along the Siret River . In 1899 , Rappe proposed to the Riksdag — in line with the plans of the Fortification Committee — that construction of already existing fortificatory works in Sweden would commence , while the question on Boden would be postponed to the next year . The plan gained support from the first chamber but not from the second chamber , but when put to a joint vote of both chambers , the proposition passed . Even though the result did not really mean anything concrete for the possible construction in Boden , it was considered a great success for that question as well . During the last years of the century , the Riksdag 's general attitude towards the army became more positive , most likely due to the increased Russification of Finland , increased tension in the Union between Sweden and Norway , and rumors that the Russian sawfilers that worked in Sweden also worked for the Okhrana , the secret Russian police .
+
+Despite this progress , Axel Rappe left as Minister for War in 1899 , due to setbacks on other issues . He was replaced by Jesper Crusebjörn , who inherited the Boden fortification project . Crusebjörn followed in the footsteps of Rappe — described as " the spiritual father of Boden Fortress " thanks to his efforts — as he proposed , in accordance with the Committee 's plan , that the Riksdag should allocate an initial sum of 560 @,@ 000 kronor which would be used to initiate construction of Boden Fortress . Crusebjörn also maintained the belief of his predecessor , and of the committee in which he was chairman , that Boden Fortress when completed should act as the operational base for all troops attached for the defence of Norrbotten , that it should serve as a supply fortress for troops stationed between it and the front line , and that it also should serve as a blocking fortress in case of a Russian surprise attack . The 1897 committee also had set the goal to have Boden Fortress in a finished state when the Haparanda Line found its way through to the border against Finland .
+
+The result of the votes — held 7 May 1900 , a date which can be seen as the birth of the fortress — in the first and second chambers were the same as the previous year . The first chamber was overwhelmingly for the proposal with the result 108 – 16 , but the proponents feared a defeat in the second chamber . During the debate both the Prime Minister of Sweden Erik Gustaf Boström and Jesper Crusebjörn threatened to resign from their posts if the proposal was not accepted , to exert pressure on the second chamber . Boström expressed the following that day :
+
+For believe me gentlemen , I consider this question so important that in the same moment I get the definite answer that it is not embraced by the Swedish Riksdag , I will no longer stay in this place .
+
+Even after this , the second chamber voted against the proposal , with a vote count of 73 – 130 . Neither Boström nor Crusebjörn resigned , since after further discussion and voting it was decided that the matter should be settled by a joint vote . The first chamber voted in favor , 125 – 14 , while the second chamber voted against , 87 – 135 , with a total outcome of 212 – 149 in favour of constructing Boden Fortress and allocating the funds needed to start construction . Funding for the purchase of the land that the fortifications were to be built on had largely been provided several years in advance by two voluntary organisations . The Organisation for the Fortified Defence of Upper Norrland ( Föreningen för Övre Norrlands fasta försvar ) and the Swedish Women 's Organisation ( Svenska Qvinnoföreningen ) had collected 71 @,@ 000 kronor out of the 131 @,@ 000 kronor needed for land purchase .
+
+= = Construction = =
+
+= = = Initial work = = =
+
+The main inspiration for the design — in which the forts are blasted into the mountains rather than constructed on top of them — came from Vaberget Fortress near Karlsborg Fortress . Vaberget Fortress was built in the 1890s and its southern fort was the first fort in the world that fully used the protection provided by the bedrock itself by having all of its functions embedded in the mountain . Vaberget Fortress served as a prototype for Boden Fortress and many more future fortifications in Sweden , including the late 20th century fixed army and coastal artillery batteries that gave the Swedish Fortifications Agency world renown . Preparatory work was started in 1900 and consisted of a diverse number of tasks , ranging from purchase of beds for the construction workers , construction of a new loading site for the railway , building roads to the various construction sites and clearing the land of those sites . The plan for the Fortifications at Boden ( Befästningarna vid Boden ) — which was the term used until the First World War when the present name Boden Fortress came into widespread use — was largely based on the proposal laid forward by the Fortification Committee of 1897 , with only minor modifications .
+
+Even before any construction work had started the cost of the forts had been estimated to exceed the previous calculations by fifty percent . In December 1901 , only few months after the first blasting work that had been done at Gammelängsberget in July 1901 , the cost for the four forts northeast of the river was expected to be sixty @-@ five percent more expensive than the initial calculation . The blueprints of the forts at Degerberget , Gammelängsberget and Södra Åberget were the first to be confirmed , which happened on 11 May 1901 . The fort at Mjösjöberget followed suit on 3 April 1902 and the last fort to get a confirmed blueprint was the fort at Rödberget , on 19 May 1903 . The last proposed fort , at Paglaberget , was deleted from the plans in 1906 — along with the batteries at Fällberget and Slumpberget as well as the fortifications at Avan and Svartbyträsket — before any work on the fort had started , due to the proposal of the new Fortification Committee of 1905 , which was formed following the reports of the large rise in costs . On 9 February 1906 , the current Minister for War Lars Tingsten calculated the total cost to end at 19 @,@ 220 @,@ 000 kronor , more than twice the cost reported by the 1897 committee .
+
+All work on the large masses of bedrock was conducted by hand , without any help of powered machines , as the first power station in Boden was not constructed until almost ten years later in 1909 . The first work that was done at the site was to create a large ditch , 9 – 12 metres ( 30 – 39 ft ) wide and with a depth of 6 metres ( 20 ft ) or more , that would surround the core of the fort . Creating patrol trenches and placements for the turrets on the top of the forts was also work done early on . The teams of workers would first bore down in the bedrock using pinch bars and sledgehammers , then use black powder to blast the rock into manageable pieces which could be transported away from the site , using wheelbarrows , horse @-@ drawn carriages and in some cases Decauville railways . When the ditch , or parts of it , had been completed , work started on the inner part of the fort by boring horizontally from the bottom of the ditch into the mountain itself . This work was a lot harder — the cost for each cubic metre of blasted tunnel was five times the cost of a cubic metre of blasted ditch — both due to the confined space in the tunnels and the risk of damaging the bedrock . The use of black powder instead of dynamite reduced the risk of bedrock damage , but it also increased the time needed to complete the tunnels . All in all , the amount of bedrock bored , blasted , loaded and transported away from the forts has been estimated to be around 300 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) .
+
+= = = Finishing touches = = =
+
+When the ditches and tunnels were finished , concrete works started , including flooring , construction of joist systems in forts with second floors , staircases , partition walls and counterscarp galleries . Water wells were bored to a depth of up to 200 metres ( 660 ft ) to guarantee water supply , since the forts were supposed to be self @-@ supporting . However , the most demanding part of the project was the construction , transport and installation of the armoured turrets and the armament itself . Two companies had been previously contracted for the construction of other fortifications in Sweden , Swedish AB Bofors @-@ Gullspång and French Compagnie des Forges de Châtillon , offers from both companies existed already in 1901 , but it was not until after tests conducted in December 1902 that the Swedish company was contracted and given royal approval on 26 May 1903 . The order was for the 8 @.@ 4 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) and 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) pieces that was to be mounted on the first three forts . The following two forts at Rödberget and Mjösjöberget were to have 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) pieces , an order Bofors would get as well , but due to the time factor a few of those were actually delivered by the French company .
+
+The cost of a single armoured turret for a 12 cm piece was almost 100 @,@ 000 kronor — around $ 800 @,@ 000 ( as of 2011 ) in today 's money — and it could weigh as much as 100 tonnes ( 220 @,@ 000 lb ) . It was delivered in parts to simplify transport , but the heaviest part still had a weight of 26 tonnes ( 57 @,@ 000 lb ) . The parts were delivered by rail up to Boden and unloaded with the help of gantry cranes . As the roads of the time could not handle the weight during summer , transport had to wait until winter when the frost had hardened the ground . The turret parts were lifted onto sleighs drawn by 16 – 30 horses depending on the situation . The toughest stretch , up the mountain , was handled with the help of block and tackle , the ditch was crossed on temporarily built sturdy wooden bridges and the mounting of the turret was finished with cranes . A major part of the mounts for the turrets were completed by the end of 1905 , despite the harsh winter working conditions , with temperatures falling below − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) at times . The peak workforce amounted to around 900 men , but their numbers fluctuated , with the lowest number of active workers during the winter months . The first artillery test firing was conducted on 15 January 1907 when the guns at Gammelängsberget fired their first rounds , and all five forts " were in a defensible state " by 1908 .
+
+= = = Other fortificatory works = = =
+
+Apart from the forts , the garrison itself was heavily expanded during the initial construction years and became the largest garrison in Sweden , taking an exceptional position in Swedish military history of the 20th century ; even at the start of the 21st century , Boden was the largest garrison city in the Swedish Army . Still , no other fortifications than the forts themselves were finished by 1908 , and work now started to fill the holes in between them . It was realised that prepared positions were needed for the mobile batteries , and apart from those , three larger battery positions ( sometimes called fästen , strongholds ) were also constructed at Leåkersberget , Norra Åberget and Svedjeberget . These works were started in 1911 and were finished during the First World War . The last of the three strongholds was positioned in the mountain itself with embrasures in the mountain side , and Leåkersberget had parts of the battery position inside the mountain , but the gun emplacements outside — the other positions were concrete fortifications above the ground , some inside a bunker and others behind a parapet .
+
+The main fortifications for infantry consisted of 44 concrete bunkers , 23 dugouts and 26 fortified observation posts . The concrete bunkers ( infanteriskansar , redoubts ) were long and narrow . The longest , Abramsskansen , was 155 metres ( 509 ft ) long and had room for 160 men and four machine guns , but most had room for less than 80 men — usually a rifle platoon reinforced with a machine gun section and an anti @-@ tank section . Due to their length , their curved shapes following the mountain sides , and other characteristics , the bunkers were popularly referred to as " sausages " ( korvar ) . The construction of these started in 1911 . Many officers still considered the fortress to have inadequate and too few fortifications for the infantry , and one officer compared the fortress to " a shoe , which is too large for the foot . " One million kronor was allocated in 1915 to fix that problem , and many minor fortifications were built during the First World War .
+
+Blockhouses were also built by the railway bridge at Trångforsen and the road bridge Hedenbron ( built from 1911 to 1912 ) , located just 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) southeast of the Trångforsen bridge . The later was built to accommodate easier access to Rödberget Fort and the military training area on the southwestern shore of Lule River and was at the time of completion the longest single span road bridge in Sweden .
+
+Both internal and external communication systems as well as means of reconnaissance were needed , both directed by the commandant located in the headquarters building . The building — finished in 1910 — had three floors , the upper two functioned as home and workplace for the commandant and the chief of staff , while the ground floor had extra thick walls and functioned as the command post for the fortress . A large field telephone network was built , connecting all forts with the headquarters . Liaison with higher commands was at first maintained by regular post , telegraph and telephone . The fortress ' radio station was finished by 1914 , originally for the Swedish Navy , and was located south of Degerberget on a bog now known as the " Radio Mire " ( Radiomyren ) . The first Swedish radio broadcasts were sent from this building . The fortress also had homing pigeons for sending messages . At the end of the Second World War , around 280 such pigeons were stationed in Boden . The pigeons were part of the balloon department whose main task was to operate the balloon of the garrison . For this , the Balloon Hangar with inner measurements of 35 × 10 × 10 metres ( 115 × 33 × 33 ft ) was built near the radio station . More than fifty men were attached to the department , of whom two could follow the balloon up to its maximum height of 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , limited by the length of the wire connecting it to the ground . The hydrogen @-@ filled balloon itself was of German make and measured 27 metres ( 89 ft ) in length , had a diameter of around 7 metres ( 23 ft ) and a total volume of 750 cubic metres ( 26 @,@ 000 cu ft ) .
+
+= = In operation = =
+
+= = = Two World Wars = = =
+
+Most parts of the fortress were finished during the First World War , and many minor works were started and completed during the course of the war . Even though Sweden remained neutral during the First and Second World War , the start and outcome of both had large impact on the fortress . Finland 's independence during the First World War created a buffer state between Sweden and Imperial Russia 's successor state , the Soviet Union , which radically changed the strategic value of northern Sweden , put the usefulness of Boden Fortress into question . Only the most basic needs were satisfied during the interwar period ; even apparent needs — based on the experiences from the war — such as better air defence and fortifications to halt or temporarily impede attacks by armoured forces were neglected . Thanks to local commanders , construction of new fortifications and improvements to already existing ones were done with the help of garrisoned troops . Engineer companies built new shelters and trenches as training , and the telephone network was improved and completed by the garrisoned telegraph company . This cut the cost drastically as the only expenditure was the needed material .
+
+Only a few necessary projects were funded , including an underground headquarters bunker , improvement of the garrison hospital and new training areas . It was not until the increased tension in Europe following Adolf Hitler 's rise to power , Benito Mussolini 's March on Rome and the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War that focus once again was put on military readiness and prepared fortifications . Improvements were made to fortifications in many parts of Sweden during the last years of the 1930s following the German annexation of Austria and occupation of Czechoslovakia . In Boden , this included building underground storage rooms for ammunition and food , replenishing already existing stocks , increasing protection for other important supply functions — such as the waterworks — as well as further military planning and also preparations for destruction of — for an advancing enemy — important bridges and roads .
+
+When the Second World War broke out , only limited resources where allotted to the defence of Northern Sweden , but following the Soviet attack on Finland a few months later and the German Operation Weserübung against Norway and Denmark the next year , major work on improving and extending the defensive lives was commenced . Bunkers , bomb shelters , gun emplacements — particularly for anti @-@ tank guns — were built by the units that had been mobilised and stationed in the vicinity of Boden . The Finnish experiences gained from meeting superior armoured forces during the Winter War were adopted in Sweden , and triple rows of large stones or blocks of reinforced concrete , dragon 's teeth , soon formed a continuous line — defended by anti @-@ tank guns in concrete bunkers and machine @-@ gun nests — around the fortress and city . As the war continued and advances in most fields of warfare were made , Boden Fortress was continually improved to meet new or increased threats such as air , armoured or gas attacks . The command , supply and intelligence services were improved as well .
+
+As Sweden has remained neutral since 1816 , Boden Fortress was never put to the test . Nonetheless , there are a few indications on how Boden , the garrison , the fortress and its crew would have come through a wartime attack . Already in 1904 , Lars Tingsten — commander of Norrbotten Regiment , later Minister for War and first commander of Boden Fortress — expressed worries over the low number of soldiers that were planned to garrison the town . The 1892 army war plans had two infantry battalions stationed in the area , and allowed for three or four more to be transferred there , while Tingsten reported that the battalions should number at least 24 and perhaps even 33 . The lack of personnel , and even more the lack of organisation , was shown when the fortress was tested against a coup de main during a military exercise in April 1913 . Led by its commander Bror Munck , the cavalry regiment Crown Prince 's Hussar Regiment managed to seize control of the railway station , the railway bridge , the ordnance depot , the electric works and the waterworks in the matter of a day . When the unit reached the headquarters building , Tingsten , now commandant of the fortress , saw his earlier worries come true . Despite this , the wartime infantry garrison was no more than four battalions in 1937 . But as the Second World War came to its end , the fortress had been given a new role . From 1943 on it was no longer meant to stand on its own against a besieging enemy , and instead became only one piece in a larger network of fortifications . The wartime strength was never more than 12 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 men , while calculations talked about at least 25 @,@ 000 men , up to 40 @,@ 000 men , were needed to withstand a siege .
+
+= = = Espionage = = =
+
+Strict secrecy surrounded the fortress for a very long time , and there were several attempts made by foreign powers to gain knowledge of various kinds of information . One early possible attempt at espionage were the Russian sawfilers who travelled through Sweden , mostly in Norrland during the last years of the 19th century and the years leading up to World War I. A large part of the Swedish population believed that the sawfilers , no more than 300 in total in Sweden , were spies hired by the Okhrana , the Russian secret police . Some sources are of the belief that the sawfilers were never sent out on specific missions but instead acted as unknowing spies , only having contact with the Okhrana who interrogated them regarding their experiences when they returned to Russia . Other sources claim that at least some of the sawfilers that the Okhrana found most useful were educated in the art of espionage , and were in fact given specific missions , as well as being paid 300 rouble per season for their work . Another form of this kind of legal espionage is believed to have been conducted by the German Wandervogel movement during the late interwar period .
+
+The first known attempt of purposeful espionage against the fortress was conducted in 1913 – 14 . A former lieutenant in the Danish coastal artillery , A. B. Fredrikssen , was enlisted in Copenhagen by the Russian military attaché in Stockholm , colonel Assanovitch . Fredrikssen was sent to Boden with the task to explore the fortress and its surroundings . He and his wife stayed at a boarding house in the city , and had regular correspondence with his employer who stayed in Copenhagen . It was also the correspondence that exposed the attempt , which was not very successful in terms of information gained by the Russians . They had better luck in late 1914 with two brothers named Hiukka , who both served with one of the artillery regiments in Boden , Norrland Artillery Regiment . They were discovered due to their extravagant living , and it was found out that one of the brothers — despite his employment in the army — had Finnish @-@ Russian citizenship . They had provided intelligence to Russia , but the full extent of the affair was never disclosed . A minor case of German espionage was exposed during the Second World War . The first permanently stationed German officer in Luleå , a Hauptmann Schultz , was caught photographing parts of the fortifications and was deported . It is probable that his espionage was not ordered from any higher command but was an act on own initiative .
+
+Two extensive espionage cases in Sweden during the Cold War involved Boden Fortress , both exposed in 1951 . The Enbom case involved Fritiof Enbom , a former worker at the Swedish State Railways in Boden , and later the local editor for the communist newspaper Norrskensflamman . He was exposed by his own careless talk — often under the influence of alcohol — to the owners of the house in Stockholm where he had lodged since he moved there from Boden . The family told the Swedish Security Service after the Christmas holidays of 1951 , and Enbom was arrested on 16 February 1952 . During interrogation , he confessed that he — from February 1943 to April 1951 — had met with Soviet employers around 25 times . Enbom had provided a large variety of intelligence , most of it from public sources , but also secrets , of which the armament of one of the forts in the fortress was one of the pieces of information that concerned Boden Fortress and nearby fortifications . He was sentenced to lifetime hard labour , but was released after ten years . The other case involved Ernst Hilding Andersson , who was arrested on 21 September 1951 . He had carried out seven missions for the Soviets and had provided them primarily with information regarding the Swedish Navy , but also information on the fortifications along the Norrland coast , and an initiated report about Boden Fortress and the airforce unit located in Boden and Luleå , Norrbottens flygbaskår . Andersson was , like Fritjof Enbom , sentenced to hard labour for life .
+
+= = End and aftermath = =
+
+= = = Cold War and decommission = = =
+
+The fortress was gradually modernised in the decades following the Second World War , including newer main artillery for some of the forts and newer secondary artillery for all forts as well as other improvements . But the development of new weapons and the evolution of warfare during the Cold War gradually decreased the importance of the fortifications . Weapons such as cruise missiles and smart bombs made large static fortifications such as Boden Fortress obsolete when they demonstrated their worth during the Gulf War in 1991 . Mjösjöberget Fort had been decommissioned and removed from the wartime organisation twelve years earlier in 1979 , and less than ten years after the Gulf War and the collapse of the Soviet Union , the four other forts followed suit . The last shot was fired from Rödberget on 14 : 11 local time on 31 December 1997 , and exactly one year later , on 31 December 1998 , that last fort was decommissioned after 90 years in service .
+
+All five forts and three battery positions — Leåkersberget , Norra Åberget and Södra Slumpberget — were declared historic buildings in the summer of 1998 and are to be preserved for the future . The balloon hangar , the only of its kind in Sweden , was declared a historic building three years later in 2001 . Two forts , Rödberget and Södra Åberget , are held in operation , and the former is used as a tourist attraction with guided tours , and there is also a possibility for companies to hold smaller conferences inside the fort . Over 10 @,@ 000 visitors were expected to visit Rödberget Fort in 2002 , averaging 300 a day during the summer . Boden Fortress is also still one of the salute batteries of Sweden , which fire a 21 @-@ gun salute at special occasions such as the National holiday of Sweden and birthdays of some members of the Swedish Royal Family . The fortress was made a salute battery on 2 June 1931 , but since the forts have been decommissioned , the salute is now fired with four cannon located at Kvarnängen in central Boden .
+
+= = = Myths and impact = = =
+
+Due to the strict security surrounding the garrison , many rumors circulated during the fortress ' lifetime . Some were later dismissed as myths or as disinformation , but others were confirmed . One common rumor was that the artillery of the main forts had a range of fire that made it possible to shoot at the important Luleå harbour more than 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) away , but in reality , the maximum range of the farthest shooting pieces was less than half of that . Another widespread myth was that all the forts were connected to each other with a complex system of tunnels beneath the city . One rumor , on the other hand , has been confirmed , that the forts were used as storage for a large part of the Swedish gold reserve . Around a third of the total Swedish gold holdings of 280 tonnes ( 9 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ozt ) was kept in Degerberget Fort from 1941 — transported there disguised as boxes of ammunition — until the last ingots were brought from the fort by six armoured cars in 1982 as the fort no longer was to have around @-@ the @-@ clock surveillance .
+
+The total construction cost of Boden Fortress — somewhere around 20 million kronor at the time — would correspond to almost 1 billion kronor ( as of 2011 ) according to the consumer price index which the government agency Statistics Sweden uses . Despite this , the cost has been claimed to correspond to 4 billion kronor of today , and it has also been claimed that the project was more expensive than the JAS 39 Gripen project , which cost 106 billion kronor in total , each aircraft costing between 300 and 500 million kronor depending on what to include in the calculation . No matter what the actual cost was , opinions on Boden Fortress differ markedly , from being called a boastful project and the " JAS project of the turn of the century " to one of the reasons that kept Sweden out of two World Wars . The fortress also had a psychological aspect , in that its mere existence kept a firm grip of peoples ' minds — essentially functioning as a morale booster — during times when Sweden was in the shadow of war .
+
+= = Forts = =
+
+= = = Degerberget = = =
+
+Degerberget Fort ( Degerbergsfortet ) was planned and constructed on Degerberget Mountain , north of Boden and west of the lake Buddbyträsket , between 1900 and 1908 . It was the only fort in the northern fort group as defined in the 1914 defensive plans for Boden Fortress . The main artillery consisted of four 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) kanon m / 99 , backed up by another four 8 @.@ 4 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) kanon m / 94 @-@ 04 which were replaced by 8 @.@ 4 cm kanon m / 47 in the early 1950s . Surrounded by a caponier ditch on all sides , the fort area also features one observation post , two searchlight sites and two larger bunkers . Part of the Swedish gold reserve was kept here from 1941 to 1982 . Degerberget Fort was decommissioned in 1992 together with Gammelängsberget Fort .
+
+= = = Mjösjöberget = = =
+
+Mjösjöberget Fort ( Mjösjöfortet ) was planned and constructed between 1900 and 1908 . A part of the eastern fort group together with Gammelängsberget Fort , it was situated on Mjösjöberget Mountain to the east of Boden . As Rödberget Fort it was fitted with the 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) fästningshaubits m / 06 as main artillery , together with the standard secondary 8 @.@ 4 cm cannon and tertiary 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) caponier cannon . Since Rödberget Fort was refitted with new main artillery in the 1970s , Mjösjöberget Fort is the only to still feature 15 cm main artillery as it was decommissioned in 1979 , some 20 years earlier than the other forts . Like the other two forts northeast of Boden , it is surrounded on all sides by a ditch . The fort also has a large bunker and two searchlight sites close by .
+
+= = = Gammelängsberget = = =
+
+Planned and constructed between 1900 and 1908 , Gammelängsberget Fort ( Gammelängsfortet ) situated on Gammelängsberget Mountain east of Boden was the first of the five forts to be finished and the first to fire any guns when a test firing was conducted in 1907 . It was part of the eastern fort group — together with the close by Mjösjöberget Fort — in the 1914 defensive plans . Just as on the other forts , the original secondary guns , 8 @.@ 4 cm kanon m / 94 @-@ 04 , were replaced by 8 @.@ 4 cm kanon m / 47 between 1950 and 1952 . The main artillery , 12 cm kanon m / 99 , and the caponier artillery , 57 mm kaponjärkanon m / 07 , served with the fort until it was closed down in 1992 . Gammelängsberget Fort is surrounded by a caponier ditch on all sides , and a large concrete bunker is located in proximity of the fort .
+
+= = = Södra Åberget = = =
+
+The only fort not to feature four distinct sides , Södra Åberget Fort ( Södra Åbergsfortet ) instead features the triangular design that was originally planned for all the forts , and the southwestern side is formed by the mountain scarp rather than a caponier ditch . The fort — planned and constructed on Södra Åberget Mountain south of Boden between 1902 and 1908 — was together with Rödberget Fort part of the southern fort group . Södra Åberget Fort had the standard armament in the form of 12 cm kanon m / 99 , 8 @.@ 4 cm kanon m / 94 @-@ 04 and 57 mm kaponjärkanon m / 07 . The 8 @.@ 4 cm artillery was modernised between 1950 and 1952 . Just like the neighbour Rödberget Fort on the other side of Lule River , Södra Åberget Fort has four bunkers , two observation posts and two searchlight sites in its surroundings .
+
+= = = Rödberget = = =
+
+Perhaps the best known of the five forts , Rödberget Fort ( Rödbergsfortet ) , situated on Rödberget Mountain southwest of Boden , was the last in line for construction , which started in 1903 . The fort was finished in 1908 and originally featured four 15 cm fästningshaubits m / 06 which in 1976 were replaced by four 12 cm kanon m / 24 taken from scrapped Swedish Navy destroyers . At the same time , another two 12 cm cannon were fitted on a newly constructed small satellite fortification to the north of the fort . Rödberget Fort was part of the southern fort group together with Södra Åberget Fort on the other side of Lule River . These two forts — unlike the other forts — do not have a caponier ditch on all sides , as the western side of Rödberget Fort is protected by the natural scarp of the mountain . The surroundings feature four large bunkers , two observation posts and two searchlight sites . Today , Rödberget Fort is the only larger fortification of Boden Fortress that is open to the public .
+
+= = Commandants = =
+
+During the first years in existence , the position was simply titled Commandant in Boden ( Kommendant i Boden ) , but from 1928 on , the officer in charge was Commandant in Boden Fortress ( Kommendant i Bodens fästning ) , and later on had additional commands connected to the position :
+
+= = In media = =
+
+Boden Fortress is mentioned in Tage Danielsson 's Sagan om Karl @-@ Bertil Jonssons Julafton ; the story was made into a short film in 1975 and has been shown on Swedish television every Christmas Eve since that year . Karl @-@ Bertil Jonsson , the young boy of the story , works extra at the post office where he steals Christmas gifts addressed to rich people and instead gives them to the poor , Robin Hood @-@ style . One of all the gifts he steals is a matchstick picture ( tändstickstavla ) of the fortress . When telling the intended receiver of the gift , senior administrative officer H. K. Bergdahl , what he had done Bergdahl answers " Thank you , my lad , for saving us from Boden Fortress ! "
+
+The fortress also plays a part in Operation Garbo , a three @-@ volume novel written by Harry Winter , a pseudonym for an undisclosed number of people . The techno @-@ thriller novel is about a Soviet invasion of Sweden , and while Boden Fortress is not a main part of the story , one chapter in the first volume briefly mentions Södra Åberget Fort , and two chapters in the second volume are devoted to events at and around the forts , Södra Åberget and Mjösjöberget Forts are mentioned by name while Rödberget Fort is described more in detail .
+
+A 30 @-@ minute episode of the Swedish public broadcaster SVT 's series Hemliga svenska rum ( " Secret Swedish spaces " ) covered Boden Fortress and its secrets , lesser known facts and myths . The programme brought up the use of Degerberget Fort as storage for the gold reserve and other pieces of information from 100 years of Swedish military history about " one of Sweden 's most peculiar and perhaps mightiest constructions " .
+
+= = = Reference notes = = =
+
+= Jeff Hardy =
+
+Jeffrey Nero " Jeff " Hardy ( born August 31 , 1977 ) is a professional wrestler , singer @-@ songwriter , painter and musician currently signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . He is best known for his work with World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment ( WWF / E ) .
+
+Before gaining prominence in WWE , Hardy performed for the Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts ( OMEGA ) , a promotion he ran with his brother Matt . After being signed by WWE , the brothers worked as jobbers , before gaining notoriety in the tag team division , partly due to their participation in Tables , Ladders , and Chairs matches . With the addition of Lita , the team became known as Team Xtreme and continued to rise in popularity . As a tag team wrestler , Hardy is an eight @-@ time world tag team champion ( six World Tag Team Championships , one WCW Tag Team Championship , and one TNA World Tag Team Championship ) – all with his brother Matt .
+
+As a singles wrestler , Hardy is a six @-@ time world champion , having held the TNA World Heavyweight Championship three times , the WWE Championship once and WWE 's World Heavyweight Championship twice . Within WWE , he also held the Intercontinental Championship four times , the Light Heavyweight and European Championships once each and the Hardcore Championship three times , making him the eighteenth Triple Crown Champion and the tenth Grand Slam Champion in company history . Between WWE and TNA , Hardy has won 23 total championships .
+
+Hardy is involved in motocross , music , painting , and other artistic endeavors . He is currently a member of the band Peroxwhy ? gen , with whom he has released two studio albums .
+
+= = Early life = =
+
+Jeff Hardy is the son of Gilbert and Ruby Moore Hardy , and the younger brother of Matt Hardy . Their mother died of brain cancer in 1986 , when Hardy was nine . He developed an interest in motocross aged 12 and got his first bike , a Yamaha YZ @-@ 80 , at age 13 . He had his first race when he was in ninth grade . Hardy played baseball as a child , but had to stop after he crashed during a motocross race , injuring his arm . He also played football during high school as a fullback and linebacker . He briefly competed in amateur wrestling in high school . He had to stop playing football in high school , after he was ordered to pick between professional wrestling and football , and he chose wrestling . Hardy 's favorite subjects in school were U.S. history and art , which he did for extra credit .
+
+= = Professional wrestling career = =
+
+= = = Early Career ( 1991 − 1994 ) = = =
+
+Hardy , along with his brother Matt and friends , started their own federation , the Trampoline Wrestling Federation ( TWF ) and mimicked the moves they saw on television . Later on , the TWF went under several different names , eventually being integrated into a county fair in North Carolina . The brothers and their friends then began to work for other independent companies . They drove all over the East Coast of the United States , working for companies such as ACW and other small promotions .
+
+= = = World Wrestling Federation = = =
+
+= = = = Enhancement Talent ( 1994 − 1997 ) = = = =
+
+Hardy cites Sting , The Ultimate Warrior , and Shawn Michaels as his childhood inspirations to wrestle . He started on World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) television as a jobber — a wrestler who consistently loses to make his opponents look stronger . His first WWF match was against Razor Ramon on May 23 , 1994 in Youngstown , Ohio , with Randy Savage mentioning on commentary , " Welcome to the big time " . His ringname that night , Keith Davis , was the name of Razor 's scheduled jobber , who backed out on short notice . Gary Sabaugh , who had brought Hardy in a group along with Davis , suggested him to agent Tony Garea , who agreed after Hardy claimed he was 18 ( he was in fact , only 16 ) . The next day , he wrestled under his real name against The 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid , and the match aired on the June 25 episode of Superstars . He occasionally wrestled as a jobber as late as 1997 ( including a match against Rob Van Dam during the ECW " invasion " storyline that had Hardy billed as being from Virginia instead of Cameron , North Carolina ) before beginning his first major run in 1998 .
+
+= = = OMEGA Championship Wrestling ( 1997 − 1998 ) = = =
+
+Before arriving in the WWF , Matt formed his own wrestling promotion , the Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts ( OMEGA ) with Thomas Simpson . The promotion was a more successful version of the original TWF and included talent such as both Hardy brothers , Shannon Moore , Gregory Helms , Joey Matthews , and Steve Corino , among others . In OMEGA , each of the brothers portrayed several different characters ; Hardy portrayed such characters as Willow the Wisp , Iceman , Mean Jimmy Jack Tomkins , and The Masked Mountain . While there , Hardy held the New Frontier Championship as a singles competitor and the Tag Team Championship with Matt . The promotion folded in April 1998 when they signed contracts with the WWF .
+
+= = = Return to WWF / E = = =
+
+= = = = The Hardy Boyz ( 1998 – 2002 ) = = = =
+
+The Hardy brothers eventually caught the eyes of the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . After being signed to a contract in 1998 , they were trained by Dory Funk Jr. in his Funkin ' Dojo with other notable wrestlers such as Kurt Angle , Christian , Test , and A @-@ Train . When the team was finally brought up to WWF television , after months of " jobbing " and live events , they formed the acrobatic tag team called the Hardy Boyz . While feuding with The Brood in mid @-@ 1999 , they added Michael Hayes as their manager . On July 5 , they won their first WWF Tag Team Championship by defeating the Acolytes , but lost it back to them a month later . After the dissolution of the Brood , the Hardys joined forces with Gangrel as The New Brood and feuded with Edge and Christian . This stable did not last long , however , and on October 17 , 1999 at No Mercy , the Hardy Boyz won the managerial services of Terri Runnels in the finals of the Terri Invitational Tournament in the WWF 's first ever tag team ladder match against Edge and Christian . They competed in the first two TLC ( Tables , Ladders and Chairs ) matches ever , both against Edge and Christian and The Dudley Boyz .
+
+In 2000 , the Hardy Boyz found a new manager in their real @-@ life friend Lita . Together , the three became known as " Team Xtreme " . They continued their feud with Edge and Christian throughout 2000 , defeating them for the WWF Tag Team Championship on two occasions . At SummerSlam , the Hardy Boyz competed in the first ever Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match ( TLC match ) , for the Tag Team Championship against the Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian , but were unsuccessful .
+
+Hardy gained attention for his high risk stunts in the TLC matches , making a name for himself as one of the most seemingly reckless and unorthodox WWF performers of his time . In 2001 , Hardy received a push as a singles competitor , and he held the Intercontinental ( defeating Triple H ) , Light Heavyweight ( defeating Jerry Lynn ) and Hardcore Championships ( defeating Mike Awesome and Van Dam on two separate occasions ) . At the end of 2001 , the Hardys began a storyline in which they began to fight , which led to Matt demanding a match at Vengeance , with Lita as the special guest referee . After Jeff Hardy beat Matt by pinfall at Vengeance , while Matt 's foot was on the ropes , Hardy and Lita began feuding against Matt . In the middle of the feud , however , Hardy faced The Undertaker in a Hardcore Championship match and lost . After the match , The Undertaker was scripted to attack both Hardy and Lita , injuring them . On the next episode of SmackDown ! , The Undertaker attacked Matt as well , also injuring him , in storyline . The Hardys and Lita were not seen again until the Royal Rumble , because WWE did not have another storyline for their characters . The Hardys later came back as a team , and there was never any mention of their previous storyline split .
+
+In early April 2002 , the Hardy Boyz began a feud with Brock Lesnar after Lesnar gave Matt an F @-@ 5 on the steel entrance ramp , which led to an angered Hardy seeking revenge on Lesnar . At Backlash , Hardy faced @-@ off against Lesnar in Lesnar 's first televised match . Lesnar dominated Hardy and won the match by knockout . Lesnar and the Hardys continued to feud over the next few weeks , with the Hardys coming out victorious only once by disqualification . At Judgment Day , Lesnar gained the upper hand on the Hardy Boyz before tagging his partner , Paul Heyman , in to claim the win for the team . In July 2002 , Hardy won his third Hardcore Championship by defeating Bradshaw .
+
+= = = = Singles competition and departure ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = = =
+
+After years in the tag team division , Hardy took on The Undertaker in a ladder match for the Undisputed WWE Championship . Hardy came up short in the intense match , but earned The Undertaker 's respect when he displayed courage by attempting to rise to his feet after the bout and challenge The Undertaker to continue . Hardy competed for singles titles on several occasions and defeated William Regal for the European Championship . Hardy was defeated a few weeks later by Rob Van Dam in a ladder match to unify the European Championship and the Intercontinental Championship , and the European Championship was retired . Finally , the Hardy Boyz split apart , as Hardy continued to pursue his singles ambitions on Raw and his brother , Matt left Raw for his own singles pursuits signing with Stephanie McMahon 's SmackDown ! brand . On Raw , Hardy would compete in WWE 's Hardcore division until the title 's unification with the Intercontinental Championship .
+
+In late 2002 , Hardy had been teaming with Rob Van Dam and Bubba Ray Dudley . He along with Bubba Ray and Spike Dudley defeated 3 @-@ Minute Warning at Survivor Series in a six @-@ man tag team elimination tables match .
+
+In January 2003 , Hardy briefly turned into a heel ( villain ) after he attacked Van Dam and Shawn Michaels . It ended a month later when he saved Stacy Keibler from an attack by then @-@ villain , Christian . In February , he had a brief program with Michaels , which saw the two team up . Then , in storyline , Hardy began dating Trish Stratus after saving her from Steven Richards and Victoria in March . Hardy and Stratus had a brief on @-@ screen relationship that saw the duo talking backstage and teaming together in matches . Hardy competed in his final match ( his first departure ) against The Rock and lost . Hardy , however , was released from WWE on April 22 , 2003 . The reasons given for the release were Hardy 's erratic behavior , drug use , refusal to go to rehab , deteriorating ring performance , as well as constant tardiness and no @-@ showing events . Hardy also cites " burn out " and the need for time off as reasons for leaving WWE .
+
+= = = Independent circuit ( 2003 ) = = =
+
+Hardy made his first wrestling appearance after being released from WWE at an OMEGA show , on May 24 . Using his old gimmick , " Willow the Wisp " , Hardy challenged Krazy K for the OMEGA Cruiserweight Championship , but lost the match .
+
+= = = Ring of Honor ( 2003 ) = = =
+
+Hardy performed with the Ring of Honor ( ROH ) promotion on one occasion . Hardy appeared at ROH 's 2003 show , Death Before Dishonor , under his " Willow the Wisp " gimmick , wearing a mask and trench coat . Hardy was quickly unmasked and lost his jacket , wearing attire similar to that he wore in WWE . Hardy was booed and heckled before , during , and after the match by the ROH audience , who chanted " We want Matt ! " and " You got fired ! " during his match with Joey Matthews and Krazy K , which Hardy won . Hardy then took a whole year off of wrestling to concentrate on motocross and finish his motocross track .
+
+= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = =
+
+Hardy debuted in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) on June 23 , 2004 , at the Second Anniversary Show , in a match against A.J. Styles , for the TNA X Division Championship . He also debuted his new entrance theme " Modest " , a song performed by Hardy himself , and a new nickname , " The Charismatic Enigma " . The match ended in a no contest when Kid Kash and Dallas interfered . Hardy returned to TNA on July 21 and was awarded a shot at the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy challenged for the title on September 8 , losing to NWA World Heavyweight Champion Jeff Jarrett . In October 2004 , he won a tournament , earning a shot at the NWA World Heavyweight Championship on November 7 at Victory Road , TNA 's first monthly pay @-@ per @-@ view . Hardy was defeated by Jarrett once again in a ladder match at Victory Road following interference from Kevin Nash and Scott Hall .
+
+One month later at Turning Point , Hardy , Styles and Randy Savage defeated Jarrett , Hall and Nash ( collectively known as the Kings of Wrestling ) . Hardy went on to defeat Hall in a singles match , substituting for Héctor Garza at Final Resolution on January 16 , 2005 .
+
+At Against All Odds in February 2005 , Hardy lost to Abyss in a " Full Metal Mayhem " match for the number one contendership to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy returned the favor by defeating Abyss in a Falls Count Anywhere match at Destination X in March . On March 15 , 2005 , Hardy teamed with Shocker defeating David Young and Lex Lovett . Hardy then went on to feud with Raven , Hardy defeated Raven in a Six sides of steel match at Lockdown in April . Hardy was suspended from TNA after no @-@ showing his " Clockwork Orange House of Fun " rematch with Raven at Hard Justice on May 15 , allegedly due to travel difficulties . Hardy 's suspension was lifted on August 5 , and he returned at Sacrifice approximately a week later , attacking Jeff Jarrett .
+
+He wrestled his first TNA match in four months at Unbreakable on September 11 , losing to Bobby Roode following interference from Jarrett . Throughout October 2005 , Hardy became embroiled in a feud with Abyss , Rhino and Sabu . The four way feud culminated in a Monster 's Ball match at Bound for Glory on October 23 , which Rhino won after delivering a second rope Rhino Driver to Hardy . In the course of the match , Hardy delivered a Swanton Bomb to Abyss from a height of approximately 22 ft 0 in ( 6 @.@ 71 m ) . Later that night , Hardy competed in a ten @-@ man battle royal for the number one contendership to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , which Rhino also won . At Genesis in November , Hardy lost to Monty Brown in another number one contender match .
+
+Hardy was scheduled to wrestle on the pre @-@ show of Turning Point in December 2005 , but once again no @-@ showed the event , again citing traveling problems . Hardy was suspended as a result and did not appear on TNA television again . In March , April , and May 2006 , Hardy appeared on several live events promoted by TNA in conjunction with Dave Hebner and the United Wrestling Federation . Hardy was later released from his TNA contract in June 2006 .
+
+= = = Second return to WWE = = =
+
+= = = = The Hardys reunion ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
+
+On August 4 , 2006 , WWE announced that Hardy had re @-@ signed with the company . In the following weeks , vignettes aired hyping his return on the August 21 episode of Raw . On the day of his return , Hardy received a push and defeated then @-@ WWE Champion Edge by disqualification when Lita pulled Edge out of the ring . After failing to capture the Intercontinental Championship from Johnny Nitro over the next few weeks , including at Unforgiven , Hardy finally defeated Nitro to win his second Intercontinental Championship on the October 2 episode of Raw . On the November 6 episode of Raw , Hardy lost the Intercontinental Championship back to Nitro , after Nitro hit him with the Intercontinental Championship title belt . One week later , Hardy regained it on the November 13 episode of Raw , with a crucifix pin . This marked Hardy 's third reign as Intercontinental Champion .
+
+On the November 21 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , Hardy teamed with his brother , Matt , for the first time in almost five years to defeat The Full Blooded Italians . At Survivor Series , they both were a part of Team D @-@ Generation X , which gained the victory over Team Rated @-@ RKO with a clean sweep . The brothers then received their first opportunity since Hardy 's return to win a tag team championship at Armageddon . They competed in a four @-@ team ladder match for the WWE Tag Team Championship , but they came up short in their attempt . In the course of the match , however , they inadvertently legitimately injured Joey Mercury 's face .
+
+With Hardy still feuding with Johnny Nitro and the other members of MNM into 2007 , he was challenged once again by Nitro at New Year 's Revolution in a steel cage match for the Intercontinental Championship . Hardy once again defeated Nitro . Hardy then teamed with Matt to defeat MNM at both the Royal Rumble and No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ views . The next night on Raw , February 19 , Hardy was defeated for the Intercontinental Championship by Umaga . In April 2007 , Hardy competed in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 23 . During the match , Matt threw Edge onto a ladder and encouraged Hardy , who was close to the winning briefcase , to finish him off . Hardy then leaped off the 20 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) ladder , drove Edge through the ladder with a leg drop , seemingly injuring both Edge and himself . The two were unable to continue the match and were removed from ringside on stretchers .
+
+The next night on Raw , April 2 , the Hardys competed in a 10 @-@ team battle royal for the World Tag Team Championship . They won the titles from then WWE Champion John Cena and Shawn Michaels by last eliminating Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch . They then began a feud with Cade and Murdoch , with the Hardys retaining the Championship in their first title defense against them at Backlash and again at Judgment Day . The Hardys , however , dropped the titles to Cade and Murdoch on June 4 on Raw . The Hardys earned a rematch at Vengeance : Night of Champions but were defeated .
+
+= = = = Championship reigns and pursuits ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = =
+
+In the midst of feuding with Umaga , who defeated Hardy at The Great American Bash to retain the Intercontinental Championship in late July , Hardy was abruptly taken off WWE programming . He posted on his own website and in the forums of TheHardyShow.com that it was time off to heal , stemming from a bad fall taken in a match against Mr. Kennedy on the July 23 episode of Raw . He made his return on the August 27 episode of Raw beating Kennedy by disqualification after Umaga interfered . The following week , on September 3 , Hardy successfully captured his fourth Intercontinental Championship by defeating Umaga for the title .
+
+This was the start of a push for Hardy , and at Survivor Series , Hardy and Triple H were the last two standing to win the traditional elimination match . Hardy began an on and off tag team with Triple H , which eventually led to a respectful feud between the two . The rivalry continued at Armageddon , when Hardy defeated Triple H to become the number one contender for the WWE Championship . In the weeks leading up to the Royal Rumble , Hardy and Randy Orton engaged in a personal feud , which began when Orton kicked Hardy 's brother , Matt , in the head in the storyline . Hardy , in retaliation , performed a Swanton Bomb on Orton from the top of the Raw set and seemed to have all the momentum after coming out on top in their encounters . Hardy , however , lost the title match at the Royal Rumble , but was named as one of six men to compete in an Elimination Chamber match at No Way Out , where he survived to the final two before being eliminated by the eventual winner , Triple H.
+
+During the March 3 episode of Raw , Hardy appeared on Chris Jericho 's " Highlight Reel " segment as a special guest , but ended up attacking Jericho . This led to an Intercontinental title match on the following Raw where Hardy dropped the title to Jericho . Off @-@ screen , Hardy dropped the title after he was suspended for sixty days , as of March 11 , for his second violation of the company 's Substance Abuse and Drug Testing Policy . Hardy was also removed from the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXIV in which he was booked to win after the suspension was announced . Hardy returned on the May 12 episode of Raw , defeating Umaga . This reignited the rivalry between the two , and they met in a Falls Count Anywhere match at One Night Stand , which Hardy won .
+
+On June 23 , 2008 , Hardy was drafted from the Raw brand to the SmackDown brand , as a part of the 2008 WWE draft . Hardy made his SmackDown debut on the July 4 episode , defeating John Morrison . Hardy participated in the WWE Championship Scramble match at Unforgiven and also challenged for the Championship at No Mercy and Cyber Sunday , but failed to win each time . He was originally scheduled to be in the WWE Championship match at Survivor Series , but , in storyline , was found unconscious in his hotel , allowing the returning Edge to replace him in the match and win the title . At Armageddon in December 2008 , Hardy defeated the defending champion Edge and Triple H in a triple threat match to capture the WWE Championship , his first world championship .
+
+In January 2009 , Hardy 's next storyline led to his involvement in scripted accidents , including a hit @-@ and @-@ run automobile accident and an accident involving his ring entrance pyrotechnics . At the 2009 Royal Rumble , Hardy lost his WWE Championship to Edge after Hardy 's brother , Matt , interfered on Edge 's behalf and hit Hardy with a steel chair . The buildup to this feud involved Matt implying that he was responsible for all of Hardy 's accidents over the past few months , and at WrestleMania XXV , Matt defeated Jeff in an Extreme Rules match . In a rematch at Backlash , however , Hardy defeated Matt in an " I Quit " match .
+
+= = = = Feud with CM Punk and departure ( 2009 ) = = = =
+
+At Extreme Rules , Hardy defeated Edge to win the World Heavyweight Championship in a ladder match . Immediately after the match , CM Punk cashed in his second Money in the Bank briefcase , which gave him a guaranteed world championship match at any time he wanted , and defeated Hardy to win the championship . Hardy received his rematch at The Bash , and won the match via disqualification after Punk kicked the ref in the back of the head while feigning an eye injury with Punk still retaining the title . At Night of Champions , however , Hardy won the championship for the second time , by defeating Punk . At the SummerSlam pay @-@ per @-@ view in August , Hardy lost the title back to Punk in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match . On the August 28 episode of SmackDown , Punk Beat Jeff Hardy in a steel cage rematch for the World Heavyweight Championship , resulting in Hardy leaving WWE , in storyline , per the pre @-@ match stipulation . This storyline was put in place to allow Hardy to leave WWE to heal his injuries , including a neck injury . Hardy also had two herniated discs in his lower back and was suffering from restless legs syndrome .
+
+= = = Return to TNA = = =
+
+= = = = Immortal ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = =
+
+On TNA 's first live Monday episode of Impact ! on January 4 , 2010 , Hardy made his return to TNA , along with Shannon Moore . He was attacked by Homicide after emerging from the crowd , but hit Homicide with a steel chair and performed the Twist of Fate on the Impact ! Zone ramp . He later appeared in backstage segments throughout the evening . The following day , it was reported that Hardy had signed a new contract with TNA . Hardy would make his next appearance for the company on the March 8 episode of Impact ! , saving D 'Angelo Dinero , Abyss and Hulk Hogan from A.J. Styles , Ric Flair and Desmond Wolfe . The following week , Hardy defeated then TNA World Heavyweight Champion A.J. Styles in a non @-@ title match .
+
+On the April 5 episode of Impact ! , Hardy was introduced as a member of Team Hogan for the annual Lethal Lockdown match , where they would face Team Flair . One week later , however , Hardy was injured when James Storm spewed a volatile liquid against a flame from his lighter , forming a fireball that singed most of Hardy 's face . At Lockdown , Team Hogan ( Hardy , Abyss , Jeff Jarrett and Rob Van Dam ) defeated Team Flair ( Sting , Desmond Wolfe , Robert Roode and James Storm ) . At Sacrifice , Hardy defeated Mr. Anderson . After the event , Anderson turned face and eventually managed to convince the skeptical Hardy that he really had changed , after which the two went on to form a tag team . At Slammiversary VIII , Hardy and Anderson , now known as Enigmatic Assholes , defeated Beer Money , Inc . ( Robert Roode and James Storm ) in a tag team match .
+
+On the August 19 episode of Impact ! , the TNA World Heavyweight Championship was vacated after Rob Van Dam was injured by The Monster Abyss and Hardy was entered into an eight @-@ man tournament for the championship , defeating Rob Terry in his first round match . At the semi @-@ finals at No Surrender , Hardy first wrestled Kurt Angle to a twenty @-@ minute time @-@ limit draw , after which Eric Bischoff ordered a five @-@ minute period of extra time . After that and a second five @-@ minute extra time period also ended in draws , it was ruled that Angle was unable to continue and the match ended in a no contest . After wrestling a draw on the September 16 episode of Impact ! , it was announced that both Hardy and Angle would advance to the finals at Bound for Glory , where they would compete with Mr. Anderson in a three – way match .
+
+At Bound for Glory , Hardy turned heel with Hulk Hogan and Eric Bischoff and with their help defeated Angle and Anderson to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the first time . They were then joined by Jeff Jarrett and Abyss , revealing the group that Abyss had been referring to as " they " for several months . On the following episode of Impact ! , the stable was named Immortal , as it formed an alliance with Ric Flair 's Fortune . Meanwhile , Hardy debuted a new dark character , using cryptic messages as he explained the reasons behind his turn . At Turning Point , Hardy retained his title in a defense against Matt Morgan , a replacement for Mr. Anderson , who was sidelined after suffering a concussion during an attack by Hardy . On the following episode of Impact ! , Hogan presented Hardy with a new design of the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , which he dubbed the TNA Immortal Championship . At Final Resolution in December , Hardy successfully defended the championship in a rematch against Morgan after incapacitating the special guest referee Mr. Anderson and having a replacement referee count the pinfall . On January 4 , 2011 , Hardy made his debut for New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) at Wrestle Kingdom V in Tokyo Dome , where he successfully defended the TNA World Heavyweight Championship against Tetsuya Naito .
+
+On January 9 at Genesis , Hardy 's brother , Matt , made his TNA debut as a surprise member of Immortal and defeated Rob Van Dam to prevent him from receiving a match at Hardy 's championship . That same night , Hardy gave Anderson a match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , immediately following Anderson 's victory in a number one contender 's match . Despite Matt , Flair , and Bischoff interfering in an attempt to help Hardy , Anderson defeated Hardy for the championship . On the January 13 episode of Impact ! , the Hardy Boyz reunited and defeated Anderson and Van Dam in a tag team match , following interference from Beer Money , Inc . On the February 3 episode of Impact ! , Hardy received his rematch for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . The rest of Immortal interfered in the match , but were stopped by Fortune , which led to Anderson retaining the championship . On February 13 at Against All Odds , Hardy defeated Anderson in a ladder match to regain the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy held the championship for less than two weeks , defending it once against Rob Van Dam , before losing it to the returning Sting on February 24 , at the tapings of the March 3 episode of Impact ! . On March 13 at Victory Road , Hardy received a rematch for the title under No Disqualification rules , but was defeated in ninety seconds . TNA had made the decision to cut the match short after deeming that Hardy was too intoxicated to wrestle . The following day it was reported that TNA had sent Hardy home from the week 's Impact ! tapings . On the March 17 episode of Impact ! , Immortal severed their ties with Hardy .
+
+= = = = Road To Redemption ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = =
+
+On August 23 , 2011 , TNA announced that Hardy would be making his return to the promotion at the Impact Wrestling tapings on August 25 in Huntsville , Alabama . The return would take place only five days after Matt Hardy was released from his TNA contract . In his return , which was taped for the September 8 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy spoke to the audience , acknowledging that he had hit rock bottom at Victory Road in March , before asking the fans for " one more shot " . Hardy wrestled his first match in six months on September 15 at a live event in York , Pennsylvania , defeating Jeff Jarrett . Hardy then began feuding with his former stable Immortal , attacking Eric Bischoff on the October 6 episode of Impact Wrestling and engaging in brawls with Jeff Jarrett at Bound for Glory and on the October 20 episode of Impact Wrestling . Hardy wrestled his first televised match since his return on the October 27 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating Immortal member Bully Ray . On November 13 at Turning Point , Hardy defeated Jeff Jarrett three times , first in six seconds , the second in six minutes , and the third in ten seconds . On December 11 at Final Resolution , Hardy defeated Jarrett in a steel cage match to become the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship .
+
+On January 8 , 2012 , at Genesis , Hardy defeated TNA World Heavyweight Champion Bobby Roode via disqualification ; as a result , the title remained with Roode . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , a rematch between Hardy and Roode ended in a no contest , following interference from Bully Ray . The following week , Hardy was entered into a number one contender 's match against James Storm , which ended in a no contest following interference from Ray and Roode . On February 12 at Against All Odds , Hardy was unable to capture the TNA World Heavyweight Championship from Roode in a four @-@ way match , which also included Bully Ray and James Storm . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy lost his shot at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , following interference from the returning Kurt Angle . On March 18 at Victory Road , Hardy was defeated by Angle in a singles match . On April 15 at Lockdown , Hardy defeated Angle in a rematch , contested inside a steel cage . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy and Mr. Anderson were defeated by Rob Van Dam in a three @-@ way number one contender 's match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . During the first " Open Fight Night " the following week , Hardy teamed up with Anderson to unsuccessfully challenge Magnus and Samoa Joe for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On May 13 at Sacrifice , Hardy was defeated by Anderson in a singles match . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Anderson in a rematch . On the live May 31 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy won a fan voting to become the number one contender to the TNA Television Championship . However , his title match with Devon ended in a no contest , following interference from Robbie E and Robbie T. On June 10 at Slammiversary , Hardy was defeated by Mr. Anderson in a three @-@ way number one contender 's match , also involving Rob Van Dam .
+
+On the June 14 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy entered the 2012 Bound for Glory Series , taking part in the opening gauntlet match , from which he was the first man eliminated by Bully Ray . Hardy wrestled his final group stage match of the tournament on the September 6 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating Samoa Joe via submission , thus finishing fourth and advancing to the semi @-@ finals . Three days later at No Surrender , Hardy defeated Joe in a rematch to advance to the finals of the tournament . Before the finals took place , Hardy suffered a storyline injury after taking part in a brawl between the TNA locker room and the Aces & Eights stable . Despite the injury , Hardy defeated Bully Ray in the finals to win the 2012 Bound for Glory Series and become the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Ray in a rematch to reaffirm his status as the number one contender .
+
+On October 14 at Bound for Glory , Hardy defeated Austin Aries to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the third time , and , according to TNA , completing his " road to redemption " following the events of March 2011 . Hardy made his first televised title defense on the October 25 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating Kurt Angle to retain his title . On November 11 at Turning Point , Hardy defeated Austin Aries in a ladder match to retain the World Heavyweight Championship . On the December 6 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy was attacked by the Aces & Eights who were revealed to be paid off by his number one contender Bobby Roode . Three days later at Final Resolution , Hardy defeated Roode to retain the World Heavyweight Championship , after which , both men were attacked by the Aces & Eights . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Aces & Eights member Devon revealed Austin Aries as the man who outpaid Roode for the Aces & Eights to interfere in their match , which led to Hardy issuing Aries a title challenge . The following week , Hardy was successful in retaining his title against Aries , following interference from Bobby Roode . The rivalry culminated in a three @-@ way elimination match on January 13 , 2013 , at Genesis , where Hardy defeated both Aries and Roode to retain the World Heavyweight Championship . On the January 24 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy successfully defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Christopher Daniels . Afterwards , Hardy was jumped by a masked member of Aces & Eights who then injured Hardy 's left leg with a ball @-@ peen hammer . This was done to write Hardy out of the tapings in the United Kingdom , as the UK would not allow him to make appearances due to his criminal convictions . Hardy made his in @-@ ring return on the February 28 episode of Impact Wrestling , teaming with his new number one contender Bully Ray to defeat Bad Influence ( Christopher Daniels and Kazarian ) . On March 10 at Lockdown , Hardy lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Ray in a steel cage match , following interference from the Aces & Eights , ending his reign at 147 days . On the March 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Kurt Angle , Magnus , and Samoa Joe in a four @-@ way match to become number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy received his title opportunity on the April 11 episode of Impact Wrestling , but was again defeated by Bully Ray in a Full Metal Mayhem match .
+
+Hardy returned to TNA on June 2 at Slammiversary XI , teaming with Magnus and Samoa Joe in a winning effort against Aces & Eights ( Garett Bischoff , Mr. Anderson , and Wes Brisco ) . As a result of previously winning the Bound for Glory Series , Hardy and Bobby Roode were entered into the 2013 Bound for Glory Series on the June 13 episode of Impact Wrestling . The following week , Hardy defeated Roode in his first BFG series match via pinfall to earn seven points in the tournament . Hardy 's participation in the Bound for Glory series ended on the September 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , when he was eliminated from a twenty @-@ point battle royal by Kazarian .
+
+On the September 19 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated X Division Champion Manik in a non @-@ title match . On the October 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy teamed with Manik defeating Kenny King and Chris Sabin which led to the announcement of the Ultimate X match for the X Division Championship at Bound for Glory . On October 20 , 2013 at Bound for Glory , Hardy debuted a new theme song and competed in his first Ultimate X match for the TNA X Division Championship but was unsuccessful as Chris Sabin won the match after an interference from Velvet Sky .
+
+On November 7 , Hardy did battle with Sabin to determine who would qualify to the quarter @-@ finals of the TNA World Title tournament in a Full Metal Mayhem Match . Hardy defeated Sabin after leaping over the top of a ladder . Hardy made it to the finals of the World Title Tournament and was close to winning his fourth TNA World Heavyweight Championship , but was defeated by Magnus due to the interference of Rockstar Spud . The following week on Impact , Jeff Hardy teamed up with Sting to face The BroMans , Ethan Carter III and Rockstar Spud . Hardy made a leave of absence due to dispute with the management . On February 11 , TNA investor MVP made a phone call to Jeff Hardy and announced that Hardy would return at the Lockdown pay @-@ per @-@ view .
+
+= = = = Willow ( 2014 ) = = = =
+
+In mid @-@ February 2014 strange vignettes began airing advertising Hardy 's return to TNA under his OMEGA character , Willow . He made his TNA return at Lockdown , in the Lethal Lockdown match as part of Team MVP . He then appeared on the following episode of Impact Wrestling , facing Rockstar Spud . In the following weeks , he would continue to feud with Spud and Ethan Carter III , leading to a tag @-@ team match between them ( with Kurt Angle as Willow 's partner ) at Sacrifice on April 27 . Willow and Angle would go on to win that match . On May 1 , Willow defeated James Storm by disqualification when Storm shoved the referee and as Storm made his way up the ramp , Mr. Anderson appeared and hit Storm with the Mic check . On May 8 , Willow 's match against Magnus ended in a DQ when Bram interfered and handcuffed Willow to the bottom rope and started to hit him with a metal turnbuckle . On May 15 , Willow defeated both Magnus and Bram in a two on One handicap match . On the May 22 episode of Impact , Willow defeated Magnus in a Falls Count Anywhere match . On the June 5 episode of Impact , Willow won his match against Bram by DQ when Magnus came to the ring and attacked him with a Steel Pry Bar .
+
+= = = = The Hardys reunion ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = = =
+
+On the July 10 episode of Impact Wrestling , Director of Wrestling Operations Kurt Angle asked Willow to bring Jeff Hardy back for a 20 @-@ man over the top rope battle royal later that night . Hardy competed in the match as himself and won , earning a match with Lashley for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship the following week , which Hardy lost .
+
+On the July 24 Impact Wrestling , Hardy told the audience that we had not seen the last of Willow and then brought out Matt Hardy , his brother , to reform The Hardys . The Wolves joined them in the ring and challenged them to a match for the TNA World Tag Team Championship at Impact Wrestling : Destination X , which the Hardys agreed to . At Destination X , the Hardys lost against the Wolves , but shook hands after the match . On October 22 , 2014 , The Hardys entered a number one contenders tournament for the TNA World Tag Team Championships defeating The BroMans ( Jessie Godderz and DJ Z ) in the first round of the tournament . On October 29 , episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardys defeated Team Dixie ( EC3 and Tyrus ) in the semifinals to advance to the finals of the tournament where they defeated Samoa Joe and Low Ki to become number one contenders for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On the January 7 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy along with his brother Matt were at ringside for The Wolves vs. James Storm and Abyss ; during the match , The Great Sanada and Manik attempted to interfere in the match , but then ended up receiving a Side Effect from Matt Hardy , and a Twist of Fate from Jeff Hardy . Despite that , it distracted Eddie Edwards , who then received a Last Call super kick from Storm . At the Lockdown episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy suffered a minor concussion which was set as a storyline injury when he fell on the door of the cage ; James Storm hit Hardy off the door onto the steel steps below with a cowbell . The falling off the cage spot was covered in mainstream media such as USA Today and TMZ .
+
+Hardy returned after TNA United Kingdom tour . In March , The Hardys participated in a tournament for the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship . On March 16 , 2015 , The Hardys won an Ultimate X match for the belts for the first time as a team and individually . On May 8 , 2015 , the Hardys were forced to vacate the TNA World Tag Team Championship due to Jeff suffering a broken leg in a legitimate dirt bike accident .
+
+Hardy returned from injury on the July 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , making an announcement that his brother , Matt , would face TNA World Heavyweight Champion Ethan Carter III in a Full Metal Mayhem match , in which Matt was unsuccessful . After a brief hiatus , Hardy returned on the August 26 episode of Impact Wrestling , where he and Matt made an agreement that if Matt would his second match against Carter for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , then Jeff would become his personal assistant . Matt was unsuccessful , and Jeff was forced to be Carter 's assistant . On the September 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , after refusing to hit Spud , then hitting Carter with a Twist of Fate , Hardy quit as Carter 's personal assistant , therefore also ( storyline ) quitting TNA . On the September 30 episode of Impact Wrestling , TNA President Dixie Carter announced that Hardy would be the special guest referee in the three @-@ way dance TNA World Heavyweight Championship match between Carter , his brother Matt , and Drew Galloway at Bound for Glory . At the event , Hardy turned on Carter by hitting him with a steel chair with Matt hitting the Twist of Fate , thus giving Matt his first TNA World Heavyweight Championship .
+
+Hardy made an appearance on January 5 , 2016 episode of Impact Wrestling on its live Pop TV debut backstage and ringside to support his brother Matt in the semi @-@ finals and finals of the TNA World Title Series , which Matt had later lost .
+
+= = = = Feud with Matt Hardy ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
+
+On the January 12 , 2016 , episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy made his official in @-@ ring return in a segment that involved Ethan Carter III denying Hardy an opportunity at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , instead bringing out Shynron to face Hardy , won the match . On the January 26 , episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy issued a challenge to his brother Matt for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , as the match was set to begin he was attacked by Eric Young and Bram . Hardy was later piledriven through a table by Young and sent to a hospital . On January 26 , 2016 , it was announced that Jeff Hardy had re @-@ signed a new contract with TNA Wrestling , which will go on for the rest of the year . Jeff Hardy made his return on March 15 , confronting Eric Young in a winning effort in a match to determine the third challenger for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship in the main @-@ event of the show which included Matt Hardy And EC3 , but lost it after interference from Eric Young along with Bram . On the next week 's Impact , Jeff won a gauntlet match after last eliminating his brother , Matt , to determine the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . Jeff faced TNA World Champion Drew Galloway in a losing effort on the March 29 edition of Impact . On the next Impact , Jeff defeated Eric Young in a steel cage match , after hitting the Swanton Bomb onto Young from the top of the cage .
+
+At the April 12 tapings , Jeff confronted his brother Matt , after Matt declared that Jeff was not worthy of the Hardy name . Matt would then challenge Jeff to an I Quit match to take place on the next week 's Impact while Jeff demanded a Full Metal Mayhem match . In the main event , Jeff Hardy and Drew Galloway would face Matt Hardy and Tyrus in a tag team match with the stipulation that the winning Hardy would receive their match type on the next week 's Impact . Hardy and Galloway went on to lose the match after Jeff received a Twist of Fate from Matt and , as per match stipulations , on the next week 's Impact , Jeff would face Matt in an I Quit match , which resulted in a no contest after neither man could continue following Jeff hitting a Swanton Bomb from a 30 foot high stairwell in the Impact Zone . A week later , Hardy began pursuing the TNA World Heavyweight Championship and was put into a Four Way match to determine a number one contender , which was won by Lashley . On the May 10 episode of Impact , Hardy was James Storm 's tag team partner in a rematch for the TNA World Tag Team Championships against Decay in a losing effort after an imposter Willow distracted Hardy . This would give Abyss the advantage to Black Hole Slam Hardy and pick up the victory . After the match , Jeff searched backstage for the imposter Willow and would end up being attacked by three different people dressed as Willow . On the May 17 Slammiversary edition of Impact , Hardy would face one of the imposter Willows in a winning effort , to ultimately be attacked by another Willow while trying to unmask the one he had just defeated . Both imposter Willows would then bring out the leader of the imposter Willows , who would be revealed to be a vengeful Matt Hardy . Matt would later attack Jeff while he was going for a Swanton Bomb on Mike Bennett . On the May 24 episode of Impact , Jeff won a 2 @-@ on @-@ 1 Handicap Ladder match to secure a Full Metal Mayhem match against Matt at Slammiversary . At the event , Jeff defeated Matt . Matt then challenged Jeff to one final match on the July 5th episode of IMPACT Wrestling , set at the Hardy household , where the loser was banned from using the Hardy name . That match , " The Final Deletion , " was won by " Broken " Matt Hardy , forcing Jeff to drop the Hardy name .
+
+= = Other media = =
+
+Hardy appeared on the February 7 , 1999 episode of That ' 70s Show entitled " That Wrestling Show " , along with Matt , as an uncredited wrestler . Hardy and Matt also appeared on Tough Enough in early 2001 , talking to and wrestling the contestants . He appeared on the February 25 , 2002 episode of Fear Factor competing against five other World Wrestling Federation wrestlers . He was eliminated in the first round . Hardy also appears on The Hardy Show , an internet web show which features the Hardys , Shannon Moore and many of their friends . In September 2009 , Hardy signed a deal with Fox 21 studios to appear in a reality television show .
+
+In 2001 , Hardy , Matt and Lita appeared in Rolling Stone magazine 's 2001 Sports Hall of Fame issue . In 2003 , Hardy and Matt , with the help of Michael Krugman , wrote and published their autobiography The Hardy Boyz : Exist 2 Inspire .
+
+As part of WWE , Hardy has appeared in several of their DVDs , including The Hardy Boyz : Leap of Faith ( 2001 ) and The Ladder Match ( 2007 ) . He is also featured in the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling release Enigma : The Best of Jeff Hardy ( 2005 ) and Pro Wrestling 's Ultimate Insiders : Hardy Boys – From the Backyard to the Big Time ( 2005 ) . On April 29 , 2008 , WWE released " Twist of Fate : The Matt and Jeff Hardy Story " . The DVD features footage of the brothers in OMEGA and WWE , and also briefly mentions Hardy 's first run with TNA . In December 2009 , WWE released a DVD about Hardy entitled Jeff Hardy : My Life , My Rules .
+
+= = Artistic pursuits = =
+
+Hardy has an eclectic set of interests outside of wrestling . He calls his artistic side " The Imag @-@ I @-@ Nation " . At one stage , Hardy constructed a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) statue of an " aluminummy " named " Neroameee " out of tin foil outside of his recording studio ( a spray painted trailer ) . On another occasion , he created an artificial volcano in his front yard , which he then jumped over on his motocross dirtbike . On another occasion Hardy created a large sculpture of his brother Matt 's hand signal " V1 " , which was seen on " The Hardy Show " , an Internet web show which features both the Hardys , Shannon Moore and many of their friends . Hardy is also an artist and poet .
+
+Hardy taught himself how to play guitar and later purchased a drum kit . In 2003 , Hardy formed a band , Peroxwhy ? gen , with members of the band Burnside 6 and Moore , who later left . He also converted a trailer into a recording studio . Their first album ( marketed as a Jeff Hardy solo album ) Plurality of Worlds was released through TNA Music on November 7 , 2013 . Peroxwhy ? Gen released their second album Within the Cygnus Rift on July 27 , 2015 .
+
+= = Discography = =
+
+= = = Albums = = =
+
+Jeff Hardy
+
+Similar Creatures - EP ( 2012 )
+
+Plurality of Worlds ( 2013 )
+
+PeroxWhy ? Gen
+
+Within The Cygnus Rift ( 2015 )
+
+= = Personal life = =
+
+He has a tattoo of roots that starts on his head , behind his ear , and finishes at his hand . He also has a few other signature designed tattoos , one of which , a dragon , he hid from his father . It was also the first tattoo he got in 1998 . He later got tattoos of the Chinese symbols for " Peace " and " Health " , as well as tattoos of fire and a wave . Hardy regards his tattoos as his " artistic impulses " . Hardy is very good friends with Shannon Moore , whom he has known since around 1987 . He is also good friends with Marty Garner , Jason Arhndt and John Morrison . He regards Vanilla Ice as a big influence on him , and he was even nicknamed " Ice " by Scott Hall .
+
+Hardy met his girlfriend Beth Britt in 1999 , shortly after the Hardy Boyz had won the WWF Tag Team Championship for the first time . Hardy and his brother Matt went to a club in Southern Pines , North Carolina , where Hardy met her . On March 15 , 2008 , it was reported that Hardy 's house had burned to the ground in a fire . Hardy and his girlfriend were not home at the time , but his dog , Jack , was killed in the fire . It is believed that the fire was started by faulty electrical wiring . In October 2008 , Hardy was building a new home in the same area , which was expected to be completed by early 2009 . In August 2010 , Hardy announced that Britt was pregnant with the couple 's first child , a daughter named Ruby Claire , who was born on October 19 , 2010 . The pair 's second child , a daughter , Nera Quinn Hardy , was born on December 31 , 2015 . Hardy married Britt on March 9 , 2011 .
+
+On September 17 , 2008 , Hardy was involved in an incident at the Nashville International Airport 's Southwest gate . A Southwest Airline employee reported that Hardy appeared to be intoxicated and therefore , he was not allowed to board the flight . He was not , however , arrested as he was said to be " calm " and " co @-@ operative " , and he made other arrangements to get home .
+
+On September 11 , 2009 Hardy was arrested on charges of trafficking in controlled prescription pills and possession of anabolic steroids , after a search of his house yielded 262 Vicodin prescription pills , 180 Soma prescription pills , 555 milliliters of anabolic steroids , a residual amount of powder cocaine , and drug paraphernalia . Over a year later , the district attorney announced that Hardy would plead guilty to the charges . On September 8 , 2011 , Hardy was sentenced to ten days in jail , 30 months of probation and a fine of $ 100 @,@ 000 . Hardy served his jail sentence from October 3 to 13 , 2011 .
+
+= = In wrestling = =
+
+Finishing moves
+
+Swanton Bomb / The Swanton ( High @-@ angle senton bomb )
+
+Twist of Fate ( WWE / TNA ) / Twist of Hate ( TNA ) ( Front facelock dropped into either a cutter ( WWE / TNA ) or a stunner ( TNA ) - usually used as a signature move
+
+Signature moves
+
+450 ° splash – 1999 – 2000
+
+Baseball slide
+
+Diving clothesline , sometimes from the barricade
+
+Double leg drop to an opponent 's midsection
+
+Handspring Stinger splash
+
+Hardyac Arrest ( Rope @-@ aided corner dropkick )
+
+Mule kick
+
+One @-@ man Poetry in Motion
+
+Plancha
+
+Positions himself at the top rope or on another ladder and then performs a diving leg drop or a splash after leapfrogging over the ladder
+
+Reverse Twist of Fate ( Inverted facelock neckbreaker slam ) – rarely used
+
+Sitout inverted suplex slam
+
+Sitout jawbreaker
+
+Slingshot Arabian press – 1999 – 2003
+
+Spine Line ( Arm trap cloverleaf ) – OMEGA ; used as a regular move in TNA / WWE
+
+Split leg pin
+
+Standing somersault leg drop
+
+Whisper in the Wind ( Turnbuckle climb into a rebounded corkscrew senton to a standing opponent )
+
+Managers
+
+Gangrel
+
+Lita
+
+Michael Hayes
+
+Terri
+
+Trish Stratus
+
+Nicknames
+
+The Anti @-@ Christ of Professional Wrestling ( TNA )
+
+The Artist ( TNA )
+
+" The Best Wrestler on Planet Earth " ( TNA )
+
+The Charismatic / Extreme Enigma ( WWE / TNA )
+
+The Legend Thriller ( WWE )
+
+The Rainbow @-@ Haired Warrior ( WWE )
+
+" Brother Nero " ( TNA , coined by Matt Hardy )
+
+Entrance themes
+
+OMEGA Championship Wrestling
+
+" Dead And Bloated " by Stone Temple Pilots ( 1997 – 1998 )
+
+World Wrestling Entertainment
+
+" Loaded " by Zack Tempest ( 1999 – 2003 , 2006 – 2008 , 2009 , 2013 – 2015 ; WWE / independent circuit ; used while teaming with his brother Matt )
+
+" No More Words " by Endeverafter ( May 12 , 2008 – August 28 , 2009 )
+
+Ring of Honor
+
+" Tourniquet " by Marilyn Manson ( 2003 )
+
+Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
+
+" Modest " by PeroxWhy ? Gen ( 2004 – 2006 )
+
+" Modest " ( 2010 Remix ) by PeroxWhy ? Gen ( 2010 , 2011 )
+
+" Another Me " by Jeff Hardy and Dale Oliver ( 2010 – 2011 )
+
+" Immortal Theme " by Dale Oliver ( 2010 – 2011 ; used as a member of Immortal )
+
+" Resurrected " by Jeff Hardy and Dale Oliver ( 2011 – 2012 )
+
+" Similar Creatures " by PeroxWhy ? Gen and Dale Oliver ( 2012 – 2013 )
+
+" Time & Fate " by Jeff Hardy and Dale Oliver ( October 20 , 2013 – November 21 , 2013 ; July 10 , 2014 – February 1 , 2015 )
+
+" Willow 's Way " by Jeff Hardy and Dale Oliver ( March 9 , 2014 – July 10 , 2014 ; used as Willow )
+
+" Reptillian " by PeroxWhy ? Gen and Dale Oliver ( July 31 , 2014 – September 25 , 2014 ; with Creatures Intro , October 2 , 2014 – September 23 , 2015 ; used as a member of The Hardys )
+
+" Placate " by PeroxWhy ? Gen ( October 4 , 2015 – June 28 , 2016 )
+
+" Obsolete " ( Acapella loop ) by PeroxWhy ? Gen ( July 21 , 2016 – present )
+
+= = Championships and accomplishments = =
+
+National Championship Wrestling
+
+NCW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 4 times )
+
+New Dimension Wrestling
+
+NDW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
+
+NDW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
+
+New Frontier Wrestling Association
+
+NFWA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
+
+North East Wrestling
+
+NEW Junior Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
+
+NWA 2000
+
+NWA 2000 Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
+
+OMEGA Championship Wrestling
+
+OMEGA New Frontiers Championship ( 1 time )
+
+OMEGA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
+
+OMEGA Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
+
+Pro Wrestling Illustrated
+
+Comeback of the Year ( 2007 , 2012 )
+
+Match of the Year ( 2000 ) with Matt Hardy vs. The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian in a Triangle Ladder match at WrestleMania 2000
+
+Match of the Year ( 2001 ) with Matt Hardy vs. The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match at WrestleMania X @-@ Seven
+
+Most Popular Wrestler of the Year ( 2008 , 2009 )
+
+Tag Team of the Year ( 2000 ) with Matt Hardy
+
+Ranked # 7 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2013
+
+Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
+
+TNA World Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times )
+
+TNA World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
+
+NWA World Heavyweight Championship # 1 Contender Tournament ( 2004 )
+
+Bound for Glory Series ( 2012 )
+
+TNA World Cup of Wrestling ( 2015 ) – with Gunner , Davey Richards , Rockstar Spud , Crazzy Steve and Gail Kim
+
+TNA World Cup of Wrestling ( 2016 ) – with Eddie Edwards , Jessie Godderz , Robbie E and Jade
+
+TNA World Tag Team Championship # 1 Contender Tournament ( 2014 ) – with Matt Hardy
+
+Universal Wrestling Association
+
+UWA World Middleweight Championship ( 1 time )
+
+World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment
+
+WWE Championship ( 1 time )
+
+World Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
+
+WWF / E Intercontinental Championship ( 4 times )
+
+WWF / E Hardcore Championship ( 3 times )
+
+WWF Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
+
+WWE European Championship ( 1 time )
+
+World Tag Team Championship ( 6 times ) – with Matt Hardy
+
+WCW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
+
+Eighteenth Triple Crown Champion
+
+Tenth Grand Slam Champion
+
+Slammy Awards ( 2 times )
+
+Extreme Moment of the Year ( 2008 , 2009 ) giving Randy Orton a Swanton Bomb from the top of the Raw set , jumping from a ladder onto CM Punk through the Spanish announce table at SummerSlam
+
+Wrestling Observer Newsletter
+
+Best Flying Wrestler ( 2000 )
+
+Feud of the Year ( 2009 ) vs. CM Punk
+
+Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. Sting at Victory Road
+
+= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
+
+= Wagiman language =
+
+Wagiman ( also spelled Wageman , Wakiman , Wogeman , Wakaman ) is a near @-@ extinct indigenous Australian language spoken by fewer than 10 people in and around Pine Creek , in the Katherine Region of the Northern Territory .
+
+The Wagiman language is notable within linguistics for its complex system of verbal morphology , which remains under @-@ investigated , its possession of a cross @-@ linguistically rare part of speech called a coverb , its complex predicates and for its ability to productively verbalise coverbs .
+
+Wagiman is expected to become extinct within the first half of the century , as the youngest generation of Wagiman people speak no Wagiman at all , and understand very little .
+
+= = Language and speakers = =
+
+Wagiman is a language isolate . It was once assumed to be a member of the adjacent Gunwinyguan family that stretches from Arnhem Land , throughout Kakadu National Park and South to Katherine ; however , there was considerable debate about the status of Wagiman within the Gunwinyguan family .
+
+Wagiman is the ancestral language of the Wagiman people , Aboriginal Australians whose traditional land , before colonisation , extended for hundreds of square kilometres from the Stuart Highway , throughout the Mid @-@ Daly Basin , and across the Daly River . The land is highly fertile and well @-@ watered , and contains a number of cattle stations , on which many members of the ethnic group used to work . These stations include Claravale , Dorisvale , Jindare , Oolloo and Douglas .
+
+The language region borders Waray to the north , Mayali ( Gunwinygu ) and Jawoyn on the east , Wardaman and Jaminjung on the south , and Murrinh @-@ Patha , Ngan 'giwumirri and Malak Malak on the west . Before colonisation , the lands surrounding Pine Creek , extending north to Brock 's Creek , were traditionally associated with another language group that is now extinct , believed to have been Wulwulam .
+
+= = = Current situation = = =
+
+The dominant language of the region is Mayali , a dialect of Bininj Gun @-@ Wok traditionally associated with the region surrounding Maningrida , in Western Arnhem Land . As it is a strong language with hundreds of speakers and a high rate of child acquisition , members of the Wagiman ethnic group gradually ceased teaching the Wagiman language to their children . As a result , many Wagiman people speak Mayali , while only a handful of elders , possibly no more than six , speak Wagiman .
+
+The adults in the community are considered semi @-@ speakers as they have a passive understanding of Wagiman and generally only know a few basic words . Their children , the grandchildren of the elders , understand very little Wagiman and speak none . Apart from Mayali , Kriol , a creole language based on the vocabulary of English , is the lingua franca of the area . All members of the Wagiman ethnic group , as well as all other ethnic groups represented in the area , are native speakers of a moderate grade of Kriol .
+
+The small number of Wagiman speakers are also partial speakers of a number of other languages besides Mayali , including Jaminjung , Wardaman and Dagoman .
+
+= = = Dialects = = =
+
+Wagiman speakers are conscious of a distinction between two dialects of Wagiman , which they refer to as matjjin no @-@ roh @-@ ma ' light language ' and matjjin gu @-@ nawutj @-@ jan ' heavy language ' . The differences are minor and speakers have no difficulty understanding one another .
+
+= = Wagiman grammar = =
+
+All grammatical information from Wilson , S. ( 1999 ) unless otherwise noted .
+
+= = = Parts of speech = = =
+
+The three most important parts of speech in Wagiman are verbs , coverbs and nominals . Apart from these , there are a multitude of verbal and nominal affixes , interjections and other particles . Pronouns class with nominals .
+
+= = = = Nominals = = = =
+
+Like many Australian languages , Wagiman does not categorially distinguish nouns from adjectives . These form one word class that is called nominals . Wagiman nominals take case suffixes ( see below ) that denote their grammatical or semantic role in the sentence . The grammatical cases are ergative and absolutive , and the semantic cases include instrumental ( using ) , allative ( towards ) , ablative ( from ) , locative ( at ) , comitative ( with , having ) , privative ( without , lacking ) , temporal ( at the time of ) and semblative ( resembling ) . The dative case can be either grammatical or semantic , depending on the syntactic requirements of the verb .
+
+Demonstratives are similarly considered nominals in Wagiman , and take the same case suffixes depending on their semantic and syntactic roles ; their function within the sentence . That is , the demonstrative mahan ' this ' , or ' here ' ( root : mayh- ) , may take case just like any other nominal .
+
+mayh @-@ yi this @-@ ERG ' this one ( did it ) '
+
+mayh @-@ ga this @-@ ALL ' to here'
+
+= = = = = Examples of nominals = = = = =
+
+guda ' fire ' , ' wood ' [ ɡʊda ]
+
+wirin ' tree ' , ' stick ' [ wɪɻɪn ]
+
+lagiban ' man ' [ laɡɪban ]
+
+gordal ' head ' [ ɡɔɖaɫ ]
+
+lagiriny ' tail ' [ laɡɪɻɪɲ ]
+
+manyngardal ' tongue ' [ maɲŋaɖaɫ ]
+
+= = = = Pronouns = = = =
+
+Pronouns are typologically nominals also , yet their morphosyntactic alignment is nominative – accusative rather than ergative – absolutive .
+
+The 3rd person singular and plural nominative forms , ngonggega and bogo , are labeled ' rare ' because they are gradually becoming disused . Speakers prefer to use non @-@ personal pronouns such as gayh- ' that ' or gayh @-@ gorden ' those ' . Moreover , since the person and number of the subject is contained in the prefix of the verb , nominative free pronouns are often dropped .
+
+= = = = = Tripartite alignment = = = = =
+
+While the nominal case system distinguishes the ergative case from absolutive , the free pronouns distinguish nominative from accusative , as shown above . However , they inflect for ergative case as well , resulting in a tripartite case system , as in the following :
+
+ngagun @-@ yi ngonggo ngany @-@ bu @-@ ng
+
+1sg.NOM @-@ ERG 2sg.ACC 1sgA.2sgO @-@ hit @-@ PRF
+
+'I hit you'
+
+The nominative pronoun root in this instance , ngagun ' I ' , takes the ergative case suffix -yi to denote the fact that it is the agent of a transitive clause . Conversely , the same pronoun does not take the ergative case when acting as the argument of an intransitive clause :
+
+ngagun maman nga @-@ yu
+
+1sg.NOM good 1sg @-@ be.PRS
+
+'I am good'
+
+The accusative pronouns on the other hand , may be accusative or dative , depending on the syntactic requirements of the verb . In the traditional terminology , these pronouns can be either direct or indirect objects .
+
+ngagun @-@ yi nga @-@ nanda @-@ yi nung
+
+1sg.NOM @-@ ERG 1sgA.3sgO @-@ see @-@ PST 3sg.ACC
+
+'I saw him / her'
+
+nga @-@ nawu @-@ ndi wahan nung
+
+1sgA.3sgO @-@ give @-@ PST water 3sg.ACC
+
+'I gave the water to him / her'
+
+For these reasons , the pronouns are also labeled base for nominative – ergative pronouns , and oblique for accusative – dative pronouns .
+
+= = = = = Genitive pronouns = = = = =
+
+In the table above , genitive pronouns all end with -gin , which is separated orthographically by a hyphen that normally divides morphemes . The -gin form here is not a separate morpheme and cannot be lexically segmented ; there is no such word as nganing that would be formed by removing -gin from nganing @-@ gin ' my / mine ' . The fact that the genitive forms have regular endings across the entire pronoun paradigm may have been a historical accident .
+
+This cannot be a nominal suffix like those listed above , since it may not attach to other nominals ( * warren @-@ gin lari ' the child 's hand ' ) . Furthermore , the genitive pronouns may take a further case suffix , as in the example :
+
+gorun nganing @-@ gin @-@ ba
+
+house my @-@ ALL
+
+'to my house'
+
+This would be prohibited by the restriction against case stacking in Wagiman if the genitive -gin were a case suffix .
+
+= = = = Verbs = = = =
+
+Verbs are a class of word in Wagiman which contains fewer than 50 members . As it is a closed class , no more verbs are possible . They are often monosyllabic verb roots and all are vowel @-@ final . Wagiman verbs obligatorily inflect for person and number of core arguments , and for the tense and aspect of the clause . A small set of verbs may take a non @-@ finite suffix -yh , in which it may not be further inflected for person or tense . That non @-@ finite verb must then co @-@ occur with another auxiliary verb .
+
+= = = = = Examples of verbs = = = = =
+
+Each verb is listed with its past tense marker , which is the second morpheme . Pronunciation given where appropriate .
+
+bu @-@ ni ' hit'
+
+di @-@ nya ' come'
+
+ra @-@ ndi ' throw'
+
+rinyi @-@ ra ' fall'
+
+nanda @-@ yi ' see ' [ nandaɪ ]
+
+yu @-@ nginy ' be ' [ jʊŋɪɲ ]
+
+= = = = Coverbs = = = =
+
+There are so far over 500 recorded coverbs in Wagiman , and more are discovered with continuing research . Compared with verbs , coverbs are far more numerous and far more semantically rich . Verbs express simple , broad meanings such as yu- ' be ' , ya- ' go ' and di- ' come ' , while coverbs convey more specific , semantically narrow meanings such as barnhbarn @-@ na ' make footprints ' , lerdongh @-@ nga ' play ( a didjeridu ) ' or murr @-@ ma ' wade through shallow water using your feet to search for something ' .
+
+Coverbs however , cannot inflect for person and cannot , in themselves , head finite clauses . If they are to act as the head of a clause , they must combine with a verb , thereby forming a bipartite verbal compound , commonly called a complex predicate .
+
+= = = = = Examples of coverbs = = = = =
+
+Each is listed with the -ma suffix ( or its allomorph ) , which signals aspectual unmarkedness .
+
+liri @-@ ma ' swim ' [ lɪɻɪma ]
+
+dabale @-@ ma ' ( go ) around ) ' [ dabalema ]
+
+gorrh @-@ ma ' fish ' [ ɡɔrʔma ]
+
+dippart @-@ ta ' jump ' [ dɪbˑaɖˑa ]
+
+wirrnh @-@ na ' whistle ' [ wɪrʔna ]
+
+= = = Phonology and orthography = = =
+
+The Wagiman phonemic inventory is quite typical for a northern Australian language . It has six places of articulation with a stop and a nasal in each . There are also a number of laterals and approximants , a trill and a phonemic glottal stop ( represented in the orthography by ' h ' ) . Wagiman also has a vowel inventory that is standard for the north of Australia , with a system of 5 vowels .
+
+= = = = Consonants = = = =
+
+Stops that are fortis ( or ' strong ' ) are differentiated from those that are lenis ( or ' weak ' ) on the basis of length of closure , as opposed to the voice onset time ( VOT ) , the period after the release of the stop before the commencement of vocal fold activity ( or voice ) which normally differentiates fortis and lenis stops in English and most other languages .
+
+Lenis stops in Wagiman sound like English voiced stops and are therefore written using the Roman alphabet letters b , d and g . Fortis stops , however , sound more like voiceless stops in English , but are slightly longer than lenis stops . They are written with two voiceless letters , pp , tt and kk when they occur between two vowels .
+
+Since the length of closure is defined in terms of time between the closure of the vocal tract after the preceding vowel , and the release before the following vowel , stops at the beginning or end of a word do not have a fortis @-@ lenis contrast . Orthographically in Wagiman , word @-@ initial stops are written using the voiced Roman letters ( b , d and g ) , but at the end of a word , voiceless letters ( p , t and k ) are used instead .
+
+= = = = Vowels = = = =
+
+As with many languages of the top @-@ end , Wagiman has a standard five @-@ vowel system . However , a system of vowel harmony indicates that two sets of vowels are closely associated with each other . [ ɛ ] aligns closely with [ ɪ ] and similarly , [ ɔ ] merges with [ ʊ ] .
+
+In this respect , it is possible to analyse Wagiman 's vowel inventory as historically deriving from a three @-@ vowel system common among the languages from further south , but with the phonetic influence of a typically northern five @-@ vowel system .
+
+= = = = Phonotactics = = = =
+
+Each syllable of Wagiman contains an onset , a nucleus and an optional coda . This may be generalised to the syllable template CV ( C ) . The coda may consist of any single consonant , a continuant and a glottal stop , or an approximant and any stop .
+
+At the word level , Wagiman has a bimoraic minimum , meaning that if a word consists of a single syllable , it must have either a long vowel or a coda . Examples of monosyllabic words in Wagiman include yow [ jɒʊ ] ' yes ' , or jamh [ ɟʌmʔ ] ' eat.PERF ' .
+
+The retroflex approximant ' r ' [ ɻ ] is not permitted word @-@ initially and instead becomes a lateral ' l ' . This only affects verb roots , as they are the only part of speech that takes prefixes and are therefore the only possible part of speech for which word @-@ initial and word @-@ medial environmental effects can be observed .
+
+The verb ra @-@ ndi ' throw ' , for instance , surfaces as la @-@ ndi when inflected for third @-@ person singular subjects ( he / she / it ) , which are realised by invisible , or null morphemes. but as nga @-@ ra @-@ ndi when inflected for a first @-@ person singular subject ( I ) . When preceded by a syllable with a coda , the ' r ' similarly moves to ' l ' , as in ngan @-@ la @-@ ndi ' he / she / it threw you ' . In short , the retroflex approximant ' r ' [ ɻ ] is only realised as ' r ' when it occurs between two vowels . Elsewhere , it becomes a lateral approximant ' l ' .
+
+= = = = = Heterorganic clusters = = = = =
+
+Consonant clusters across syllable boundaries do not assimilate for place in Wagiman as they do in many other languages . This means that a nasal in a syllable coda will not move to the position of the following syllable onset for ease of enunciation . In English and most other Indo @-@ European languages , this movement occurs regularly , such that the prefix -in , for example , changes to -im when it precedes either a p , a b or an m .
+
+in + possible → impossible
+
+in + balance → imbalance
+
+in + material → immaterial
+
+Wagiman does not do this . A nasal in a coda retains its position regardless of the following consonant :
+
+manyngardal ' tongue ' [ maɲŋaɖaɫ ]
+
+binkan ' bream ' ( fish spec . ) [ bɪnɡan ]
+
+ngan @-@ bu @-@ ni ' s / he hit me ' [ ŋanbʊnɪ ]
+
+If Wagiman constrained against heterorganic clusters and assimilated them for place , as English does , these words would surface as [ maŋŋaɖaɫ ] , [ bɪŋɡan ] , and [ ŋambʊnɪ ] .
+
+= = = = = Vowel harmony = = = = =
+
+High vowels assimilate in height to following mid vowels across syllable boundaries . That is , [ ɪ ] will become [ ɛ ] , and [ ʊ ] will become [ ɔ ] , when the following syllable contains a mid vowel ; either [ ɛ ] or [ ɔ ] .
+
+mi- ( 2sg.IMP ) and -ge ( ' put ' ) , becomes mege ' you go and put it ' .
+
+mu- ( 2pl.IMP ) and -yobe ( ' stay ' ) , becomes moyobe ' you lot stay ' .
+
+Wagiman vowel harmony and other aspects of Wagiman phonotactics require further investigation . It is not known , for instance , whether vowel harmony equally affects unstressed syllables .