079project 1.0.0

package/tests/test_FirstStep7.txt

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+
+= = = Public image = = =
+
+Hamasaki 's influence goes beyond music ; she is often considered a fashion icon and trend @-@ setter , a status attributed to her tight control over her image . Besides her frequent appearances in fashion magazines , such as Vivi , Popteen , and Cawaii ! , Hamasaki has often been lauded for her trendy choices in apparels and accessories ; Oricon has repeatedly named her the " Most Fashionable Female Artist " . Many aspects of Japan 's fashions — including clothing , hair , nails , and accessories — have in some way been influenced by her . As with her music , trends Hamasaki started have spread to Asian countries as Taiwan , China , and Singapore . Among the trends Hamasaki has started is hime @-@ kei ( a look inspired by the fashions of 18th century French aristocracy ) ; she has also heavily influenced the kogal subculture . Hamasaki 's constantly changing image is apparent not only in her fashion photo shoots and commercial endorsements but also in her record covers , an element she considers essential in conveying her message . She has portrayed herself as a vine @-@ clad " peace muse " or " Greek goddess " ( on her album I Am ... ) , as a " twenty @-@ first @-@ century Joan of Arc " ( for her single " Free & Easy " ) , and as a " funky Lolita " . Though Hamasaki has portrayed herself in earlier releases as a " girl next door " , she has adopted a more sexualized image since the release of Loveppears . The covers for records including Loveppears , I Am ... , Rainbow , and Party Queen feature Hamasaki in states of partial nudity , for which she has generated controversy . Hamasaki also garnered criticism after she modeled bra for lingerie manufacturer Wacoal , though most of the criticism alleged that Hamasaki was only trying to " play catch @-@ up " with Kumi Koda , who gained popularity for her overtly sexual image .
+
+Hamasaki has accepted offers by numerous brands to endorse their products . Throughout her career under Avex , she has promoted products that ranged from electronics ( Tu @-@ Ka cell phones and Panasonic ) to various snack foods . Among the products she has advertised on television are the Honda Crea scooter , Kosé cosmetics , Mister Donut donuts , and Boss coffee . As well as serving as background music for television advertisements , some of Hamasaki 's songs have been used as themes for video games , television shows and motion pictures , such as Onimusha : Dawn of Dreams , InuYasha , Shinobi : Heart Under Blade and Tales of Xillia . Although Hamasaki initially supported the exploitation of her popularity for commercial purposes , saying that it was " necessary that [ she is ] viewed as a product " , she eventually opposed Avex 's decision to market her as a " product rather than a person " .
+
+= = Other activities = =
+
+= = = MTRLG = = =
+
+Hamasaki launched her own fashion brand , MTRLG ( Material Girl ) , in 2001 ; the clothes were sold at MTRLG boutiques and at Mise S * clusive stores .
+
+= = = Ayupan = = =
+
+In 2002 , Hamasaki created Ayupan , a cartoon version of herself that appeared in a line of merchandise ( mainly figurines ) and in a 2003 cartoon . For her 2007 tour Tour of Secret , Hamasaki collaborated with Sanrio to create a line of merchandise , " Ayumi Hamasaki x Hello Kitty , " that features Ayupan and Hello Kitty together . The merchandise included cell phone straps and Lumix cameras decorated with a picture of Hello Kitty behind Hamasaki 's " A " logo ; the former product was a result of a collaboration with Sanrio and Japanese fashion brand Ash & Diamonds , the latter a collaboration with Sanrio and Panasonic .
+
+= = = Ayu ready ? = = =
+
+She briefly hosted her own television show , Ayuready ? ( October 2002 ) , on Fuji Television . The talk show , aired on Saturday nights from 11 : 30 to midnight , often featured her performing songs with guests , among whom were Goto Maki , Puffy , and Akina Nakamori . To promote the program ( and her album Rainbow ) , Hamasaki opened a restaurant , Rainbow House , on Shōnan Beach ; it was occasionally used in episodes of Ayuready ? . After less than two years , the last episode aired in March 2004 .
+
+= = Philanthropy = =
+
+In March 2011 , Hamasaki donated 30 million yen to relief efforts for the Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami . She also collaborated with fashion magazine ViVi to sell charity T @-@ shirts .
+
+= = Personal life = =
+
+= = = Relationships = = =
+
+On January 1 , 2011 , Hamasaki announced her upcoming marriage to Austrian actor and model Manuel Schwarz , whom Hamasaki met in August 2010 on the set of her music video for " Virgin Road " . On January 2 , her office announced that she and Schwarz had gotten married in the United States the day before . However , on January 16 , 2012 , Hamasaki announced on her website that she would be divorcing Schwarz . The reason for the divorce was that , initially , Hamasaki wanted to move in with Schwarz in United States but due to the earthquake and tsunami that hit her home country on March , 2011 , she began to have a strong desire not to leave Japan .
+
+On December 13 , 2013 , it was announced on her official TeamAyu site that she had become engaged to an American medical student , Tyson Bodkin , 10 years her junior , whom she had been with since the spring of that year , adding " As my partner is an ordinary student , I would be very happy if you could watch over us quietly . "
+
+On March 3 , 2014 , the singer announced on her fan club site " Team Ayu " that she was officially married to Bodkin . According to her agency , the couple already finished their marriage procedure in the United States near the end of February . On the 3rd , Hamasaki 's mother , as a deputy , submitted the marriage registration to Japan .
+
+= = = Health = = =
+
+In a January 8 , 2008 entry on her TeamAyu blog , Hamasaki announced that an inoperable condition , possibly tinnitus or Ménière 's disease , had caused complete deafness in her left ear . She disclosed that she had been diagnosed with the condition in 2006 and that the problem dated back to 2000 . Despite the setback , Hamasaki stated that she wished to continue singing , and that she would " not give up " on her fans and that " as a professional " , she wanted to " deliver the best performance for everyone " .
+
+= = Discography = =
+
+Studio albums
+
+A Song for × × ( 1999 )
+
+Loveppears ( 1999 )
+
+Duty ( 2000 )
+
+I Am ... ( 2002 )
+
+Rainbow ( 2002 )
+
+My Story ( 2004 )
+
+( Miss ) understood ( 2006 )
+
+Secret ( 2006 )
+
+Guilty ( 2008 )
+
+Next Level ( 2009 )
+
+Rock ' n ' Roll Circus ( 2010 )
+
+Love Songs ( 2010 )
+
+Party Queen ( 2012 )
+
+Love Again ( 2013 )
+
+Colours ( 2014 )
+
+A One ( 2015 )
+
+Made in Japan ( 2016 )
+
+= = Concerts = =
+
+= = = Concert tours = = =
+
+= = = New Years countdown concerts = = =
+
+= = Filmography = =
+
+= HMCS Protecteur ( AOR 509 ) =
+
+Her Majesty 's Canadian Ship ( HMCS ) Protecteur ( AOR 509 ) was the lead ship of the Protecteur @-@ class replenishment oilers in service with the Royal Canadian Navy . She was part of the Maritime Forces Pacific ( MARPAC ) , homeported at CFB Esquimalt , British Columbia . Built by Saint John Shipbuilding and Dry Docks in Saint John , New Brunswick , she was commissioned on 30 August 1969 . She was the first Canadian naval unit to carry the name Protecteur ; however , there have been several units , including a base , named HMCS Protector .
+
+Mostly known for her humanitarian efforts , Protecteur had also served in times of war including Operation Friction and Operation Apollo in the Persian Gulf region , multi @-@ national naval exercises and as part of the INTERFET in East Timor . Operation Apollo was the largest deployment of the Royal Canadian Navy since the Korean War . In six months Protecteur logged over 50 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 93 @,@ 000 km ; 58 @,@ 000 mi ) , delivering over 150 @,@ 000 barrels ( ~ 20 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel and 390 pallets of dry goods to deployed coalition ships . Protecteur , as well as her sister ship Preserver , were scheduled to be paid off in 2017 , however damage due to an engine fire aboard the ship in 2014 forced Protecteur to be prematurely paid off . Protecteur was decommissioned at a farewell ceremony on 14 May 2015 .
+
+= = Building Protecteur = =
+
+Protecteur was the first Canadian naval unit to carry the name Protecteur ; however , there have been two Australian and seven British naval units named Protector . The name was also used for a Canadian base , named HMCS Protector .
+
+= = = Construction = = =
+
+First authorized in 1959 , HMCS Protecteur was constructed by Saint John Shipbuilding and Dry Docks in Saint John , New Brunswick starting on 17 October 1967 , was launched on 18 July 1968 , and was officially commissioned by the Royal Canadian Navy on 30 August 1969 .
+
+= = = General characteristics = = =
+
+Protecteur was one of two ships in the Protecteur @-@ class of replenishment oilers in service with the Royal Canadian Navy . The ship is 171 @.@ 9 metres ( 564 ft 0 in ) long and 23 @.@ 2 metres ( 76 ft 1 in ) wide , with a displacement between 8 @,@ 380 and 24 @,@ 700 tonnes ( 8 @,@ 248 and 24 @,@ 310 long tons ) depending on her load . Protecteur 's draught is 10 @.@ 1 m ( 33 ft 2 in ) , and she had been given an ice rating of three .
+
+Two Babcock & Wilcox boilers feed a single General Electric steam turbine rated at 21 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 16 @,@ 000 kW ) that drives a single propeller , allowing the ship to reach a maximum speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . At 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , the range of Protecteur was limited to 4 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 600 kilometres ; 4 @,@ 700 miles ) , but her range could be extended to 7 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 900 km ; 8 @,@ 600 mi ) when only traveling at 11 @.@ 5 knots ( 21 @.@ 3 km / h ; 13 @.@ 2 mph ) .
+
+Protecteur 's primary role was to deliver supplies to deployed ships . Fully loaded , Protecteur could store up to 14 @,@ 590 t ( 14 @,@ 360 long tons ) of fuel , 400 t ( 394 long tons ) of aviation fuel , 1 @,@ 048 t ( 1 @,@ 031 long tons ) of dry cargo , and 1 @,@ 250 t ( 1 @,@ 230 long tons ) of ammunition . Fuel could be transferred at a rate of 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 476 long tons ) per hour and 2 @,@ 500 lb ( 1 @,@ 100 kg ) of dry cargo per hour could be transferred all while traveling at her top speed .
+
+= = = Armament = = =
+
+Four BAE Systems Mark 36 SRBOC chaff launchers and an AN / SLQ @-@ 25 Nixie towed decoy were the ship 's primary defenses . When Protecteur was originally launched , she was fitted with a twin 3 " / 50 caliber gun mounted on her bow , however the 3 " guns were replaced with two 20 mm Phalanx CIWS mounts , one at the bow and one astern in August 1990 . The CIWS emplacements were part of the upgrades that Protecteur received before deploying to the Persian Gulf region .
+
+Her former 3 " / 50 guns were temporarily fitted , together with two Bofors 40 mm guns , six 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns , as well as Blowpipe and Javelin MANPADs during the Gulf War . The CIWS mounts were retained after the war , but the Bofors and 76 mm gun were removed from Protecteur after returning from war .
+
+Originally Protecteur was to be fitted with Mark 29 NATO Sea Sparrow . However , due to delays in procurement , the Sea Sparrow system was never installed . The Sikorsky CH @-@ 124 Sea King helicopters on board Protecteur also provided weapons support , carrying Mark 46 torpedoes and a 7 @.@ 62 mm machine gun .
+
+= = = Crew = = =
+
+Three hundred sixty five men and women served on Protecteur . There were 27 officers aboard ship and a total of 45 crew members who were part of the air detachment that flew three CH @-@ 124 Sea King helicopters off the back of the ship . In 1988 the crew of the Protecteur was officially desegregated , allowing both men and women to serve on board her . Protecteur was equipped with a small dental clinic , which provided dental care for the Royal Canadian Navy when deployed .
+
+= = Service = =
+
+The Polish yacht Gedania left Resolute Bay and went missing on 30 August 1975 . Gedania was a sailboat , and was only the second pleasure craft to attempt to traverse the Northwest Passage ; however they were turned back due to regulations regarding the passage . The sailboat was on a journey to circumnavigate the North and South American continents . The crew of Protecteur initiated a $ 400 thousand ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 75 million in 2016 ) search for the lost ship before it completed its journey .
+
+In 1980 , while Protecteur was operating off the coast of Portugal , Commanding Officer Captain Larry Dzioba hoisted an Esso flag on the ship 's mast , joking that they were the " biggest floating gas station in the neighbourhood " . In 1981 , Protecteur served in CARIBOPS 81 off the coast of Puerto Rico , along with at least two Canadian destroyers . Protecteur and her CH @-@ 124 helicopters performed a nighttime rescue of the crew of a disabled Norwegian chemical tanker in June 1982 . The Norwegian crew was forced to abandon their ship after a fire had broken out . For the 75th anniversary of the Royal Canadian Navy , Protecteur hosted a dinner with the captains of 35 ships , including ships from Belgium , Brazil , Denmark , France , Great Britain , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Portugal , and the United States , as well as then Governor General Jeanne Sauvé and Prince Andrew .
+
+In 1991 , Protecteur was part of the Canadian contingent sent to the Persian Gulf as part of Operation Desert Shield and later Operation Friction ( the Canadian name for its operations during the Gulf War ) . The ship , part of a three @-@ vessel force , the other two being the Iroquois @-@ class destroyer Athabaskan and the Restigouche @-@ class destroyer Terra Nova , saw extensive service in the Central Gulf . The ship was honoured with the Gulf and Kuwait Medal and the Arabian Sea award for her service in the war . In 1992 , Protecteur was sent to help after Hurricane Andrew in Florida , with tasks including repairing schools , community centres , and hospitals in the region . A small pool was built on the helipad of Protecteur providing some relief to hurricane ravaged Floridians . Homes , churches , and a senior centre were also repaired in the Bahamas . The homeport of Protecteur was changed from CFB Halifax to CFB Esquimalt after the hurricane relief efforts . The frigate Vancouver and Protecteur participated in the multi @-@ national RIMPAC 98 off the coast of Hawaii in June 1998 .
+
+Protecteur was deployed to East Timor as part of the Australian @-@ led INTERFET peacekeeping taskforce from 23 October 1999 to 23 January 2000 . Crew from Protecteur helped reconstruct a police academy in Dili during their deployment in support of INTERFET . The Royal Canadian Mounted Police then used the newly reconstructed academy to set up a training school for the National Police of East Timor . Protecteur participated in Operation Apollo for six months , logging over 50 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 93 @,@ 000 km ; 58 @,@ 000 mi ) and delivering over 150 @,@ 000 barrels ( ~ 20 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel and 390 pallets of dry goods , returning to CFB Esquimalt in November 2002 . Operation Apollo was the largest Canadian deployment since the Korean War . Protecteur participated in RIMPAC again in 2004 , along with the Algonquin and Regina .
+
+On 19 September 2011 , Protecteur departed from CFB Esquimalt for a two month deployment off southern California as part of the USS Abraham Lincoln carrier strike group . Protecteur joined the destroyer Algonquin and the frigate Ottawa in Fleet Week activities in San Diego , California , between 26 and 30 September 2011 . On 30 August 2013 , the ship was involved in a collision with Algonquin during towing exercises . There were no injuries to personnel , although Protecteur sustained damage to her bow . The damage was repaired in time for Protecteur to participate in a Task Group Exercise with the United States Navy in mid @-@ October 2013 .
+
+On 20 February 2014 , Protecteur suffered an engine room fire and breakdown 340 nautical miles ( 630 km ; 390 mi ) northeast of Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . She was moving at limited speeds and the United States Navy Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyer Michael Murphy , Ticonderoga @-@ class cruiser Chosin , and the Military Sealift Command @-@ operated Powhatan @-@ class fleet ocean tug Sioux were dispatched to assist . Chosin attempted to tow Protecteur , but the towing line broke . About 20 members of the ship 's crew were injured as a result of the fire , and her engines were badly damaged . After a preliminary assessment , it was decided that the vessel could not be repaired in Pearl Harbor . On 16 May Protecteur left Pearl Harbor under tow from the United States Military Sealift Command @-@ operated Safeguard @-@ class rescue and salvage ship Salvor for an expected three week journey to her home port of CFB Esquimalt . Protecteur was delivered to Esquimalt on 31 May 2014 .
+
+= = Retirement and replacement = =
+
+Protecteur was decommissioned at a farewell ceremony on 14 May 2015 . Plans for replacing Protecteur and her sister ship , Preserver , were first brought up in 2004 . Lack of spare parts for the ship 's boiler and the fact that she is a single @-@ skinned tanker were the main driving points to replacing Protecteur and Preserver .
+
+It had been planned that the ship would have continued to operate until 2015 ; however , the Joint Support Ship Project would not have been completed until two years later , leaving a gap in the ability of the RCN to refuel and resupply her own ships while deployed . Following extensive damage as a result of a fire in February 2014 , Protecteur 's decommissioning was brought forward as repairs would have been " ... too expensive for the navy to consider " given that she was due to be retired in 2017 .
+
+On 19 September 2014 , Vice @-@ Admiral Mark Norman of the Royal Canadian Navy announced the retirement of Protecteur , along with her sister ship HMCS Preserver and the Iroquois @-@ class destroyers HMCS Iroquois and HMCS Algonquin . The Royal Canadian Navy is looking at other options to fill the supply gap until the arrival of the two Queenston @-@ class auxiliary vessels in 2019 at the earliest . Protecteur , along with Algonquin , was sold for scrapping on 27 November 2015 to R.J. MacIsaac Ltd. of Antigonish , Nova Scotia . They will be towed to Nova Scotia where the work will be done at Liverpool .
+
+In October 2015 , MS Asterix , a container ship , was acquired by Davie Shipyards to be converted into an auxiliary vessel , to be leased to the RCN as a temporary bridge between the Protecteur class until the Queenston class becomes available . However , no contract has yet been signed .
+
+= Ipswich serial murders =
+
+The Ipswich serial murders took place between 30 October and 10 December 2006 , during which time the bodies of five murdered women were discovered at different locations near Ipswich , Suffolk , England . All of the victims were women who had worked as prostitutes in the Ipswich area . Their bodies were discovered naked , but there were no signs of sexual assault . Two of the victims , Anneli Alderton and Paula Clennell , were confirmed to have been killed by asphyxiation . A cause of death for the other victims , Gemma Adams , Tania Nicol and Annette Nicholls , was not established .
+
+Suffolk Police linked the killings and launched a murder investigation codenamed Operation Sumac . Due to the size of the investigation police officers were drafted from several other police forces . Two arrests were made in connection with the murders . The first suspect , who was never officially named by police , was released without charge . Forklift truck driver Steven Gerald James Wright , then aged 48 , was arrested on suspicion of murder on 19 December 2006 and charged with the murders of all five women on 21 December .
+
+Wright was remanded in custody and his trial began on 14 January 2008 at Ipswich Crown Court . Wright pleaded not guilty to the charges , although he admitted having sex with all five victims and that he had been patronising prostitutes since the 1980s . DNA and fibre evidence was presented to the court that linked Wright to the victims . He was found guilty of all five murders on 21 February 2008 and was sentenced the following day to life imprisonment with a recommendation that he should never be released from prison .
+
+The murders received a large amount of media attention , both nationally and internationally . The press often compared the murders to those committed by the Yorkshire Ripper , Peter Sutcliffe , who murdered 13 women and attacked seven others ( mostly prostitutes ) between 1975 and 1981 . There was some concern that the level of media coverage at the time could jeopardise a trial . The murders also sparked debates in the media over the laws surrounding prostitution .
+
+= = Police investigation = =
+
+The body of a young woman was discovered in the water of Belstead Brook at Thorpe 's Hill , near Hintlesham , by a member of the public on 2 December 2006 . The body , later identified as 25 @-@ year @-@ old Gemma Adams , had not been sexually assaulted . Six days later , on 8 December , the body of 19 @-@ year @-@ old Tania Nicol , a friend of Adams who had been missing since 30 October , was discovered in water at Copdock Mill just outside Ipswich . There was no evidence of sexual assault . On 10 December , a third victim , found by a member of the public in an area of woodland by the A14 road near Nacton , was later identified as 24 @-@ year @-@ old Anneli Alderton . According to a police statement , she had been asphyxiated and was about three months pregnant when she died .
+
+In a press conference police warned all women to stay away from the red light district of Ipswich . On 12 December , Suffolk police announced that the bodies of two more women had been found . On 14 December , the police confirmed one of the bodies as 24 @-@ year @-@ old Paula Clennell . Clennell had disappeared on 10 December and was last seen in Ipswich . According to Suffolk Police , Clennell died from " compression of the throat " . On 15 December , the police confirmed that the other body was that of 29 @-@ year @-@ old Annette Nicholls , who disappeared on 5 December . The bodies of Clennell and Nicholls were found in Nacton near the Levington turn @-@ off of the A1156 , close to where Alderton was found . A member of the public had seen Clennell 's body twenty feet ( six metres ) from the main road and a police helicopter dispatched to the scene discovered the second body of Nicholls nearby .
+
+Suffolk police linked the killings and launched a murder investigation , codenamed Operation Sumac . Chief Constable Alastair McWhirter acknowledged that Suffolk Constabulary would be reliant on external assistance due to the magnitude of the investigation . A senior investigator with the Metropolitan Police , Commander Dave Johnston , was reported to have been drafted into the murder inquiry team from Scotland Yard in London in an advisory capacity . The day @-@ to @-@ day investigation was conducted by Detective Chief Superintendent Stewart Gull .
+
+During press conferences on 13 and 14 December , DCS Gull revealed that police believed the locations where the five bodies were found to have been ' deposition sites ' , not murder scenes , indicating that the victims were all killed elsewhere and transported to the locations where they were later found ; no comment was made on where the women may have been murdered . DCS Gull also revealed that some items of women 's clothing and accessories , including a handbag and jacket , had been recovered and were being forensically tested to establish whether they belonged to any of the murdered women .
+
+During the course of the press briefings , DCS Gull stated that over 300 police officers were involved in the investigation , and some 400 – 450 calls were being received daily by detectives .
+
+On 15 December , Suffolk Constabulary 's website revealed that a total of 7 @,@ 300 telephone calls had been made to police regarding the investigation , and that over 300 police staff and specialists were working on the cases , with support from at least 25 other police forces . As of 18 December , the number of officers involved in the investigation had increased to 650 including 350 officers from 40 other police forces who had assisted in the inquiry . The number of calls received regarding the case had also increased to around 10 @,@ 000 .
+
+= = Victims = =
+
+= = = Tania Nicol = = =
+
+Tania Nicol , aged 19 , from Ipswich , the first of the victims to be reported missing , disappeared on 30 October and was reported missing by her mother 48 hours later . Her body was discovered on 8 December near Copdock Mill in a river by police divers ; there was no evidence of sexual assault and a post mortem could not establish a definite cause of death . Nicol attended Chantry High School but had left home at 16 to live in a hostel , where she began to use heroin . Nicol , the youngest of the five victims , worked as a prostitute to fund her addiction to heroin and cocaine . She had originally worked in massage parlours , using the alias of Chantelle in one , but was asked to leave on suspicion that she was using drugs . Her mother was unaware she was a prostitute , and thought she had been working in a bar or a hairdressers .
+
+= = = Gemma Adams = = =
+
+Gemma Rose Adams aged 25 , born in Kesgrave , last seen outside a BMW dealership on West End Road in Ipswich , where she had been living , disappeared on 15 November at about 01 @.@ 15 ( UTC ) . She was reported missing the same day by her partner , with whom she had been for ten years . Her body was found on 2 December , in a river at Hintlesham ; she was the first of the victims to be found . Adams was found naked , in a brook , but had not been sexually assaulted . Adams had been a popular child ; she came from a middle @-@ class family and had a love of animals . As a teenager she started taking hard drugs , becoming addicted to heroin . She had been working as a prostitute to cover the cost of her drug addiction , which had already led to her being dismissed from her job with an insurance firm . Her partner was at the time also a heroin user , and was aware she was working as a prostitute , although her family were not .
+
+= = = Anneli Alderton = = =
+
+Anneli Sarah Alderton , aged 24 , a mother of one who was also in the early stages of pregnancy , had been living in Colchester , Essex . Alderton disappeared on 3 December and was last seen on the 17 @.@ 53 train from Harwich to Manningtree . Alderton got off the train at Manningtree at 18 @.@ 15 before going on to Ipswich on another train , arriving at 18 @.@ 43 . Alderton 's body was found on 10 December near Nacton , in woodland in front of Amberfield School . Alderton had been asphyxiated and was found naked , and was posed in the cruciform position . Her pregnancy was also revealed by the autopsy and her family were first informed of it by police officers . Anneli moved to Cyprus with her mother in 1992 after her parents separated , and they returned to Ipswich in 1997 . Alderton attended Copleston High School and gained good grades in her exams . Alderton had been addicted to drugs since age 16 , shortly after her father 's death from lung cancer in 1998 .
+
+= = = Annette Nicholls = = =
+
+Annette Nicholls , aged 29 , a mother of one from Ipswich , was initially thought to have gone missing on 4 December , but at the trial it was revealed she was last seen in Ipswich town centre on 8 December . Her family reported her missing after they grew concerned at the news of the other murders . Nicholls ' body was found on 12 December near Levington , naked but not sexually assaulted , and also posed in the cruciform position ; a definite cause of death could not be established , but her breathing had been hampered . Nicholls , the oldest victim , had been a drug addict since the early 2000s , shortly after completing a beautician 's course at Suffolk College . Soon afterwards , she had started working as a prostitute to fund her addiction . After moving to a housing association home from her council house , Nicholls asked her mother to look after her son . She was thought to be staying with a man in Ipswich at the time of her death .
+
+= = = Paula Clenell = = =
+
+Paula Lucille Clennell , aged 24 , born in Northumberland and living in Ipswich , disappeared on 10 December in Ipswich at approximately 00 @.@ 20 . Clennell 's body was found on 12 December near Levington on the same day as Nicholls ' . Clennell was found naked but not sexually assaulted and a post mortem reported that she had been killed by a compression of her throat . Prior to her death , Clennell commented on the then recent murders in an interview with Anglia News , stating that despite them making her " a bit wary about getting into cars " she continued to work because " I need the money . " Clennell moved to East Anglia ten years before her death , following the break @-@ up of her parents ' marriage . Clennell had three children with her partner ; all had been taken into care and adopted due to her drug addiction . Clennell herself had spent some of her childhood in a referral unit , and it was shortly after being placed there that she started taking drugs .
+
+= = Arrest of suspects = =
+
+On 18 December 2006 , Suffolk Constabulary reported that they had arrested a 37 @-@ year @-@ old man on suspicion of murdering all five women . The man was arrested at 07 @.@ 20 at a house in Trimley St. Martin near Felixstowe , Suffolk . The detention of the suspect was extended by magistrates by a further period of 24 hours , to the maximum of 96 hours allowed under English law . On 19 December , at 05 @.@ 00 , police arrested a second suspect , a 48 @-@ year @-@ old , at a residence in Ipswich , on suspicion of committing murder . The following day , 20 December , police were granted a 36 @-@ hour extension to question the second suspect in detention . On 21 December , a joint statement was issued by DCS Gull and Michael Crimp , senior prosecutor for the Crown Prosecution Service in Suffolk , announcing that the second suspect identified as Steve Wright had been charged with the murder of all five women . Police said that the first suspect , who was not officially named , was released on police bail . Bail conditions were cancelled on 6 June 2007 for the first suspect , as no more inquiries concerning the case were planned involving this person .
+
+= = Court appearances = =
+
+Wright appeared before magistrates in Ipswich on 22 December 2006 and was remanded in custody . On 2 January 2007 , Wright appeared before Ipswich Crown Court and was remanded in custody to appear before a court on 1 May . At the 1 May appearance , Wright formally entered a plea of not guilty . In July 2007 , Wright appeared at a pre @-@ trial hearing in London where it was announced the trial would begin 14 January 2008 .
+
+On 14 January 2008 , Wright appeared at Ipswich Crown Court ahead of his trial , which began on 16 January , with the prosecution opening their case . The court heard how the bodies of two of the victims , Anneli Alderton and Annette Nicholls , were deliberately posed in the cruciform position , with DNA evidence linking Steve Wright to three of the victims and fibre evidence also connecting him to the victims . The defence argued that Wright was a frequenter of prostitutes , and he had " full sex " with all of the victims , barring Tania Nichols , whom he " picked up " with the intention of sexual relations , but apparently changed his mind and dropped her off back in the red light district of Ipswich . This contradicted Wright 's earlier statement when stopped by police in the district in the early hours of the morning , when he gave the police the impression he was unaware he was in the red light district and that he was driving around because he could not sleep . Wright 's rented flat is located in the red light area .
+
+On 21 January , jurors were taken to sites involved in the case . These included Wright 's rented house , which they viewed only from the outside , and the areas where the victims were found .
+
+During the trial , the prosecutor , Peter Wright QC , suggested that Steve Wright may not have acted alone , as the remains of Anneli Alderton were found some distance from the road but with no evidence that her body had been dragged by one person .
+
+= = = Jury = = =
+
+The jury in the trial was the second group chosen for the task , as a member of the original jury had a health issue which would have been prohibitive for the trial . The jury consisted of nine men and three women . All potential jurors had to complete a questionnaire , which asked if the candidates knew any of the victims , witnesses , or the suspect . The judge told jurors that they should not do their own research or obtain information from the media on the case . When it came time to sum up the evidence in the case , Mr. Justice Gross asked the jury to put aside their emotions stating :
+
+= = = Verdict = = =
+
+On 21 February 2008 , after eight hours of deliberation , the jury returned a unanimous guilty verdict against Steve Wright on all five counts of murder . A murder conviction carries an automatic term of life imprisonment but the judge could decide if Wright would be awarded parole at any point . The prosecution QC argued that Wright should receive a whole life tariff and thus never be released from prison . Subsequently , on 22 February 2008 , Wright was sentenced to life imprisonment and Mr Justice Gross recommended that life should mean life , on the basis that the murders resulted from a " substantial degree of pre @-@ meditation and planning " .
+
+After the verdict , relatives of the victims thanked the police for their efforts to solve the crime , while some expressed their feelings that life imprisonment was not enough ( even if Wright were to ultimately end his life behind bars ) , and that he should face the death penalty . Craig Bradshaw , brother @-@ in @-@ law of Paula Clenell , stated :
+
+However , other family members seemed satisfied with the verdict . The father of Gemma Adams said :
+
+Prime minister Gordon Brown praised the " professionalism and dedication " of the police and prosecutors involved in the case , whilst using it as an example of what he believed to be the importance of the national DNA database .
+
+= = Steve Wright biography = =
+
+Steve Gerald James Wright was born in the Norfolk village of Erpingham in April 1958 . Wright joined the Merchant Navy after leaving school . In 1978 , he married and had a son soon afterwards ; the couple later divorced . In 1987 he married another woman ; they separated in 1988 , and later divorced . He worked as a dock worker , a steward on the QE2 , a lorry driver , a barman , and , just prior to his arrest , a fork @-@ lift truck driver . He became a father again with another lover in 1992 . Wright built up large debts largely through gambling , and had recently been declared bankrupt . Wright had twice tried to commit suicide , firstly by carbon monoxide poisoning and then , in 2000 , by an overdose of pills . Wright met his last girlfriend , Pamela Wright ( the shared surname is a coincidence ) , in 2001 in Felixstowe , and they moved to the house in Ipswich together in 2004 . Wright had always admitted that he had used prostitutes , firstly whilst in the Merchant Navy , and continuously throughout his life .
+
+Investigations into other crimes Wright might have committed continue , including the possibility of an involvement in the Suzy Lamplugh disappearance . However Metropolitan Police have stated that this is not a strong line of enquiry .
+
+= = Media coverage = =
+
+The murders have been likened to those by Peter Sutcliffe , the " Yorkshire Ripper " who was convicted of murdering 13 women ( and wounding seven others ) , mainly those who worked as prostitutes , over a period of five years from 1975 to 1980 in northern England ; and to " Jack the Ripper " , the infamous Victorian serial murderer who also targeted prostitutes .
+
+As with previous serial killers dating back to Jack the Ripper , many sections of the media have attempted to coin a name for the presumed murderer , using the " Suffolk Strangler " , and other terms to refer to the case .
+
+A reward was offered , first by local business Call Connection , who initially offered £ 25 @,@ 000 and later raised it to £ 50 @,@ 000 . Shortly after , the News of the World offered a £ 250 @,@ 000 reward for leads to a direct arrest and conviction of the murderer / murderers , bringing the total reward on offer to £ 300 @,@ 000 .
+
+= = = Concerns about the media coverage = = =
+
+On 21 December 2006 , the then Attorney General Lord Goldsmith issued guidance to the media after concerns were raised by Suffolk Constabulary about the coverage and potential prejudice of a future trial . Lord Goldsmith urged the media to show restraint in what they reported about the two suspects being held , for fear of prejudicing any possible trial . A senior prosecutor on the case , Michael Crimp , also expressed his concerns that media coverage could jeopardise the trial , stating :
+
+= = = Coverage of related issues = = =
+
+The murders refocused press attention on a number of controversial issues in British politics .
+
+The first is that of prostitution in the United Kingdom . The murders have highlighted the vulnerability of prostitutes and the lack of action taken by the government , whether to be more punitive in the hope of reducing the numbers of prostitutes on the streets , to move towards legalised brothels and other measures to improve the safety of the women , or to target the demand for prostitution through prosecution of the clients , as is done in Sweden . The government has moved in the direction of tough " anti @-@ prostitution " laws which target the clients . The government had at one point considered allowing " mini brothels " , but abandoned this plan after fears that such establishments would bring pimps and drug dealers into residential areas . Instead , the laws became tougher : the Policing and Crime Act 2009 made it illegal to pay for sex with a prostitute who has been " subjected to force " and this is a strict liability offense ( clients can be prosecuted even if they did not know the prostitute was forced ) .
+
+The second is that of drug use and whether it should be legalised or decriminalised , provided on prescription to registered addicts , or penalised more harshly . High numbers ( 95 % according to the Home Office ) of street prostitutes in the United Kingdom have a history of substance abuse , and prostitution is one means of funding addiction , known to have been used by all five of the victims .
+
+= = Appeals = =
+
+On 19 March 2008 , it was announced that Wright would be lodging an appeal against his five convictions for murder , as well as the trial judge 's recommendation that his life sentence should mean life . Amongst other things , Wright has claimed that the trial should not have been held in Ipswich , and that the evidence against him was not sufficient proof of his guilt , thus giving him grounds for an appeal . Wright was reported to have written to the court of appeal " All five women were stripped naked of clothing / jewellery / phones / bags and no evidence was found in my house or car . " Wright has also applied to receive a new solicitor .
+
+The news of his planned appeal sparked outrage among those affected by his crimes , including Brian Adams , father of victim Gemma Adams , who remains convinced of Wright 's guilt and urged him to instead " come clean and stop wasting everyone 's time " . This first appeal was rejected in July 2008 .
+
+On 15 July 2008 , it was announced that Steve Wright had renewed his appeal against convictions , and it would be considered by three judges in an open court hearing , the Royal Courts of Justice said . In February 2009 , it was reported that Wright had dropped this bid to appeal against the convictions , though some of his family hoped to convince the Criminal Cases Review Commission ( CCRC ) to take the case on .
+
+On 3 December 2012 , Wright announced that he would be launching a third appeal against his conviction .
+
+= = Dramatisations = =
+
+The BBC Drama department commissioned a dramatisation of the murders and the investigation from screenwriter Stephen Butchard . The three @-@ part production , entitled Five Daughters , began filming in November 2009 , and was broadcast on BBC One from 25 – 27 April 2010 . Only a few days after the BBC 's announcement of the drama , Brian Clennell , the father of Paula Clennell , complained that it would portray the victims in " a bad light " . Wright 's brother David also complained that it would jeopardise any future retrial . Sarah Lancashire and Ian Hart led the cast .
+
+A musical play , London Road , commissioned by the Royal National Theatre and written by Alecky Blythe and Adam Cork , is based on interviews with residents of the street in Ipswich where Steve Wright lived . A film adaptation of the play was released in the UK in 2015 .
+
+The case was featured in an episode of the documentary series Real Crime .
+
+= Arlen F. Gregorio =
+
+Arlen F. Gregorio ( born September 11 , 1931 ) is an American attorney , politician and commercial mediator . He was a member of the California State Senate from 1970 to 1978 . As a Senator he chaired the Senate Health and Welfare Committee from 1979 to 1984 and was an elected member of the San Mateo County Board of Supervisors from 1979 to 1984 . After leaving politics in 1985 he began a career in mediation .
+
+= = Early life and education = =
+
+Gregorio was born in San Francisco on September 11 , 1931 to a family who has lived in California for four generations . He grew up in the Bernal Heights district until his family moved to Burlingame , California , where he attended Hoover School , Burlingame High School and the College of San Mateo . Gregorio served as a U.S. Naval Air Officer for three years in the 1950s receiving the China Service Medal for combat duty . He received his bachelor 's and law degrees from Stanford University in 1955 . He was an adjunct faculty member at Stanford University , Notre Dame University in Belmont , and College of San Mateo .
+
+= = Career = =
+
+Gregorio became a member of the California State Bar in 1955 . He was a partner in general law practice from 1958 to 1970 and held the position of Assistant City Attorney for San Bruno from 1962 to 1970 . He also chaired the San Mateo County Democratic Central Committee from 1964 to 1970 .
+
+= = = Politics = = =
+
+In 1970 , he was elected to represent San Mateo County in the California State Senate . According to fellow Senator Alan Robbins , Gregorio " refused special @-@ interest money " and " contributions over $ 100 " . During his two terms in the Senate ( 1970 - 1978 ) , Gregorio authored laws dealing with legislation and campaign finance reform , alcohol and drug abuse , the arts , environment , education and health . He was chairman of the Senate Health and Welfare Committee from 1973 to 1978 . Gregorio had a particular interest in reforming campaign financing and the political process in general . His political reforms included allowing the public to attend state budget conference committee meetings and to access legislator committee voting results .
+
+In 1975 , Gregorio challenged then Governor Edmund G. Brown Jr. to a debate after the Governor vetoed his " alcohol tax bill . " In 1976 he created legislation that would give members of the public the " voting majority on most regulatory boards . " Gregorio lost his November 1978 Senate bid by a margin of only 90 votes after a vote recount . In 1979 , he won a special election to the San Mateo County Board of Supervisors and was re @-@ elected in 1980 , serving through 1984 . Gregorio 's last political race was in 1984 , when he left the Board of Supervisors to run again for the state Senate . In that political contest , Gregorio and his opponent , Becky Morgan , set a " new Senate campaign spending record " of $ 1 @.@ 6 million .
+
+= = = Mediation = = =
+
+After leaving politics , Gregorio began an attorney mediation practice in San Francisco in 1985 . He founded the non @-@ profit , Peninsula Conflict Resolution Center in San Mateo , California in 1986 . In 1989 , he created the first law partnership that focused exclusively on the mediation of civil trial matters . The firm is known as Gregorio , Haldeman & Rotman and is located in San Francisco .
+
+= = Personal life = =
+
+Gregorio learned the Transcendental Meditation technique after reading a Wall Street Journal article about it in 1971 . He appeared with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi , Clint Eastwood and others on an episode of the Merv Griffin show in 1975 .
+
+He has three sons by his first marriage and began his second marriage in 1980 .
+
+= German destroyer Z11 Bernd von Arnim =
+
+Z11 Bernd von Arnim was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the late 1930s . At the beginning of World War II , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was quickly transferred to the German Bight to lay minefields in German waters . In late 1939 the ship made one successful minelaying sortie off the English coast that claimed one British warship and seven merchant ships . During the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign , Bernd von Arnim fought the British destroyer Glowworm while transporting troops to the Narvik area in early April 1940 , but neither ship was damaged during the action . The ship fought in both naval Battles of Narvik several days later and had to be scuttled after she exhausted her ammunition .
+
+= = Design and description = =
+
+Bernd von Arnim had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 long tons ( 2 @,@ 206 t ) at standard load and 3 @,@ 190 long tons ( 3 @,@ 240 t ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Bernd von Arnim carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
+
+Bernd von Arnim carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines .
+
+= = Career = =
+
+The ship was ordered on 4 August 1934 and laid down at Germania , Kiel on 26 March 1935 as yard number G537 . She was launched on 8 July 1936 and completed on 6 July 1938 . When World War II began in September 1939 , Bernd von Arnim was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sisters in laying defensive minefields . The ship also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods . Bernd von Arnim joined the other destroyers in laying minefields off the British coast in November , when Bernd von Arnim , Hermann Künne and Wilhelm Heidkamp laid about 180 magnetic mines in the middle of the Thames Estuary on the night of 17 / 18 November . The destroyer HMS Gipsy , one trawler , and seven other ships totalling 27 @,@ 565 Gross Register Tons ( GRT ) were sunk by this minefield . Four days later , she was one of the destroyers escorting the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst through the North Sea to break out into the North Atlantic . Together with her sisters Hans Lody and Erich Giese , Bernd von Arnim was to lay a minefield off Cromer during the night of 6 / 7 December , but she had trouble with two of her boilers and had to shut them down . The ship was ordered to return to port while the other two destroyers continued their mission .
+
+= = = Norwegian campaign = = =
+
+Bernd von Arnim was allocated to Group 1 for the Norwegian portion of Operation Weserübung in April 1940 . The group 's task was to transport the 139th Mountain Infantry Regiment ( 139 . Gebirgsjäger Regiment ) and the headquarters of the 3rd Mountain Division ( 3 . Gebirgs @-@ Division ) to seize Narvik . The ships began loading troops on 6 April and set sail the next day . Bernd von Arnim was spotted by the British destroyer Glowworm in a storm on the morning of 8 April and the ship turned away to the north @-@ west at full speed after laying a smoke screen . The German ship was suffering damage from the heavy seas at 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) and was forced to reduce speed to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) after she had lost two men overboard . The British destroyer was better suited for the conditions and began to close on Bernd von Arnim . Lieutenant Commander ( Korvettenkapitän ) Curt Rechel , captain of von Arnim , turned his ship to the north @-@ east , closer to the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper . The ships exchanged fire without effect for an hour until Hipper came within range and sank Glowworm shortly afterward .
+
+The German destroyers reached the Ofotfjord on the morning of 9 April and Commodore Friedrich Bonte took his flagship Wilhelm Heidkamp , Bernd von Arnim and Georg Thiele down the fjord to Narvik . A heavy snowstorm allowed von Arnim and Thiele to enter the harbor without challenge and tie up at a pier . The mountain troops immediately began disembarking , but the ship was spotted by the coast defense ship Norge a few minutes later . The latter ship immediately opened fire and was able to fire approximately 13 shells at 600 – 800 meters ( 660 – 870 yd ) range before von Arnim was able to fire seven torpedoes . Only two struck the Norwegian ship , but they detonated one or more of the ship 's magazines and she immediately capsized and sank . None of the Norwegian shells hit either of the two German destroyers due to the darkness and falling snow , despite the short range . Von Arnim lowered boats to rescue the surviving Norwegian sailors and was able to pick up 96 men together with boats from the merchantmen in harbor .
+
+Von Arnim and Thiele were the first to refuel from the single tanker that had made it safely to Narvik and later moved to the Ballangenfjord , a southern arm of the Ofotfjord , closer to the entrance . Shortly before dawn on 10 April , the five destroyers of the British 2nd Destroyer Flotilla surprised the five German destroyers in Narvik harbor . They torpedoed two destroyers and badly damaged the other three while suffering only minor damage themselves . As they were beginning to withdraw they encountered the three destroyers of the 4th Flotilla which had been alerted in the Herjansfjord when the British began their attack . The Germans opened fire first , but the gunnery for both sides was not effective due to the mist and the smoke screen laid by the British as they retreated down the Ofotfjord . The German ships had to turn away to avoid a salvo of three torpedoes fired by one of the destroyers in Narvik , but von Arnim and Thiele had also been alerted and were coming up to engage the British .
+
+The two German destroyers crossed the T of the British flotilla and were able to fire full broadsides at a range of only 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . They first engaged the British flagship , HMS Hardy , and badly damaged her . Both of her forward guns were knocked out and the forward superstructure was set afire . Hardy was forced to beach herself lest she sink , and the German ships switched their fire to HMS Havock , the next ship in line . Their fire was relatively ineffective and both sides fired torpedoes without scoring any hits . Havock pulled out and dropped to the rear to fight off any pursuit by the ships of the 4th Flotilla . This placed HMS Hunter in the lead and she was quickly set on fire by the German ships . Thiele probably also hit her with a torpedo and she was rammed from behind by HMS Hotspur when the latter ship lost steering control . Hotspur was able to disengage , but Hunter capsized shortly afterward . The three remaining British ships were able to escape from the Germans under the cover of a smoke screen . Von Arnim had been hit by five British shells , which had knocked out one boiler . This was repaired by the morning of 13 April and she received six torpedoes from the badly damaged destroyers .
+
+On the night of 12 April , Commander Erich Bey , the senior surviving German officer , received word to expect an attack the following day by British capital ships escorted by a large number of destroyers and supported by carrier aircraft . The battleship Warspite and nine destroyers duly appeared on 13 April , although earlier than Commander Bey had expected , and caught the Germans out of position . The five operable destroyers , including Bernd von Arnim , charged out of Narvik harbor and engaged the British ships . Although no hits were scored , they did inflict splinter damage on several of the destroyers . The ship was able to make a torpedo attack on the British destroyers before being driven off , but her torpedoes all missed . Lack of ammunition forced the German ships to retreat to the Rombaksfjorden ( the easternmost branch of the Ofotfjord ) , east of Narvik , where they might attempt to ambush pursuing British destroyers . Von Arnim had exhausted her ammunition and she was beached at the head of the fjord . Her crew placed demolition charges and abandoned the ship . By the time the British reached the ship she had rolled over onto her side . The ship 's crew joined the German troops ashore and participated in the campaign until the British evacuated the area in June .
+
+= Joe Darling =
+
+Joseph " Joe " Darling CBE ( 21 November 1870 – 2 January 1946 ) was an Australian cricketer who played 34 Test matches as a specialist batsman between 1894 and 1905 . As captain , he led Australia in a total of 21 Tests , winning seven and losing four . In Test cricket , he scored 1657 runs at an average of 28 @.@ 56 per innings , including three centuries . Darling toured England four times with the Australian team — in 1896 , 1899 , 1902 and 1905 ; the last three tours as captain . He was captain of the Australian cricket team in England in 1902 , widely recognised as one of the best teams in Australian cricket history .
+
+He was a stocky , compact man and a strong driver of the ball , playing most of his cricket as an opening batsman . He was a patient batsman and was known for his solid defence , but he was able to score quickly when required . In Sydney in 1897 – 98 , he scored 160 in 165 minutes , including 30 boundaries to assist his team in defeating the English . He was the first man to score 500 runs in a Test series and was also the first to score three centuries in a series . His captaincy was disciplinarian in nature but his teammates respected his broad cricket knowledge . Even tempered with a strong personality , he was a stickler for fair play on the field . His teammates gave him the nickname " Paddy " due to a supposed resemblance to the Australian boxer , Frank " Paddy " Slavin .
+
+His cricket career was interrupted several times due to his obligations as a farmer , first growing wheat in South Australia , and later as a wool @-@ grower in Tasmania . He was a member of several bodies dedicated to agriculture in Tasmania , including the responsible authority for the Royal Hobart Show . He was a pioneer in activities such as rabbit eradication and pasture improvement . He entered politics in 1921 , standing as an independent in the Tasmanian Legislative Council , where he was a forceful speaker . He retained his seat in the Tasmanian Parliament until his death following a gall bladder operation in 1946 .
+
+= = Early life and career = =
+
+Darling was born on 21 November 1870 in Glen Osmond , South Australia , the sixth son of John Darling , a grain merchant and his wife Isabella , née Ferguson . He was educated at Prince Alfred College , where he took an interest in cricket . At the age of 15 , he scored a record 252 runs in the " inter @-@ collegiate " match , the annual fixture against fierce rival St Peter 's College . His future Test team mate , Clem Hill , would later beat this record , scoring 360 . Not long after , he was included in a combined South Australian / Victoria XV that played the Australian XI in 1886 . He made only 16 runs , but the manner in which he made them saw senior players hail him as a future champion .
+
+His father , disapproving of Darling 's fondness for sport , sent him away from his cricket and Australian rules football teams to spend twelve months at Roseworthy Agricultural School . Later , Darling worked in a bank for a time and before his father appointed him manager of one of a wheat farm . Working on the farm added size and strength to an already stocky and athletic frame . He was selected for the South Australian team at age 19 , but his father would not allow him time off the farm to play .
+
+After two years in the bush , Darling returned to Adelaide and cricket . He opened a sports store on Rundle Street , Adelaide and was soon selected to represent South Australia in inter @-@ colonial cricket . He made his first @-@ class cricket debut against New South Wales at the Adelaide Oval ; scoring 5 and 32 as South Australia won the match by 237 runs . The next season , against the touring England team captained by Andrew Stoddart , Darling made 115 , his maiden first @-@ class century .
+
+= = Test career = =
+
+= = = Consolidation = = =
+
+The First Test of 1894 – 95 against England , at the Sydney Cricket Ground , saw Darling make his Test debut . In an innings where Australia make 586 runs , including centuries for George Giffen and Syd Gregory , Darling was dismissed for a golden duck , bowled first ball by Tom Richardson . He played in all five Tests in the series , scoring 258 runs at an average of 28 @.@ 66 per innings . He was included in the Australian team to tour England in 1896 , where he topped the scoring aggregates for the tour with 1555 runs at an average of 29 @.@ 90 , including three centuries . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack stated that Darling " proved himself perhaps the best of present @-@ day left @-@ handed batsmen " during the tour . England won the series two Tests to one .
+
+Andrew Stoddart brought another team to Australia to contest The Ashes in 1897 – 98 . Australia won the series comfortably , four Tests to one . Darling started the season poorly , scoring a duck and one against the tourists for South Australia in a match in which team mate Clem Hill scored a double century . Darling went on , however , to dominate the series with the bat . His maiden Test century , 101 in the First Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground after Australia was made to follow @-@ on , was the first made by a left @-@ hander in Tests . It was not enough to prevent England winning by nine wickets .
+
+In the Third Test in his home town of Adelaide , Darling scored 178 runs and Australia won the match by an innings and 13 runs . He reached his century by hitting Johnny Briggs over the eastern gate and into the nearby park . This is the only time in Ashes Tests where a player has reached 100 with a hit out of the ground . During this innings , he also became the first player to hit a six in a Test in Australia ( prior to 1910 , a six was awarded only if the ball was hit out of the ground ) . He later also hit the first six in a Test in England . Returning to Sydney for the Fifth and final Test , Darling scored 160 runs from 253 scored in total . He batted for 165 minutes , hitting 30 boundaries as Australia successfully chased 273 in the fourth innings . His first 100 came in 91 minutes ; at the time , the fastest Test century scored . By the end of the season , Darling became the first player to score 500 runs in a series and the first player to score three centuries in a series .
+
+= = = Captaincy = = =
+
+Darling was chosen by his team mates as captain for the 1899 Australian team touring England . The team was one of the strongest seen in England to that time , with the cricket reference book Wisden stating , " By common consent the [ 1899 Australians ] formed the strongest combination that had come from the Colonies since the great side captained by Mr. W. L. Murdoch in 1882 . " and that " Darling proved himself one of the very best captains that ever took a team into the field . " The Australians lost only three of the 35 matches they played on the tour , winning 16 and another 16 finishing in draws . The only Test to reach a decisive result was the Second Test at Lord 's , where Australia won by ten wickets due in part to centuries by Hill and Victor Trumper and a ten wicket haul by fast bowler Ernie Jones . Aside from Hill , Darling was seen by Wisden as the best batsman among the Australians . Wisden claimed , " Up to a certain point the responsibilities of captaincy seemed to tell against Darling , but during the last weeks of the tour he played marvellous cricket . " Over the tour , he scored 1941 runs at an average of 41 @.@ 29 , topping both the averages and the aggregate for his team , and was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year .
+
+Darling 's deeds as a cricketer had reconciled his father to his sporting endeavours , but not to his sports store operation . In 1900 , his father purchased " Stonehenge " , a sheep station covering 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) in central Tasmania and ordered Darling to run the property on pain of exclusion from his will . Darling complied with his father 's wishes and moved his family to the remote station , 34 kilometres ( 21 mi ) along a dirt track from the nearest town , tiny Oatlands . Darling stood out of first @-@ class cricket for nearly two years .
+
+It was not until December 1901 that Darling was convinced to return by the Melbourne Cricket Club to captain the Australians against the touring English for the first three Tests only . The English , captained by Archie MacLaren , won the First Test in Sydney convincingly by an innings and 124 runs . The Second Test in Melbourne was played on a rain @-@ affected pitch . MacLaren won the toss and sent Australia in to bat on the " sticky wicket " . Within three hours , both teams had been dismissed ; Australia holding a lead on the first innings of 51 runs . Realising the danger the pitch held to his leading batsmen , Darling re @-@ ordered the batting line @-@ up and opened the batting himself alongside Hugh Trumble . The pair held out the English for 90 minutes ; Darling considered his 32 runs one of his best innings . Nevertheless , Barnes managed to grab five wickets in the final half @-@ hour to leave the Australians 5 / 48 when stumps was called . Twenty five wickets fell in the day 's play . Importantly , Australia had a 99 @-@ run lead and batsmen of the calibre of Hill , Trumper , Reggie Duff and Warwick Armstrong still to bat . The next day , on a perfect pitch , the Australian batsmen established a match @-@ winning lead , eventually winning the Test by 229 runs . In the Third Test in Adelaide , Australia became the first team to score over 300 runs to win the fourth innings of a Test match . Darling , along with Hill and Trumble , led the record making run chase ; Darling scored 62 runs . Hugh Trumble captained the final two Tests as Darling returned to his farm . Australia won both Tests and the series to retain The Ashes .
+
+= = = Return to cricket = = =
+
+Darling agreed to once again lead the Australian cricket team in England in 1902 . In what was a very cold and wet summer , the Australian team won a close fought series against the strong English team two Tests to one . Given the strength of the opposition , this Australian team is often referred to as one of the best Australian teams ever assembled . The team included players of the calibre of Trumper , Hill , Armstrong , Trumble and Monty Noble ; all of whom would be later included in the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame . The team lost only two matches during the tour , with Wisden saying , " No travelling team ever strove harder for victory or more completely subordinated all personal considerations to the prime object of winning matches . They formed a splendid all @-@ round combination " .
+
+The First Test at Edgbaston finished in a draw . Rain saved the Australians after they were dismissed for only 36 in their first innings ; Wilfred Rhodes took seven wickets for only 17 runs . Rain again ruined the Second Test at Lord 's when the final two days were washed out . The Third Test , the only Test match played at Bramall Lane , saw Australia win by 143 runs due in part to a century by Hill and Noble taking 5 / 51 . Darling was dismissed twice by Barnes without scoring , the first Test captain to make a " pair " . Australia won the Fourth Test at Old Trafford by three runs ; Trumble took ten wickets for the match . The last batsman , Fred Tate , came in with England needing eight runs to secure victory . Darling brought the field in and Trumble prevented Rhodes scoring from the last three balls of his over . This left Tate to face Jack Saunders , who dismissed him with the fourth ball of his over to win the match for Australia . England won the Fifth and final Test at the Oval by one wicket . Chasing 263 , England were 5 / 48 when Gilbert Jessop scored a century in 75 minutes to help England to victory .
+
+The star for the Australians was Trumper who scored 2 @,@ 570 runs , easily beating Darling 's own record for a colonial batsman in an English season set in 1899 . So important was Trumper to the Australian team that Darling , who had previously checked that all the Australians were on board the carriage to the ground , was later simply to ask " Is Vic aboard ? " before giving the driver the go @-@ ahead . Darling himself had a mixed tour with the bat .
+
+Darling started the tour in a way that promised great things , but he did not keep up his form and fell a good deal below his standard of 1896 and 1899 . His tremendous hitting power , however , was several times of the utmost value , and very likely in a season of hard wickets he would have had as good a record as ever .
+
+On the return trip to Australia , the touring team stopped to play three Tests against South Africa , the first between the two nations . Australia won the series two Tests to nil , but Darling 's own form was poor . In successive innings , Darling made 0 , 14 , 6 , 4 and 1 . After the tour , he returned to Stonehenge and took a two @-@ year break from first @-@ class cricket . In his absence , Monty Noble captained the Australian team against the touring English in 1903 – 04 .
+
+= = = Final tour and retirement = = =
+
+Before the Australian team to tour England in 1905 was selected , Darling returned to first @-@ class cricket for South Australia . He won selection in the touring squad and was named as captain . A weaker Australian bowling attack saw Darling resort to defensive measures throughout the tour . These measures included directing Armstrong to bowl his leg breaks down the leg side , where Darling had placed up to seven fielders . These measures , unpopular with the English public , saw 19 matches on the tour finish in draws , three more than the 16 matches won by Australia . Wisden said , " Leaving aside Duff 's long score at the Oval , Darling was the finest batsman on the side in the Test games , playing superb cricket under very trying conditions . " At Old Trafford in the Fourth Test , he made 73 out of 105 in less than ninety minutes . His innings included thirteen boundaries , all but one of them being drives . Despite his efforts , England still won the Test by an innings and 80 runs .
+
+After losing six tosses against his English opposite number Stanley Jackson during the summer , Darling decided on a different approach before the Scarborough Festival match late in the tour . At the toss , he approached Jackson stripped to the waist and suggested , in fun , a wrestle for choice of innings .
+
+The 1905 tour was Darling 's last Test cricket foray , as he claimed that continuing to tour was unfair to his wife . He retired from first @-@ class cricket during the 1907 – 08 season . In his first @-@ class career , Darling made 10635 runs , including 19 centuries at an average of 34 @.@ 52 . In club cricket in Adelaide , Joe scored heavily . He averaged 144 for East Torrens Cricket Club in 1899 – 1900 , 98 @.@ 66 for Adelaide Cricket Club in 1896 – 97 and 86 @.@ 20 for Sturt Cricket Club in 1904 – 05 . He continued to make runs in Tasmanian club cricket right through middle age . In 1921 , he made 100 runs in an hour , including 29 in one eight @-@ ball over playing for Claremont Cricket Club . At age 52 , he made 133 not out during a successful run chase where his team , Break @-@ o ' -Day , made 6 / 219 in 90 minutes .
+
+He was contemptuous of the newly formed Australian Board of Control for International Cricket Matches ( now known as Cricket Australia ) , who he saw as attempting to remove control of international cricket tours from the players . He would often refer to cricket administrators as " Dead Heads " . He later represented the Tasmanian Cricket Association as a delegate to the Board of Control .
+
+= = Outside cricket = =
+
+Following his retirement from big cricket , Darling returned to his Tasmanian sheep station , where he was involved in a range of agricultural activities . He pioneered measures to eradicate rabbits , an introduced pest then in plague proportions throughout Australia . He was an active member of organisations such as the Tasmanian Stock Holders and Orchardists ' Association and the Royal Agricultural Society of Tasmania , the organising body of the Royal Hobart Show . Darling imported South Australian merino rams to improve his flock , and his wool topped the Hobart sales on several occasions . He also introduced subterranean clover to Tasmania .
+
+In 1919 , Darling moved from Stonehenge to Claremont House , around which the Hobart suburb of Claremont later formed . He was elected to the Cambridge electorate in the Tasmanian Legislative Council in 1921 as an independent . He retained his position in the Parliament until his death in 1946 . In Parliament , one of his colleagues was Charles Eady , his teammate from the 1896 tour of England . Darling was recognised by his colleagues as a forceful , no @-@ nonsense speaker . In the 1930s , he won an exemption from land tax for small farmers , and toward the end of his parliamentary career , a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate charges Darling had made regarding maladministration . The findings of the commission , released after his death , saw a government Minister and two others found guilty of accepting bribes . Darling was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1938 New Year Honours in recognition of his work as a member of the Legislative Assembly .
+
+Darling married Alice Minna Blanche Francis , a wheat farmer 's daughter from Mundoora , South Australia in 1893 . Together they raised 15 children : ten sons and five daughters . After surgery for a ruptured gall bladder , Darling died in Hobart on 2 January 1946 . He was buried at Cornelian Bay cemetery after a Congregationalist ceremony and was survived by his wife and twelve of his children .
+
+= = Style and personality = =
+
+Darling had a stocky , compact build , standing 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 73 metres ) and weighing 12 stone 12 pounds ( 82 kg ) . His teammates thought his dark hair , blue eyes and moustache were similar to the boxer , Frank " Paddy " Slavin , and he answered to the nickname " Paddy " during his time in cricket . His time working on his father 's farm had developed his strength . During his first game for South Australia , he was challenged to a naked wrestle by the fast bowler and ex @-@ miner Ernie Jones , an informal initiation into the team . To his team mates ' surprise , Darling managed to defeat the much larger Jones .
+
+The left @-@ handed Darling was a strong driver of the ball who showed the batsman the full face of the bat . When necessary , he was a dour defender of his wicket . His fellow players thought that was sometimes unnecessarily defensive in his approach to batting and that he was at his best when driving hard . His South Australian and Australian team mate George Giffen thought that no Australian 's cut shots travelled faster past point .
+
+Darling is a remarkable combination of stolidity and power . His driving , whenever he choose to let himself loose , is tremendous , and no left @-@ handed batsman , at any rate in our time , has possessed quite such a defence . He always gives one the idea of being a great natural hitter , who has rigorously schooled himself to play the steady game .
+
+Darling holds the record for the most innings in a complete Test Match career ( 60 ) , without being dismissed lbw .
+
+Darling had a strong personality and an independent outlook . Those who knew him well thought him destined to be a leader in whatever he undertook . He shunned strong drink and tobacco and found it difficult to tolerate overindulgence in alcohol . Normally even @-@ tempered , he did show displeasure at the heckling from the crowd at Lord 's at his obstinate defensive effort in the face of an Australian batting collapse . He was a stickler for fair play , but his actions against the English batsman KS Ranjitsinhji would today be seen as gamesmanship . During the bowler 's approach and after the bowler had looked at the field , the Australian fielders moved behind Ranjitsinhji 's back . This worried the Indian prince when playing his leg glance and eventually saw him left out of the English team .
+
+The journalist Ray Robinson wrote that " of all Australian captains he came closest to being a disciplinarian " . Regardless , his team mates continued to select him as captain , trusting in his knowledge and understanding of the game . On a wet day during the 1899 tour , a delay in play saw some of the Australians accept an invitation to the Player 's tobacco factory in Nottingam . While away , the weather cleared and play began with Darling leading a team of five Australians and five substitutes onto the field . Darling later called a team meeting that saw the culprits fined ₤ 5 for breaching team rules . His approach to the hard @-@ drinking Ernie Jones was similarly tough . To ensure that the fast bowler would not drink to excess , he selected Jones as twelfth man in a match against an English county team . When Jones refused to play , a team meeting saw him facing expulsion from the team . Darling spoke to him privately and made it clear that without an apology to his team mates and a promise to curb his drinking , he would be on the next boat bound for Australia . The firm and prompt action had a lasting effect on team discipline during his time as Australian captain . Wisden noted that " as a captain he inspired his men to reveal their best form . " As a captain he was a reformer , suggesting rule changes that included making six runs the reward for clearing the boundary rather than the entire ground , and using of sawdust to fill holes in bowler 's run @-@ ups .
+
+= = Test match performance = =
+
+= 2012 Gatorade Duels =
+
+The 2012 Gatorade Duels were a pair of stock car races held on February 23 , 2012 at Daytona International Speedway in Daytona Beach , Florida . The 60 @-@ lap races , held before a crowd of 80 @,@ 000 , were the qualifying races for the 2012 Daytona 500 , the premier event of the 2012 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . The first race was won by Tony Stewart for the Stewart @-@ Haas Racing team . Dale Earnhardt Jr. finished second and Marcos Ambrose came in third . The second race was won by Matt Kenseth driving for the Roush Fenway Racing team ; their first win in the history of the Gatorade Duels . Regan Smith followed in the second position and Jimmie Johnson was third .
+
+Carl Edwards led the first race from the start . One lap later , he was overtaken by Stewart . Afterward , Earnhardt moved into the first position , holding it until a caution period on lap nine . Denny Hamlin assumed the lead at the lap 14 and maintained the position until his pit stop 30 laps later . Stewart reclaimed the lead and held it throughout the remaining 16 laps and two further caution periods to win the first Gatorade Duel . There were three cautions and eight lead changes among five different drivers during the course of the first race .
+
+During the second race , Greg Biffle was the leader at the start . On the fourth lap , Kenseth passed Biffle to take over the lead . He lost the position when Joey Logano and Kyle Busch moved into the top two places . Biffle passed Kyle Busch by the 29th lap and held it during his pit stop 14 laps later . With three laps remaining in the race , Kenseth attempted a race @-@ winning slingshot and passed Biffle when the final lap started and held it to win the second Gatorade Duel . There were five lead changes among five different drivers and no cautions were shown during the course of the second race .
+
+= = Report = =
+
+= = = Background = = =
+
+Daytona International Speedway is one of six superspeedways to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Michigan International Speedway , Auto Club Speedway , Indianapolis Motor Speedway , Pocono Raceway and Talladega Superspeedway . Its standard track is a four @-@ turn , 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) superspeedway . Daytona 's turns are banked at 31 degrees and the front stretch ( the location of the finish line ) is banked at 18 degrees . The defending winners of the races were Kurt Busch and Jeff Burton .
+
+In early years , qualifying had varying formats : from one timed lap , to the average of two laps , to the better of two laps . The idea of having two individual races to establish the starting lineup of the Daytona 500 dates back to the first race in 1959 . The first of the 100 @-@ mile ( 160 km ) qualifying races consisted of Convertible division cars and the second of Grand National cars . Between 1960 and 1967 , the races were 100 miles ( 160 km ) and were increased to 125 miles ( 201 km ) in 1969 . Prior to 1971 , the races yielded points to the Drivers ' Championship . Large well @-@ established teams approach the races as practice sessions for the Daytona 500 while a successful qualification into the Daytona 500 for smaller less @-@ established teams would allow them to enter future NASCAR events during the season . An unsuccessful qualification meant the team would risk closing down until sponsorship was found . Corporate sponsors purchased naming rights to qualifying races ; between 1981 and 1984 , Uno cards was the title sponsor for the " Uno Twin 125 ’ s " qualifying events . In 1985 they became known as " 7 @-@ Eleven Twin 125 's " ; no sponsors funded the 1988 , 1989 and 1990 qualifying events and the races were called " Daytona Twin Qualifiers " . Gatorade became the sponsor of the dual qualifying events in 1991 and the races were increased to 150 miles ( 240 km ) as it became known as the " Gatorade Duels " in 2005 . The races were rebranded as the " Budweiser Duels " in 2013 and became known as the " Can @-@ Am Duels " in 2016 .
+
+The top 35 drivers were assigned to Gatorade Duel races based upon their qualifying positions in the Daytona 500 . Drivers who qualifed in odd @-@ number positions competed in the first Duel along with the winner of the 2012 Daytona 500 pole . Competitors who qualifed in even @-@ numbered places took part in the second Duel . The drivers ' finishing positions in both Duels determined their starting positions in the Daytona 500 . Positions 40 to 42 were filled with the quickest drivers who did not qualify in the top 35 , apart from 43rd which was occupied by an eligible past champion . In the event a past champion was not available , the 43rd position would be filled by the next @-@ fastest driver . Two drivers outside the top 35 were eligible for two transfer spots in each Duel .
+
+After some of the cars ' engines overheated while driving in packs during the 2012 Budweiser Shootout , NASCAR increased the engines ' pressure release values from 25 psi ( 1 @.@ 7 bar ) to 28 psi ( 1 @.@ 9 bar ) to help reduce overheating and alleviate the effects of driving at high temperatures .
+
+= = = Practice and qualification = = =
+
+Two 90 @-@ minute practice sessions were held on February 22 . Matt Kenseth was quickest in the first practice session , with a time of 44 @.@ 809 seconds . Trevor Bayne was second @-@ quickest with a lap @-@ time 0 @.@ 009 seconds slower . Ricky Stenhouse Jr , with a time of 44 @.@ 849 seconds , was third @-@ fastest , ahead of Marcos Ambrose and Mark Martin . Clint Bowyer , Michael McDowell and Kevin Harvick . Paul Menard and Kasey Kahne completed the top ten . During the session , Brad Keselowski slowed to avoid Ryan Newman , causing Clint Bowyer to turn into Keselowski , whose car went spinning into the grass on the backstretch . Keselowski 's car sustained minor damage ; his team could repair it , meaning he was not required to use a back @-@ up car . Aric Almirola led the second practice , in which 25 drivers competed , with a lap of 45 @.@ 065 seconds — nearly one @-@ tenth of a second faster than David Stremme . David Ragan was third , ahead of Robert Richardson , Jr. and Greg Biffle . Bobby Labonte , Joe Nemechek , Bill Elliott , Michael Waltrip and Kahne completed the top ten ahead of the races .
+
+During the session , in where drivers ran in packs and drafted off each other , Juan Pablo Montoya made contact with Kahne and sent his car spinning into the grass on the frontstretch , tearing off some of its nose . Kahne was required to use a back @-@ up car for the rest of Speedweeks . Becauase the qualifying grids were chosen by the order in which drivers qualified in Daytona 500 pole position qualifying , the pole was given to Carl Edwards in the first race and to Biffle in the second . Edwards was joined on the front row of the grid by Dale Earnhardt , Jr . , with Ambrose in third . Stenhouse and Bayne started in fourth and fifth positions respectively . Biffle was joined by Mears on the front row for the second race , with Jeff Gordon in third . Martin Truex , Jr. started fourth , and was followed by Martin in fifth .
+
+= = = Races = = =
+
+The qualifying races for the 2012 Daytona 500 began at 2 : 00 p.m. EST and was televised live in the United States by Speed . The conditions on the grid before the race were dry , the air temperature was 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) and a ten percent chance of rain was forecast . Dr. L. Ronald Durham of Greater Friendship Missionary Baptist Church in Daytona Beach , Florida began the pre @-@ race ceremonies with an invocation . Vocalist Catrina Mack from Orlando , Florida performed the national anthem .
+
+= = = = Race 1 = = = =
+
+Following the invocation and the performance of the National Anthem , three @-@ time Olympic gold medalist swimmer Ryan Lochte gave the command for the drivers to start their engines . Edwards maintained his pole position lead going into the first corner with Earnhardt , Jr. in second . On lap two , Tony Stewart passed Edwards around the outside to take the lead . Edwards , with assistance from Bayne , moved in front of Stewart going into turn three to reclaim the first position two laps later . On the fifth lap , Earnhardt moved into the lead and Ambrose moved into second place . Edwards temporairly moved back into first before Earnhardt reclaimed the position . Bayne , who also battled for the lead , had moved down the field by lap seven . On lap nine , Michael McDowell made contact with David Gilliland 's left @-@ rear quarter panel between turns one and two ; Gilliland went up the track towards the outside wall , and collected Menard and Montoya , triggering the first caution of the race and the appearance of the pace car . Keselowski was also caught up in the wreckage and his car sustained minor damage . Most of the drivers , including Earnhardt , made pit stops for fuel . Earnhardt was required to make an additional pit stop after one of his pit crew went over the wall too soon , dropping him down the field .
+
+The race was restarted on lap 14 , with Ambrose leading Denny Hamlin ( both of whom opted not to pit ) Almirola , Stewart and Jamie McMurray . Hamlin passed Ambrose to take the lead one lap later . Stewart , with aid from Burton , took over the lead from Hamlin one lap later . Hamlin reclaimed the lead on lap 17 and McDowell moved into second place . Hamlin continued to maintain his lead over the next four laps while McMurray battled with Stewart for second . McDowell had fallen to eighth by lap 21 , while Stewart continued in second by lap 25 . On the 28th lap , McMurray tried an overtake around the outside of Hamlin for the lead at turn three but could not complete the manoveure , causing him to drop to eighth two laps later . On lap 32 , the top five were Hamlin , Stewart , Harvick , Stenhouse and Ambrose . As the cars ran in single file , Edwards had dropped to 15th place one lap later . McDowell was told by his team to save fuel on lap 43 . Green flag pit stops began on lap 44 when Hamlin and Ambrose stopped for tyres and fuel , allowing Stewart to assume the lead with Kevin Harvick in second and Stenhouse in third . Eight laps later , after making a pit stop , Michael Waltrip lost control of his car on the backstraightaway after driving from the side of the track onto the race track , and crashed into the backstretch wall . The incident caused the second caution to be shown as every driver except Stewart , Harvick and Edwards stopped for fuel .
+
+Stewart , Harvick and Edwards led at the lap 57 restart . Two laps later , Earnhardt and Edwards temporarily moved to the front of the field but Stewart retook the lead on the same lap . On the final lap , McMurray drove down from the top lane after exiting turn two , and went into Almirola in the middle lane , causing Almirola to make contact with Danica Patrick on the backstraightaway , sending her car spinning 180 degrees , and straight into the inside wall which she hit with her right @-@ hand side , sustaining heavy damage to her car . The crash caused the third and final caution of the race to be shown . Patrick was unhurt ; she was able to walk to an ambulance that took her to the in @-@ field medical center . The field was frozen in place , with the order of finish determined by where the drivers were when the caution began . This gave Stewart the victory ; Earnhardt finished second , and Ambrose finished third . Burton and Edwards completed the top five finishers . McDowell and Robby Gordon earned transfers to qualify for the Daytona 500 . The first race had a total of three cautions and eight lead changes among five different drivers .
+
+= = = = Race 2 = = = =
+
+Following the first Gatorade Duel , the Lead Category Manager at Harris Teeter , Steve Kravitz , gave the command for the drivers to start their engines . The weather conditions were similar to those encountered during the first Duel , abeit with a higher air temperature of 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) . During the pace laps , Kahne had to move to the rear of the field because he had switched to his backup car . He was joined by Clint Bowyer — whose qualifying time was disallowed because his car twice failed the post @-@ race inspection for height sticks , and Bill Elliott — who had switched his car 's engine . Biffle maintained his pole position advantage heading into the first turn , followed by Casey Mears . On lap three , Kenseth moved into the outside line to prepare for a race @-@ lead overtake and was helped by Johnson . Kenseth took over the lead on the following lap with Johnson in second ; Biffle was pushed down to third . By the twelfth lap , the top ten drivers were separated by one second as Joey Logano and Kyle Busch moved to the front two positions by lap 14 . Elliott Sadler nearly lost control of his car between the first and second turns on lap 16 but was able to continue . Kenseth tried to pass Kyle Busch on the outside of turn four on lap 17 , but Busch closed the door on Kenseth .
+
+Kyle Busch moved into the lead on the 18th lap , while Logano moved down the field . After starting from 14th , Dave Blaney had moved up nine positions to fifth by lap 21 ; Logano had moved into third by the same lap . Biffle moved into the lead on lap 23 . Kenseth , who was drafting off teammate Biffle , encountered overheating problems and fell to ninth position . Biffle and Kyle Busch started to contest the lead through the fourth turn on lap 26 , and the pair traded the position over the following two laps . Biffle gained the lead position on the 29th lap . By lap 33 , Regan Smith and Sadler had moved into third and fourth positions respectively . Biffle had reported debris in turn two but officials could not locate it . Green flag pit stops began on lap 40 ; Kenseth , Logano and Kyle Busch made their pit stops on lap 42 while Biffle , Smith and Jimmie Johnson made pit stops on the following lap . After the pit stops had been completed , Biffle reclaimed the first position , while Smith moved into second and Johnson was in third . The top three drivers were followed by Sadler and Kenseth . Kyle Busch was drafting off Logano throughout lap 46 but suffered with engine problems , allowing Logano to pull away . By the 50th lap , the top five were Biffle , Smith , Johnson , Sadler and Kenseth .
+
+Johnson went up the track on lap 52 , but regained control of his car . Six laps later , after the leaders ran single file , Kenseth received help from Johnson while running on the outside line to prepare for a race winning slingshot . Kenseth slid underneath teammate Biffle as they started the final lap , as Biffle attempted to block Kenseth . Kenseth maintained the lead and crossed the finish line on lap 60 to win the race , with Smith in second and Johnson third . Sadler and Biffle rounded out the top five finishers . Blaney and Nemechek earned the second pair of transfer spots to qualify for the Daytona 500 . Bayne , Tony Raines and David Stremme secured qualification for the Daytona 500 based on their lap times in the qualifier , with Terry Labonte using a champion 's provisional to qualify . The following six drivers failed to qualify for the Daytona 500 because they did not finish high enough in their respective Duels or turn a fast @-@ enough qualifying lap : Waltrip , Richardson , Bill Elliott , Mike Wallace , Kenny Wallace and J.J. Yeley . The second race had a total of five lead changes among four different drivers and no cautions were shown .
+
+= = = Post @-@ race comments = = =
+
+After the first race , Stewart drove to the victory lane ; the win earned him $ 55 @,@ 725 . He said , " The fact that we 've won 17 times here and not won on the right day is proof it 's good momentum , but it 's no guarantee obviously . It 's nice to come here , especially for Steve and I , being our first race together , to be able to come out and have two really good strong and solid races back @-@ to @-@ back is an awesome start for us . " Earnhardt felt that the race was " pretty good " and praised Stewart for his victory . He also said that he aimed to start the Daytona 500 without using a back @-@ up car . Ambrose was happy with his third @-@ place finish , " We learned a lot for Sunday , we got a good result . We are smiling right now but it was very close to being the other way around . " He also said he was hoping to carry on his good form into the Daytona 500 .
+
+Waltrip , who failed to qualify for the Daytona 500 after crashing on lap 52 , said he felt he had let everyone down but was thankful his team and his sponsor Aaron 's had given him an opportunity to race in the Duels . Patrick , who was hit by Almirola on the final lap and crashed heavily into the wall , said , " It sucks [ to hit the wall like that ] . You just have to brace yourself . I guess in these situations , I just have to be glad that I 'm a small driver and that I 've got room . Kinda hug it in and let it rip . " She also said the crash was " a blessing in a big disguise " . Patrick , along with Gilliland , Montoya and Menard , were required to drive their backup cars for the Daytona 500 . After the wreck on lap nine , Gilliland cut his thumb on his helmet ; the thumb required one stitch but he was confident about driving his backup car . According to Menard , who was involved in the lap nine wreck , " Somebody turned ( David ) Gilliland ; I saw him get sideways underneath me . I was three lanes up and I tried to clear him and didn ’ t quite make it . ” It took 56 minutes and 34 seconds to complete the first race ; because it ended under caution , no margin of victory was recorded .
+
+After winning the second race , Kenseth drove to the victory lane ; earning $ 56 @,@ 726 for the victory . Kenseth 's victory gave his team Roush Fenway Racing its first win in the Gatorade Duels . Kenseth said , " Jimmie Johnson gave me a huge push there and really worked nice for me the whole race . Without that push it never would 've got there . Greg lost his drafting partner . We were able to separate him and the # 78 [ Regan Smith ] and we had such a big run that Greg was kind of a sitting duck . " Smith , who finished second , stated , " It would have been nice to put the Furniture Row / CSX Play it Safe Chevrolet in Victory Lane , but no complaints . " , and , " It ’ s good to know that we have a car capable of running up front . " Johnson , who finished third , said , " It was an awesome race . We really had a shot to win that one . It was unfortunate there at the end that there were some lapped cars that were kind of mixed in with the leaders . It would have been nice if they would have let us race there ; at least from the white flag on . " It took 46 minutes and 23 seconds to complete the second race , and the margin of victory was 0 @.@ 209 seconds .
+
+After the races , there was continued discussion about overheating engines in high temperatures . Harvick said the temperatures of around 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) had affected the racing , the grills were " too tight " and competitors chose to remain in a single @-@ file formation because of overheating . Smith said he believed there was no efficient method of tackling the problem . McMurray advocated the widening of the grille , saying , " it was a little hard to race because you got too hot " . One day after the second race , NASCAR announced that no further changes would be made .
+
+= = Results = =
+
+= = = Qualifying 1 and 2 = = =
+
+= = = Race results 1 and 2 = = =
+
+= Vainglory ( video game ) =
+
+Vainglory is a multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) video game by Super Evil Megacorp for iOS and Android . Designed for mobile platforms , it is a simplified version of the PC @-@ based genre wherein two opposing teams of three players fight to destroy the enemy base by controlling the path between the bases , which is lined by turrets and guarded by enemy minions . Off the path , players battle for control points that supply extra resources . The game was released for iOS on November 16 , 2014 , after being soft @-@ launched for over half a year . The Android version was released on July 2 , 2015 . The game 's development began in 2012 when Super Evil Megacorp was formed by a team of game development veterans to design and build a MOBA for tablet devices . The game was unveiled at Apple 's September 2014 iPhone 6 announcement event to demonstrate the platform 's Metal graphics API . The team sought to make a game that would entertain players for thousands of hours and encourage in @-@ person multiplayer experiences similar to that of a LAN party .
+
+Vainglory received generally favorable reviews . Critics praised the game 's graphics , characters , and level design , but criticized its lack of team communication features . Reviewers disagreed on the game 's degree of accessibility to newcomers . The Guardian named Vainglory the " best " iOS game of 2014 .
+
+= = Gameplay = =
+
+Vainglory is a multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) game in the style of popular MOBAs League of Legends and Dota 2 but designed for smartphones and tablets . As standard for the genre , two opposing teams fight to reach and destroy the enemy 's base while defending their own in a tug of war for control of a path , the " lane " , which connects the bases . In Vainglory , teams have three players who each control an avatar , known as a " hero " , from their own device . Weaker computer @-@ controlled characters , called " minions " , spawn at team bases and follow the lane to the opposite team 's base , fighting enemies and turrets en route . Lining the lane are turret towers that repel the flow of minions and enemy heroes . The player 's objective is to destroy the enemy turrets and the " Vain Crystal " in the enemy team 's base . If a crystal is destroyed , the team who destroyed the crystal wins .
+
+As of June 2016 , there are 25 hero options . The developers of the game continually add new heroes , each with different skills but balanced for fair play . For example , a hero may have high damage but poor mobility , or strong melee abilities but no ranged option . Players choose between three abilities that upgrade via a common technology tree . There is a set number of heroes that are free to play , with the free to play roster being refreshed every week . Players can also choose to permanently unlock any character for a certain amount of Glory . The game uses two in @-@ game currencies for in @-@ app purchases : one that can be earned through play , known as Glory , and one that can be purchased with money , known as Immensely Concentrated Evil ( ICE ) . Vainglory offers two main modes of in @-@ game communication : team emoticons and strategic pings .
+
+= = Development = =
+
+In February 2012 , game developer " veterans " from Rockstar , Riot , Blizzard , and Insomniac founded Super Evil Megacorp in San Mateo , California to make a multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) game for tablet devices , and thus began development on their first game , Vainglory . Apple chose the game to demonstrate the graphics capabilities of their iPhone 6 and Metal graphics API at the iPhone 6 's announcement event . The game was soft @-@ launched for six months prior to this September 2014 event , and was released on November 16 , 2014 .
+
+Kristian Segerstrale , the founder of Playfish and former head of EA Digital , joined Super Evil Megacorp as its COO . Segerstrale expected Vainglory to popularize the MOBA genre like " Halo did for first @-@ person shooters " . They wanted to make a game that could be played for hours and years , and that players " will organize their lives around " rather than something to pass spare time . The game is designed for tablets , which the company felt was the most fitting platform despite its lack of " core games " ( games that rewarded " teamwork and strategy " over thousands of hours of play ) . They told Polygon that tablets were " inherently social " , " less alienating to new players " , and " possibly the best space for multiplayer play " . Super Evil Megacorp CEO Bo Daly said he saw PC MOBA games as solitary experiences and thought tablets could make the experience better for groups as a reinvention of the LAN party , where players share a common gaming experience in the same shared physical space on separate devices . The company also intended for the game to become an eSport . European eSports tournament organizer Electronic Sports League announced the Vainglory Cup , a set of Vainglory competitions , to take place in June 2015 .
+
+On March 5 , 2015 at the Game Developers Conference 2015 , it was announced by Super Evil Megacorp that Vainglory would be getting an Android port . After undergoing a closed beta , the game was fully released on July 2 , 2015 on the Google Play Store .
+
+One of the most impressive features of Vainglory is its artwork , which is produced by a team directed by Carlo Arellano a.K.a. Chainsaw . Players are also invited to guide the development of Vainglory by interacting with the Developers through Livestreams on Twitch .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers praised the game 's graphics , characters , and level design , but criticized its lack of team communication features . While IGN 's Mitch Dyer wrote the game was accessible to newcomers , Matt Thrower of Pocket Gamer felt otherwise . The Guardian named Vainglory the " best " iOS game of 2014 . The game was one of ten Apple Design Award recipients in 2015 .
+
+Matt Thrower of Pocket Gamer noted how the PC @-@ based MOBA genre has had issues adapting its precise controls to the mobile platform , but that Vainglory trimmed features in the right areas . IGN 's Mitch Dyer wrote that the game was its own " scaled down , rather than scaled back " version of the MOBA genre , and not an attempt to " approximate " League of Legends and Dota 2 experiences for mobile devices . Dyer praised the game 's character and map detail , and wrote that all ten of the heroes had " fun " designs and were enjoyable to play . Thrower felt similarly about its graphics . Dyer praised the iPad controls , but felt " cramped " on the iPhone 6 Plus . TouchArcade 's Ford described the controls as " flawless " and felt that the game 's tutorial was among the best he had seen in iOS MOBAs . He added that he considered the game 's in @-@ app purchases " very fair " and not " pay @-@ to @-@ win " .
+
+IGN 's Dyer reported his games to be about 20 minutes in length and noticed that they tended to snowball out of balance by the time the Kraken creature appears at the 15 @-@ minute mark ( Fixed Gold Bounties in 1 @.@ 12 to help balance this . ) Dyer added that the advantages of in @-@ person team communication made games feel " lopsided " . Pocket Gamer 's Thrower wrote that the game 's " depth " was in learning how to use the individual characters , and that beginners were subject to an " impenetrable learning curve " , especially without organized teams . Ford of TouchArcade said his only issue was with players leaving their play session while the game was still in action , but felt this was mitigated by the game 's " Karma " matchmaking system . Ford otherwise reported that Vainglory played well as a whole as " probably the best MOBA on iOS " .
+
+= Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman =
+
+Timothy Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman ( March 18 , 1845 – February 27 , 1863 ) was an American Union Army soldier of Native Hawaiian descent . Considered one of the " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " , he was among a group of more than one hundred documented Native Hawaiian and Hawaii @-@ born combatants who fought in the American Civil War while the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was still an independent nation .
+
+Born and raised in Hilo , Hawaiʻi , he was the eldest son of Kinoʻoleoliliha , a Hawaiian high chiefess , and Benjamin Pitman , an American pioneer settler from Massachusetts . Through his father 's business success in the whaling and sugar and coffee plantation industries and his mother 's familial connections to the Hawaiian royal family , the Pitmans were quite prosperous and owned lands on the island of Hawaiʻi and in Honolulu . He and his older sister were educated in the mission schools in Hilo alongside other children of mixed Hawaiian descent . After the death of his mother in 1855 , his father remarried to the widow of a missionary , thus connecting the family to the American missionary community in Hawaiʻi . However , following the deaths of his first wife and later his second wife , his father decided to leave the islands and returned to Massachusetts with his family around 1860 . He continued his education in the public schools of Roxbury , where the Pitman family lived for a period of time .
+
+Leaving school without his family 's knowledge , he made the decision to fight in the Civil War in August 1862 . Despite his mixed @-@ race ancestry , Pitman avoided the racial segregation imposed on other Native Hawaiian recruits of the time and enlisted in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry , a white regiment . He served as a private in the Union Army fighting in the Battle of Antietam and the Maryland Campaign . In his company , Private Robert G. Carter befriended the part @-@ Hawaiian soldier and wrote in later life of their common experience in the 22nd Massachusetts . Compiled decades afterward from old letters , Carter 's account described the details surrounding his final fate in the war . On the march to Fredericksburg , Pitman was separated from his regiment and captured by Confederate guerrilla forces . He was forced to march to Richmond and incarcerated in the Confederate Libby Prison , where he contracted " lung fever " from the harsh conditions of his imprisonment and died on February 27 , 1863 , a few months after his release on parole in a prisoner exchange . Modern historians consider Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman to be the only known Hawaiian or Pacific Islander to die as a prisoner of war in the Civil War .
+
+For a period of time after the end of the war , the legacy and contributions of Pitman and other documented Hawaiian participants in the American Civil War were largely forgotten except in the private circles of descendants and historians . However , there has been a revival of interest in recent years in the Hawaiian community . In 2010 , these " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " were commemorated with a bronze plaque erected along the memorial pathway at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in Honolulu .
+
+= = Early life and family = =
+
+Timothy Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman was born March 18 , 1845 , in Hilo , Hawaiʻi , the first son and second child of Benjamin Pitman and Kinoʻoleoliliha . Originally a native of Salem , Massachusetts , Pitman 's father was an early pioneer , businessman and sugar and coffee plantation owner on the island of Hawaiʻi , who profited greatly from the kingdom 's booming whaling industry in the early 1800s . On his father 's side , he was a great @-@ grandson of Joshua Pitman ( 1755 – 1822 ) , an English @-@ American carpenter on the ship “ Franklin ” under Captain Allen Hallett during the American Revolutionary War . On his mother 's side , Pitman was a descendant of Kameʻeiamoku , one of the royal twins ( with Kamanawa ) who advised Kamehameha I in his conquest of the Hawaiian Islands , and also of the early American or English sea captain Harold Cox , who lent his name to George " Cox " Kahekili Keʻeaumoku II , the Governor of Maui . Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman shared his Hawaiian name with his maternal grandfather Hoʻolulu , who , along with his brother Hoapili , helped conceal the bones of King Kamehameha I in a secret hiding place after his death . In the Hawaiian language , the name " Hoʻolulu " means " to be calm " , as a ship in a protected harbor . His siblings were Mary Ann Pitman Ailau ( 1838 – 1905 ) , Benjamin Keolaokalani Franklin Pitman ( 1852 – 1918 ) and half @-@ sister Maria Kinoʻole Pitman Morey ( 1858 – 1892 ) .
+
+Because of his father 's success in business and his mother 's descent from Hawaiian royalty , the Pitman family was considered quite prosperous and were host to the royal family when they visited Hilo . Besides being one of the leading merchants in town , his father also served the government as district magistrate of Hilo . Henry 's mother , Kinoʻole , had inherited control over much of the lands in Hilo and Ōlaʻa from her own father , and King Kamehameha III had granted her use of the ahupuaʻa of Hilo after her marriage . During Henry 's early childhood , the family lived in the mansion that Benjamin Pitman had built in 1840 , in an area known as Niopola , one of the favored resort spots of ancient Hawaiian royalty . The residence also became known as the Spencer House after Pitman sold it to his business partner Captain Thomas Spencer . The property later became the site of the Hilo Hotel , built in 1888 and torn down in 1956 . In the 1850s the family moved to the capital of Honolulu where Benjamin Pitman took up banking and built a beautiful two @-@ story house that he named Waialeale ( " rippling water " ) at the corner of Alakea and Beretania Streets .
+
+= = Education = =
+
+While in Hawaiʻi , Pitman and his older sister Mary attended Mrs. Wetmore 's children 's school in Hilo . The school was located at the Wetmores ' residence on Church Street . Taught by Lucy Sheldon Taylor Wetmore , the wife of American missionary doctor and government physician Charles Hinckley Wetmore , the two elder Pitman children received their education in English rather than Hawaiian . This was unusual since Hawaiian was the official language of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi , and all other schools in Hilo were conducted in the Hawaiian language . Mrs. Wetmore taught the children reading , writing , spelling , arithmetic and singing , while also reinforcing the curriculum with a strong adherence to the principles of the Protestant faith . Like the Pitman siblings , many of their classmates were also of half @-@ Hawaiian ( hapa @-@ kanaka ) descent with a majority of them being Chinese @-@ Hawaiians ( hapa @-@ pake ) .
+
+After the death of his mother Kinoʻole in 1855 , Pitman 's father remarried to Maria Louisa Walsworth Kinney , the widow of American missionary Rev. Henry Kinney . The Kinneys were part of the Twelfth Company of missionaries from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions to arrive in 1848 . The marriage aligned the Pitman children with the American missionary community . They were called " cousins " by the children of the missionaries and considered part of the extended missionary family of Hawaiʻi . This first stepmother died in 1858 after giving birth to their father 's fourth child , a daughter named Maria Kinoʻole ( 1858 – 1892 ) . The Pitman family returned to Massachusetts in 1860 where his father remarried to his third wife Martha Ball , giving his four children another stepmother . According to an 1887 biography written by Robert G. Carter , a private who would later serve in the same company as Pitman , he was neglected after his mother 's death by his father and stepmother , who " subjected [ him ] to neglect and treatment , that with his sensitive nature he could not bear " . He continued his education in the public schools of Roxbury , where the Pitman family lived for a period of time . The 1860 United States Census registered Pitman under his teacher Solomon Adams as residing and presumably being educated in Newton , also in the Boston area .
+
+Growing into adolescence , he was said to strongly resemble his Hawaiian mother . Robert G. Carter gave a brief description of his appearance in wartime letters first published in 1897 :
+
+[ A ] tall , slim boy , straight as an arrow . His face was a perfect oval , his hair was as black as a raven 's wing , and his eyes were large and of that peculiar soft , melting blackness , which excites pity when one is in distress . His skin was a clear , dark olive , bordering on the swarthy , and this , with his high cheek bones , would have led us to suppose that his nationality was different from our own , had we not known that his name was plain Henry P. There was an air of good breeding and refinement about him , that , with his small hands and feet , would have set us to thinking , had it not been that in our youth and intensely enthusiastic natures , we gave no thought to our comrades ' personal appearance . We can look back now and see the shy , reserved nature of the boy , the dark , melancholy eyes , the sad smile , the sensitive twitching of the lips .
+
+= = American Civil War = =
+
+After the outbreak of the American Civil War , the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi under King Kamehameha IV declared its neutrality on August 26 , 1861 . But many Native Hawaiians and Hawaiian @-@ born Americans ( mainly descendants of the American missionaries ) both abroad and in the islands volunteered and enlisted in the military regiments of various states in the Union and the Confederacy . Individual Native Hawaiians had been serving in the United States Navy and Army since the War of 1812 , and even more served during the American Civil War . Many Hawaiians sympathized with the Union because of Hawaiʻi 's ties to New England through its missionaries and the whaling industries , and the ideological opposition of many to the institution of slavery .
+
+= = = Enlistment and service = = =
+
+On August 14 , 1862 , Pitman left school without his family 's knowledge and volunteered to serve in the Union Army and fight in the American Civil War . He apparently never informed his family in advance about the choice to join the war because the news of his enlistment was reported back in Hawaiʻi 's American missionary community as " Henry Pitman has run away from home and gone [ to war ] . " Carter described Pitman 's rationale for enlisting : " In the midst of the clamor of war , when the very air vibrated with excitement , the wild enthusiasm of the crowds , and the inspiring sound of the drum , his Indian nature rose within him . His resolve was made . "
+
+Pitman was a hapa @-@ haole , of part Hawaiian and part Caucasian descent . His father was white and his native @-@ born mother was also part Caucasian from her own mother , who was the daughter of Captain Cox and a Hawaiian chiefess . Despite his mixed @-@ race ancestry , Pitman avoided the racial segregation imposed on other Native Hawaiian volunteers in this period . Most Native Hawaiians who participated in the war were assigned to colored regiments , but Pitman 's fair skin color meant he was able to serve in a white unit , indicating that unit assignment may have been influenced by how dark Hawaiians appeared . Historians Bob Dye , James L. Haley and others claimed Pitman was placed in the colored regiments because of his mixed race , but regiment records indicate otherwise .
+
+Pitman served as a private in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry , Company H. This regiment was also named the " Henry Wilson 's Regiment " after Col. Henry Wilson , who commanded the unit in 1861 . Col. William S. Tilton was the commander during Pitman 's brief term of service . The regiment was part of the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac under the command of Major General George B. McClellan . During this period , the regiment fought in the Second Battle of Bull Run and was involved in the Maryland Campaign fighting in the Battle of Antietam , the bloodiest single @-@ day battle in American history , and the Battle of Shepherdstown . His regiment was on the march to the Battle of Fredericksburg when Pitman was captured by Confederate troops .
+
+= = = Imprisonment and death = = =
+
+The most detailed account of Pitman 's final fate in the War came from Robert G. Carter . In November 1862 , Pitman was captured near Warrenton Junction on the march toward Fredericksburg , Virginia , during the weeks prior to the Battle of Fredericksburg . He had fallen behind the group because his feet had blistered and swollen due to the tightness of " a pair of thin , high @-@ heeled and narrow soled boots " he had purchased . One of his comrades temporarily stayed behind to care for him but later decided to move on with the rest of the camp for fear of disciplinary consequences of falling out without authority . He was urged to move on , but without much success . Pitman 's last words to his comrade were , " I will be in camp by night , good by . " His fellow soldiers never saw him again and considered him missing . Shortly after he was left , a band of Confederate guerrillas under Colonel John S. Mosby captured the weary and defenseless soldier without a struggle . The inscription on his tombstone differs slightly from Carter 's account , stating he was captured by J. E. B. Stuart 's cavalry instead .
+
+After Pitman 's capture , he was marched to Richmond in a weak physical state . He was imprisoned in the Confederate Libby Prison and Belle Isle , which were notoriously harsh prisons . Pitman 's letters home described his place of incarceration as the " Pen " where " the filthy meat [ was ] thrown to them as if they were dogs " . The condition of his incarceration including the shortage of food , lack of sanitation , overcrowding and his physical weakness made him susceptible to virulent diseases present in the Confederate prisons . Carter described how the prisons " wore out the brave spirit " . During a prisoner exchange , Pitman was released by the Confederate Army at City Point , Virginia , on December 12 , 1862 , and then sent to Annapolis Parole Camp . Suffering from complications due to the conditions of his imprisonment , he contracted " lung fever " , which was perhaps pneumonia . Carter wrote later how his friend had " linger [ ed ] feebly a few weeks , like the flickering of an expiring flame , then quietly pass [ ed ] away to an eternal life " . Pitman died at Parole Camp on February 27 , 1863 , just weeks short of his eighteenth birthday . According to historians Anita Manning and Justin Vance , Pitman " has the unfortunate distinction of being the only known Hawaiian or Pacific Islander to die as a prisoner of war in the Civil War . "
+
+Considering him missing , Pitman 's regiment did not discover his final fate until news of his funeral at Roxbury was received in the spring of the following year . His remains were returned to his family in Massachusetts after his death in Parole Camp . Benjamin Pitman , his father , had him buried in a family plot in Mount Auburn Cemetery . On one side of the Pitman family grave marker was placed the inscription :
+
+Timothy Henry Pitman
+
+Born at Hilo , Hawaii
+
+Mar. 18 , 1845
+
+Died at Camp Parole
+
+Annapolis , MD , Feb 'y 27 , 1863
+
+Aged 17 years 11 mos . 9 daysA member of Co . H , 22nd Regiment
+
+Mass . Vols . , was with his Regiment in the
+
+battles of South Mountain , Antietam and
+
+Sharpsburg . Was taken prisoner by Stuart 's
+
+cavalry on the march to Fredricksburg ;
+
+Imprisoned in Libby Prison , paroled and
+
+sent to Camp Parole , Annapolis , and died in
+
+camp of pneumonia .
+
+= = Legacy = =
+
+After his death , the memory of Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman was honored by friends and family members back in Massachusetts and Hawaiʻi . During a return to Hawaiʻi in 1917 , his younger brother Benjamin Keolaokalani Franklin Pitman and his wife Almira Hollander Pitman , discovered a grandson of a nephew was named Kealiʻi i Kaua i Pakoma ( meaning " Chief that fought the Potomac " ) in honor of his deceased older brother . Similarly , Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman Beckley , the second son of his Hawaiian first cousin George Charles Moʻoheau Beckley , was also named after him . Shortly after his death , Pitman was eulogized back in Hawaiʻi by Martha Ann Chamberlain , Corresponding Secretary of the Hawaiian Mission Children 's Society :
+
+Our cousin , Henry Pitman , the first of Hawaii 's sons to fall in the war , died at Annapolis Parole Camp , Feb. 27 , of lung fever , serving as a soldier in the Union army . His remains were deposited in Mt . Auburn Cemetery , near Boston , Mass . He died in a just cause . Let his memory be embalmed among our band .
+
+After the war , the military service of Hawaiians , including Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman , were largely forgotten , disappearing from the collective memories of the American Civil War and the history of Hawaiʻi . However , in recent years , Hawaiian residents and historians and descendants of Hawaiian combatants in the conflict have insisted on the need to remember " our boys from Hawaii " . Renewed interest in the stories of these individuals and this particular period of Hawaiian @-@ American history have inspired efforts to preserve the memories of the Hawaiians who served in the war . On August 26 , 2010 , on the anniversary of the signing of the Hawaiian Neutrality Proclamation , a bronze plaque was erected along the memorial pathway at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in Honolulu recognizing these " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " , the more than one hundred documented Hawaiians who served during the American Civil War for both the Union and the Confederacy . Pitman 's great @-@ grandniece Diane Kinoʻole o Liliha Pitman Spieler attended the ceremony . Pitman Spieler stated , " I 'm very proud of a young man of his age – he was quite young – who served in the Civil War for his family . "
+
+In 2013 , Todd Ocvirk , Nanette Napoleon , Justin Vance , Anita Manning and others began the process of creating a historical documentary about the individual experiences and stories of Hawaii @-@ born soldiers and sailors of the American Civil War , including Pitman , Samuel C. Armstrong , Nathaniel Bright Emerson , James Wood Bush , J. R. Kealoha and many other unnamed combatants of both the Union and the Confederacy . In 2014 , Maui @-@ based author Wayne Moniz wrote a fictionalized story based on the lives and Civil War service of Hawaiian soldiers like Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman in his book Pukoko : A Hawaiian in the American Civil War . In 2015 , the sesquicentennial of the end of the war , the National Park Service released a publication titled Asians and Pacific Islanders and the Civil War about the service of the large number of combatants of Asian and Pacific Islander descent who fought during the war . The history of Hawaiʻi 's involvement and the biographies of Pitman , Bush , Kealoha and others were co @-@ written by historians Anita Manning and Justin Vance .
+
+= 34 Montagu Square , Marylebone =
+
+34 Montagu Square is the address of a London ground floor and basement flat once leased by Beatles member Ringo Starr during the mid @-@ 1960s . Its location is 1 @.@ 3 miles ( 2 @.@ 09 km ) from the Abbey Road Studios , where The Beatles recorded . Many well @-@ known people have lived at the address , including a British Member of Parliament , Richard @-@ Hanbury Gurney , and the daughter of the Marquess of Sligo , Lady Emily Charlotte Browne . The square was named after Elizabeth Montagu , who was highly regarded by London society in the late 18th century .
+
+Paul McCartney recorded demo songs there , such as " I 'm Looking Through You " , and worked on various compositions , including " Eleanor Rigby " . With the help of Ian Sommerville he converted the flat to a studio for Apple Corps ' avant @-@ garde Zapple label , recording William S. Burroughs for spoken @-@ word Zapple albums . Jimi Hendrix and his manager , Chas Chandler , later lived there with their girlfriends . Whilst living there , Hendrix composed " The Wind Cries Mary " .
+
+For three months , John Lennon and Yoko Ono rented the flat , taking a photograph that would become the cover of their Two Virgins album . After the police raided the flat looking for drugs , the landlord of the property sought an injunction against Starr to prevent it from being used for anything untoward or illegal . Starr sold the lease in February 1969 . In 2010 , Ono unveiled a blue marker plaque at the site , making it an English Heritage " building of historical interest " .
+
+= = History and occupants = =
+
+Joseph T. Parkinson designed and built the houses in Montagu Square as part of the Portman Estate , between 1810 and 1815 . It was named after the Yorkshire @-@ born Elizabeth Montagu : a social reformer , patron of the arts , salonist , literary critic , and writer . She had lived nearby , in Montagu House , Portman Square , until her death on 25 August 1800 . The square is an example of Regency terrace residential architecture that was popular in the 19th century , with a communal garden located in the centre ; surrounded by iron railings and padlocked so its use would be limited to residents . No. 34 was built as one of the square 's many tall buildings which were originally intended for use as whole family homes instead of apartments . A Victorian writer was especially caustic when talking about the architecture : " Montagu Square and Bryanston Square are twin deformities , [ which were built by ] economical modern builders ... [ to ] dispose of with profit to those who wish to live near the great " .
+
+Richard @-@ Hanbury Gurney , a banker and M.P. for Norwich , lived at No. 34 in 1830 . He was the father of Hudson Gurney , who became an M.P. for Newtown , Isle of Wight in 1816 . In the book , A local index to the list of proprietors of East India stock , John White was cited as living there in 1848 , and according to the Royal Pharmaceutical Society 's journals , one Thomas Hopkins , a pharmacist , was living in the house in 1849 . Aged 86 , Lady Emily Charlotte Browne died at the address on 14 March 1916 . She was the 5th daughter of Peter Howe , the Marquess of Sligo , and of royal blood . The English model and actress , Chrissie Shrimpton ( Mick Jagger 's girlfriend from 1963 to 1966 ) , lived close to No. 34 in the 1960s .
+
+= = = Starr 's lease = = =
+
+Starr leased Flat 1 in 1965 , shortly before his marriage to Maureen Cox . It consisted of the ground floor and lower @-@ ground floor ( the cellar / basement in the original house ) , and entrance was gained by walking down the steps leading to the lower @-@ ground floor door , or the front door at ground level . The ground floor had an en @-@ suite bathroom ( with a pink bath sunk into the floor ) a bedroom and a sitting room . Downstairs was a kitchen , a bathroom and a bedroom / sitting room , which had its original fireplace . A resident of the square , Lord Mancroft , welcomed Starr , saying to a journalist , " We 're a very distinguished square , and I 'm sure we 'll welcome such a distinguished gentleman and his lady . "
+
+The Swiss Embassy was , and is , located at the back of the house at 16 @-@ 18 Montagu Place , but in August 1965 , an embassy spokesperson complained that Beatles ' fans were defacing their back wall ( in Bryanston Mews ) , with messages meant for Starr : " Our back wall is now very unsightly and we shall have to redecorate . Our chauffeur , who is French and took part in the first World War , says the language some of these young people use is worse than anything he ever heard in the trenches " .
+
+The Starrs lived there until Epstein 's accountant suggested that the group members should move to houses near his , in Esher . On 24 July 1965 , Starr bought Sunny Heights for £ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 72 @,@ 000 ) , on South Road , St George 's Hill , but retained the lease on the flat . He rented the flat to The Fool , who were employed by Apple for various endeavours , such as painting the Apple Boutique in Baker Street , London , and designing psychedelic clothes for all four Beatles , as well as The Hollies , Marianne Faithfull , Procol Harum , Donovan , and Cream .
+
+= = McCartney and Hendrix = =
+
+McCartney rented the flat from Starr in 1965 , and asked Sommerville to install recording equipment ( including two Revox reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape machines ) ; planning to use it as a demo studio , and for recordings of spoken @-@ word albums . The house was not far from the Abbey Road studio where The Beatles recorded , and Jane Asher 's parents ' house at 57 Wimpole Street , London , where McCartney was living at the time . He recorded a demo version of " I 'm Looking Through You " at Montagu Square in late March 1965 , and worked on the composition of " Eleanor Rigby " . Sommerville moved into the flat , even though it was supposed to only be used as a studio , but defended the move by stating that he had to be " on call at all times " . Sommerville recorded Burroughs there , for Apple 's Zapple label offshoot , but discouraged other people who were interested , believing he was working for McCartney exclusively . During the time Sommerville was recording Burroughs , a friend of McCartney , Barry Miles , visited the apartment :
+
+Ian [ Sommerville ] was in the strange position of playing host in Ringo 's expensive apartment , fixing everyone drinks , fussing about , cautioning everyone not to lean against the green watermarked silk wallpaper in the sitting room .
+
+McCartney later gave up the flat , and it remained empty until Starr sub @-@ let it to Hendrix with Kathy Etchingham , and Chandler with Lotta Null , in December 1966 , for £ 30 ( $ 63 ) a month ( £ 265 @.@ 12 — $ 459 @.@ 48 today ) . Hendrix and Echingham lived on the lower @-@ ground floor , and Hendrix composed " The Wind Cries Mary " there , after an argument with Echingham about her cooking skills . For three months , between 1966 – 67 , Hendrix shared the apartment with Gordon Haskell , a bassist who played with the psychedelic band Les Fleur de Lys . Unfortunately , when Hendrix was under the effects of LSD , he threw whitewash over the walls , forcing Starr to evict him . Starr also lent the flat to other pop stars and friends over the next few years , when they needed a place to stay in London . Lennon 's mother @-@ in @-@ law , Lillian Powell , stayed at Montagu Square rather than at the Lennons ' home , Kenwood , in Weybridge , when she visited her daughter , Cynthia Lennon .
+
+= = = Lennon and Ono = = =
+
+When Lennon started a relationship with Ono in 1968 , his wife and son moved into the flat on 21 June 1968 , living there for three months , before returning to Kenwood , as Lennon and Ono preferred to live at Montagu Square , rather than in isolated Weybridge . The two lived in the Montagu Square flat for several months , as the White Album was being recorded . Visitors remembered that the flat was in a state of squalor , with dirty plates , cups , clothes , newspapers and magazines littering the floor , with the couple living on " a diet of champagne , caviar , and heroin " . Lennon and Ono 's experimental Two Virgins album had been recorded at Kenwood , but its notorious nude cover photos were taken at 34 Montagu Square . An Apple employee , Tony Bramwell , set up the camera so Lennon could take the photograph after Bramwell had left . Ono was pregnant during their stay , and they were also in the throes of heroin addiction .
+
+At 11 : 30 am on 18 October 1968 , the flat was raided by Sgt. Norman Pilcher , of Scotland Yard 's Drugs Squad . In 1974 , Lennon remembered that Ono answered the front door as a female voice had said ( over the intercom ) , that there was a message from the Apple office . Ono opened the door and saw the female with five men , who were all dressed in plain @-@ clothes . She panicked and closed the door , thinking they were Beatles ' fans . Meanwhile , at the back window , another person was banging on the window and holding up a search warrant for Lennon to read . As Lennon was also panicking — not knowing at that point that they were all police officers — the raid consisted of seven police officers and two police dogs — he played for time and refused to open the window . Because of this , Pilcher later accused Lennon of obstruction of justice , which was a crime . Inside the flat , the police searched every room thoroughly , even though Lennon was supposed to accompany them whilst they did so , according to the law . Pilcher then summoned Lennon and pointed to a binocular case on a mantelpiece , asking him , " Is this yours ? " Lennon replied in the affirmative , and was then shown 219 grams of hashish , which was in the case .
+
+Lennon :
+
+Don Shorter [ a Daily Express reporter ] had told us , ' They 're coming to get you ' , three weeks before . So , believe me , I 'd cleaned the house out , because Jimi Hendrix had lived there in the apartment , and I 'm not stupid . I went through the whole damn house .
+
+Both were arrested , with Lennon pleading guilty to hashish possession , absolving Ono , who miscarried not long after . Lennon was fined £ 150 ( $ 360 ) . Note : in November 1973 , Pilcher was arrested for conspiracy to pervert the course of justice after it was alleged he had committed perjury . He was convicted and sentenced to four years imprisonment . After the raid , the landlord sought an injunction against Starr on 19 February 1969 , forbidding anyone but Starr or his family to live there , and allowing no music or instruments to be played . Starr appealed , and a compromise was offered ; only Starr or a family member would live in the flat . To finally settle the case , Starr sold the lease on 28 February 1969 .
+
+= = Legacy = =
+
+A music label owner , Reynold D ’ Silva , bought the flat for £ 550 @,@ 000 in 2002 , beating a rival bid from Noel Gallagher . D ’ Silva considered opening it as a music museum , but decided to rent it instead , for £ 795 per week . Author Miles contended that 34 Montagu Square " clearly qualifies as a candidate for one of the blue marker plaques that the City of Westminster fixes to buildings of historical interest " . On Saturday 23 October 2010 , in front of 100 people , Ono unveiled a Blue Plaque at 34 Montagu Square : " John Lennon , 1940 – 1980 , Musician and songwriter , lived here in 1968 " . Beatles ' biographer , Hunter Davies , started the unveiling ceremony , with Rod Davis , from Lennon 's first group , The Quarrymen , in the gathering . Ono said :
+
+I am very honoured to unveil this blue plaque and thank English Heritage for honouring John in this way . This particular flat has many memories for me and is a very interesting part of our history . In what would have been John 's 70th year , I am grateful to you all for commemorating John and this particular part of his London life , one which spawned so much of his great music and great art .
+
+Davis also commented :
+
+He [ Lennon ] would think it highly amusing that they 've put up a plaque here , considering what happened here . If only they 'd mentioned the drugs bust on the bottom of the plaque . Wherever he is , he would have a great chuckle about this one .
+
+= Red rail =
+
+The red rail ( Aphanapteryx bonasia ) is an extinct species of flightless rail . It was endemic to the Mascarene island of Mauritius , east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean . It had a close relative on Rodrigues island , the likewise extinct Rodrigues rail ( Erythromachus leguati ) , with which it is sometimes considered congeneric . Its relationship with other rails is unclear . Rails often evolve flightlessness when adapting to isolated islands , free of mammalian predators .
+
+The red rail was a little larger than a chicken and had reddish , hairlike plumage , with dark legs and a long , curved beak . The wings were small , and its legs were slender for a bird of its size . It was similar to the Rodrigues rail , but was larger , and had proportionally shorter wings . It has been compared to a kiwi or a limpkin in appearance and behaviour . It is believed to have fed on invertebrates , and snail shells have been found with damage matching an attack by its beak . Human hunters took advantage of an attraction red rails had to red objects by using coloured cloth to lure the birds so that they could be beaten with sticks .
+
+Until subfossil remains were discovered in the 1860s , scientists only knew the red rail from 17th century descriptions and illustrations . These were thought to represent several different species , which resulted in a large number of invalid junior synonyms . It has been suggested that all late 17th @-@ century accounts of the dodo actually referred to the red rail , after the former had become extinct . The last mention of a red rail sighting is from 1693 , and it is thought to have gone extinct around 1700 , due to predation by humans and introduced species .
+
+= = Taxonomy = =
+
+The red rail was long known only from a few contemporary descriptions referring to red " hens " and names otherwise used for grouse or partridges in Europe , as well as the sketches of the travellers Pieter van den Broecke and Sir Thomas Herbert from 1617 and 1634 . These were thought to depict separate species of birds by some authors , but were regarded as one by Hugh Edwin Strickland in 1848 . Hermann Schlegel thought Broecke 's sketch depicted a smaller dodo species from Mauritius , and that the Herbert sketch showed a dodo from Rodrigues , and named them Didus broecki and Didus herberti in 1854 . Jacob Hoefnagel 's 1610 painting , the 1601 sketch from the Gelderland ship 's journal , and Peter Mundy 's 1638 description and sketch later surfaced , but there was still uncertainty about the identity of the birds depicted .
+
+In the 1860s , subfossil foot bones and a lower jaw were found along with remains of other Mauritian animals in the Mare aux Songes swamp , and were identified as belonging to a rail by Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards in 1866 . He also determined they belonged to the birds in the 17th century descriptions and illustrations . In 1869 , Milne @-@ Edwards combined the genus name of Aphanapteryx imperialis , which had been coined the previous year by Georg Ritter von Frauenfeld for the Hoefnagel painting , with the older specific name broecki . Due to nomenclatural priority , the genus name was later combined with the oldest species name bonasia , which was coined by Edmond de Sélys Longchamps in 1848 . Sélys Longchamps had originally named the genus Apterornis , wherein he also included the Réunion solitaire and the Réunion swamphen , but the name was preoccupied by Aptornis , a bird described by Richard Owen in 1844 . Aphanapteryx means " invisible @-@ wing " , but the meaning of bonasia is unclear . Some early accounts refer to red rails by the vernacular names for the hazel grouse , Tetrastes bonasia , so the name evidently originates there . The name itself perhaps refers to bonasus , meaning " bull " in Latin , or bonum and assum , meaning " good roast " . It has also been suggested to be a Latin form of the French word bonasse , meaning simple @-@ minded or good @-@ natured .
+
+More fossils were later found by Theodore Sauzier , who had been commissioned to explore the " historical souvenirs " of Mauritius in 1889 . Around the end of the 19th century , a complete specimen was found by the barber Louis Etienne Thirioux , who also found important dodo remains .
+
+= = = Evolution = = =
+
+Apart from being a close relative of the Rodrigues rail , the relationships of the red rail are uncertain . The two are commonly kept as separate genera , Aphanapteryx and Erythromachus , but have also been united as species of Aphanapteryx at times . They were first generically synonymised by Edward Newton and Albert Günther in 1879 , due to skeletal similarities . Based on geographic location and the morphology of the nasal bones , it has been suggested that they were related to the genera Gallirallus , Dryolimnas , Atlantisia , and Rallus . Rails have reached many oceanic archipelagos , which has frequently led to speciation and evolution of flightlessness . The fact that the red rail lost much of its feather structure indicates it was isolated for a long time . These rails may be of Asian origin , like many other Mascarene birds .
+
+= = Description = =
+
+From the subfossil bones , illustrations and descriptions , it is known that the red rail was a flightless bird , somewhat larger than a chicken . Subfossil specimens range in size , which may indicate sexual dimorphism , as is common among rails . Its exact length is unknown , but the pelvis was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in length , the femur was 69 – 71 mm ( 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) , the tibia was 98 – 115 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 5 in ) , the tarsometatarsus was 79 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) , and the humerus was 60 – 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) . Its plumage was reddish brown all over , and the feathers were fluffy and hairlike ; the tail was not visible in the living bird and the short wings likewise also nearly disappeared in the plumage . It had a long , slightly curved , brown bill , and some illustrations suggest it had a nape crest . It perhaps resembled a lightly built kiwi , and it has also been likened to a limpkin , both in appearance and behaviour .
+
+The sternum and humerus were small , indicating that it had lost the power of flight . Its legs were long and slender for such a large bird , but the pelvis was compact and stout . It differed from the Rodrigues rail , its closest relative , in having a proportionately shorter humerus , a narrower and longer skull , and having shorter and higher nostrils . They differed considerably in plumage , based on early descriptions . The red rail was also larger , with somewhat smaller wings , but their leg proportions were similar . The pelvis and sacrum was also similar .
+
+= = = Contemporary descriptions = = =
+
+The English traveller Peter Mundy visited Mauritius in 1638 and described the red rail as follows :
+
+A Mauritius henne , a Fowle as bigge as our English hennes , of a yellowish Wheaten Colour , of which we only got one . It hath a long , Crooked sharpe pointed bill . Feathered all over , butte on their wings they are soe Few and smalle that they cannot with them raise themselves From the ground . There is a pretty way of taking them with a red cap , but this of ours was taken with a stick . They bee very good Meat , and are also Cloven footed , soe that they can Neyther Fly nor Swymme .
+
+The yellowish colouration instead of the red mentioned by other accounts has been used as argument for this referring to a distinct species , Kuina mundyi , but it has also been suggested it was due to the observed bird being a juvenile . Another English traveller , John Marshall , described the bird as follows in 1668 :
+
+Here are also great plenty of Dodos or red hens which are larger a little than our English henns , have long beakes and no , or very little Tayles . Their fethers are like down , and their wings so little that it is not able to support their bodies ; but they have long leggs and will runn very fast , and that a man shall not catch them , they will turn so about in the trees . They are good meate when roasted , tasting something like a pig , and their skin like pig skin when roosted , being hard .
+
+= = = Contemporary depictions = = =
+
+Much information about the bird 's appearance comes from a painting attributed to Jacob Hoefnagel , based on a bird in the menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II around 1610 . It is the only coloured depiction of the species , showing the plumage as reddish brown , but it is unknown whether it was based on a stuffed or living specimen . The bird had most likely been brought alive to Europe , as it is unlikely that taxidermists were on board the visiting ships , and spirits were not yet used to preserve biological specimens . Most tropical specimens were preserved as dried heads and feet . It had probably lived in the emperor 's zoo for a while together with the other animals painted for the same series . The painting was discovered in the emperor 's collection and published in 1868 by Georg von Frauenfeld , along with a painting of a dodo from the same collection and artist . This specimen is thought to have been the only red rail that ever reached Europe .
+
+The travel journal of the Dutch East India Company ship Gelderland ( 1601 – 1603 ) , rediscovered in the 1860s , contains good sketches of several now @-@ extinct Mauritian birds attributed to the artist Joris Laerle , including an unlabelled red rail . The bird appears to have been stunned or killed , and the sketch is the earliest record of the species , but was only rediscovered in the 1860s . The image was sketched with pencil and finished in ink , but details such as a deeper beak and the shoulder of the wing are only seen in the underlying sketch . In addition , there are three rather crude black @-@ and @-@ white sketches , but differences in them were enough for some authors to suggest that each image depicted a distinct species , leading to the creation of several scientific names which are now synonymous with Aphanapteryx bonasia .
+
+There are also depictions of what appears to be a red rail in three of Roelant Savery 's paintings . In his famous Edwards ' Dodo painting from 1626 , a rail @-@ like bird is seen swallowing a frog behind the dodo , but this identification has been doubted , and it may instead show a bittern . A bird resembling a red rail is also figured in Jacopo Bassano 's painting Arca di Noè ( " Noah 's Ark " ) from c . 1570 . It has been pointed out that it is doubtful that a Mauritian bird could have reached Italy this early , but the attribution may be inaccurate , as Bassano had four artist sons who used the same name . A similar bird is also seen in Jan Brueghel the Elder 's Noah 's Ark painting .
+
+= = Behaviour and ecology = =
+
+Contemporary accounts are repetitive and do not shed much light on the bird 's life history . The shape of the beak indicates it could have captured reptiles and invertebrates . There were many endemic land snails on Mauritius , including the extinct Tropidophora carinata , and subfossil shells have been found with damage matching attacks from the beak of the red rail . No contemporary accounts were known to mention the red rail 's diet , until the 1660s report of Johannes Pretorius about his stay on Mauritius was published in 2015 , where he mentioned that the bird " scratches in the earth with its sharp claws like a fowl to find food such as worms under the fallen leaves . "
+
+An anonymous Dutchman gave some description of behavioural traits in 1631 :
+
+The soldiers [ red rails ] were very small in stature and slow of foot , so they could be caught easily by hand , their armour or gun was their mouth , which was sharp and pointed , and which they used instead of a dagger , were very naked and [ unrecognisable word ] , not hewing about like soldiers , run about in great disorder , now here , now there , not being true to each other at all .
+
+While it was swift and could escape when chased , it was easily lured by waving a red cloth , which they approached to attack ; a similar behaviour was noted in its relative , the Rodrigues rail . The birds could then be picked up , and their cries when held would draw more individuals to the scene , as the birds , which had evolved in the absence of mammalian predators , were curious and not afraid of humans .
+
+The English traveller Sir Thomas Herbert described its behaviour towards red cloth in 1634 :
+
+The hens in eating taste like parched pigs , if you see a flocke of twelve or twenties , shew them a red cloth , and with their utmost silly fury they will altogether flie upon it , and if you strike downe one , the rest are as good as caught , not budging an iot till they be all destroyed .
+
+Many other endemic species of Mauritius became extinct after the arrival of man heavily damaged the ecosystem , making it hard to reconstruct . Before humans arrived , Mauritius was entirely covered in forests , but very little remains today due to deforestation . The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . The red rail lived alongside other recently extinct Mauritian birds such as the dodo , the broad @-@ billed parrot , the Mascarene grey parakeet , the Mauritius blue pigeon , the Mauritius owl , the Mascarene coot , the Mauritian shelduck , the Mauritian duck , and the Mauritius night heron . Extinct Mauritian reptiles include the saddle @-@ backed Mauritius giant tortoise , the domed Mauritius giant tortoise , the Mauritian giant skink , and the Round Island burrowing boa . The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Mauritius and Réunion , but became extinct in both islands . Some plants , such as Casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid , have also become extinct .
+
+= = Relationship with humans = =
+
+Though Mauritius had previously been visited by Arab vessels in the Middle Ages and Portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513 , they did not settle on the island . The Dutch Empire acquired the island in 1598 , renaming it after Maurice of Nassau , and it was used from then on for the provisioning of trade vessels of the Dutch East India Company . To the sailors who visited Mauritius from 1598 and onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint . The dodo was sometimes considered rather unpalatable , but the red rail was a very popular gamebird for the Dutch and French settlers . The reports dwell upon the varying ease with which the bird could be caught according to the hunting method and the fact that when roasted it was considered similar to pork .
+
+Johann Christian Hoffmann , who was on Mauritius in the early 1670s , described a red rail hunt as follows :
+
+... [ there is also ] a particular sort of bird known as toddaerschen which is the size of an ordinary hen . [ To catch them ] you take a small stick in the right hand and wrap the left hand in a red rag , showing this to the birds , which are generally in big flocks ; these stupid animals precipitate themselves almost without hesitation on the rag . I cannot truly say whether it is through hate or love of this colour . Once they are close enough , you can hit them with the stick , and then have only to pick them up . Once you have taken one and are holding it in your hand , all the others come running up as it [ sic ] to its aid and can be offered the same fate .
+
+Hoffman 's account refers to the red rail by the German version of the Dutch name originally applied to the dodo , " dod @-@ aers " , and John Marshall used " red hen " interchangeably with " dodo " in 1668 . The ecologist Anthony Cheke has suggested that the name " dodo " was transferred to the red rail after the former had gone extinct , so that all post 1662 references to " dodos " refer to the rail instead . A 1681 account of a " dodo " , previously thought to have been the last , mentioned that the meat was " hard " , similar to the description of red hen meat . Errol Fuller has also cast the 1662 " dodo " sighting in doubt , as the reaction to distress cries of the birds mentioned matches what was described for the red rail . Milne @-@ Edwards suggested that early travellers may have confused young dodos with red rails .
+
+230 years before Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution , the appearance of the red rail and the dodo led Peter Mundy to speculate :
+
+Of these 2 sorts off fowl afforementionede , For oughtt wee yett know , Not any to bee Found out of this Iland , which lyeth aboutt 100 leagues From St. Lawrence . A question may bee demaunded how they should bee here and Not elcewhere , beeing soe Farer From other land and can Neither fly or swymme ; whither by Mixture off kindes producing straunge and Monstrous formes , or the Nature of the Climate , ayer and earth in alltring the First shapes in long tyme , or how .
+
+= = = Extinction = = =
+
+In addition to hunting pressure by humans , the fact that the red rail nested on the ground made it vulnerable to pigs and other introduced animals , which ate their eggs and young , probably contributing to its extinction . Feral cats , which are effective predators of ground @-@ inhabiting birds , increased in numbers around the 1680s . When François Leguat , who had become familiar with the Rodrigues rail in the preceding years , arrived on Mauritius in 1693 , he remarked that the red rail had already become rare . He was the last source to mention the bird , so it is assumed that it became extinct around 1700 .
+
+= Sergeant Reckless =
+
+Staff Sergeant Reckless , a decorated war horse who held official rank in the United States military , was a mare of Mongolian horse breeding . Out of a race horse dam , she was purchased in October 1952 for $ 250 from a Korean stableboy at the Seoul racetrack who needed money to buy an artificial leg for his sister . Reckless was bought by members of the United States Marine Corps and trained to be a pack horse for the Recoilless Rifle Platoon , Anti @-@ Tank Company , 5th Marine Regiment , 1st Marine Division . She quickly became part of the unit and was allowed to roam freely through camp , entering the Marines ' tents , where she would sleep on cold nights , and was known for her willingness to eat nearly anything , including scrambled eggs , beer , Coca @-@ Cola and , once , about $ 30 worth of poker chips .
+
+She served in numerous combat actions during the Korean War , carrying supplies and ammunition , and was also used to evacuate wounded . Learning each supply route after only a couple of trips , she often traveled to deliver supplies to the troops on her own , without benefit of a handler . The highlight of her nine @-@ month military career came in late March 1953 during the Battle for Outpost Vegas when , in a single day , she made 51 solo trips to resupply multiple front line units . She was wounded in combat twice , given the battlefield rank of corporal in 1953 , and then a battlefield promotion to sergeant in 1954 , several months after the war ended . She also became the first horse in the Marine Corps known to have participated in an amphibious landing , and following the war was awarded two Purple Hearts , a Marine Corps Good Conduct Medal , was included in her unit 's Presidential Unit Citations from two countries , as well as other military honors .
+
+Her wartime service record was featured in The Saturday Evening Post , and LIFE magazine recognized her as one of America 's 100 all @-@ time heroes . She was retired and brought to the United States after the war , where she made appearances on television and participated in the United States Marine Corps birthday ball . She was officially promoted to staff sergeant in 1959 by the Commandant of the Marine Corps . She gave birth to four foals in America and died in May 1968 . A plaque and photo were dedicated in her honor at the Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton stables and a statue of her was dedicated on July 26 , 2013 at the National Museum of the Marine Corps in Quantico , Virginia .
+
+= = Origins = =
+
+Sergeant Reckless was chestnut colored with a blaze and three white stockings . Her date of birth and parentage are unconfirmed , but she was estimated to be around three or four years old when she was purchased by members of the United States Marine Corps in October 1952 . She was sold to the Marines by her owner , a young Korean stableboy called Kim Huk Moon , though that was not his real name . The horse was originally named Ah Chim Hai in Korean , which translates to " Morning Flame " or " Flame @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Morning " , also reputed to be the name of her dam , a racehorse at the track in Seoul . Moon sold the horse , whom he had nicknamed " Flame , " to Lieutenant Eric Pedersen for $ 250 in order to buy a leg prosthesis for his sister , who had stepped on a land mine . The horse 's breeding was thought to be primarily Mongolian though she did have some features , particularly the shape of her head , that were similar to horses of Thoroughbred lineage . She was small , standing only 14 hands ( 56 inches , 142 cm ) and weighing 900 pounds ( 410 kg ) .
+
+= = Military service = =
+
+In October 1952 , Pedersen received permission from Colonel Eustace P. Smoak to purchase a horse for his platoon . Based in mountainous terrain , Pederson needed a pack animal capable of carrying up to nine of the heavy 24 @-@ pound shells needed to supply the recoilless rifles used by his unit , the Recoilless Rifle Platoon of the 5th Marine Regiment . The day after he received permission , on October 26 , 1952 , Pedersen , Sergeant Willard Berry , and Corporal Philip Carter drove a jeep with a trailer to the Seoul racetrack . Pedersen paid for the horse with his own money . Moon was reluctant to sell the horse , though he needed to , and cried when " Flame " departed . The Marines renamed her " Reckless " as a contraction of the name of the Recoilless rifle and a nod to the daredevil attitude associated with those who used the gun .
+
+Her primary trainer and the person Reckless was closest to was platoon Gunnery Sergeant Joseph Latham . Private First Class Monroe Coleman was her primary caretaker . In addition to Pedersen , Latham , and Coleman , Lieutenant Bill Riley and Sergeant Elmer Lively were also involved with the training and care of Reckless . Pedersen had his wife ship a pack saddle from their home in California so Reckless could better fulfill her primary role as a pack animal . The recoilless rifle platoon had its own medical corpsman , Navy Hospitalman First Class George " Doc " Mitchell , who provided the majority of medical care for Reckless .
+
+The Marines , especially Latham , taught Reckless battlefield survival skills such as how not to become entangled in barbed wire and to lie down when under fire . She learned to run for a bunker upon hearing the cry , " incoming ! " The platoon called it her " hoof training " and " hoof camp " . The horse was initially kept in a pasture near the encampment . Reckless had a gentle disposition and soon developed such a rapport with the troops that she was allowed to freely roam about the camp and entered tents at will , sometimes sleeping inside with the troops , and even lying down next to Latham 's warm tent stove on cold nights . She was fond of a wide variety of foodstuffs , entertaining the platoon by eating scrambled eggs and drinking Coca @-@ Cola and beer . Food could not be left unattended around her . She was known to eat bacon , buttered toast , chocolate bars , hard candy , shredded wheat , peanut butter sandwiches and mashed potatoes . However , Mitchell advised the platoon that she not be given more than two bottles of Coke a day . Her tastes were not confined to foodstuffs ; she once ate her horse blanket , and on another occasion ate $ 30 worth of Latham 's winning poker chips .
+
+Reckless 's baptism under fire came at a place called Hedy 's Crotch , near the villages of Changdan and Kwakchan . Though loaded down with six recoilless rifle shells , she initially " went straight up " and all four feet left the ground the first time the recoilless rifle was fired . When she landed she started shaking , but Coleman , her handler , calmed her down . The second time the gun fired she merely snorted , and by the end of the mission that day appeared calm and was seen trying to eat a discarded helmet liner . She even appeared to take an interest in the operation of the weapon . When learning a new delivery route , Reckless would only need someone to lead her a few times . Afterwards she would make the trips on her own . There was a standing order not to ride Reckless , but in early December 1952 , someone violated that order and took Reckless on a ride that included a sprint through a minefield . She was not injured during the unauthorized ride .
+
+Her most significant accomplishment came during the Battle of Panmunjom @-@ Vegas ( also known as the Battle of Outpost Vegas / Vegas Hill ) over the period March 26 – 28 , 1953 , when she made 51 solo trips in a single day , carrying a total of 386 recoilless rounds ( over 9 @,@ 000 pounds , carrying 4 to 8 24 @-@ pound shells on each trip ) covering over 35 miles that day . The whole Battle of Vegas lasted 3 days . She was wounded twice during the battle : once when she was hit by shrapnel over the left eye and another time on her left flank . For her accomplishments during the Battle of Vegas Hill , Reckless was promoted to corporal .
+
+When not on the front lines , Reckless packed other items for the platoon , and was particularly useful for stringing telephone wire . Carrying reels of wire on her pack that were played out as she walked , she could string as much wire as twelve men on foot . She became the first horse in the Marine Corps known to have participated in an amphibious landing when the 5th moved from Camp Casey to Inchon , planning to participate in amphibious landings hundreds of miles south of Inchon . The commanding officer of the transport halted loading operations when he saw the platoon on the dock with Reckless . He refused to take her on board his clean ship , which had won an award for being the cleanest ship in the previous two years . However , once the Marines produced the loading plan the ship 's commanding officer had approved which specifically listed Reckless and her equipment , she was allowed on board . Once the ship was underway , she became sick , making a mess on the ship 's decks during the first part of the voyage . She could not be disembarked due to a storm , but soon became accustomed to the motion of the ship at sea and had no more problems . The 1st Marine Division was moved to a rest area soon after the move , and while there some platoon members posed with Reckless and a sign challenging the Thoroughbred Native Dancer to a race . They called their race the " Paddy Derby " and the field " Upsan Downs . " The conditions were : 1 @.@ 5 miles over paddies and hills , carrying 192 pounds of ammunition , and no riders . The Marines never received a reply . Native Dancer came in second in the Kentucky Derby , but went on to win the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes .
+
+Randolph M. Pate , then the commander of the 1st Marine Division , gave Reckless a battlefield promotion from corporal to sergeant in a formal ceremony , complete with reviewing stand , on April 10 , 1954 , several months after the war ended . She was also given a red and gold blanket with insignia . Reckless was promoted again , to staff sergeant , on August 31 , 1959 , at Camp Pendleton , CA . This promotion was also awarded by Pate , who had by then advanced to Commandant of the Marine Corps . Pate personally presided over this promotion ceremony and she was honored with a 19 @-@ gun salute with a 1 @,@ 700 @-@ man parade of Marines from her wartime unit . She was an early example of an animal holding official rank in a branch of the United States military .
+
+= = Retirement = =
+
+For her exemplary service to the Marine Corps , Reckless was awarded two Purple Hearts ( for the wounds received during the Battle of Vegas ) , a Marine Corps Good Conduct Medal , a Presidential Unit Citation with bronze star , the National Defense Service Medal , a Korean Service Medal , the United Nations Korea Medal , a Navy Unit Commendation , and a Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation . She would wear these awards on her horse blanket , plus a French Fourragere that the 5th Marines earned in World War I.
+
+An article in The Saturday Evening Post , published on April 17 , 1954 , while Reckless was still in Korea , resulted in a campaign by American supporters to get the Marines to bring her to the United States . An executive at Pacific Transport Lines , Stan Coppel , read the article and offered to let Reckless ride free on one of his company 's ships from Yokohama to San Francisco . Prior to her departure for America , a ceremony , including a band , for Reckless ' rotation to the United States was held during half time of a football game between the Marine Corps and Army . Reckless left Korea for Japan aboard a 1st Marine Aircraft Wing transport plane . She then sailed from Yokohama on October 22 aboard the SS Pacific Transport , due in San Francisco on November 5 , 1954 . A typhoon delayed the ship 's arrival until the evening of November 9 . Reckless and her caretakers stayed aboard until the next morning . Reckless got sick during the storm and was once knocked out of her stall onto the deck by the storm , which happened near the end of the trip .
+
+Reckless 's entry into the United States was not without its challenges . The Customs Bureau was not much of a problem but the United States Department of Agriculture insisted a medical check and lab tests be completed before she disembarked from the ship once it reached San Francisco , which would make her late for the Marine banquet where she was to be the guest of honor . The Marines contacted Agriculture Department officials in Washington , D.C. who agreed to allow her off the ship after her blood was drawn for lab tests , with the understanding that if she had glanders or dourine , she would be destroyed or sent back to Japan . Many of the Marines who actually knew her were incensed at what they considered an affront to her honor when they learned that dourine was an equine sexually transmitted disease . The night before she arrived , she once again ate her blanket , but a new one with ribbons and insignia was made just in time for her disembarkment . She was led off the ship by Lieutenant Pedersen and set foot on American soil in San Francisco on November 10 , 1954 , coincidentally the birthday of the Marine Corps . For the Marine Corps Birthday Ball held that day , she rode an elevator , and then ate both cake and the flower decorations .
+
+Reckless was kept by Pedersen 's family for a brief time before moving to a more permanent home with the 5th Marines , 1st Marine Division at Camp Pendleton . A second article about Reckless appeared in The Saturday Evening Post on October 22 , 1955 . These two articles and the book Reckless : Pride of the Marines ( 1955 ) were written by the commander of the 2nd Battalion , Lieutenant Colonel Andrew Geer , who kept notes about Reckless during the war . She made several public appearances , including Art Linkletter 's show House Party , but had to cancel an appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show due to the typhoon . Ed Sullivan had wanted her to appear on his November 7 show and was willing to pay the costs to get her there right after the scheduled , and delayed , November 5 arrival . Reckless never did appear on Sullivan 's show .
+
+Reckless was well cared for and treated as a VIP during her time at Camp Pendleton . The Marine Corps was also careful not to allow her to be exploited by commercial interests . She produced four foals there : colts Fearless ( 1957 ) , Dauntless ( 1959 ) , and Chesty ( 1964 ) ; her last foal , a filly born circa 1965 – 1966 , died a month after birth and was unnamed . Her offspring Chesty was named after Chesty Puller , one of the few Marines ever allowed to ride Reckless . Puller was a Marine Corps lieutenant general and the most decorated United States Marine of all time . Reckless retired from active service with full military honors at Camp Pendleton on November 10 , 1960 . She was provided free quarters and feed in lieu of retirement pay , per Marine Corps documents .
+
+Reckless developed arthritis in her back as she aged and injured herself on May 13 , 1968 , by falling into a barbed wire fence . She died under sedation while her wounds were being treated . At the time of her death , she was estimated to be 19 or 20 years old . There is a plaque and photo commemorating her at the Camp Pendleton stables . The first race at Aqueduct racetrack , New York , was designated " The Sgt Reckless " on November 10 , 1989 . In 1997 , Reckless was listed by LIFE magazine as one of America 's 100 all @-@ time heroes .
+
+A statue by sculptor Jocelyn Russell of Reckless carrying ammunition shells and other combat equipment was unveiled on July 26 , 2013 , in Semper Fidelis Memorial Park at the National Museum of the Marine Corps , one day before the 60th anniversary of the Korean War . There is a lock of her tail hair in the base of the statue . The statue 's plaque includes a quote from Sergeant Harold Wadley , who served in battle alongside Sergeant Reckless : " The spirit of her loneliness and her loyalty , in spite of the danger , was something else to behold . Hurting . Determined . And alone . That 's the image I have imprinted in my head and heart forever . "
+
+= = Awards and decorations = =
+
+= Jaws : The Revenge =
+
+Jaws : The Revenge ( also known as Jaws 4 : The Revenge or simply Jaws 4 ) is a 1987 American thriller film directed by Joseph Sargent . It is the third sequel to Steven Spielberg 's Jaws and the fourth and final installment in the Jaws franchise .
+
+The film focuses on Ellen Brody ( Lorraine Gary ) and her convictions that a shark is seeking revenge on her family , particularly when a great white follows her to the Bahamas . Jaws : The Revenge was shot on location in New England and in the Bahamas , and completed on the Universal lot . Like the first two films , Martha 's Vineyard was the location of the fictional Amity Island for the opening scenes . Although preceded by Jaws 3 @-@ D , Revenge ignores plot elements introduced in that film .
+
+Jaws : The Revenge received extremely negative reviews , with many critics considering it one of the worst films ever made . While the other three films in the series took around two years to produce , Jaws : The Revenge was made in less than nine months . According to associate producer and production manager Frank Baur during the sequel 's filming , " This ( Revenge ) will be the fastest I have ever seen a major film planned and executed in all of my 35 years as a production manager . " Panned on release , the film was nominated for seven Golden Raspberry Awards .
+
+= = Plot = =
+
+On Amity Island , Chief of Police Martin Brody ( Roy Scheider ) , the hero of two previous shark attacks , has died from a heart attack . His wife , Ellen ( Lorraine Gary ) , attributes it to the fear of sharks . She now lives with Brody 's younger son Sean ( Mitchell Anderson ) and his fiancée Tiffany ( Mary Smith ) . Sean works as a police deputy and is dispatched to clear a log from a buoy a few days before Christmas . A massive 28 @-@ foot great white shark attacks and kills him , sinking his boat in the process .
+
+Ellen believes the shark intentionally targeted Sean with a vengeance . Brody 's older son Mike ( Lance Guest ) , his wife Carla ( Karen Young ) , and their 5 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Thea ( Judith Barsi ) come to Amity for the funeral and encourage her to come to the Bahamas with them . At the islands , Ellen meets carefree airplane pilot Hoagie ( Michael Caine ) . Mike , along with partners Jake ( Mario Van Peebles ) , William , and Clarence , works as a marine biologist studying snails .
+
+A few days later , they encounter the same shark that attacked Sean . Jake is eager to do research on the shark , because great white sharks hardly come to the Bahamas as the water there is too warm , and sharks are misunderstood creatures , but Michael asks him not to mention the shark due to Ellen 's attempts to convince him to find a job on land . Ellen becomes so obsessive that she starts having nightmares of being attacked by a shark . Then she starts getting psychic feelings when the shark is near or attacks . She and the shark have a strange connection that is unexplained . Jake decides to attach a device to the shark that can track it through its heartbeat . Using chum to attract it , Jake stabs the device 's tracking pole into the side of the shark . The next day , Mike is chased by the shark and barely manages to escape unharmed .
+
+Thea goes on an inflatable banana boat with her friend Margaret and her mother while Carla presents her new art sculpture . The shark goes for Thea but attacks and kills Margaret 's mother instead . Thea and Carla are traumatized following the attack . Ellen boards Jake 's boat to track down the shark , intending to kill it to save the rest of her family . After hearing about what happened , Mike confesses about the shark , infuriating Carla . Mike and Jake are flown by Hoagie to search for Ellen and find the shark in pursuit of their boat . During the search , Hoagie explains to Mike about Ellen 's belief that the shark that killed Sean is after her family . When they finally find her , Hoagie lands the plane on the water , ordering Mike and Jake to swim to the boat as the shark drags the plane and Hoagie underwater .
+
+Fortunately , Hoagie escapes from the shark . Jake and Mike hastily put together an explosive powered by electrical impulses . They begin blasting the shark with the impulses , which begin to drive it mad ; it repeatedly jumps out of the water , roaring in pain . As Jake moves to the front of the boat , the shark lunges , giving it the chance to pull Jake under and maul him . He manages to get the explosive into the shark 's mouth before he is taken underwater .
+
+Mike continues to blast the shark with the impulses , causing it to leap out of the water again , igniting the bomb as Ellen steers the sailboat towards the shark while thinking back to Sean 's demise , the shark 's attack on Thea , and when her husband killed the first shark . The broken bowsprit impales the shark , causing it to explode . The shark 's corpse then sinks to the bottom of the sea . Mike then hears Jake calling for help , seriously injured but alive and conscious , floating in the water . The four survive the harsh encounter and make it back to land . Hoagie then flies Ellen back to Amity Island .
+
+= = Cast = =
+
+= = Production = =
+
+Joseph Sargent produced and directed the film . He had worked with Lorraine Gary in 1973 's The Marcus @-@ Nelson Murders , for which he won his first Directors Guild of America Award . Indeed , Steven Spielberg cites this television film , that later spawned Kojak , as motivation for casting Gary as Ellen Brody in the original Jaws film , besides the fact she was the wife of the studio 's chief executive Sidney Sheinberg at that time . In regards to Revenge , Gary remarked in an interview : " I made a good deal on this film , but I didn 't make as good a deal as I would have if I weren 't married to Sid . "
+
+In an interview with the Boston Herald , Sargent called Revenge " a ticking bomb waiting to go off . ... Sid Sheinberg ( president of MCA Inc . , parent company of Universal Pictures ) expects a miracle – and we 're going to make it happen . " Sargent got a call from Sheinberg in late September 1986 , asking him to direct the fourth Jaws movie with no script yet written . Said Sargent , " I didn 't have time to laugh because Sid explained he wanted to do a quality picture about human beings . When he told me , ' It 's your baby , you produce and direct , ' I accepted . " According to Sargent , Sheinberg " cut through all the slow lanes and got Jaws : The Revenge off and running . " In a 2006 interview , Sargent stated that the premise was born " out of a little bit of desperation to find something fresh to do with the shark . We thought that maybe if we take a mystical point of view , and go for a little bit of ... magic , we might be able to find something interesting enough to sit through . "
+
+= = = Filming = = =
+
+Principal photography for Jaws : The Revenge took place on location in New England and in the Bahamas , and completed on the Universal lot . Like the first two films of the series , Martha 's Vineyard was the location of the fictional Amity Island for the film 's opening scenes . Production commenced on February 2 , 1987 , by which time " snowstorms had blanketed " the island for almost a month , " providing a frosty backdrop for the opening scenes . " Because the sequel had to be ready for release by July of the same year and the mechanical shark had to be filmed in warmer temperatures , Martha 's Vineyard only makes a cameo appearance in Revenge .
+
+In addition to the 124 cast and crew members , 250 local extras were also hired . The majority of the extras were used as members of the local high school band , chorus and dramatic society that can be seen as the Brodys walk through the town , and during Sean 's attack . A local gravestone maker produced 51 slabs for the mock graveyard used for Sean 's funeral .
+
+The cast and crew moved to Nassau in the Bahamas on February 9 , beginning principal photography there the next day . Like the production of the first two films , they encountered many problems with varying weather conditions . The location did not offer the " perfect world " that the 38 @-@ day shoot required . Cover shots were filmed on shore and in interior sets . The film was shot in the Super 35 format .
+
+= = = Special effects = = =
+
+The special effects team , headed by Henry Millar , had arrived at South Beach , Nassau on January 12 , 1987 , almost a month before principal photography commenced there . In the official press release , Millar says that when he got involved " we didn 't even have a script ... but as the story developed and they started telling us all what they wanted ... I knew this wasn 't going to be like any other shark anyone had ever seen . "
+
+The shark was to be launched from atop an 88 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) long platform , made from the trussed turret of a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) crane , and floated out into Clifton Bay . Seven sharks , or segments , were produced .
+
+Two models were fully articulated , two were made for jumping , one for ramming , one was a half shark ( the top half ) and one was just a fin . The two fully articulated models each had 22 sectioned ribs and movable jaws covered by a flexible water @-@ based latex skin , measured 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) in length and weighed 2500 pounds . Each tooth was half @-@ a @-@ foot long and as sharp as it looked . All models were housed under cover ... in a secret location on the island .
+
+The film company returned to Universal to finish shooting on April 2 . Principal photography was completed in Los Angeles on May 26 . Millar 's special effects team , however , remained in Nassau , completing second unit photography on June 4 .
+
+= = = Underwater sequences = = =
+
+Cinematographer John McPherson also supervised the underwater unit , which was headed by Pete Romano . Whereas underwater photography was normally filmed with an anamorphic lens , requiring overhead lighting , Romano filmed these " sequences with Zeiss , a 35 mm super @-@ speed lens , which allows the natural ambiance to come through on film . " Additional underwater photography was completed in a water tank , measuring 50 feet ( 15 m ) by 100 feet ( 30 m ) across , and 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) in depth , in Universal Studio 's Stage 27 . Also , a replica of Nassau 's Clifton Bay and its skyline was created on the man @-@ made Falls Lake on the studio backlot .
+
+A television documentary , " Behind the Scenes with Jaws : The Revenge " , was broadcast in the U.S. on July 10 , 1987 . Twenty @-@ two minutes in length , it was written and directed by William Rus for Zaloom Mayfield Productions .
+
+= = = Ending changes = = =
+
+In the ending that was in the original theatrical version , Ellen rammed the shark with Mike 's boat , mortally wounding it . The shark then causes the boat to break apart with its death contortions , forcing the people on the boat to jump off to avoid going down with it . American audiences disapproved of this ending . A new ending was ordered shot for foreign distribution with the shark getting stabbed with the bow sprit and then exploding ; and with Jake being found wounded but alive . This version is what Universal used on home media releases .
+
+According to Orange Coast , the magazine of Orange County , re @-@ shooting the ending prevented Michael Caine from collecting his Academy Award for Hannah and Her Sisters . Other sources claim that the reshot ending began filming only five days after the movie was released and was intended for the version released in Europe . One version can be seen on cable broadcasts , while the other version is featured on the home releases .
+
+The ending left many filmgoers confused . In his scathing review of the film , Roger Ebert says that he cannot believe " that the director , Joseph Sargent , would film this final climactic scene so incompetently that there is not even an establishing shot , so we have to figure out what happened on the basis of empirical evidence . "
+
+= = = Series continuity = = =
+
+No reference is made to the character development or events depicted in Jaws 3 @-@ D. In its predecessor , Mike is an engineer for SeaWorld , whereas in Jaws : The Revenge he is a marine research scientist . Sean is not associated with the police force in Jaws 3 @-@ D , and there is no mention of their respective partners . One of the Universal press releases for Jaws : The Revenge omits Jaws 3 @-@ D by referring to Jaws : The Revenge as the " third film of the remarkable Jaws trilogy . " However , even though Revenge removes Jaws 3 @-@ D from series continuity , the underwater chase scene between Mike and the shark in Revenge was lifted from an early screenplay draft of Jaws 3 @-@ D. While Jaws 2 is presumably still part of series continuity , no specific events from that sequel are mentioned by the characters and none of the footage from Jaws 2 is used for flashbacks in Jaws : The Revenge .
+
+= = = Casting = = =
+
+Lorraine Gary portrayed Ellen Brody in the first two films . In a press release , Gary says Jaws : The Revenge ' is " also about relationships which ... makes it much more like the first Jaws . " This was Gary 's first film since appearing in Spielberg 's 1941 eight years earlier , as well as her final film role .
+
+The press release proposes that the character " had much more depth and texture than either of the other films was able to explore . The promise of further developing this multi @-@ dimensional woman under the extraordinary circumstances ... intrigued Gary enough to lure her back to the screen after a lengthy hiatus . " Although the film was always going to be centered on Gary , Roy Scheider was offered a cameo . If he had accepted it , it was his Martin Brody character , rather than Sean Brody , who would have been killed by the shark at the film 's beginning .
+
+Gary is the only principal cast member from the original film who returned , although Lee Fierro made a brief cameo as Mrs. Kintner ( the mother of a boy killed in Jaws ) , as did Fritzi Jane Courtney , who played Mrs. Taft , one of the Amity town council members in both Jaws and Jaws 2 . Cyprian R. Dube , who played Amity Selectman Mr. Posner in both Jaws and Jaws 2 , is upgraded to mayor following the death of Murray Hamilton , who played Larry Vaughan , the mayor in the first two Jaws films .
+
+Gary states that one of the reasons she was attracted to the film was the idea of an on @-@ screen romance with Oscar winner Michael Caine . Caine had previously starred in another Peter Benchley @-@ adapted flop , The Island .
+
+The first day we were to work together I was nervous as a school girl . We were shooting a Junkanoo Festival with noisy drums and hundreds of extras . But he never faltered in his concentration and he put me completely at ease . It was all so natural . He 's an extraordinary actor – and just a nice human being .
+
+Caine had mixed feelings about both the production and the final version . He thinks that it was a first for him to be involved with someone his own age in a film . He compares the relationship between two middle @-@ aged people to the romance between two teenagers . Although disappointed not to be able to collect an Academy Award because of filming in the Bahamas , he was glad to be involved in the film . In the press release , he explains that " it is part of movie history ... the original was one of the great all @-@ time thrillers . I thought it might be nice to be mixed up with that . I liked the script very much . " However , Caine later claimed : " I have never seen it [ the film ] , but by all accounts it is terrible . However , I have seen the house that it built , and it is terrific ! " In his 1992 autobiography What 's it All About ? , he says that the film " will go down in my memory as the time when I won an Oscar , paid for a house and had a great holiday . Not bad for a flop movie . "
+
+Lance Guest played Ellen 's eldest son Mike . Guest had dropped out of his sophomore year at UCLA ( 1981 ) to appear in another sequel to a horror classic ; Halloween II . Karen Young played his wife Carla . She commended the director 's emphasis upon characterization .
+
+Mario Van Peebles played Jake , Michael 's colleague . His father , Melvin Van Peebles , has a cameo in the film as Nassau 's mayor . Mitchell Anderson appeared as Ellen 's youngest son , Sean . Lynn Whitfield played Louisa , and stunt performer Diane Hetfield was the victim of the banana boat attack .
+
+= = Music and soundtrack = =
+
+The score was composed and conducted by Michael Small , who had previously provided music for Klute , Marathon Man ( both of which featured Jaws star Roy Scheider ) and The Parallax View . John Williams ' original shark motif is integrated into the score , although Small removed the Orca theme . Soundtrack.net says that " Small 's score is generally tense , and he comes up with a few new themes of his own . "
+
+The film also contained the songs " Nail it to the Wall " , performed by Stacy Lattisaw , and the 1986 hit " You Got It All " , performed by The Jets . Unlike the preceding entries in the series , the soundtrack was not released at the same time as the film , although Small appears to have mixed tracks for a release . However , it was given a promotional release in 2000 on Audio CD and Compact Cassette .
+
+Reviews for the soundtrack album were more favorable than for the film . Indeed , writing for Film Score Monthly , AK Benjamin says that " on a CD , Small 's material fares better since it 's not accompanied by the film . " Dismissing the film as " engagingly unwatchable " , he says that " Small certainly gave Revenge a lot more than it deserved – and this a much better score than Deep Blue Sea ... whatever that means . " Benjamin portrays Small as ' knowing ' and his work as being superior to the film .
+
+The hysterical coda tacked onto the end of " Revenge and Finale " is almost worth the price of the disc , as it no doubt sums up Small 's opinion of the film . It 's sad that the great Michael Small was delegated utter crap like Jaws the Revenge in the late ' 80s – and even worse that he never found his way back to the material that he deserves .
+
+Upon Small 's death in 2003 , The Independent wrote that the " composer of some distinction ... had the indignity of working on one of the worst films of all time " . Like most reviews of the soundtrack , the article criticizes the film whilst saying " Small produced a fine score in the circumstances , as if anyone noticed . "
+
+In 2015 , Intrada Records , which previously reissued Jaws 3 @-@ D on compact disc , released the complete score .
+
+= = Novelization = =
+
+The novelization was written by Hank Searls , who also adapted Jaws 2 . While Searls ' Jaws 2 novelization was based on an earlier draft of that film and was significantly different from the finished film , his Jaws : The Revenge novelization sticks fairly close to the final film , although it does contain some extra subplots . The novel contains a subplot in which Hoagie is a government agent and he transports laundered money . The only reference to this in the film is when Michael Brody asks " What do you do when you ’ re not flying people ? " to which Hoagie replies , " I deliver laundry . " In Searls ' novel , the character of Jake is ultimately killed by the shark ; Jake was originally supposed to die in the film , but the script was changed to allow him to survive .
+
+The novelization suggests that the shark may be acting under the influence of a vengeful voodoo witch doctor ( who has a feud with the Brody family ) , and the shark 's apparent revenge has magical implications . Therefore , the witch doctor is the ' revenge ' and the shark is his tool . This also explains the strange psychic connection Ellen and the shark have with each other . The plot was deleted as it strayed too far away from the plot of the killer shark . However , at one point in the theatrical version , Michael Brody says , " Come on , sharks don ’ t commit murder . Tell me you don ’ t believe in that voodoo . "
+
+Searls ' novelization presents a continuity that combines elements from Peter Benchley 's Jaws novel as well as the Jaws film series . The novelization makes a reference to Ellen Brody 's affair with Matt Hooper , a subplot that exists in Benchley 's novel but is entirely absent from the film adaptation .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+= = = Critical response = = =
+
+Jaws : The Revenge received a 0 % score on Rotten Tomatoes based on 32 reviews with an average rating of 2 / 10 . The critical consensus reads , " Illogical , tension @-@ free and filled with cut @-@ rate special effects , Jaws 4 - The Revenge is a sorry chapter in a once @-@ proud franchise . " The film is one of the few films to have a 0 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes .
+
+Gary did get nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actress for her performance , but also a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress . It was rated by Entertainment Weekly as one of " The 25 Worst Sequels Ever Made " . It was voted number 22 by readers of Empire magazine in their list of The 50 Worst Movies Ever .
+
+Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film zero stars , writing in his review that it " is not simply a bad movie , but also a stupid and incompetent one . " He lists several elements that he finds unbelievable , including that Ellen is " haunted by flashbacks to events where she was not present . " Ebert joked that Caine could not attend the ceremony to accept his Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor earned for Hannah and Her Sisters because of his shooting commitments on this film , because he may not have wanted to return to the shoot if he had left it .
+
+Many scenes are considered implausible , such as the shark swimming from a New York island to the Bahamas ( approx . 1 @,@ 250 miles ) in less than three days , or following Michael through an underwater labyrinth , as well as the implication of a creature seeking revenge . The Independent pointed out that " the film was riddled with inconsistencies [ and ] errors ( sharks cannot float or roar like lions ) " . The special effects were criticized , especially some frames of the shark being speared by the boat 's prow . Also , the mechanisms propelling the shark can be seen in some shots .
+
+Within his otherwise lukewarm review , Derek Winnert ends with " the Bahamas backdrops are pretty and the shark looks as toothsome as ever . " Richard Scheib also praises the " beautiful above and below water photography " and the " realistic mechanical shark , " although he considers " the melodrama back on dry land ... a bore . " Critics commented upon the sepia @-@ toned flashbacks to the first film . A scene with Michael and Thea imitating each other is interspersed with shots from a similar scene in Jaws of Sean ( Jay Mello ) and Martin Brody . Similarly , the shark 's destruction contains footage of Martin Brody aiming at the compressed air tank , saying " Smile , you son of a ... , " The New York Times comments " nothing kills a sequel faster than reverence ... Joseph Sargent , the director , has turned this into a color @-@ by @-@ numbers version of Steven Spielberg 's original Jaws . "
+
+= = = Awards and nominations = = =
+
+= = = Legacy = = =
+
+The increasing number of sequels in the Jaws series was spoofed in the 1989 film Back to the Future Part II ( which was produced by Steven Spielberg and featured Jaws 3 star Lea Thompson ) , when Marty McFly travels to the year 2015 and sees a theater showing Jaws 19 , ( fictionally directed by Max Spielberg ) with the tagline " This time it 's REALLY REALLY personal ! " . This alludes to the tagline of Jaws : The Revenge : " This time it 's personal . " After being " attacked " by a promotional volumetric image of the shark outside the theatre , Marty says " the shark still looks fake . " In celebration of " Back to the Future Day " in 2015 , Universal released a parody trailer for Jaws 19 , where the sequels after The Revenge would have included sharks in various environments , prequels , and even a love story titled Jaws 17 : Fifty Scales of Grey .
+
+Comedian Richard Jeni performed a popular stand @-@ up routine based on the film .
+
+The film is listed in Golden Raspberry Award founder John Wilson 's book The Official Razzie Movie Guide as one of The 100 Most Enjoyably Bad Movies Ever Made .
+
+= = Home media = =
+
+Jaws The Revenge was the first film of the series to be released on DVD . It was released on Region 1 as a ' vanilla ' disc by Goodtimes , featuring Spanish and French subtitles . The feature is presented in a non @-@ anamorphic 2 @.@ 35 : 1 widescreen transfer . The soundtrack was presented in Dolby Digital 4 @.@ 1 , with one reviewer saying that the " stereo separation is great with ocean waves swirling around you , the bubbles going by during the scuba scenes , and Hoagie 's airplane flying around behind you . " The same reviewer praised the image transfer of Mcpherson 's " extremely well photographed " cinematography . The film was re @-@ released on DVD by Universal on June 3 , 2003 in an anamorphic transfer . In 2015 Jaws : The Revenge was re @-@ released on DVD as part of a three movie multi @-@ pack along with Jaws 2 and Jaws 3 @-@ D.
+
+Universal Studios Home Entertainment released Jaws : The Revenge on Blu @-@ ray on June 14 , 2016 . The bonus features on the disc are the film 's theatrical trailer and the original theatrical ending .
+
+= Scene7 =
+
+Scene7 is an American on @-@ demand rich media software company that provides document hosting and interactive publishing services such as online catalogs , targeted email , video , and image management . Several companies , mostly retailers , use the company 's services to showcase products on their websites and to allow customers to interact with the products . Scene7 's technology allows users to manipulate product images by zooming in and rotating products , simulating the inspection of merchandise in retail stores .
+
+The company , founded as a division of Autodesk , created a room decoration computer software called Picture This Home in the mid @-@ 1990s . The division was sold to Broderbund in 1998 , then spun off as a company called GoodHome.com in June 1999 , receiving $ 30 million in venture capital . After GoodHome.com failed to become profitable , it was reorganized and renamed Scene7 . It formally launched on January 23 , 2001 and focused on helping companies prepare interactive advertisements for consumers . Scene7 was acquired by Adobe Systems on May 31 , 2007 for an undisclosed sum .
+
+= = Profile = =
+
+A subsidiary of Adobe Systems , Scene7 provides document hosting and interactive publishing services , typically charging clients $ 30 @,@ 000 to $ 50 @,@ 000 a year to convert catalog print files to interactive web pages . The company does most of its business in North America . Its primary competitors for dynamic imaging services and technology are RichFX and LiquidPixels . Scene7 products rely on several Adobe products , including Adobe Photoshop , Adobe InDesign , Adobe Flash , Adobe Illustrator , and Adobe Flex ; this relationship existed before Adobe purchased the company . Scene7 does not maintain any servers to host its services ; instead , it uses a " pay as you grow " program that only requires it to pay for the resources that it uses .
+
+Scene7 's clients include the companies Sears , Lands ' End , Harrods , Macy 's , Office Depot , Levi Strauss & Co . , La @-@ Z @-@ Boy , and QVC . In 2001 , Scene7 agreed to develop home design and landscaping software for Individual Software for $ 50 million . High @-@ end casual clothing retailer Anthropologie has used Scene7 's services to create and deploy online catalogs for its e @-@ commerce website since November 9 , 2004 . The retailer implemented Scene7 's Dynamic Imaging service to let customers zoom in on products , similar to how merchandise is inspected in retail stores . The Harrods department store signed an agreement with Scene7 on June 24 , 2005 to use Scene7 's imaging and catalog system on the store 's website . This required Harrods to convert all its printed material to a digital format for Internet use .
+
+= = History = =
+
+= = = GoodHome.com ( mid @-@ 1990s to 2000 ) = = =
+
+The company began as a development team that created software called Picture This Home in the mid @-@ 1990s for Autodesk in San Rafael , California . The program allowed people to virtually preview room decoration projects before any work began . Users could create virtual rooms , change walls and arrange furniture , and create photo @-@ realistic renderings of completed designs . Picture This Home was awarded the Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval . In 1998 , the software and its team of 40 developers were sold to Broderbund , which was owned by The Learning Company , a subsidiary of Mattel Inc . Broderbund eventually spun Picture This Home off as a company called GoodHome.com in June 1999 . The company received $ 30 million in venture capital from Hearst Interactive Media .
+
+In September 1999 , GoodHome.com merged with Alexandria , Virginia @-@ based nHabit.com , a rival company , for an undisclosed sum . After the merger , GoodHome.com was assured that it would grow quickly ; the merger also added the Internet service provider America Online to GoodHome.com 's portfolio as a client . Ten weeks after forming a business plan , GoodHome.com officially launched on September 29 , 1999 with offices in San Rafael and New York City , New York , and Roger Horchow was assigned as its chairman . The company used the slogan " A beautiful home . It was never this easy , " and focused on selling furniture and other home items , spending $ 20 million on advertisements in its first year . Mack decided that the company should target women , since " women make 80 percent of decorating decisions . " The company built a home furnishings portal to compete with the websites Living.com and Furniture.com , which both went bankrupt in 2000 . In April 2000 , GoodHome.com 's monthly sales topped $ 1 million ; the company 's goal was to be profitable within two to three years .
+
+One of the website 's biggest attractions was its virtual decorating service that let customers see how certain features such as the paint , upholstery fabric , rugs , and pillows would look before a purchase . When considering why this service was so popular , Mack noted that consumers usually feel more confident in a purchase when there are few unknowns . At the time , selling products over the Internet was not a popular concept outside the United States , but Mack was confident in expanding GoodHome.com 's portfolio to include foreign companies : " We 're already getting so many requests from companies about expanding our website abroad ... I see this happening quickly within the next few years . "
+
+GoodHome.com encountered difficulties in running its business in 2000 , when several other companies that offered similar services launched . The increasing demand for online catalog services , considered a phenomenon , was dubbed the " hottest thing since sliced bread " by an analyst from technology research firm Forrester Research , which estimated that roughly $ 500 million was invested in home furnishing websites from 1999 to 2000 . It became difficult for consumers to decide which service provided better quality ; a business owner commented , " You can 't tell the difference in quality between something that 's $ 3 @,@ 000 and something that 's $ 10 @,@ 000 . " GoodHome.com , which had offered free shipping , phased out the feature on July 15 , 2000 , in favor of " heavily subsidized rates " . To compete with new companies , GoodHome.com also introduced new features such as a " floor planning " feature to allow website visitors build an electronic version of their rooms , then drag in furnishings to see how they fit .
+
+= = = Reorganization ( 2001 to 2005 ) = = =
+
+After spending several years operating at a loss , GoodHome.com reorganized under the name Scene7 , which formally launched in January 2001 , with $ 15 million raised from investors that included Hearst Interactive Media . The new company focused on helping companies prepare interactive advertisements for consumers . Mack , the Broderbund executive who had decided to spin off the company , reflected on the decision to reorganize and relaunch : " We got a year into [ the initial GoodHome scheme ] and the whole B2C ( business @-@ to @-@ consumer ) market tanked , and we realized we could not build a successful business as a portal [ ... ] But the whole time we kept having people approach us to license the technology [ to create virtual catalogs ] , and finally a light bulb went off when we realized we were sitting on top of a great technology we could sell . " Scene7 raised a round of financing on July 12 , 2001 that totaled $ 11 @.@ 3 million , which helped stabilize the company . The deal was led by venture capitalists from several firms , including Louis Bacon 's Moore Capital Management and Xcelera of the Cayman Islands , with cash investments from Cooley Godward and Perkins Coie . After the latest round of financing , Mack planned for Scene7 to have 15 clients and a burn rate , or negative cash flow , of less than $ 700 @,@ 000 a month , stating , " What we learned was to stick to your strategy , and don 't get nervous when the competition is adopting a strategy to spend their way to victory . " At the time , the company 's revenues were well below its peak of $ 1 million a month , but Mack intended to increase revenues past that point in a few months .
+
+Scene7 moved from San Rafael to Hamilton Landing in Novato , California in September 2002 to accommodate more employees . On July 9 , 2003 , the company acquired all of the assets of workflow provider and advertising software company Engage for $ 1 @.@ 2 million and assumed its $ 650 @,@ 000 debt after Engage filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy . Engage was the parent company of both Cascade and MidSystems , which were two of the first companies that tried to automate prepress production for newspapers and large printers . On August 15 , 2003 , Scene7 acquired its top competitor , TrueSpectra of San Mateo , for an undisclosed amount of cash and stock . On June 15 , 2004 , Scene7 raised $ 7 @.@ 5 million in another round of financing , led by home shopping company QVC with some of Scene7 's existing investors . At the same time , Jeffrey Branman , President of Interactive Technology Partners at QVC , and David Rubenstein , co @-@ founder of the private equity firm The Carlyle Group , joined Scene7 's board of directors , which was composed of James Caccavo of Moore Capital , Andrew Wright of RealNetworks , and Mack .
+
+Since the early 2000s , the company 's growth has been fueled by an increase in broadband Internet access , which loads virtual catalogs faster than dial @-@ up Internet access . When catalogs first appeared online in the late 1990s , the graphics took too long to load . After high @-@ speed Internet access became more popular , virtual catalogs quickly grew to become a popular feature of online stores . In addition to faster Internet connectivity , a study in 2000 noted that an online presence for brick and mortar businesses increased offline sales by an average of 27 % . Mack also pointed out that having more product information disseminated helps play a role in increasing sales : " We have the ability to provide consistent information ... One of the advantages of selling furniture online is the hyperscript ; you always have the original specifications on a product . "
+
+= = = Acquisition ( 2007 @-@ 2008 ) = = =
+
+Scene7 was acquired by Adobe Systems on May 31 , 2007 for an undisclosed sum . At that time , Scene7 had 80 employees , most of whom were transferred from Scene7 's former headquarters in Novato , California to Adobe 's offices in San Francisco , California . Mack joined Adobe as its vice president of Creative Solutions Services . Scene7 was added to Adobe 's product line as a hosted service to help boost Adobe 's overall services strategy , especially its software as a service efforts , and because Scene7 was a great fit due to its heavy usage of Adobe products .
+
+Adobe plans to integrate Scene7 's products into Adobe LiveCycle , the company 's suite of server software products , at an unspecified time . The Scene7 brand will continue to be used , but it will " eventually be replaced with the Adobe brand " . Denmark @-@ based YaWah , a dynamic imaging software company , was acquired by Adobe on September 26 , 2008 to help expand Scene7 globally .
+
+= Atheism =
+
+Atheism is , in the broadest sense , the absence of belief in the existence of deities . Less broadly , atheism is the rejection of belief that any deities exist . In an even narrower sense , atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities . Atheism is contrasted with theism , which , in its most general form , is the belief that at least one deity exists .
+
+The term atheism originated from the Greek ἄθεος ( atheos ) , meaning " without god ( s ) " , used as a pejorative term applied to those thought to reject the gods worshiped by the larger society . With the spread of freethought , skeptical inquiry , and subsequent increase in criticism of religion , application of the term narrowed in scope . The first individuals to identify themselves using the word atheist lived in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment . The French Revolution , noted for its " unprecedented atheism , " witnessed the first major political movement in history to advocate for the supremacy of human reason .
+
+Arguments for atheism range from the philosophical to social and historical approaches . Rationales for not believing in deities include arguments that there is a lack of empirical evidence ; the problem of evil ; the argument from inconsistent revelations ; the rejection of concepts that cannot be falsified ; and the argument from nonbelief . Although some atheists have adopted secular philosophies ( eg. humanism and skepticism ) , there is no one ideology or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere . Many atheists hold that atheism is a more parsimonious worldview than theism and therefore that the burden of proof lies not on the atheist to disprove the existence of God but on the theist to provide a rationale for theism .
+
+Since conceptions of atheism vary , accurate estimations of current numbers of atheists are difficult . Several comprehensive global polls on the subject have been conducted by Gallup International : their 2015 poll featured over 64 @,@ 000 respondents and indicated that 11 % were " convinced atheists " whereas an earlier 2012 poll found that 13 % of respondents were " convinced atheists . " An older survey by the BBC , in 2004 , recorded atheists as comprising 8 % of the world 's population . Other older estimates have indicated that atheists comprise 2 % of the world 's population , while the irreligious add a further 12 % . According to these polls , Europe and East Asia are the regions with the highest rates of atheism . In 2015 , 61 % of people in China reported that they were atheists . The figures for a 2010 Eurobarometer survey in the European Union ( EU ) reported that 20 % of the EU population claimed not to believe in " any sort of spirit , God or life force " .
+
+= = Definitions and distinctions = =
+
+Writers disagree on how best to define and classify atheism , contesting what supernatural entities it applies to , whether it is a philosophic position in its own right or merely the absence of one , and whether it requires a conscious , explicit rejection . Atheism has been regarded as compatible with agnosticism , and has also been contrasted with it . A variety of categories have been used to distinguish the different forms of atheism .
+
+= = = Range = = =
+
+Some of the ambiguity and controversy involved in defining atheism arises from difficulty in reaching a consensus for the definitions of words like deity and god . The plurality of wildly different conceptions of God and deities leads to differing ideas regarding atheism 's applicability . The ancient Romans accused Christians of being atheists for not worshiping the pagan deities . Gradually , this view fell into disfavor as theism came to be understood as encompassing belief in any divinity .
+
+With respect to the range of phenomena being rejected , atheism may counter anything from the existence of a deity , to the existence of any spiritual , supernatural , or transcendental concepts , such as those of Buddhism , Hinduism , Jainism , and Taoism .
+
+= = = Implicit vs. explicit = = =
+
+Definitions of atheism also vary in the degree of consideration a person must put to the idea of gods to be considered an atheist . Atheism has sometimes been defined to include the simple absence of belief that any deities exist . This broad definition would include newborns and other people who have not been exposed to theistic ideas . As far back as 1772 , Baron d 'Holbach said that " All children are born Atheists ; they have no idea of God . " Similarly , George H. Smith ( 1979 ) suggested that : " The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god . This category would also include the child with the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved , but who is still unaware of those issues . The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist . " Smith coined the term implicit atheism to refer to " the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it " and explicit atheism to refer to the more common definition of conscious disbelief . Ernest Nagel contradicts Smith 's definition of atheism as merely " absence of theism " , acknowledging only explicit atheism as true " atheism " .
+
+= = = Positive vs. negative = = =
+
+Philosophers such as Antony Flew and Michael Martin have contrasted positive ( strong / hard ) atheism with negative ( weak / soft ) atheism . Positive atheism is the explicit affirmation that gods do not exist . Negative atheism includes all other forms of non @-@ theism . According to this categorization , anyone who is not a theist is either a negative or a positive atheist . The terms weak and strong are relatively recent , while the terms negative and positive atheism are of older origin , having been used ( in slightly different ways ) in the philosophical literature and in Catholic apologetics . Under this demarcation of atheism , most agnostics qualify as negative atheists .
+
+While Martin , for example , asserts that agnosticism entails negative atheism , many agnostics see their view as distinct from atheism , which they may consider no more justified than theism or requiring an equal conviction . The assertion of unattainability of knowledge for or against the existence of gods is sometimes seen as an indication that atheism requires a leap of faith . Common atheist responses to this argument include that unproven religious propositions deserve as much disbelief as all other unproven propositions , and that the unprovability of a god 's existence does not imply equal probability of either possibility . Scottish philosopher J. J. C. Smart even argues that " sometimes a person who is really an atheist may describe herself , even passionately , as an agnostic because of unreasonable generalised philosophical skepticism which would preclude us from saying that we know anything whatever , except perhaps the truths of mathematics and formal logic . " Consequently , some atheist authors such as Richard Dawkins prefer distinguishing theist , agnostic and atheist positions along a spectrum of theistic probability — the likelihood that each assigns to the statement " God exists " .
+
+= = = Definition as impossible or impermanent = = =
+
+Before the 18th century , the existence of God was so accepted in the western world that even the possibility of true atheism was questioned . This is called theistic innatism — the notion that all people believe in God from birth ; within this view was the connotation that atheists are simply in denial .
+
+There is also a position claiming that atheists are quick to believe in God in times of crisis , that atheists make deathbed conversions , or that " there are no atheists in foxholes " . There have however been examples to the contrary , among them examples of literal " atheists in foxholes " .
+
+Some atheists have doubted the very need for the term " atheism " . In his book Letter to a Christian Nation , Sam Harris wrote :
+
+In fact , " atheism " is a term that should not even exist . No one ever needs to identify himself as a " non @-@ astrologer " or a " non @-@ alchemist " . We do not have words for people who doubt that Elvis is still alive or that aliens have traversed the galaxy only to molest ranchers and their cattle . Atheism is nothing more than the noises reasonable people make in the presence of unjustified religious beliefs .
+
+= = Concepts = =
+
+The broadest demarcation of atheistic rationale is between practical and theoretical atheism .
+
+= = = Practical atheism = = =
+
+In practical or pragmatic atheism , also known as apatheism , individuals live as if there are no gods and explain natural phenomena without reference to any deities . The existence of gods is not rejected , but may be designated unnecessary or useless ; gods neither provide purpose to life , nor influence everyday life , according to this view . A form of practical atheism with implications for the scientific community is methodological naturalism — the " tacit adoption or assumption of philosophical naturalism within scientific method with or without fully accepting or believing it . "
+
+Practical atheism can take various forms :
+
+Absence of religious motivation — belief in gods does not motivate moral action , religious action , or any other form of action ;
+
+Active exclusion of the problem of gods and religion from intellectual pursuit and practical action ;
+
+Indifference — the absence of any interest in the problems of gods and religion ; or
+
+Unawareness of the concept of a deity .
+
+= = = Theoretical atheism = = =
+
+= = = = Ontological arguments = = = =
+
+Theoretical ( or theoric ) atheism explicitly posits arguments against the existence of gods , responding to common theistic arguments such as the argument from design or Pascal 's Wager . Theoretical atheism is mainly an ontology ; more precisely , a physical ontology .
+
+= = = = Epistemological arguments = = = =
+
+Epistemological atheism argues that people cannot know a God or determine the existence of a God . The foundation of epistemological atheism is agnosticism , which takes a variety of forms . In the philosophy of immanence , divinity is inseparable from the world itself , including a person 's mind , and each person 's consciousness is locked in the subject . According to this form of agnosticism , this limitation in perspective prevents any objective inference from belief in a god to assertions of its existence . The rationalistic agnosticism of Kant and the Enlightenment only accepts knowledge deduced with human rationality ; this form of atheism holds that gods are not discernible as a matter of principle , and therefore cannot be known to exist . Skepticism , based on the ideas of Hume , asserts that certainty about anything is impossible , so one can never know for sure whether or not a god exists . Hume , however , held that such unobservable metaphysical concepts should be rejected as " sophistry and illusion " . The allocation of agnosticism to atheism is disputed ; it can also be regarded as an independent , basic worldview .
+
+Other arguments for atheism that can be classified as epistemological or ontological , including logical positivism and ignosticism , assert the meaninglessness or unintelligibility of basic terms such as " God " and statements such as " God is all @-@ powerful . " Theological noncognitivism holds that the statement " God exists " does not express a proposition , but is nonsensical or cognitively meaningless . It has been argued both ways as to whether such individuals can be classified into some form of atheism or agnosticism . Philosophers A. J. Ayer and Theodore M. Drange reject both categories , stating that both camps accept " God exists " as a proposition ; they instead place noncognitivism in its own category .
+
+= = = = Metaphysical arguments = = = =
+
+One author writes :
+
+" Metaphysical atheism ... includes all doctrines that hold to metaphysical monism ( the homogeneity of reality ) . Metaphysical atheism may be either : a ) absolute — an explicit denial of God 's existence associated with materialistic monism ( all materialistic trends , both in ancient and modern times ) ; b ) relative — the implicit denial of God in all philosophies that , while they accept the existence of an absolute , conceive of the absolute as not possessing any of the attributes proper to God : transcendence , a personal character or unity . Relative atheism is associated with idealistic monism ( pantheism , panentheism , deism ) . "
+
+= = = = Logical arguments = = = =
+
+Logical atheism holds that the various conceptions of gods , such as the personal god of Christianity , are ascribed logically inconsistent qualities . Such atheists present deductive arguments against the existence of God , which assert the incompatibility between certain traits , such as perfection , creator @-@ status , immutability , omniscience , omnipresence , omnipotence , omnibenevolence , transcendence , personhood ( a personal being ) , nonphysicality , justice , and mercy .
+
+Theodicean atheists believe that the world as they experience it cannot be reconciled with the qualities commonly ascribed to God and gods by theologians . They argue that an omniscient , omnipotent , and omnibenevolent God is not compatible with a world where there is evil and suffering , and where divine love is hidden from many people . A similar argument is attributed to Siddhartha Gautama , the founder of Buddhism .
+
+= = = Reductionary accounts of religion = = =
+
+Philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud have argued that God and other religious beliefs are human inventions , created to fulfill various psychological and emotional wants or needs . This is also a view of many Buddhists . Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels , influenced by the work of Feuerbach , argued that belief in God and religion are social functions , used by those in power to oppress the working class . According to Mikhail Bakunin , " the idea of God implies the abdication of human reason and justice ; it is the most decisive negation of human liberty , and necessarily ends in the enslavement of mankind , in theory and practice . " He reversed Voltaire 's famous aphorism that if God did not exist , it would be necessary to invent him , writing instead that " if God really existed , it would be necessary to abolish him . "
+
+= = = Atheism within religions = = =
+
+Atheism is acceptable within some religious and spiritual belief systems , including Hinduism , Jainism , Buddhism , Syntheism , Raëlism , and Neopagan movements such as Wicca . Āstika schools in Hinduism hold atheism to be a valid path to moksha , but extremely difficult , for the atheist can not expect any help from the divine on their journey . Jainism believes the universe is eternal and has no need for a creator deity , however Tirthankaras are revered that can transcend space and time and have more power than the god Indra . Secular Buddhism does not advocate belief in gods . Early Buddhism was atheistic as Gautama Buddha 's path involved no mention of gods . Later conceptions of Buddhism consider Buddha himself a god , suggest adherents can attain godhood , and revere Bodhisattvas and Eternal Buddha .
+
+= = Atheistic philosophies = =
+
+Axiological , or constructive , atheism rejects the existence of gods in favor of a " higher absolute " , such as humanity . This form of atheism favors humanity as the absolute source of ethics and values , and permits individuals to resolve moral problems without resorting to God . Marx and Freud used this argument to convey messages of liberation , full @-@ development , and unfettered happiness . One of the most common criticisms of atheism has been to the contrary — that denying the existence of a god leads to moral relativism , leaving one with no moral or ethical foundation , or renders life meaningless and miserable . Blaise Pascal argued this view in his Pensées .
+
+French philosopher Jean @-@ Paul Sartre identified himself as a representative of an " atheist existentialism " concerned less with denying the existence of God than with establishing that " man needs ... to find himself again and to understand that nothing can save him from himself , not even a valid proof of the existence of God . " Sartre said a corollary of his atheism was that " if God does not exist , there is at least one being in whom existence precedes essence , a being who exists before he can be defined by any concept , and ... this being is man . " The practical consequence of this atheism was described by Sartre as meaning that there are no a priori rules or absolute values that can be invoked to govern human conduct , and that humans are " condemned " to invent these for themselves , making " man " absolutely " responsible for everything he does " .
+
+= = Atheism , religion , and morality = =
+
+= = = Association with world views and social behaviors = = =
+
+Sociologist Phil Zuckerman analyzed previous social science research on secularity and non @-@ belief , and concluded that societal well @-@ being is positively correlated with irreligion . He found that there are much lower concentrations of atheism and secularity in poorer , less developed nations ( particularly in Africa and South America ) than in the richer industrialized democracies . His findings relating specifically to atheism in the US were that compared to religious people in the US , " atheists and secular people " are less nationalistic , prejudiced , antisemitic , racist , dogmatic , ethnocentric , closed @-@ minded , and authoritarian , and in US states with the highest percentages of atheists , the murder rate is lower than average . In the most religious states , the murder rate is higher than average .
+
+= = = Atheism and irreligion = = =
+
+People who self @-@ identify as atheists are often assumed to be irreligious , but some sects within major religions reject the existence of a personal , creator deity . In recent years , certain religious denominations have accumulated a number of openly atheistic followers , such as atheistic or humanistic Judaism and Christian atheists .
+
+The strictest sense of positive atheism does not entail any specific beliefs outside of disbelief in any deity ; as such , atheists can hold any number of spiritual beliefs . For the same reason , atheists can hold a wide variety of ethical beliefs , ranging from the moral universalism of humanism , which holds that a moral code should be applied consistently to all humans , to moral nihilism , which holds that morality is meaningless .
+
+Philosophers such as Slavoj Žižek , Alain de Botton , and Alexander Bard and Jan Söderqvist , have all argued that atheists should reclaim religion as an act of defiance against theism , precisely not to leave religion as an unwarranted monopoly to theists .
+
+= = = Divine command vs. ethics = = =
+
+According to Plato 's Euthyphro dilemma , the role of the gods in determining right from wrong is either unnecessary or arbitrary . The argument that morality must be derived from God , and cannot exist without a wise creator , has been a persistent feature of political if not so much philosophical debate . Moral precepts such as " murder is wrong " are seen as divine laws , requiring a divine lawmaker and judge . However , many atheists argue that treating morality legalistically involves a false analogy , and that morality does not depend on a lawmaker in the same way that laws do . Friedrich Nietzsche believed in a morality independent of theistic belief , and stated that morality based upon God " has truth only if God is truth — it stands or falls with faith in God . "
+
+There exist normative ethical systems that do not require principles and rules to be given by a deity . Some include virtue ethics , social contract , Kantian ethics , utilitarianism , and Objectivism . Sam Harris has proposed that moral prescription ( ethical rule making ) is not just an issue to be explored by philosophy , but that we can meaningfully practice a science of morality . Any such scientific system must , nevertheless , respond to the criticism embodied in the naturalistic fallacy .
+
+Philosophers Susan Neiman and Julian Baggini ( among others ) assert that behaving ethically only because of divine mandate is not true ethical behavior but merely blind obedience . Baggini argues that atheism is a superior basis for ethics , claiming that a moral basis external to religious imperatives is necessary to evaluate the morality of the imperatives themselves — to be able to discern , for example , that " thou shalt steal " is immoral even if one 's religion instructs it — and that atheists , therefore , have the advantage of being more inclined to make such evaluations . The contemporary British political philosopher Martin Cohen has offered the more historically telling example of Biblical injunctions in favour of torture and slavery as evidence of how religious injunctions follow political and social customs , rather than vice versa , but also noted that the same tendency seems to be true of supposedly dispassionate and objective philosophers . Cohen extends this argument in more detail in Political Philosophy from Plato to Mao , where he argues that the Qur 'an played a role in perpetuating social codes from the early 7th century despite changes in secular society .
+
+= = = Criticism of religion = = =
+
+Some prominent atheists — most recently Christopher Hitchens , Daniel Dennett , Sam Harris , and Richard Dawkins , and following such thinkers as Bertrand Russell , Robert G. Ingersoll , Voltaire , and novelist José Saramago — have criticized religions , citing harmful aspects of religious practices and doctrines .
+
+The 19th @-@ century German political theorist and sociologist Karl Marx called religion " the sigh of the oppressed creature , the heart of a heartless world , and the soul of soulless conditions . It is the opium of the people " . He goes on to say , " The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness . To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions . The criticism of religion is , therefore , in embryo , the criticism of that vale of tears of which religion is the halo . " Lenin said that " every religious idea and every idea of God is unutterable vileness ... of the most dangerous kind , ' contagion ' of the most abominable kind . Millions of sins , filthy deeds , acts of violence and physical contagions ... are far less dangerous than the subtle , spiritual idea of God decked out in the smartest ideological constumes ... " .
+
+Sam Harris criticises Western religion 's reliance on divine authority as lending itself to authoritarianism and dogmatism . There is a correlation between religious fundamentalism and extrinsic religion ( when religion is held because it serves ulterior interests ) and authoritarianism , dogmatism , and prejudice . These arguments — combined with historical events that are argued to demonstrate the dangers of religion , such as the Crusades , inquisitions , witch trials , and terrorist attacks — have been used in response to claims of beneficial effects of belief in religion . Believers counter @-@ argue that some regimes that espouse atheism , such as the Soviet Union , have also been guilty of mass murder . In response to those claims , atheists such as Sam Harris and Richard Dawkins have stated that Stalin 's atrocities were influenced not by atheism but by dogmatic Marxism , and that while Stalin and Mao happened to be atheists , they did not do their deeds in the name of atheism .
+
+= = Etymology = =
+
+In early ancient Greek , the adjective átheos ( ἄθεος , from the privative ἀ- + θεός " god " ) meant " godless " . It was first used as a term of censure roughly meaning " ungodly " or " impious " . In the 5th century BCE , the word began to indicate more deliberate and active godlessness in the sense of " severing relations with the gods " or " denying the gods " . The term ἀσεβής ( asebēs ) then came to be applied against those who impiously denied or disrespected the local gods , even if they believed in other gods . Modern translations of classical texts sometimes render átheos as " atheistic " . As an abstract noun , there was also ἀθεότης ( atheotēs ) , " atheism " . Cicero transliterated the Greek word into the Latin átheos . The term found frequent use in the debate between early Christians and Hellenists , with each side attributing it , in the pejorative sense , to the other .
+
+The term atheist ( from Fr. athée ) , in the sense of " one who ... denies the existence of God or gods " , predates atheism in English , being first found as early as 1566 , and again in 1571 . Atheist as a label of practical godlessness was used at least as early as 1577 . The term atheism was derived from the French athéisme , and appears in English about 1587 . An earlier work , from about 1534 , used the term atheonism . Related words emerged later : deist in 1621 , theist in 1662 , deism in 1675 , and theism in 1678 . At that time " deist " and " deism " already carried their modern meaning . The term theism came to be contrasted with deism .
+
+Karen Armstrong writes that " During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries , the word ' atheist ' was still reserved exclusively for polemic ... The term ' atheist ' was an insult . Nobody would have dreamed of calling himself an atheist . "
+
+Atheism was first used to describe a self @-@ avowed belief in late 18th @-@ century Europe , specifically denoting disbelief in the monotheistic Abrahamic god . In the 20th century , globalization contributed to the expansion of the term to refer to disbelief in all deities , though it remains common in Western society to describe atheism as simply " disbelief in God " .
+
+= = History = =
+
+While the earliest @-@ found usage of the term atheism is in 16th @-@ century France , ideas that would be recognized today as atheistic are documented from the Vedic period and the classical antiquity .
+
+= = = Early Indic religion = = =
+
+Atheistic schools are found in early Indian thought and have existed from the times of the historical Vedic religion . Among the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy , Samkhya , the oldest philosophical school of thought , does not accept God , and the early Mimamsa also rejected the notion of God . The thoroughly materialistic and anti @-@ theistic philosophical Cārvāka ( or Lokāyata ) school that originated in India around the 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of philosophy in India , similar to the Greek Cyrenaic school . This branch of Indian philosophy is classified as heterodox due to its rejection of the authority of Vedas and hence is not considered part of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism , but it is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism . Chatterjee and Datta explain that our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary , based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools , and that it is not a living tradition :
+
+" Though materialism in some form or other has always been present in India , and occasional references are found in the Vedas , the Buddhistic literature , the Epics , as well as in the later philosophical works we do not find any systematic work on materialism , nor any organized school of followers as the other philosophical schools possess . But almost every work of the other schools states , for refutation , the materialistic views . Our knowledge of Indian materialism is chiefly based on these . "
+
+Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa . The rejection of a personal creator God is also seen in Jainism and Buddhism in India .
+
+= = = Classical antiquity = = =
+
+Western atheism has its roots in pre @-@ Socratic Greek philosophy , but did not emerge as a distinct world @-@ view until the late Enlightenment . The 5th @-@ century BCE Greek philosopher Diagoras is known as the " first atheist " , and is cited as such by Cicero in his De Natura Deorum . Atomists such as Democritus attempted to explain the world in a purely materialistic way , without reference to the spiritual or mystical . Critias viewed religion as a human invention used to frighten people into following moral order and Prodicus also appears to have made clear atheistic statements in his work . Philodemus reports that Prodicus believed that " the gods of popular belief do not exist nor do they know , but primitive man , [ out of admiration , deified ] the fruits of the earth and virtually everything that contributed to his existence " . Protagoras has sometimes been taken to be an atheist but rather espoused agnostic views , commenting that " Concerning the gods I am unable to discover whether they exist or not , or what they are like in form ; for there are many hindrances to knowledge , the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life . " In the 3rd @-@ century BCE the Greek philosophers Theodorus Cyrenaicus and Strato of Lampsacus did not believe in the existence of gods .
+
+Socrates ( c . 470 – 399 BCE ) was associated in the Athenian public mind with the trends in pre @-@ Socratic philosophy towards naturalistic inquiry and the rejection of divine explanations for phenomena . Although such an interpretation misrepresents his thought he was portrayed in such a way in Aristophanes ' comic play Clouds and was later to be tried and executed for impiety and corrupting the young . At his trial Socrates is reported as vehemently denying that he was an atheist and contemporary scholarship provides little reason to doubt this claim .
+
+Euhemerus ( c . 300 BCE ) published his view that the gods were only the deified rulers , conquerors and founders of the past , and that their cults and religions were in essence the continuation of vanished kingdoms and earlier political structures . Although not strictly an atheist , Euhemerus was later criticized for having " spread atheism over the whole inhabited earth by obliterating the gods " .
+
+Also important in the history of atheism was Epicurus ( c . 300 BCE ) . Drawing on the ideas of Democritus and the Atomists , he espoused a materialistic philosophy according to which the universe was governed by the laws of chance without the need for divine intervention ( see scientific determinism ) . Although he stated that deities existed , he believed that they were uninterested in human existence . The aim of the Epicureans was to attain peace of mind and one important way of doing this was by exposing fear of divine wrath as irrational . The Epicureans also denied the existence of an afterlife and the need to fear divine punishment after death .
+
+The Roman philosopher Sextus Empiricus held that one should suspend judgment about virtually all beliefs — a form of skepticism known as Pyrrhonism — that nothing was inherently evil , and that ataraxia ( " peace of mind " ) is attainable by withholding one 's judgment . His relatively large volume of surviving works had a lasting influence on later philosophers .
+
+The meaning of " atheist " changed over the course of classical antiquity . The early Christians were labeled atheists by non @-@ Christians because of their disbelief in pagan gods . During the Roman Empire , Christians were executed for their rejection of the Roman gods in general and Emperor @-@ worship in particular . When Christianity became the state religion of Rome under Theodosius I in 381 , heresy became a punishable offense .
+
+= = = Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance = = =
+
+During the Early Middle Ages , the Islamic world underwent a Golden Age . With the associated advances in science and philosophy , Arab and Persian lands produced outspoken rationalists and atheists , including Muhammad al Warraq ( fl . 7th century ) , Ibn al @-@ Rawandi ( 827 – 911 ) , Al @-@ Razi ( 854 – 925 ) , and Al @-@ Maʿarri ( 973 – 1058 ) . Al @-@ Ma 'arri wrote and taught that religion itself was a " fable invented by the ancients " and that humans were " of two sorts : those with brains , but no religion , and those with religion , but no brains . " Despite being relatively prolific writers , nearly none of their writing survives to the modern day , most of what little remains being preserved through quotations and excerpts in later works by Muslim apologists attempting to refute them . Other prominent Golden Age scholars have been associated with rationalist thought and atheism as well , although the current intellectual atmosphere in the Islamic world , and the scant evidence that survives from the era , make this point a contentious one today .
+
+In Europe , the espousal of atheistic views was rare during the Early Middle Ages and Middle Ages ( see Medieval Inquisition ) ; metaphysics and theology were the dominant interests pertaining to religion . There were , however , movements within this period that furthered heterodox conceptions of the Christian god , including differing views of the nature , transcendence , and knowability of God . Individuals and groups such as Johannes Scotus Eriugena , David of Dinant , Amalric of Bena , and the Brethren of the Free Spirit maintained Christian viewpoints with pantheistic tendencies . Nicholas of Cusa held to a form of fideism he called docta ignorantia ( " learned ignorance " ) , asserting that God is beyond human categorization , and thus our knowledge of him is limited to conjecture . William of Ockham inspired anti @-@ metaphysical tendencies with his nominalistic limitation of human knowledge to singular objects , and asserted that the divine essence could not be intuitively or rationally apprehended by human intellect . Followers of Ockham , such as John of Mirecourt and Nicholas of Autrecourt furthered this view . The resulting division between faith and reason influenced later radical and reformist theologians such as John Wycliffe , Jan Hus , and Martin Luther .
+
+The Renaissance did much to expand the scope of free thought and skeptical inquiry . Individuals such as Leonardo da Vinci sought experimentation as a means of explanation , and opposed arguments from religious authority . Other critics of religion and the Church during this time included Niccolò Machiavelli , Bonaventure des Périers , Michel de Montaigne , and François Rabelais .
+
+= = = Early modern period = = =
+
+Historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that the Reformation had paved the way for atheists by attacking the authority of the Catholic Church , which in turn " quietly inspired other thinkers to attack the authority of the new Protestant churches " . Deism gained influence in France , Prussia , and England . The philosopher Baruch Spinoza was " probably the first well known ' semi @-@ atheist ' to announce himself in a Christian land in the modern era " , according to Blainey . Spinoza believed that natural laws explained the workings of the universe . In 1661 he published his Short Treatise on God .
+
+Criticism of Christianity became increasingly frequent in the 17th and 18th centuries , especially in France and England , where there appears to have been a religious malaise , according to contemporary sources . Some Protestant thinkers , such as Thomas Hobbes , espoused a materialist philosophy and skepticism toward supernatural occurrences , while Spinoza rejected divine providence in favour of a panentheistic naturalism . By the late 17th century , deism came to be openly espoused by intellectuals such as John Toland who coined the term " pantheist " .
+
+The first known explicit atheist was the German critic of religion Matthias Knutzen in his three writings of 1674 . He was followed by two other explicit atheist writers , the Polish ex @-@ Jesuit philosopher Kazimierz Łyszczyński and in the 1720s by the French priest Jean Meslier . In the course of the 18th century , other openly atheistic thinkers followed , such as Baron d 'Holbach , Jacques @-@ André Naigeon , and other French materialists . John Locke in contrast , though an advocate of tolerance , urged authorities not to tolerate atheism , believing that the denial of God 's existence would undermine the social order and lead to chaos .
+
+The philosopher David Hume developed a skeptical epistemology grounded in empiricism , and Immanuel Kant 's philosophy has strongly questioned the very possibility of a metaphysical knowledge . Both philosophers undermined the metaphysical basis of natural theology and criticized classical arguments for the existence of God .
+
+Blainey notes that , although Voltaire is widely considered to have strongly contributed to atheistic thinking during the Revolution , he also considered fear of God to have discouraged further disorder , having said " If God did not exist , it would be necessary to invent him . " In Reflections on the Revolution in France ( 1790 ) , the philosopher Edmund Burke denounced atheism , writing of a " literary cabal " who had " some years ago formed something like a regular plan for the destruction of the Christian religion . This object they pursued with a degree of zeal which hitherto had been discovered only in the propagators of some system of piety ... These atheistical fathers have a bigotry of their own ... " . But , Burke asserted , " man is by his constitution a religious animal " and " atheism is against , not only our reason , but our instincts ; and ... it cannot prevail long " .
+
+Baron d 'Holbach was a prominent figure in the French Enlightenment who is best known for his atheism and for his voluminous writings against religion , the most famous of them being The System of Nature ( 1770 ) but also Christianity Unveiled . One goal of the French Revolution was a restructuring and subordination of the clergy with respect to the state through the Civil Constitution of the Clergy . Attempts to enforce it led to anti @-@ clerical violence and the expulsion of many clergy from France , lasting until the Thermidorian Reaction . The radical Jacobins seized power in 1793 , ushering in the Reign of Terror . The Jacobins were deists and introduced the Cult of the Supreme Being as a new French state religion . Some atheists surrounding Jacques Hébert instead sought to establish a Cult of Reason , a form of atheistic pseudo @-@ religion with a goddess personifying reason . The Napoleonic era further institutionalized the secularization of French society .
+
+In the latter half of the 19th century , atheism rose to prominence under the influence of rationalistic and freethinking philosophers . Many prominent German philosophers of this era denied the existence of deities and were critical of religion , including Ludwig Feuerbach , Arthur Schopenhauer , Max Stirner , Karl Marx , and Friedrich Nietzsche .
+
+G.J. Holyoake was the last person ( 1842 ) imprisoned in Great Britain due to atheist beliefs . Stephen Law states that Holyoake " first coined the term ' secularism ' " .
+
+= = = Since 1900 = = =
+
+Atheism in the 20th century , particularly in the form of practical atheism , advanced in many societies . Atheistic thought found recognition in a wide variety of other , broader philosophies , such as existentialism , objectivism , secular humanism , nihilism , anarchism , logical positivism , Marxism , feminism , and the general scientific and rationalist movement .
+
+In addition , state atheism emerged in Eastern Europe and Asia during that period , particularly in the Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin , and in Communist China under Mao Zedong . Atheist and anti @-@ religious policies in the Soviet Union included numerous legislative acts , the outlawing of religious instruction in the schools , and the emergence of the League of Militant Atheists . After Mao , the Chinese Communist Party remains an atheist organization , and regulates , but does not completely forbid , the practice of religion in mainland China .
+
+While Geoffrey Blainey has written that " the most ruthless leaders in the Second World War were atheists and secularists who were intensely hostile to both Judaism and Christianity " , Richard Madsen has pointed out that Hitler and Stalin each opened and closed churches as a matter of political expedience , and Stalin softened his opposition to Christianity in order to improve public acceptance of his regime during the war . Blackford and Schüklenk have written that " the Soviet Union was undeniably an atheist state , and the same applies to Maoist China and Pol Pot 's fanatical Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia in the 1970s . That does not , however , show that the atrocities committed by these totalitarian dictatorships were the result of atheist beliefs , carried out in the name of atheism , or caused primarily by the atheistic aspects of the relevant forms of communism . "
+
+Logical positivism and scientism paved the way for neopositivism , analytical philosophy , structuralism , and naturalism . Neopositivism and analytical philosophy discarded classical rationalism and metaphysics in favor of strict empiricism and epistemological nominalism . Proponents such as Bertrand Russell emphatically rejected belief in God . In his early work , Ludwig Wittgenstein attempted to separate metaphysical and supernatural language from rational discourse . A. J. Ayer asserted the unverifiability and meaninglessness of religious statements , citing his adherence to the empirical sciences . Relatedly the applied structuralism of Lévi @-@ Strauss sourced religious language to the human subconscious in denying its transcendental meaning . J. N. Findlay and J. J. C. Smart argued that the existence of God is not logically necessary . Naturalists and materialistic monists such as John Dewey considered the natural world to be the basis of everything , denying the existence of God or immortality .
+
+= = = Other developments = = =
+
+Other leaders like Periyar E. V. Ramasamy , a prominent atheist leader of India , fought against Hinduism and Brahmins for discriminating and dividing people in the name of caste and religion . This was highlighted in 1956 when he arranged for the erection of a statue depicting a Hindu god in a humble representation and made antitheistic statements .
+
+Atheist Vashti McCollum was the plaintiff in a landmark 1948 Supreme Court case that struck down religious education in US public schools . Madalyn Murray O 'Hair was perhaps one of the most influential American atheists ; she brought forth the 1963 Supreme Court case Murray v. Curlett which banned compulsory prayer in public schools . In 1966 , Time magazine asked " Is God Dead ? " in response to the Death of God theological movement , citing the estimation that nearly half of all people in the world lived under an anti @-@ religious power , and millions more in Africa , Asia , and South America seemed to lack knowledge of the Christian view of theology . The Freedom From Religion Foundation was co @-@ founded by Anne Nicol Gaylor and her daughter , Annie Laurie Gaylor , in 1976 in the United States , and incorporated nationally in 1978 . It promotes the separation of church and state .
+
+Since the fall of the Berlin Wall , the number of actively anti @-@ religious regimes has reduced considerably . In 2006 , Timothy Shah of the Pew Forum noted " a worldwide trend across all major religious groups , in which God @-@ based and faith @-@ based movements in general are experiencing increasing confidence and influence vis @-@ à @-@ vis secular movements and ideologies . " However , Gregory S. Paul and Phil Zuckerman consider this a myth and suggest that the actual situation is much more complex and nuanced .
+
+A 2010 survey found that those identifying themselves as atheists or agnostics are on average more knowledgeable about religion than followers of major faiths . Nonbelievers scored better on questions about tenets central to Protestant and Catholic faiths . Only Mormon and Jewish faithful scored as well as atheists and agnostics .
+
+In 2012 , the first " Women in Secularism " conference was held in Arlington , Virginia . Secular Woman was organized in 2012 as a national organization focused on nonreligious women . The atheist feminist movement has also become increasingly focused on fighting sexism and sexual harassment within the atheist movement itself . In August 2012 , Jennifer McCreight ( the organizer of Boobquake ) founded a movement within atheism known as Atheism Plus , or A + , that " applies skepticism to everything , including social issues like sexism , racism , politics , poverty , and crime " .
+
+In 2013 the first atheist monument on American government property was unveiled at the Bradford County Courthouse in Florida : a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ pound granite bench and plinth inscribed with quotes by Thomas Jefferson , Benjamin Franklin , and Madalyn Murray O 'Hair .
+
+= = = New Atheism = = =
+
+New Atheism is the name given to a movement among some early @-@ 21st @-@ century atheist writers who have advocated the view that " religion should not simply be tolerated but should be countered , criticized , and exposed by rational argument wherever its influence arises . " The movement is commonly associated with Sam Harris , Daniel C. Dennett , Richard Dawkins , Victor J. Stenger , and Christopher Hitchens . Several best @-@ selling books by these authors , published between 2004 and 2007 , form the basis for much of the discussion of New Atheism .
+
+These atheists generally seek to disassociate themselves from the mass political atheism that gained ascendency in various nations in the 20th century . In best selling books , the religiously motivated terrorist events of 9 / 11 and the partially successful attempts of the Discovery Institute to change the American science curriculum to include creationist ideas , together with support for those ideas from George W. Bush in 2005 , have been cited by authors such as Harris , Dennett , Dawkins , Stenger , and Hitchens as evidence of a need to move society towards atheism .
+
+= = Demographics = =
+
+It is difficult to quantify the number of atheists in the world . Respondents to religious @-@ belief polls may define " atheism " differently or draw different distinctions between atheism , non @-@ religious beliefs , and non @-@ theistic religious and spiritual beliefs . A Hindu atheist would declare oneself as a Hindu , although also being an atheist at the same time . A 2010 survey published in Encyclopædia Britannica found that the non @-@ religious made up about 9 @.@ 6 % of the world 's population , and atheists about 2 @.@ 0 % , with a very large majority based in Asia . This figure did not include those who follow atheistic religions , such as some Buddhists . The average annual change for atheism from 2000 to 2010 was − 0 @.@ 17 % . A broad figure estimates the number of atheists and agnostics on Earth at 1 @.@ 1 billion .
+
+According to global studies done by Gallup International , 13 % of respondents were " convinced atheists " in 2012 and 11 % were " convinced atheists " in 2015 . As of 2012 , the top ten countries with people who viewed themselves as " convinced atheists " were China ( 47 % ) , Japan ( 31 % ) , the Czech Republic ( 30 % ) , France ( 29 % ) , South Korea ( 15 % ) , Germany ( 15 % ) , Netherlands ( 14 % ) , Austria ( 10 % ) , Iceland ( 10 % ) , Australia ( 10 % ) , and the Republic of Ireland ( 10 % )
+
+= = = Europe = = =
+
+According to the 2010 Eurobarometer Poll , the percentage of those polled who agreed with the statement " you don 't believe there is any sort of spirit , God or life force " varied from : France ( 40 % ) , Czech Republic ( 37 % ) , Sweden ( 34 % ) , Netherlands ( 30 % ) , and Estonia ( 29 % ) , down to Poland ( 5 % ) , Greece ( 4 % ) , Cyprus ( 3 % ) , Malta ( 2 % ) , and Romania ( 1 % ) , with the European Union as a whole at 20 % . In a 2012 Eurobarometer poll on discrimination in the European Union , 16 % of those polled considered themselves non believers / agnostics and 7 % considered themselves atheists .
+
+According to a Pew Research Center survey in 2012 religiously unaffiliated ( including agnostics and atheists ) make up about 18 % of Europeans . According to the same survey , the religiously unaffiliated are the majority of the population only in two European countries : Czech Republic ( 75 % ) and Estonia ( 60 % ) . There are another four countries where the unaffiliated make up a majority of the population : North Korea ( 71 % ) , Japan ( 57 % ) , Hong Kong ( 56 % ) , and China ( 52 % ) .
+
+= = = Australia = = =
+
+According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics , 22 % of Australians have " no religion " , a category that includes atheists .
+
+= = = United States = = =
+
+In the US , there was a 1 % to 5 % increase in self @-@ reported atheism from 2005 to 2012 , and a larger drop in those who self @-@ identified as " religious " , down by 13 % , from 73 % to 60 % . According to the World Values Survey , 4 @.@ 4 % of Americans self @-@ identified as atheists in 2014 . However , the same survey showed that 11 @.@ 1 % of all respondents stated " no " when asked if they believed in God . In 1984 , these same figures were 1 @.@ 1 % and 2 @.@ 2 % , respectively . According to a 2015 report by the Pew Research Center , 3 @.@ 1 % of the US adult population identify as atheist , up from 1 @.@ 6 % in 2007 , and within the religiously unaffiliated ( or " no religion " ) demographic , atheists made up 13 @.@ 6 % . According to the 2015 General Sociological Survey the number of atheists and agnostics in the US has remained relatively flat in the past 23 years since in 1991 only 2 % identified as atheist and 4 % identified as agnostic and in 2014 only 3 % identified as atheists and 5 % identified as agnostics .
+
+= = = Arab world = = =
+
+In recent years , the profile of atheism has risen substantially in the Arab world . In major cities across the region , such as Cairo , atheists have been organizing in cafés and social media , despite regular crackdowns from authoritarian governments . A 2012 poll by Gallup International revealed that 5 % of Saudis considered themselves to be " convinced atheists . " However , very few young people in the Arab world have atheists in their circle of friends or acquaintances . According to one study , less than 1 % did in Morocco , Egypt , Saudia Arabia , or Jordan ; only 3 % to 7 % in the United Arab Emirates , Bahrain , Kuwait , and Palestine . When asked whether they have " seen or heard traces of atheism in [ their ] locality , community , and society " only about 3 % to 8 % responded yes in all the countries surveyed . The only exception was the UAE , with 51 % .
+
+= = = Atheism , wealth , and education = = =
+
+A study noted positive correlations between levels of education and secularism , including atheism , in America . According to evolutionary psychologist Nigel Barber , atheism blossoms in places where most people feel economically secure , particularly in the social democracies of Europe , as there is less uncertainty about the future with extensive social safety nets and better health care resulting in a greater quality of life and higher life expectancy . By contrast , in underdeveloped countries , there are virtually no atheists . In a 2008 study , researchers found intelligence to be negatively related to religious belief in Europe and the United States . In a sample of 137 countries , the correlation between national IQ and disbelief in God was found to be 0 @.@ 60 .
+
+= Joust 2 : Survival of the Fittest =
+
+Joust 2 : Survival of the Fittest is an arcade game developed by Williams Electronics and released in 1986 . It is a sequel to Williams ' 1982 game Joust . Like its predecessor , Joust 2 is a platform game that features two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) graphics . The player uses a button and joystick to control a knight riding a flying ostrich . The object is to progress through levels by defeating groups of enemy knights riding buzzards . Joust 2 features improved audio @-@ visuals and gameplay elements absent from the original .
+
+The game uses more advanced hardware than the original Joust , allowing for the new elements . John Newcomer led development again , which began to create a conversion kit that allowed arcade owners to convert the cabinet into another game . Williams chose a vertically oriented screen for the kit as a result of the design 's popularity at the time . Released during the waning days of the golden age of arcade games , Joust 2 did not achieve the success that Joust reached . The game was later released on home consoles as part of arcade compilations .
+
+= = Gameplay = =
+
+Joust 2 is a platforming game like its predecessor , Joust , in which the player controls a yellow knight riding a flying ostrich from a third @-@ person perspective . The player navigates the protagonist around the game world , which consists of floating platforms , via two @-@ way joystick and a button . The joystick controls the horizontal direction that the knight travels , while pressing the button makes the ostrich flap its wings . The rate at which the player repeatedly presses the button causes the ostrich to fly upward , hover , or slowly descend . The objective is to defeat groups of enemy knights riding buzzards that populate each level , referred to as a wave . Upon completing a wave , a more challenging one will begin .
+
+Players navigate the knight to collide with enemies . The elevation of an enemy in relation to the player 's knight determines the outcome of the collision . If the protagonist is higher than the enemy , the villain is defeated and vice versa . A collision of equal elevations results in the two knights bouncing off each other . Joust 2 introduced a transformation ability that morphs the player 's bird into a pegasus , which provides better offensive capabilities while on ground but poor flight capabilities . A second player can join the game . The two players can either cooperatively complete the waves or attack each other while competitively defeating enemies .
+
+= = Development = =
+
+Joust 2 was developed by Williams Electronics , with John Newcomer as the lead designer . The game features amplified monaural sound and raster graphics on a 19 @-@ inch color CRT monitor . Like other Williams arcade games , Joust 2 was programmed in assembly language . Williams ' video game department had shrunk following a decline in the video game industry . The company wanted to sell an arcade conversion kit for games that use a vertically oriented monitor , which had become popular at the time . Management felt that a sequel would improve the kit 's saleability . The company decided to release a sequel to either Robotron : 2084 or Joust , ultimately choosing the latter . Technology had progressed since the original 's release , providing more flexibility than before . As a result , Newcomer conceived new elements : additional characters , improved audio @-@ visuals , and new mechanics . To portray a progression of villains , the staff added a new enemy , Knight Lord . The developers added backgrounds to the levels , inspired by artwork by M. C. Escher , Newcomer 's favorite artist . Staff added a transform button to provide players with more variety and balance the gameplay .
+
+= = Reception and legacy = =
+
+Williams shipped around 1 @,@ 000 units of Joust 2 , significantly fewer than its predecessor . Brett Alan Weiss of Allgame and Mike Bevan of Retro Gamer attributed the poor numbers to an industry slump in the mid @-@ 1980s . Joust 2 arcade cabinets have since become fairly rare among collectors . Weiss negatively compared the game to its predecessor , calling Joust more popular and enjoyable . However , he commented that Joust 2 's graphics are more detailed and robust . In retrospect , Newcomer expressed dissatisfaction with the game 's design , specifically the monitor 's orientation . He commented that the gameplay works best with a horizontal orientation or with multi @-@ directional scrolling . The vertical orientation proved to be a hindrance for home conversion . The game saw fewer home releases than Joust . In 1997 , it was released as part of Arcade 's Greatest Hits : The Midway Collection 2 . Joust 2 was also included in the 2003 and 2012 multi @-@ platform compilations Midway Arcade Treasures and Midway Arcade Origins , respectively . It also appeared in 2016 's Lego Dimensions .
+
+= Revolt of the Comuneros ( Paraguay ) =
+
+The Revolt of the Comuneros ( Spanish : Revolución Comunera ) was a series of uprisings by settlers in Paraguay in the Viceroyalty of Peru against the Spanish authorities from 1721 – 1725 and 1730 – 1735 . The underlying cause of the unrest was strong anti @-@ Jesuit feelings among the Paraguayans and dislike for any governor seen as favoring the Jesuits . In the resumption of the revolt in 1730 , economic issues came to fore as well . The rebel organization split in its second phase , as the rural poor and the urban elite each formed their own factions with similar grievances against the Jesuits , but incompatible politics . Paraguay had an unusually strong tradition of self @-@ rule ; the colonists did not have a tradition of strict obedience to everything the Spanish Crown 's governor decreed . This independence helped push the revolt forward .
+
+The beginnings of the revolt were quasi @-@ legal at first . José de Antequera y Castro ( 1690 – 1731 ) , a judge for the Real Audiencia of Charcas , was sent to Asunción in 1721 to examine charges of misconduct against pro @-@ Jesuit Governor Diego de los Reyes Balmaseda . Antequera concluded the charges were valid , forced Reyes into exile and later imprisoned him , and declared himself governor by the power of the Audencia in 1722 . Antequera also accused the Jesuits of various crimes , demanded that the mission Indians under their care be enslaved and distributed to the citizens of Paraguay , and expelled the Jesuits from their college in Asunción . All these actions had the support of the citizens of Asunción , and governors had been deposed and replaced before without the central government complaining . However , Viceroy of Peru Diego Morcillo , residing in Lima , did not approve of Antequera 's action and ordered Reyes ' restoration as governor . With the backing of the settlers , Antequera refused , citing the authority of the Audencia as superior to that of the Viceroy . The feud between Antequera and the Viceroyalty continued after Viceroy Morcillo was replaced by the Marquis of Castelfuerte as Viceroy of Peru . Antequera 's Paraguayan militia attacked and defeated an allied force of Jesuit mission Indians and Spanish colonial forces during the standoff . The battle tainted the legitimacy of Antequera 's claim of governorship , however , and a second force was sent by Castelfuerte against a movement now seen as clearly treasonous . Antequera resigned in 1725 and fled to Charcas , while order was seemingly restored in the province . Antequera was arrested , imprisoned for five years at Lima , and executed .
+
+Paraguay was quiet for 5 years under interim governor Martín de Barúa , seen as friendly to the settlers and hostile to the Jesuits . When he was replaced by Ignacio de Soroeta , however , Paraguay refused its new governor . Fernando de Mómpo y Zayas had spread ideas among the populace that the power of the people - the común - was superior to that of the governor and even the King . The comuneros held new elections to the town council of Asunción , won the seats , and resumed self @-@ rule . A replacement governor sent in 1732 , Agustín de Ruyloba , was killed by the comuneros . However , the comunero movement split several times . The notables of Asunción , who had been happy to defy the colonial authorities when the town council was run by them , now feared the total breakdown of order , as the poorer Paraguayans started to loot the estates and property of any notable not thought to be sufficiently pro @-@ comunero . The inability of Asunción to trade with the rest of the Spanish Empire led to an economic crisis , as well . When colonial forces finally moved on Asunción , the divided comuneros scattered and fled , with most of the Asunción faction joining the government forces in a bid for clemency .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+= = = A tradition of self @-@ government = = =
+
+Paraguay was one of the most loosely controlled parts of the Spanish Empire by the Crown , with a strong independent streak in its leadership . This partially stemmed from a quirk of history in 1537 . Shortly after the first settlements on the Rio de la Plata were made , Governor Pedro de Mendoza died . The crown subsequently issued a Royal Decree ( Cédula Real ) , which stated that if Mendoza had named a successor , that successor was confirmed as governor . However , if Mendoza had not named a successor - or the successor was dead - a replacement should be " peaceably elected . " An election was a unique privilege in Spain 's American colonies ; historian Adalberto López calls it " strange " as King Charles V was a ruthless centralizer who spent much of his reign curtailing the autonomy of Spain 's various holdings , especially since Paraguay was still thought to hold precious metals at the time . A further oddity is that the decree did not limit the use of election to a one @-@ time exigency . The citizens of Paraguay used the decree to elect a governor , and would use it many more times to not merely elect replacement governors , but also to depose disliked appointed governors . The decree of 1537 was used again in 1544 to justify a coup against Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca , who had reigned as governor for only two years . Cabeza de Vaca had attempted to control the settlers ' abuse of the native Indians , earning him the dislike of many of the colonists . He was arrested , a replacement governor was proclaimed , and he was sent back to Spain in chains with a number of likely false crimes accused of him . Some Paraguayan historians would later attempt to tie this 1544 coup to the Revolt of the Comuneros in Castile from 1520 – 1521 and call this the " First Revolt of the Comuneros of Paraguay . " While Cabeza de Vaca had been part of the royalist forces in that earlier struggle and had helped defeat the Castilian comuneros , it is unlikely that contemporary Paraguayans identified themselves with the Castilian comuneros , according to López . As the plotters hoped to attain legitimacy for their choice of governor in the eyes of the king , identifying themselves with despised rebels would have been counterproductive . Rather , the main contemporary references to the Paraguayans calling themselves comuneros come from sources friendly to Cabeza de Vaca seeking to discredit the coup in the eyes of the king .
+
+Governors in office were more constrained than elsewhere in the Spanish Empire . Unpopular governors faced the threat of being removed through the application of the Decree of 1537 ; but even when such drastic measures were not used , the governor 's power was curtailed . The cabildo ( town council ) of Asunción was powerful , and governors often found it difficult for their edicts to be enforced or obeyed if they acted without consulting the cabildo and securing its consent . Spain contributed relatively little in the way of troops , officials , funds , or armaments to Paraguay , and after it was determined that the region was not in fact rich in precious metals or other resources , immigration slowed . However , the interior of South America was dangerous , with Portuguese @-@ aligned slavers and hostile Indian tribes to threaten the Paraguayans . Paraguay fended for itself with an armed militia . This also limited the governor 's influence , as it was the members of the cabildo who rallied the militia .
+
+= = = The Jesuit missions = = =
+
+In 1588 , the first missionaries from the Society of Jesus arrived in Asunción at the invitation of the settlers and the governor . They set to work at converting the Indians in the area . They also built a prominent church and college ; the college was the only educational institution of any importance in the province . The Jesuits gathered a large number of Indians under their care , where they were able to go about Christianizing them and introducing the Indians to elements of Spanish civilization . Most importantly , the Jesuits were able to offer Indians under their care a measure of protection against other whites . Indians on their mission would not be sold into slavery , tricked out of their goods , or have their women taken for extra wives . Over time , an entire " empire within an empire " was built up , and the Jesuits took on responsibilities far beyond religious education . In order to pay royal taxes for the Indians , the Jesuits ran an economy and sold goods at market . In order to defend against Portuguese slavers and hostile Indians , the Jesuits gathered armaments and trained in the arts of war . This arming was highly controversial and was opposed by the Paraguayan settlers , but the constant threat of Portuguese invasion meant the Spanish Crown gave its consent .
+
+As time went on , relations between the settlers and the Jesuits soured . The native population of the Guaraní Indians , initially large compared to the number of Spanish settlers , decreased greatly . In part this was due to the abuse and overwork engendered by the encomienda system , a legal framework similar to slavery , and in part due to the Spanish laws that declared the offspring of Spaniards and their Guaraní wives to be Spaniards themselves and thus entitled to their own native slaves under encomienda . As immigration slowed , the province became heavily populated by Spanish @-@ Guaraní mestizo ( mixed blood ) descendants , who , due to the increasing unavailability of pure @-@ blood Guarani to claim as servants , became a new class of " poor whites . " Meanwhile , the Guaraní on the Jesuit missions were flourishing , and many Guaraní actively chose mission life over remaining independent or risking falling into the encomienda system . The result was a perceived " shortage " of cheap encomienda labor - a shortage that could be fixed if the Jesuit mission Indians were taken and impressed into the encomienda . Additionally , the Jesuit missions were an economic competitor to Paraguay 's settlers , as both 's major export was yerba mate used for the production of the caffeinated drink mate . The variety of yerba produced in the mission lands ( yerba caaminí ) was considered superior to the yerba harvested in the civil province ( yerba de palos ) , pushing down the Paraguayan 's margins even further . Since the mission lands were closed off to almost all Paraguayans , wild rumors about Jesuit activities within them found easy currency among the Paraguayans . Tales of hidden great treasures and secret lucrative mines worked by captive Indians were not uncommon .
+
+By the early 1600s , the average Paraguayan despised the Jesuits . Some agitated for the government to take action against them , and at the very least the idea of extending further " privileges " was out of the question . A series of intrigues took place from 1640 @-@ 1650 with pro @-@ Jesuit governor Gregorio de Hinestrosa vying against the anti @-@ Jesuit Bishop Bernardino de Cárdenas , a Franciscan . Cárdenas was exiled to Corrientes , but upon the end of Hinestrosa 's governorship returned to Asunción . The new governor Diego de Escobar y Osorio attempted to remain neutral in the conflict between the Jesuits and the settlers who were now backed by the returned Cárdenas , and successfully avoided bloodshed for a time , but in 1649 Osorio died . The cabildo , seizing on the Decree of 1537 , promptly elected Cárdenas the new governor , and with his support expelled the Jesuits from their college in Asunción . They wrote in explanation of their actions that the Jesuits were destroying the province , and it was the " natural right " of people to defend themselves against aggression . Governor @-@ Bishop Cárdenas , in similar proto @-@ democratic language , said " the voice of the People is the voice of God . " The authorities were displeased , and the Jesuits , with the government 's permission , sent in an army of mission Indians to depose Cárdenas . Cárdenas and the Paraguayan militia decided to resist , and in a battle on October 5 , 1649 , the Jesuit army of roughly 700 Indians won a complete victory . The Paraguayans were scattered , Cárdenas and his closest supporters were arrested , and the citizens of Asunción were subjected to the humiliation of an occupying army of Indians patrolling their streets and enforcing the new governor 's rule . This wound never healed . By 1721 , hatred of the Jesuits was even more intense than it was in the early 1600s .
+
+= = 1721 @-@ 1725 : Antequera 's contested governorship = =
+
+In 1717 , Diego de los Reyes Balmaseda became governor of Paraguay . He purchased the position from the Spanish authorities , a practice that had spread at the time . Reyes was a merchant who had made his fortune trading exporting yerba mate from Paraguay and importing various cheap and needed manufactures back to Paraguay , so he was seen as qualified for the post by the Spanish Crown . Reyes was an open admirer of the Jesuits . Two of his wife 's uncles were members of the Jesuit order , and several of his most important advisors were Jesuits . His policies were also seen by the settlers as pro @-@ Jesuit . Reyes ' Jesuit advisors instigated him to order an attack on the Payaguá Indians of the Chaco despite a tenuous truce established three years earlier in 1717 ; all of the captured Payaguás were remitted to the Jesuits for conversion to Christianity and mission life . The settlers received none of the captives for the encomienda , although it had been the settler militia that risked their lives fighting the Payaguás and colonial trade and outlying farms would now be threatened by retaliatory Payaguá raids . The Payaguás , who lived in the Gran Chaco , were considerably less likely to threaten the Jesuits , with their missions farther to the east of the civil province of Paraguya . Reyes acquired a reputation for enriching himself using the powers of his office to control trade . Reyes also taxed important members of the Paraguayan elite to fund the construction of defensive fortifications . The end result was that Reyes was a deeply unpopular governor who found the majority of the cabildo of Asunción actively seeking his removal . In a bid to keep his position , Reyes accused his chief antagonists of treason and had them imprisoned . The notables of Asunción complained to the Real Audiencia of Charcas , accusing Reyes both of imprisoning the cabildo members without good cause , as well as general unlawful conduct as governor .
+
+The Audiencia of Charcas took up the investigation of Reyes . The Audencias , the judicial system of colonial Spain , had a wide degree of latitude and independence from the viceroy . Charcas ( now known as Sucre ) was quite distant from the viceregal capital of Lima , amplifying the court 's power even further . In 1721 , the audiencia sent judge José de Antequera y Castro to Asunción to dispense justice as he saw fit . Antequera was a young rising star of the court , and even his fiercest critics wrote that he was likable , handsome , intelligent , and unusually well @-@ educated for the time . The Audiencia gave Antequera a sealed document to open if he found Reyes guilty . The Audiencia and Antequera ordered Reyes to release the council members he had imprisoned and that he not interfere in the investigation in any way . After interviewing the witnesses accusing Reyes of misdeeds , Antequera concluded that the evidence was so strong as to warrant the immediate arrest of Reyes in September 1721 . Antequera presented to the cabildo the sealed document he 'd been given by the Audiencia . The document gave Antequera the position of governor , which he took over the objections of Reyes ' remaining supporters . In April 1722 , Antequera officially found Reyes guilty and dismissed him as governor , although Reyes immediately escaped Asunción on the same day the sentence was handed down . Antequera proceeded to impound much of Reyes ' property and also order the arrest of many of Reyes ' friends and supporters , taking their property to be sold at public auction as well . With all these actions , Antequera earned the support and adulation of the majority of the province , though he was hated by those who had done well under Reyes . Antequera clinched his popularity by taking a stand against the hated Jesuits ; he endorsed settlers ' demands that the mission Indians be distributed to the encomienda , that secular ( paid by the Spanish government ) priests be put in charge of the Jesuit missions , and that a customs house be established to enforce limits on Jesuit exports of yerba mate . To historian James Saeger , Antequera comes across as mostly well @-@ meaning ; he sincerely believed imposing the civil authority upon the independent Jesuit missions would benefit the Empire .
+
+It is quite possible that the matter would have ended with Antequera 's succession to Governor of Paraguay until a new royal governor was appointed for the province . However , friends of Reyes reached Lima , where they pleaded their case to the Viceregal court . With the support of the influential Jesuits , they convinced Viceroy of Peru Diego Morcillo that Reyes was the victim of a plot by jealous Paraguayans and an ambitious Antequera . Viceroy Morcillo conducted a stormy correspondence with the Audencia of Charcas , accusing them of having overstepped their authority and that giving the chief judge of the case against Reyes the power to succeed him as governor was illegal . On three separate occasions from 1721 @-@ 1723 he demanded the reinstatement of Reyes as governor . The Audencia responded that this was a judicial matter , and the Viceroy was the one overstepping his bounds . The Jesuits held a ceremony proclaiming the escaped Reyes as the legitimate governor . Reyes also went to Corrientes , where the authorities recognized his claim and began impounding carts & goods of traders who refused to support Reyes ' claim . Trade between Paraguay and the rest of the Spanish Empire was interrupted . The situation degenerated further after a group of men loyal to Antequera came to Corrientes and kidnapped Reyes in the night , dragging him back to Asunción - a highly illegal act in the eyes of the citizens of Corrientes and the Viceroy , as the government of Paraguay had no lawful power in Corrientes . Enraged , the Viceroy finally opted for military force , ordering Governor Zavala of Buenos Aires to prepare an army to march on Asunción to depose Antequera .
+
+Antequera rallied the Paraguayan militia in response , while Zavala sent his lieutenant governor Baltasar García Ros to marshall both Jesuit mission Indians , his own troops from Buenos Aires , and reinforcements from Villa Rica . Zavala had hoped a peaceful resolution might still be possible , but García Ros was not well received by the Paraguayans . He had briefly served as interim governor of Paraguay from 1706 @-@ 1707 , and was known to be a great supporter of the Jesuits . He had worked with the Jesuit armies of mission Indians before in fighting the Portuguese , where the Jesuits gained his admiration with their support ; he had also allegedly ignored a royal award of 300 mission Indians to the settlers in the encomienda while interim governor to please the Jesuits . Meanwhile , in Asunción , the Jesuits were run out of their college by a mob of citizens , and given 3 hours to leave by the cabildo . The armies exchanged hostile letters , and it seemed briefly that a show of force might persuade the other side to back down . However , on August 25 , 1724 , the Paraguayans misinterpreted Indians celebrating the feast of St. Luis as preparations for a military attack . The Paraguayans attacked the dancing and parading Indians , and won a complete victory with the element of surprise . Hundreds of Indians were killed , all of the arms , ammunition , and papers were taken , and the royal army was forced into full retreat . A band of citizens of Villa Rica who arrived late as reinforcements surrendered immediately , and saw their leader executed . The victory came unexpectedly cheap , as well ; only five settlers were killed , and 20 wounded . 150 captured mission Indians were distributed to the settlers in encomienda servitude .
+
+The Paraguayan 's victory was fleeting , however . The new Viceroy of Peru , the Marquis of Castelfuerte , was a dedicated supporter of absolutist monarchy who was not about to allow disobedience to the lawful authorities to linger and spread . The Audencia of Charcas was sent a final warning that continuing to meddle in the Paraguayan affair would not be tolerated ; perhaps frightened by both the new Viceroy 's connections in Spain as well as Antequera 's battle against the Spanish forces , the Audencia backed down and ceased to campaign on Antequera 's behalf . A second expedition was organized by Zavala personally , with more forces , while the bishop of Asunción , who had never supported Antequera , implored the cabildo in the strongest of terms to back down and accept Zavala without a fight . The stronger force made it clear that continuing to struggle would be fruitless . Zavala additionally guaranteed that the Jesuit mission Indians would not enter the civil territory this time if the settlers submitted peacefully . Zavala made no mention of retribution or arrests , as well . The cabildo decided to submit to Zavala ; Antequera fled to Charcas , where he was arrested .
+
+= = 1725 @-@ 1730 : A temporary peace = =
+
+Zavala pursued a conciliatory policy with the Paraguayan settlers , not wishing to aggravate the situation . Reprimands were handed down , but few fines , and no arrests , exiles , or executions . Members of the cabildo kept their posts . Ill and emaciated , former governor Reyes was quietly freed from more than a year in conditions that approached solitary confinement , but told that to avoid trouble it would be best if he never showed himself in the province again . Zavala left after only two months in Asunción , placing Martín de Barúa in charge as interim governor . Barúa would serve as governor until 1730 , as the first two replacement governors failed to arrive in Asunción ; one was arrested after he beat his wife , and the other died in transit in the Atlantic Ocean . Barúa proved sympathetic to the settlers and hostile to the Jesuits ; he sent letters to the Jesuits threatening to investigate claimed abuses of the mission Indians , and also wrote the Viceroy with similar concerns about the Jesuit missions . He assured the Viceroy that the Paraguayans were loyal servants of the Crown , and that the burden of defending Paraguay against hostile Indian raids would be lessened if the Jesuits were to share their mission Indians with the encomienda .
+
+The main dispute of Barúa 's tenure was the return of the Jesuits to their college in Asunción . The Viceroy had ordered the Jesuits to be restored , but Zavala had not immediately complied for fear of re @-@ igniting the revolt , and Barúa and the settlers were actively hostile to the Jesuits ' return . Barúa procrastinated on implementing the Viceroy 's orders as letters were exchanged ; it was not until extremely blunt orders demanding the immediate reinstatement of the Jesuits with all the pomp and solemnity required for the occasion came that Barúa complied in 1728 . The antagonism continued , however . In 1730 , Governor Barúa and the Jesuits traded accusations of malfeasance on the Jesuit lands in reports sent to Madrid .
+
+Barúa also invited the travelling orator Fernando de Mompó y Zayas to be one of his advisors in 1730 . Mompó 's origins are cloudy , but he was educated and quite possibly a lawyer . He had acquired a reputation as a troublemaker in Lima . Mompó was imprisoned there , possibly meeting Antequera in prison , but at some point either escaped or was exiled . He eventually made his way to Paraguay , where he spread his ideas about government and the role of the people , which were considered radical at the time . According to Mompó , the Paraguayans had been within their rights when they overthrew Reyes and defied García Ros ; political authority rested on the assent of the común , the community . The power of the people , Mompó said , was greater than even the King or the Pope .
+
+= = 1730 @-@ 1735 : The comuneros = =
+
+In late 1730 , news came to Paraguay that a third replacement governor was on the way , Ignacio de Soroeta . Rumors spread that Soroeta was a friend of the Jesuits and Reyes . Mompó rallied his followers , called the comuneros , and raised a force of 300 outside the city . A delegation of the comuneros sent to the cabildo demanded that the new governor be denied entry . Barúa demanded that the comuneros disband ; when they refused , he resigned his post in frustration . The comuneros demanded new elections of the cabildo , which , unsurprisingly , they won . Only those members who had accepted the rebel line were re @-@ elected , while the other cabildo members were replaced by comuneros . When Soroeta arrived , he was informed he was not wanted , and only allowed to stay in Asunción for four days under virtual house arrest . Convinced there was nothing to be done , Soroeta left ; Barúa and Bishop Palos of Asunción also left . The city was entirely under comunero control . Despite the new comunero influence on the cabildo , Mompó desired an even more radical shift . He apparently felt that he could not abolish the cabildo directly ; instead , he created his own parallel governmental structure , the Junta Gobernativa , whose members were elected by the people .
+
+However , this was a step too far toward treason for some members of the cabildo whom Mompó had assumed would have been compliant . The new mayor of Asunción , José Luis Barreyro ( Bareiro ) , built his own power base in Asunción as the comuneros splintered and factionalized . Mompó 's faction of the comuneros controlled the rural areas , and Barreyro 's faction saw him as a threat . Barreyo arranged the quiet arrest of Mompó while he was alone and sent him to the Jesuits , from whom he eventually found his way to a jail in Buenos Aires . Mompó would soon escape prison again , but rather than return to Paraguay he fled to Brazil . Barreyro 's victory was short @-@ lived ; while Mompó 's faction of the comuneros were thrown into confusion for several months , they eventually rallied , and he found few Asunción militia members willing to fight against them . Barreyro and his supporters were forced to flee to the Jesuit missions , and the more radical comuneros once again ruled both Asunción and the rural areas .
+
+News of the refusal of Governor Soroeta reached Lima , which doomed the defense of the imprisoned Antequera . Convinced that Antequera was behind the new uprising , the trial was accelerated , and Antequera was sentenced to death . The Franciscans , friendly to Antequera , organized a mob shouting for his pardon and blocked the way to the public execution site on July 5 , 1731 , so Antequera was shot instead on the way there . The execution of Antequera disheartened some of the leading citizens of Asunción , because not only was Antequera executed , but also one of his allies who had been considerably less involved , perhaps implying a forthcoming purge of any of Antequera 's supporters . Settler @-@ Jesuit relations now collapsed again . The Jesuits had rallied an Indian army , but not crossed the Tebicuary River to the settler lands , and had assured the settlers it was only for self @-@ defense . While the Jesuit college had been ignored in the earlier stages of the comunero affair , now the comuneros expelled the Jesuits from their Asunción college yet again . Enraged at this interference with the church , the Bishop of Asunción placed the province under the interdict and excommunicated the rebels for the sack of the Jesuits ' church , although this was temporarily lifted when a band of colonists were needed to fight the Payaguá Indians . The comunero army and the Jesuit army of Indians came close to clashing , but after a tense series of communications , both backed off and agreed to a truce .
+
+The position of Governor of Paraguay still sat vacant . While the Viceroy of Peru selected a favored candidate whom he believed could restore order to the province , he was unknowingly pre @-@ empted by the King , who selected Agustín de Ruyloba to be the new Governor of Paraguay . While Ruyloba was given a force of 300 soldiers by Governor Zavala in Buenos Aires , he left it behind , choosing to believe the promises the Paraguayans sent of their loyalty to the King . He arrived in Asunción , was accepted by the cabildo as the new governor , and declared in a speech that the establishment of the Junta Gobernativa had been treason , and anyone attempting to revive it would be publicly executed . Ruyloba waited three weeks assessing the situation , then began to dispense the justice that the Viceroy had ordered . All elections to the cabildo since 1730 were declared invalid , and the cabildo and leadership of the militia was purged . Ruyloba also began preparations for the return of the Jesuits to their college in Asunción . This was acting far too confidently and fast for the citizens of Asunción ; Ruyloba 's thin support as governor collapsed , and the comuneros began to rally in the countryside again , with Ruyloba largely oblivious . When Ruyloba learnt about the comunero army , he rallied the Asunción militia to ride and meet it , but found his own army deserting him en masse , unwilling to fight their countrymen . Ruyloba met with the rebel leaders , and was advised to agree to at least some changes by the priest Arregui , known to be sympathetic to both sides . Ruyloba refused to make any concessions . For honor 's sake , Ruyloba still took the field with his pistol afterward , despite having almost his entire army desert , and was killed in a brief battle with the rebels .
+
+The comuneros promptly rode to Asunción , reinstated the Junta , declared all of Ruyloba 's acts invalid , and looted the properties of Ruyloba 's supporters . They also elected the eighty @-@ year @-@ old Bishop Juan de Arregui of Buenos Aires as a figurehead governor . The government of Asunción split into three : the old official rulership structure headed by Arregui which was largely a rubber stamp , but provided a cloak of legitimacy ; the city leadership , dominated by the rich families which had avoided being looted for being insufficiently pro @-@ comunero ; and the countryside comuneros , who were the most influenced by Mompó 's philosophy of self @-@ governance . As far as the Asunción faction was concerned , the goal of the revolt had been achieved with Ruyloba 's death , and business as usual could resume with a hopefully more pliant governor . However , the poor rural comuneros were not finished with the revolt . The war became a war of the poor against the rich ; the ranches of the wealthy were raided , shipments of yerba mate were impounded , and cattle were stolen . The leaders of the countryside were considered illiterate political nonentities by the notables of Asunción , " rural barbarians " according to one account , who had could not be contained once unleashed . People who dared speak out against them , especially in the countryside , were killed . Commerce came to a standstill as both sides refused to allow trade ; the Junta would not allow anyone to leave without their permission on pain of death , and Zavala had blockaded the province . As the economic crisis deepened , the cabildo of Asunción not only completely broke with the Junta , but became prepared to fight it themselves , seeing them as having sunk to countryside bandits .
+
+The expected colonial armed response was delayed due to a number of factors , most notably a famine and plague that struck the Jesuit missions which made mobilizing their army difficult . By 1735 , however , Zavala was ready to move in once more . While some comuneros rallied an army as a show of force , no battles were actually fought ; without the support of Asunción , and against an experienced campaigner with superior forces , the comunero armies melted and their soldiers tried to escape . Zavala 's army retook Asunción . Unlike his previous occupation of Asunción , this time Zavala sought to suppress any future revolt with sterner reprisals . Many of the ringleaders of the Asunción faction were arrested regardless despite their late support for the royal army ; there was a series of exiles and executions . All of the actions of the cabildo since the death of Ruyloba were declared null and void , as were any actions of the Junta . Zavala declared that since the Royal Decree of 1537 was not mentioned in the 1680 publishing of " Laws of the Kingdoms of the Indies " ( Recopilación de Leyes de las Indias ) , it was no longer valid and any attempt to elect a governor again would be treason . In October , the Jesuits were once again returned to their college in Asunción .
+
+= = Later influence = =
+
+While some of the ideologies of self @-@ government espoused by the comuneros seem to prefigure later democratic uprisings against Spanish colonial rule , especially among the rural branch of the revolt , historians Adalberto López and James Schofield Saeger caution that giving this apparent resemblance too much weight would be a mistake . According to Saegar , the revolt was much closer to traditions of the 16th and 17th centuries and " was principally a local uprising led by local vested interest groups and unrelated to the important changes in the Spanish empire beginning in the 18th century . " It had little in common with the Revolt of the Comuneros of New Granada or the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II that occurred in the 1780s . López agrees that the Revolt of the Comuneros was not a " true revolution " that aimed at fundamental change in Paraguay ; most of the Paraguayans saw themselves as loyal servants of the Crown and were not attempting to fundamentally change the political or economic structure of the province . Rather , they were attempting to assert control over the Jesuits , who were seen as undermining the province and exacerbating its poverty .
+
+Paraguay remained poor and somewhat discontented after the revolt was suppressed . Higher taxes imposed later further squeezed the region 's export income , and the Jesuit missions continued to be a hated competitor driving down prices of the Paraguayan 's cash crop . Antequera became a folk hero and martyr . The new cabildo , attempting to suppress talk of him , unwisely ordered the public burning of all " dangerous " documents in the city archives in 1740 . A would @-@ be coup against the governor organized by some who had been friendly to the comuneros before was discovered in 1747 ; the plotters were arrested , convicted of treason , and executed .
+
+The Jesuits , however , saw their previously solid support in the royal courts of Europe dry up in the middle of the 18th century for a number of reasons . The theocratic Jesuit missions which expected total obedience to the Fathers grated against the Enlightenment values which were gaining favor among intellectuals . Both the Jesuits and their enemies agreed that the Jesuits were wealthy and prosperous : according to their enemies , due to illegal theft of the best land and corruption ; according to the Jesuits , due to their own ability , intellect , and hard work . The Jesuits ' influence , money , and near @-@ monopoly on education helped spawn the backlash against them . The Jesuits had lost the support of the Portuguese government in 1750 after they opposed the 1750 treaty of Madrid which led to the Guaraní War ; they were expelled from the Portuguese Empire entirely in 1758 . The Jesuits next lost the support of Charles III of Spain after the Esquilache Riots , food riots in Madrid in 1766 . Charles III fled Madrid for a time , and his ministers convinced him that the riots had been masterminded by the Jesuits as part of a plot . The Jesuits were expelled from the Spanish Empire . In 1767 , they were expelled from their college in Asunción , to the elation of its citizens ; by the end of 1768 , the Jesuits had been expelled from the missions in Paraguay and replaced by secular administrators . The best lands in the former mission territories were quickly taken by white settlers ; the herds of cattle were impounded and dwindled ; and the mission Indians scattered and diminished . Within a short period of time , the Jesuit missions of Paraguay were but a memory .
+
+The comuneros ' reputation was rehabilitated ; already folk heroes in the people 's eyes , the Spanish government softened its stance on the comuneros as well . A new inquiry in Madrid concluded that Antequera had been the victim of a Jesuit conspiracy . On April 1 , 1778 , King Charles III signed a document which declared Antequera had been a dedicated and loyal servant of the Crown , and provided pensions for some of his relatives . Both Lima and Asunción feature streets named after Antequera . A monument on a hill in Asunción honors Antequera and all those who fought and died in the Revolt of the Comuneros as precursors to Latin America 's liberation movements .
+
+= Nikolai Tikhonov =
+
+Nikolai Aleksandrovich Tikhonov ( Russian : Николай Александрович Тихонов ; Kharkiv , 14 May [ O.S. 1 May ] 1905 – Moscow , 1 June 1997 ) was a Soviet Russian @-@ Ukrainian statesman during the Cold War . He served as Chairman of the Council of Ministers from 1980 to 1985 , and as a First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers , literally First Vice Premier , from 1976 to 1980 . Tikhonov was responsible for the cultural and economic administration of the Soviet Union during the late era of stagnation . He was replaced as Chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1985 by Nikolai Ryzhkov . In the same year , he lost his seat in the Politburo ; however , he retained his seat in the Central Committee until 1989 .
+
+He was born in the city of Kharkiv in 1905 to a Russian @-@ Ukrainian working @-@ class family ; he graduated in the 1920s and started working in the 1930s . Tikhonov began his political career in local industry , and worked his way up the hierarchy of Soviet industrial ministries . He was appointed deputy chairman of the Gosplan in 1963 . After Alexei Kosygin 's resignation Tikhonov was voted into office as Chairman of the Council of Ministers . In this position , he refrained from taking effective measures to reform the Soviet economy , a need which was strongly evidenced during the early – mid @-@ 1980s . He retired from active politics in 1989 as a pensioner . Tikhonov died on 1 June 1997 .
+
+= = Early life and career = =
+
+Tikhonov was born in the Ukrainian city of Kharkiv on 14 May [ O.S. 1 May ] 1905 to a Russian @-@ Ukrainian working @-@ class family ; he graduated from the St. Catherine Institute of Communications in 1924 . Tikhonov worked as an assistant engineer from 1924 to 1926 . Four years later , in 1930 , Tikhonov graduated as an engineer , earning a degree from the Dnipropetrovsk Metallurgical Institute . From 1930 to 1941 , Tikhonov worked as an engineer at the Lenin Metallurgical Plant in Dnipropetrovsk ; he was appointed as the plant 's Chief Engineer in January 1941 .
+
+It was during his stay in Dnipropetrovsk that he met Leonid Brezhnev , a future leader of the Soviet Union . Tikhonov joined the All @-@ Union Communist Party ( bolsheviks ) in 1940 and by the end of the decade , had secured a job as a plant director . As a director , Tikhonov was able to show off his organisational skills ; under his leadership the plant became the first in the region to reopen a hospital , organising dining rooms and restoring social clubs for workers caught up in the aftermath of the Eastern Front . Tikhonov was quickly promoted , and started working for the Ministry of Ferrous Metallurgy in the 1950s . Between 1955 and 1960 Tikhonov became a Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Ferrous Metallurgy , a member ( and later chairman ) of the Scientific Council of the Council of Ministers , and finally , a deputy chairman of the State Planning Committee . At the 22nd Party Congress Tikhonov was elected to the Central Committee as a non @-@ voting member . At the 23rd party congress in 1966 , Tikhonov was elected a member of the Central Committee . Tikhonov was awarded the Hero of Socialist Labour award for his first time .
+
+During his tenure as Deputy Premier Tikhonov was in charge of metallurgy and chemical industry ; his responsibilities did not change with his ascension to the post of First Deputy Premier . However , he did provide a general coordination for heavy industry . When Alexei Kosygin , the Premier , was on sick leave in 1976 Brezhnev took advantage of his illness by appointing Tikhonov to the office of First Deputy Premier . As First Deputy Premier , Tikhonov was able to reduce Kosygin to a standby figure . Tikhonov was , however , one of the few who got along with both Brezhnev and Kosygin , both of them liked his candor and honesty . In 1978 Tikhonov was elected a candidate member of the Politburo and was made a voting member of the Politburo in 1979 . Tikhonov was not informed of the decision to intervene in Afghanistan ; the reason being his bad relationship with Dmitriy Ustinov , the Minister of Defence at the time .
+
+= = Premiership ( 1980 – 85 ) = =
+
+= = = Appointment and the 26th Congress = = =
+
+When Alexei Kosygin resigned in 1980 Tikhonov , at the age of 75 , was elected the new Chairman of the Council of Ministers . During his five @-@ year term as premier Tikhonov refrained from reforming the Soviet economy , despite all statistics from that time showing the economy was stagnating . Tikhonov presented the Eleventh Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1981 – 85 ) at the 26th Party Congress , and told the delegates that the state would allocate nine million rubles for mothers who were seeking parental leave . In his presentation to the congress , Tikhonov admitted that Soviet agriculture was not producing enough grain . Tikhonov called for an improvement in Soviet – US relations , but dismissed all speculations that the Soviet economy was in any sort of crisis . Despite this , Tikhonov admitted to economic " shortcomings " and acknowledged the ongoing " food problem " ; other topics for discussion were the need to save energy resources , boost labour productivity and to improve the quality of Soviet produced goods . Early in his term , in January 1981 , Tikhonov admitted that the government 's demographic policy was one of the weakest areas of his cabinet . In reality , however , he along with many others , were beginning to worry that not enough Russians were being born . The Era of Stagnation reduced the birth rate , and increased the death rate of the Russian population .
+
+= = = Andropov and Chernenko = = =
+
+Leonid Brezhnev awarded Tikhonov the Hero of Socialist Labour , after being advised to do so by Konstantin Chernenko . Upon Brezhnev 's death in 1982 , Tikhonov supported Chernenko 's candidacy for the General Secretaryship . Chernenko lost the vote , and Yuri Andropov became General Secretary . It has been suggested that Andropov had plans of replacing Tikhonov with Heydar Aliyev . Historian William A. Clark noted how Aliyev , a former head of the Azerbaijani KGB , was appointed to the First Deputy Premiership of the Council of Ministers without Tikhonov 's consent ; however , Andropov 's death in 1984 left Tikhonov secure in his office . Some Western analysts speculated that the appointment of Andrei Gromyko to the First Deputy Premiership , again without Tikhonov 's consent , was a sign that his position within the Soviet hierarchy was weakened . Tikhonov was on a state visit to Yugoslavia when Gromyko was appointed to the First Deputy Premiership .
+
+With his health failing , Andropov used his spare times to write speeches to the Central Committee . In one of these speeches Andropov told the Central Committee that Mikhail Gorbachev , and not Chernenko , would succeed him upon his death . His speech was not read out to the Central Committee plenum because of an anti @-@ Gorbachev troika consisting of Chernenko , Dmitriy Ustinov and Tikhonov . During Andropov 's last days , Tikhonov presided over the Politburo sessions , headed the 1984 Soviet delegation to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance conference in East Berlin , conducted bilateral relations with the Eastern Bloc states , and hosted the Prime Minister of Finland when he visited the Soviet Union . In short , in @-@ between Andropov 's last days and Chernenko 's rise to power , Tikhonov was the dominant driving figure of the Soviet Union . However , Tikhonov peacefully stepped away , and supported Chernenko 's candidacy for General Secretary . When Chernenko died in 1985 , Tikhonov tried , but failed , to find a contender to Gorbachev 's candidacy to the General Secretaryship .
+
+= = = Gorbachev and resignation = = =
+
+Upon Gorbachev 's ascension to power , Tikhonov was elected chairman of the newly established Commission on Improvements of the Management System . The title of chairman was largely honorary , and its de facto head was its deputy chairman , Nikolai Ryzhkov . On 23 May 1985 Tikhonov presented his development plan for 1985 to 1990 , and up until 2000 , the plan was criticised by co @-@ workers , and Gorbachev told his colleagues that Tikhonov was " ill @-@ equipped " for the Premiership . Tikhonov forecast estimated growth of 20 – 22 percent growth in Soviet national income , an increase of 21 – 24 percent in industrial growth and doubling Soviet agriculture output by 2000 . As part of Gorbachev 's plan of removing , and replacing , the most conservative members of the Politburo , Tikhonov was compelled to retire . Ryzhkov succeeded Tikhonov in office on 27 September 1985 . His resignation was made official at a Central Committee plenum in September 1985 . It is noteworthy that by the time of his resignation , Tikhonov was the oldest member of the Soviet leadership . Tikhonov was active in Soviet politics , albeit in a much less prominent role , until 1989 when he lost his seat in the Central Committee .
+
+= = Later life and death = =
+
+After his forced resignation from active politics in 1989 , Tikhonov wrote a letter to Mikhail Gorbachev which stated that he regretted supporting his election to the General Secretaryship . This view was strengthened when the Communist Party was banned in the Soviet Union . After his retirement , he lived the rest of his life in seclusion at his dacha . As one of his friends noted , he lived as " a hermit " and never showed himself in public and that his later life was very difficult as he had no children and because his wife had died . Prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union Tikhonov worked as a State Advisor to the Supreme Soviet . Tikhonov died on 1 June 1997 and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery .
+
+According to Time magazine , Tikhonov was a " tried and tested yes man " who had very little experience in foreign and defence policy when he took over the Premiership from Alexei Kosygin . A bust dedicated to Tikhonov can be found in Kharkiv , his birthplace . Tikhonov , when compared to other Soviet premiers , has made little impact on post @-@ Soviet culture and his legacy is remembered by few today . During his lifetime Tikhonov was awarded several awards ; he was awarded nine Order of Lenins , two Order of the Red Banner of Labour , one Red Star , two Stalin Prizes and several medals and foreign awards .
+
+= = Decorations and awards = =
+
+Hero of Socialist Labour ( 1975 , 1982 )
+
+Nine Orders of Lenin
+
+Order of the October Revolution
+
+Two Orders of the Red Banner
+
+Order of the Red Star
+
+Stalin Prize ;
+
+1st class ( 1943 ) - a radical improvement of the production of pipes and mortar ammunition
+
+3rd class ( 1951 ) - for the development and commercial production of seamless pipes of large diameter
+
+Doctor of Technical Sciences ( 1961 )
+
+= CQC @-@ 6 =
+
+The CQC @-@ 6 ( Close Quarters Combat — Six ) or Viper Six is a handmade tactical folding knife with a tantō blade manufactured by knifemaker Ernest Emerson . Although initially reported as the sixth design in an evolution of fighting knives and the first model in the lineup of Emerson 's Specwar Custom Knives , Emerson later revealed that the knife was named for SEAL Team Six . It has a chisel @-@ ground blade of ATS @-@ 34 or 154CM stainless steel and a handle made of titanium and linen micarta . The CQC @-@ 6 is credited as the knife that popularized the concept of the tactical folding knife .
+
+= = Specifications = =
+
+The CQC @-@ 6 has a 3 5 / 16 " long blade . The handle is 4 5 / 8 " long making the knife close to 8 inches in length when opened . The butt @-@ end of the knife tapers to a point and features a hole for tying a lanyard .
+
+The blade profile of most CQC @-@ 6 's is a Japanese chisel ground tantō with a single bevel or zero @-@ ground blade sharpened on only one side . Early models have a buffline similar to a hamon found on a Japanese Samurai Sword due to a leather buffing wheel used by Emerson to finish his blades . Unlike the typical Japanese chisel @-@ grind , Emerson 's grind is on the left @-@ side of the blade as opposed to the right @-@ side .
+
+The handle material of the CQC @-@ 6 is composed of two titanium liners utilizing a Walker linerlock and a single or double detent as the locking mechanism , although one experimental model exists with a ratchet lock . Titanium bolsters make up the front half of the knife with the back half represented by linen micarta scales . The reasons for using titanium as a linerlock material were due to its memory characteristics and corrosion resistance . The screws in the handle , and pivot are traditional straight @-@ head screws to accommodate easy disassembly in the field with an improvised tool , if needed . Most models feature traction grooves for a more secure grip in a wet environment and a chamfered lockface . Early knives were made with black linen micarta and later models featured a proprietary green color made exclusively for Emerson . A pocket clip held in place by three screws allows the knife to be clipped to a pocket , web @-@ gear , or MOLLE .
+
+= = History = =
+
+In the mid @-@ 1980s , individual Navy SEALs from a West Coast team had been using personally purchased custom fixed @-@ blade knives made by Southern California knifemaker Phill Hartsfield . Hartsfield 's knives are hard ground from differentially heat @-@ treated A2 tool steel and are known for their distinctive chisel @-@ ground blades . More accurately , they are zero ground ; that is , the edge has no secondary bevel , minimizing drag when used for cutting purposes . Emerson had long been impressed by the cutting ability of the chisel @-@ ground edge and had asked Hartsfield 's permission to incorporate it into his own folding knives , which Hartsfield granted . When the SEALs asked Hartsfield to make them a folding knife , he informed them that he did not make folding knives and referred them to Emerson who manufactured folding knives utilizing the Walker linerlock .
+
+According to the SEALs ' requirements , the knife had to be corrosion resistant , designed for easy cleaning in the field , durable enough to be used on a daily basis as a tool , and capable as a weapon should the need arise . Emerson 's folding chisel @-@ ground " tantō " became the sixth model in his Viper series and , while a handful of prototypes were referred to as " Viper 6 " , the model was soon named the " CQC @-@ 6 " ( CQC refers to " close @-@ quarters combat " ) and was chosen by the SEALs for use . Writer , David Steele , refers to the CQC @-@ 6 as the sixth model after five prototypes as opposed to the next in the evolution of the Viper line of knives . Emerson , himself , says the moniker " six " was used because the SEALs in question were members of SEAL Team Six .
+
+Ownership of a CQC6 soon became something of a status symbol among members of various elite military units , including Navy SEALs , Army Special Forces , German GSG 9 , and British SAS . Because of this connection to the Special Warfare community , Emerson changed the name of his custom knife line to " Specwar Knives " , and in 1996 this new designation began appearing in the logo on his line of custom blades . It should be noted that the CQC @-@ 6 was not an officially issued item , but rather one that was privately purchased by the troops in question .
+
+Richard Marcinko 's Rogue Warrior novels ( Red Cell , Green Team , Task Force Blue , Detachment Bravo , SEAL Force Alpha , Violence of Action and Holy Terror ) prominently feature the CQC @-@ 6 as a regularly carried piece of equipment . On page 175 of Task Force Blue , Marcinko remarks that his CQC6 was a " personal gift from Ernie Emerson , himself " . The popularity of Marcinko 's books helped fuel the popularity of the CQC @-@ 6 in particular and Tactical Folding Knives in general beyond the realm of Military and Law @-@ enforcement personnel .
+
+= = Variants = =
+
+While each CQC @-@ 6 is made by hand by Emerson , there are certain subtle variations between models of different years . The earliest examples feature the Emerson " half @-@ moon " logo , which is simply the name " EMERSON " arranged in an arc on the blade . This was replaced by the Specwar logo in 1996 which resembles the gunsight on the Stealth aircraft and the moniker " Emerson Specwar Knives " . The gunsight logo was briefly replaced by Emerson 's Diamond logo for a period of 1 year ( 2004 – 2005 ) , until the die to cut the logo was broken and Emerson resumed the Specwar log . In 2004 , Emerson incorporated his patented " Wave " opening device into the profile of the blade .
+
+The blade finish has almost uniformly been Emerson 's trademark satin flats and matte edges . However , some models were made with a Black Tenifer coating . The steel was originally ATS @-@ 34 but was replaced by its American equivalent : 154 CM . Emerson has made " dress " versions with Damascus steel blades and Titanium blades with a bonded carbide edge .
+
+Emerson has used exotic handle materials such as decorative hardwoods , abalone shell , and mother @-@ of @-@ pearl on these dress variants ; these models often feature polished hardware as opposed to the bead blasted bolsters on the tactical models . A few early models featured a titanium backspacer , replaced in later years by a backspacer made of G10 fiberglass . Some early CQC @-@ 6 's featured cutouts in the micarta handle slabs for a small pair of tweezers as found on the Swiss Army Knife .
+
+In Japan there are strict laws regarding the manufacture and possession of tantō blades . In response to this , Emerson made a small batch of CQC @-@ 6 's with a more conventional blade @-@ grind for a Cutlery Show in Seki City . These knives featured the grind on the right @-@ side of the blade as opposed to the left .
+
+Emerson makes a 10 % scaled @-@ up version of the CQC @-@ 6 known as the " Super Six " and a 10 % scaled @-@ down version retro @-@ named the " CQC @-@ 5 " . Like all of Emerson 's custom knives there is a 13 + year backlog and no new orders for knives are taken .
+
+In November 2001 , Emerson made a one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind CQC @-@ 6 and auctioned it at the New York Custom Knife Show for the benefit of children whose parents had been killed on 9 / 11 / 2001 : 100 % of the proceeds went to this charity . This knife featured polished hardware , hand @-@ checkered micarta scales , and an engraved blade reading : " We shall strike a dagger deep into the heart of such evil " .
+
+= = CQC @-@ 7 = =
+
+In 1994 , the president of Benchmade Knives , Les DeAsis , approached Emerson to manufacture the CQC6 on a larger scale as a factory production model . Preferring to keep the CQC6 as a custom @-@ only knife , Emerson instead licensed a similar design of his , the CQC @-@ 7 . Even though it did not have the craftsmanship of a handmade piece of cutlery , it satisfied customers with their own version of Emerson 's work , at an affordable price and without the five @-@ year wait . Benchmade manufactured automatic versions of the CQC7 such as the BM9700 . Currently Pro @-@ Tech Knives of Santa Fe Springs , California manufactures an automatic version of the CQC @-@ 7 in collaboration with Emerson .
+
+The CQC @-@ 7 is similar in size and blade profile to the CQC @-@ 6 with the main difference being a rear brake at the butt of the handle of the CQC @-@ 7 as opposed to the boattail shape of the CQC @-@ 6 . After the contract with Benchmade expired , Emerson began production of this model in his own factory , Emerson Knives , Inc . , in 1999 . The production version of the CQC7 is not a handmade knife and features no bolsters or micarta in the handle construction . The handle material on the production model is G @-@ 10 fiberglass and the edge of the blade has a secondary bevel . There is a larger and smaller version of this knife known as the " Super CQC @-@ 7 " and " Mini @-@ CQC @-@ 7 " , respectively and a version with a drop @-@ point blade as opposed to a tanto . An " all titanium " handled version with a framelock was made in 2005 known as the HD @-@ 7 to commemorate the tenth anniversary of this model . Emerson makes handmade versions of the CQC @-@ 7 with variations similar to the CQC @-@ 6 mentioned above .
+
+In the Russian movie 12 a remake of the classic Twelve Angry Men , an " Emerson CQC7 " is revealed as the potential weapon used by a Chechen teen in the murder of his Russian foster @-@ parents . However , the knife shown in the movie is not a CQC7 or even an Emerson made knife .
+
+In May 2013 , a non @-@ custom factory @-@ made Emerson CQC @-@ 7 knife carried by the Matt Bissonnette who served as point man on the mission to kill or capture Osama bin Laden was auctioned off for charity , netting over $ 35 @,@ 400 .
+
+= Robert Dover ( equestrian ) =
+
+Robert Benjamin Dover ( born June 7 , 1956 ) is an American equestrian who has had international success in the sport of dressage . Riding from the age of 13 , he began specializing in dressage at age 19 and competed in his first Olympics in 1984 . He competed in every summer Games between 1984 and 2004 , winning four team bronze medals . He also took a team bronze at the 1994 World Equestrian Games . Dover is the most honored dressage rider in the United States , and has been inducted to the United States Dressage Federation Hall of Fame . Outside of competition , Dover founded the Equestrian Aid Foundation in 1996 to assist others in the equestrian world , and hosted a TV show that searched for the next dressage star . From late 2009 to early 2011 , Dover served as the Technical / Coach Advisor for the Canadian national dressage team . In April 2013 , Dover was named Technical Advisor / Chef d 'Equipe for the US national dressage team .
+
+= = Personal life = =
+
+Dover , who is Jewish , was born in Chicago , Illinois to parents Herb and Jean Dover . He was given a horse for his Bar Mitzvah at 13 and was active in Pony Club , graduating at " A " level , the highest level . He decided to specialize in dressage when he was 19 . Dover attended the University of Georgia . He is openly gay , and his partner is fellow rider Robert Ross . Injuries , including a torn rotator cuff and pinched sciatic nerve , began to plague him in the late 1990s , causing major back pain and reducing his ability to ride .
+
+= = Career = =
+
+= = = Competition = = =
+
+In 1984 , Dover competed in his first Olympic Games at the age of 28 . At the Los Angeles Games , he finished 17th individually , and the US team finished 6th . At the 1988 Seoul Olympics , he finished 13th , and the team tied for 6th place . In 1992 , at the Barcelona Games , Dover tied for 22nd place , while the American team took the bronze medal . At the 1996 Atlanta Games , the 2000 Sydney Olympics and the 2004 Athina Games the United States dressage team took the bronze medal each time , while Dover finished 25th , 23rd and 6th respectively . He was elected team captain in all six Olympics in which he competed . Of his Olympic experience , Dover says , " The medals themselves aren 't the important thing . My memories of the Games and of the entire Olympic experience are , to me , everything . "
+
+In 1987 , Dover defeated Reiner Klimke , a six @-@ time Olympic gold medalist , at the German Aachen Grand Prix freestyle competition . In doing so , he became the first American in 27 years to win that event . In 1994 he was named the US Olympic Male Equestrian Athlete of the Year , and in 1995 awarded the Whitney Stone Cup , given by the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) for excellence in international competition . Dover has been named the USEF Dressage Champion five times , and ridden seven times in the FEI World Cup Final . In 1994 , Dover rode with the United States dressage team at the World Equestrian Games , winning a team bronze . He was also amassed more than 100 Grand Prix victories . Overall , Dover has won more honors in dressage than any other rider from the United States . In 2009 , Dover announced his retirement from competitive riding , instead choosing to focus on teaching and philanthropy .
+
+= = = Other = = =
+
+Dover founded the Equestrian Aid Foundation in 1996 . The Foundation 's mission is to financially assist members of the equestrian community who have suffered a catastrophic accident , injury or illness . In 2002 , Dover was listed as one of the 50 most influential horsemen by Chronicle of the Horse magazine . In 2007 , " The Search for America 's Next Equestrian Star : Dressage " , a reality TV show created and promoted by Dover , aired on the Fox Reality Channel with five one @-@ hour episodes . The show followed a search for young , talented dressage riders , with the final five being allowed to train with Dover for one month before a winner was selected ; the winner became Dover 's assistant . In 2008 , Dover was inducted into the United States Dressage Federation Hall of Fame . Dover served on the USEF Dressage Committee for many years , and spent eight years on the US Olympic Committee Athlete Advisory Council .
+
+In late 2009 , Dover was selected as a Technical / Coach Advisor for the Canadian dressage team , with a contract that extended through the 2010 World Equestrian Games in Lexington , Kentucky . After the Games , it was announced that Dover and the Canadian team had not been able to agree on contract renewal terms , but in late 2010 it was announced that Dover would remain as the interim trainer for the first quarter of 2011 . In March 2011 , German equestrian Markus Gribbe was hired , and Dover 's term as a Canadian coach came to an end . Dover is known for his coaching abilities , with some of the best dressage riders with top international titles to their credit coming from his stables . During his time as a trainer for Canada , he was no longer be eligible to train top riders with the USEF . In April 2013 , Dover was named Technical Advisor / Chef d 'Equipe of the US national dressage team . He is expected to remain in the position through the 2016 Summer Olympics . Dover is currently a rider and trainer at Stillpoint Farm in Florida .
+
+= Richard M. Scrushy =
+
+Richard Marin Scrushy ( born August 1952 in Selma , Alabama ) is an American businessman . He is the founder of HealthSouth Corporation , a global healthcare company based in Birmingham , Alabama .
+
+In 2004 , following an investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , Scrushy had charges brought against him by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) . Scrushy was charged with 36 of the original 85 counts but was acquitted of all charges on June 28 , 2005 , after a jury trial in Birmingham .
+
+Four months after his acquittal in Birmingham , Scrushy was indicted along with former Alabama Governor Don Siegelman on October 28 , 2005 , by a federal grand jury in Montgomery , Alabama . The indictment included 30 counts of money laundering , extortion , obstruction of justice , racketeering , and bribery . Although the new charges were filed a month before the previous trial ended , Scrushy 's attorneys accused prosecutors of filing charges as retaliation for Scrushy 's acquittal . Scrushy pleaded not guilty to all charges , but was convicted along with Siegelman in June 2006 .
+
+On May 7 , 2009 , Scrushy was transferred from the Texas jail where he had been incarcerated and placed in the custody of the Shelby County Jail in Columbiana , Alabama . Scrushy was returned to Alabama in order to testify in a new civil trial in the Jefferson County Circuit Court brought against him by shareholders of HealthSouth who sought damages related to Scrushy 's trial and conviction . On June 18 , 2009 , Judge Allwin E. Horn ruled that Scrushy was responsible for HealthSouth ’ s fraud , and ordered him to pay $ 2 @.@ 87 billion . On July 25 , 2012 , Scrushy was released from federal custody .
+
+= = Early life and background = =
+
+Richard M. Scrushy was born in August 1952 in Selma , Alabama . The son of a middle class family , Scrushy 's father , Gerald Scrushy , worked as a cash register repairman and his mother , Grace Scrushy , worked as a nurse and respiratory therapist . At an early age , Scrushy taught himself to play the piano and guitar and was earning money doing odd jobs by the time he was 12 years old . Scrushy , who then went by his middle name Marin , attended school until he was 17 . He dropped out prior to graduating from Parrish High School and married .
+
+Scrushy soon found himself living in a Selma trailer park and working manual labor jobs to support his family . After a run @-@ in with a boss , Scrushy quit his job hauling cement and decided to return to school . He earned his GED , and at his mother 's advice , began studying respiratory therapy at Wallace State Community College . After a year at Wallace State , Scrushy transferred to Jefferson State Community College and later entered the respiratory therapy program at the University of Alabama at Birmingham ( UAB ) . Upon graduating from UAB 's program , Scrushy was offered a position teaching at the university , where he was promoted to director during his two and a half year tenure . Scrushy divorced his wife , with whom he had two children , and took a position teaching at Wallace State Community College in Dothan , Alabama . While teaching at Wallace State , Scrushy met and married his second wife , Karen Brooks . The two had four children before they divorced in 1996 . In early June 1997 , Scrushy married Leslie Anne Jones in Jamaica , with guests such as Martha Stewart attending . The group met at the HealthSouth Hangar at the Birmingham International Airport and boarded a chartered Boeing 727 to Jamaica . Together Richard and Leslie have had three children .
+
+= = Career and HealthSouth = =
+
+In the late 1970s , following his time teaching at UAB and Wallace State Community College , Scrushy was offered a position with Lifemark Corporation , a Houston , Texas @-@ based health care company . Within a few years of being hired at Lifemark , Scrushy was running a 100 @-@ million @-@ dollar operation that included the pharmacy , physical rehabilitation , and hospital acquisition divisions . While working for Lifemark , Scrushy moved to St. Louis , Missouri , where he worked as the regional director of the respiratory therapy division . He then moved to Houston where he became the company 's chief operating officer .
+
+Still working for Lifemark , Scrushy devised a plan for an outpatient diagnostics and rehabilitative health clinic chain . He presented the plan to Lifemark , but the company was unable to act on it due to a company merger that was already underway with American Medical International . Scrushy left Lifemark in 1983 and founded Amcare , Inc within a year . The new company opened its first facility in Little Rock , Arkansas and had initial capital between $ 50,000- $ 70 @,@ 000 . With the assistance of four partners from Amcare Inc. and a one million dollar investment by Citicorp Venture Capital , Scrushy took the quickly growing company and founded HealthSouth in 1984 . Two years after its founding , HealthSouth became a publicly traded company in 1986 . The next year , HealthSouth expanded into two new fields , worker ’ s compensation and sports medicine , allowing the company to double its earnings and obtain assets close to $ 100 million . By the early 1990s , the company had expanded even more , with facilities in each of the 50 U.S states and revenues in excess of $ 181 million .
+
+Over the next decade , HealthSouth ’ s sports medicine programs received international attention by being linked to star athletes including Bo Jackson , who served as the president of HealthSouth 's Sports Medicine Council , Roger Clemens , Jack Nicklaus , Kyle Petty , Michael Jordan , Shaquille O 'Neal , and Lúcio Carlos Cajueiro Souza . At its height , HealthSouth employed more than 50 @,@ 000 physicians , was the " nation 's largest provider of outpatient surgery and rehabilitative and diagnostic healthcare services " , and had over 2 @,@ 000 facilities in the United States , Puerto Rico , Australia , and the United Kingdom . HealthSouth facilities worldwide saw more than 120 @,@ 000 patients daily , and with earnings around $ 106 million in 1997 , Scrushy was the third highest paid CEO in the United States .
+
+= = Legal battles = =
+
+Although HealthSouth grew tremendously throughout the 1990s , becoming the largest comprehensive rehabilitative services company in the United States , ethical and financial questions began to arise as early as 1989 . An internal auditor alleged that he was fired for drawing attention to HealthSouth 's financial problems and that he was pressured to meet certain earnings targets . Two years later , in 1991 , HealthSouth was accused by Medicare of illegally adding costs to reports for outpatient physical therapy and inpatient rehabilitation admissions at the corporation 's Bakersfield Rehabilitation Hospital . In 1998 , Medicare changed its funding arrangements in an attempt to reduce exploitation and payments by $ 100 billion . Scrushy insisted that the change would not affect HealthSouth 's bottom line but profits dropped by 93 percent by the end of the year . Around this same time , HealthSouth began facing additional accusations of fraud . An investigation by the insurance company Blue Cross Blue Shield of Alabama determined that HealthSouth had " improperly billed Medicare for therapy by students , interns , athletic trainers , and other unlicensed aides " .
+
+Additional lawsuits alleged HealthSouth had committed widespread abuse of Medicare by " billing for services it never provided , delivering poor care , treating patients without a formal plan of care , and using unlicensed therapists " . In March 2003 , the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission filed a civil suit against Scrushy and HealthSouth alleging the company had falsified at least $ 2 @.@ 7 billion worth of profit between 1996 and 2002 . HealthSouth agreed to pay the United States government $ 325 million on December 30 , 2004 , in order to " settle allegations that the company defrauded Medicare and other federal healthcare programs " .
+
+= = = Birmingham criminal trial = = =
+
+On February 6 , 2003 , the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) announced that it had begun a criminal investigation relating to the " trading of shares of the HealthSouth Corporation " and possible securities law violations . A criminal complaint was filed by the FBI against HealthSouth 's Chief Financial Officer Weston Smith and Scrushy had civil charges brought against him by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) . Scrushy became the first CEO to be tried under the Sarbanes @-@ Oxley Act when he was indicted by the United States Department of Justice in United States of America v. Richard M. Scrushy on November 4 , 2003 .
+
+The indictment included 85 counts of conspiracy , money laundering , securities fraud , and mail fraud but Scrushy was ultimately charged with just 36 counts . In the indictment , Scrushy was accused of using intimidation , threats , and cash payments to coerce top executives into committing fraud . These top executives called themselves " The Family " and referred to their creative accounting as " filling the gap " . The group attempted to hide the false earnings by illegally inflating balances of accounts such as fixed assets and estimated insurance reimbursements . Despite multiple chief executives testifying against Scrushy , the prosecutors were unable to produce any material evidence that Scrushy had been involved in the fraudulent accounting .
+
+During the trial , Scrushy defended himself both inside and outside the courtroom . Scrushy was interviewed by Mike Wallace for a 60 Minutes segment called " Cooking The Books " , began hosting a Christian television show with his wife called Viewpoint , backed a city @-@ wide 40 day prayer movement referred to as " City , thou art loosed " , and joined the predominantly African American Guiding Light Church . These actions were seen as an attempt to sway potential jurors , since 70 percent of Birmingham 's population and 11 of the 18 jurors were African American . Following more than a month of deliberations , Scrushy was acquitted of all charges on June 28 , 2005 .
+
+= = = Montgomery criminal trial = = =
+
+On October 26 , 2005 , four months after his acquittal in Birmingham , Scrushy was indicted by a federal grand jury in Montgomery , Alabama . The indictment included 30 counts of money laundering , extortion , obstruction of justice , racketeering , and bribery of Alabama Governor Don Siegelman . Prosecutors claimed that Scrushy had agreed to pay over $ 500 @,@ 000 of Siegelman 's debt , which he accumulated during a failed attempt to bring a state lottery to Alabama , in exchange for a seat on the Certificates of Need Review Board . The board serves the state by reviewing hospitals and approving their construction . Although the new charges were filed a month before the previous trial ended , Scrushy 's attorney 's accused prosecutors of filing charges as retaliation for Scrushy 's acquittal . Scrushy and Siegleman pleaded not guilty to all charges , but they were both convicted following a trial that lasted approximately six weeks . Scrushy was convicted of bribery , conspiracy , and mail fraud , while Siegelman was convicted of bribery , conspiracy , mail fraud , and obstruction of justice .
+
+While awaiting sentencing , on March 29 , 2007 , Scrushy 's probation officer filed a report claiming that Scrushy had violated the conditions of his bond by leaving Walt Disney World in Orlando , Florida and traveling to Palm Beach where he boarded a yacht and sailed to Miami . The probation officer suggested that Scrushy should be placed under house arrest and that he be required to wear an electronic monitoring device at all times . United States Magistrate Judge Charles Coody warned Scrushy that he " would not tolerate any future deviations from the requirements the court has placed on " him and ruled that Scrushy must wear a GPS tracking device anytime he travels outside of Alabama .
+
+On June 28 , 2007 , Scrushy was sentenced to six years and ten months in a federal prison , ordered to pay $ 267 @,@ 000 in restitution to United Way of Alabama , three years probation , and a fine of $ 150 @,@ 000 . Scrushy is also expected to personally pay for his time in prison and perform 500 hours of community service . Siegelman was sentenced on the same day to seven years and four months in prison , restitution of $ 181 @,@ 325 to the state , three years probation , a $ 50 @,@ 000 fine , and 500 hours of community service upon his release . U.S. District Judge Mark Fuller would later rule , however , that Sieglman would not be required to pay the $ 181 @,@ 325 in restitution . The restitution was based on debts accumulated by the State of Alabama during a fraudulent warehouse deal , but Siegelman was acquitted on charges related to the deal . Upon sentencing , Scrushy and Siegelman were taken into custody and transported to a federal prison in Atlanta , Georgia , where they briefly shared a cell .
+
+= = = Appeal = = =
+
+Following the trial and conviction , Scrushy , Siegelman , and the prosecutors all indicated they would appeal . Scrushy and Seigelman vowed to appeal their convictions and sentences , while the prosecution announced its desire to appeal a judge 's decision to remove charges of perjury from Scrushy 's indictment . The prosecutors quickly dropped their appeal , and United States Attorney Alice Martin indicated they had reconsidered .
+
+Awaiting appeal , Scrushy was briefly transported to a transfer site for inmates in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma before being sent to his permanent location at a low security federal prison in Beaumont , Texas . Scrushy filed a request with the 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals , asking to be released on appeal bond . The 11th US Circuit Court of Appeals rejected Scrushy 's request to be released on bond , citing an earlier ruling written by U.S. District Judge Mark Fuller . The ruling was issued while Scrushy was on bond awaiting sentencing , and deemed him a flight risk . Scrushy again filed for release in February and May 2008 but both requests were denied .
+
+In March 2009 , a panel of three judges from the 11th U.S. Circuit Court upheld all charges against Scrushy and dismissed two of the seven charges against Siegelman . A further appeal for a full court review of the case was also denied by the 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals on May 15 , 2009 . Scrushy appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States . On June 29 , 2010 , the Court issued an order directing the appeals court to review the case in light of their ( Supreme Court 's ) ruling the previous week on the " honest services " fraud statute . On June 4 , 2012 the U.S. Supreme Court rejected his appeal , allowing his public corruption and bribery convictions to stand .
+
+= = = Birmingham civil trial = = =
+
+Scrushy was returned to Alabama on May 7 , 2009 , in order to testify in a new civil trial in a Birmingham court . Former HealthSouth investors sued him seeking recompense for money lost due to the fraud of which Scrushy was acquitted in 2005 . While opposing counsel claimed Scrushy was a " hands @-@ on manager who treated the company as a personal piggy bank , " Scrushy continued to assign blame to his subordinates and maintain that he did nothing wrong . Closing arguments were heard in the trial on May 27 , 2009 . On June 18 , 2009 , Judge Horn ordered Scrushy to pay $ 2 @.@ 87 billion in damages . Judge Horn stated , " Scrushy knew of and actively participated in the fraud " and referred to Scrushy as the " CEO of the fraud " . As expected , Scrushy appealed the judgment to the Alabama Supreme Court . On January 28 , 2011 , Scrushy lost his appeal of the civil verdict .
+
+= = = Release = = =
+
+According to the federal Bureau of Prisons website , the 59 @-@ year @-@ old Scrushy was moved in April 2012 from the federal prison in Beaumont , Texas into the supervision of the community corrections management field office in San Antonio , Texas . Following his move to a halfway house , he was moved to home confinement , and then , on July 25 , 2012 , Richard Scrushy was released from federal custody .
+
+= Subject 13 =
+
+" Subject 13 " is the 15th episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 58th episode overall . Inspired by fan reaction to the show 's previous flashback episode , " Peter " , " Subject 13 " occurs 25 years before the show 's current timeline , in 1985 a few months after " Peter " . The episode , with scenes set in both the prime and the parallel universe , explore Walter and Elizabeth Bishop 's attempts to return Peter to the parallel universe using the Cortexiphan @-@ induced abilities of young Olivia Dunham , while Walternate in the parallel universe struggles to deal with the kidnapping of his son .
+
+Showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman , as well as consulting producer Akiva Goldsman wrote the episode , while producer Frederick E. O. Toye worked as the director . Guest actress Orla Brady returned to reprise the role of Elizabeth , while Chandler Canterbury , Karley Scott Collins , and Chris Bradford made their first guest appearances . On its initial broadcast in the United States on February 25 , 2011 , an estimated 4 @.@ 0 million viewers tuned in . Critical reception to the episode was overwhelmingly positive . It was ranked the third best episode of the entire series by Entertainment Weekly .
+
+= = Plot = =
+
+" Subject 13 " is set in 1985 , a few months after the events of " Peter " , during which Walter ( John Noble ) brought the parallel universe 's version of his son Peter into the prime one to cure him of a genetic disease . In the following months , Peter ( Chandler Canterbury ) doubts he is from the prime universe , and attempts to drown himself in Reiden Lake , believing it the way to his universe . Elizabeth ( Orla Brady ) , Walter 's wife , worries for the boy , and takes him with her to Jacksonville , Florida , where Walter is studying the effects of the nootropic drug on several children . Walter and Elizabeth agree they need to return Peter to the parallel universe for both the child 's sanity and to prevent that universe from discovering theirs .
+
+In the parallel universe , Walternate 's ( Noble ) position as national security czar makes Peter 's disappearance a major news story . Walternate falls into a deep depression , unable to explain how his child has been kidnapped by someone that looked exactly like him . Elizabeth coaxes him out of his depression and he returns to Bishop Dynamic in Florida to continue his job .
+
+One of Walter 's subjects is young Olivia Dunham ( Karley Scott Collins ) , aka " Subject 13 " . Walter suspects Olivia 's stepfather ( Chris Bradford ) is abusing her based on bruises she carries and frightening drawings in her sketchbook , but Olivia refuses to talk about it . One night , as Olivia is about to be struck by her stepfather , she temporarily finds herself in a different place ; the next day , she draws in her sketchbook a picture of what she saw in the other place : a zeppelin ( which are a common mode of transportation in the alternate universe ) . Walter realizes that Olivia crossed over to the parallel universe , and can be the means for returning Peter . Walter puts Olivia under several tests to try to coax her to cross over , eventually eliminating all emotions but fear as the triggering mechanism . He arranges a traumatic test for Olivia , but instead of crossing over , she exhibits pyrokinesis and sets the room afire . In the confusion of extinguishing the blaze , she disappears .
+
+Peter , discovering a picture of white tulips in Olivia 's book , is able to find her nearby . After they introduce themselves , Olivia admits to being scared of going home to her stepfather . Peter tells her to trust Walter and to face her fear , and then returns her to the child care center , to everyone 's relief . As Olivia waits for her stepfather , she sketches a picture of her and Peter in her book . As her stepfather is about to arrive , Olivia decides she must tell Walter about him , and rushes to his office . Olivia , in tears , hands Walter the sketchbook , explaining about her stepfather 's abuse and that she knew she had crossed over to the parallel universe . She is interrupted by a sound from behind her : it is Walter . Olivia had temporarily entered the parallel universe and spoken to Walternate . Walter takes Olivia to her stepfather , but warns the man that he will be reported to social services if Olivia is harmed again .
+
+Elizabeth and Peter return to Reiden Lake , and Peter eventually comes to call Elizabeth his mom , but Elizabeth becomes forlorn after she realizes the lie she has been maintaining for the last few months . The episode ends in the parallel universe , where Walternate has reviewed Olivia 's sketchbook , including her latest picture of her and Peter ; now aware of the parallel universe , Walternate gains new resolve to get his Peter back .
+
+= = Production = =
+
+" Subject 13 " was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner , J. H. Wyman and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman , while former Fringe producer Frederick E. O. Toye directed . It was the first episode Toye directed since the first season . In an interview with TV Guide , Pinkner and Wyman revealed they had known Olivia and Peter met as children for a long time , but did not decide to show this to the audience until they wrote the episode . Wyman described Elizabeth Bishop 's successful lie at making Peter believe she is his real mother as " the beginning of the end for her , " as her character will ultimately commit suicide .
+
+Olivia 's abusive stepfather , whom she non @-@ fatally shot when nine years old , makes his first appearance in " Subject 13 " . In early January 2011 , TVline 's Michael Ausiello exclusively reported that Fringe was casting for an actor to play the part . Several news sources later in early March noticed on the Internet Movie Database that actor Chris Bradford had been cast . The casting report later turned out to be true , as Bradford appeared in the episode . Chandler Canterbury appeared in the episode as a young Peter Bishop , a role previously played by Quinn Lord in the second season episode " Peter " . Karley Scott Collins also made a guest appearance as a younger version of Olivia Dunham .
+
+Actor John Noble , who played two versions of a younger Walter in both " Peter " and " Subject 13 " , described the process it took to make him appear years younger in an interview with Digital Spy :
+
+" Our makeup lady , particularly for the second flashback , worked out some terrific techniques to get the skin softer so it loses the wrinkles and so forth . This year we 've come up with some terrific technology . And [ I have ] a beautiful handmade wig which at that stage was the right length - should we go on further we 'd need to trim it back . We 've looked at it really carefully . As we become more efficient it 's generally about three or four hours in makeup " .
+
+As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Subject 13 " , with the intention of having " students learn about adaptation and how the process helps organisms survive in their specific ecological environment . "
+
+= = Cultural references = =
+
+The show reuses the 1980s @-@ styled introduction sequence from " Peter " . One scene set in the prime universe is at a toy store and shows many vintage toys of that period , including toys from Ghostbusters , Battlestar Galactica , and G.I. Joe , as well as an Atari 2600 entertainment system . There , a boy can be seen playing the 1982 video game Joust . Before her stepfather strikes her , young Olivia is seen reading the book Winter 's Tale by Mark Helprin . Among the tests Walter puts Olivia through is the Project Christmas block test ( " The Indicator " ) from Alias , another television series created by Fringe executive producer J.J. Abrams . In the parallel universe , Walternate is credited with making the Star Wars program work , leading to his role as the national security czar . The episode also features a reference to the DC Comics character Green Lantern , dubbed Red Lantern in the parallel universe , as noted by Peter .
+
+One of the other identified students at the daycare center is Nick Lane , whose adult character appears in the episodes " Bad Dreams " and " Over There " . In parallel with William Bell 's founding of the technology company Massive Dynamic in the prime universe , Walternate has founded Bishop Dynamic in the parallel universe , situated in Jacksonville . The field of white tulips revisits the theme of the episode " White Tulip " from Season 2 , where Walter believes that seeing a white tulip is a sign of God 's forgiveness of his actions . The video of Olivia setting fire to the lab , as well as the setting of the nursery school where the Cortexiphan experiments took place , are references to the second season episode " Jacksonville " .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+= = = Ratings = = =
+
+" Subject 13 " first aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 25 , 2011 . It retained similar viewership from the previous week 's episode , " 6B " , with an estimated 4 @.@ 0 million viewers and a 1 @.@ 5 ratings share among those aged between 18 and 49 . In that demographic , " Subject 13 " helped Fox tie with CBS for first place , though Fox placed in fourth among total viewers . Time shifted viewing increased the episode 's ratings among adults by 53 percent to a 2 @.@ 3 ratings share .
+
+= = = Reviews = = =
+
+The episode received almost universal critical praise . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times called it one of his favorite Fringe episodes due to the " incredible " opening , Brady and Noble 's " outstanding " performances , and the scene with Olivia unknowingly talking to Walternate . Like Hanson , Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly also praised the actors ' performances , and thought it was " one of the most moving and revelatory episodes in the series ' short history " . Though he felt the episode did not quite match up to " Peter " , Ramsey Isler from IGN rated " Subject 13 " an 8 @.@ 5 / 10 . He believed the opening to be " tense and surprising " and praised the child actors ' performances . Finally , he thought the scene in which Olivia accidentally encounters Walternate was a " brilliant plot twist that ties a lot of things together " .
+
+CNN 's Henry Hanks wrote the episode " is reason enough to bring this series back for another season , " and praised Noble 's performance as Emmy @-@ worthy ; Hanks also loved the " genius " musical score written by composers Michael Giacchino and Chris Tilton . Noel Murray from The A.V. Club graded the episode with an A- , explaining that , like the other reviewers , he loved the opening sequence with Peter on the lake , the newest mythology details , as well as how Walternate discovered the prime universe . Murray also loved the " mood " of the episode , but had minor problems with the plot , as he thought it was now harder to believe Olivia , Peter , and Walter were strangers to each other in the first season . James Poniewozik of Time magazine concluded that the episode " was not the revelation that ' Peter ' was , though a phase @-@ shifting Olivia ’ s mistaking of Walternate for Walter was one of the series ’ most mindblowing moments ( and , again , a Lostian bit of disorienting sleight of hand ) . But it was again an effective detour in which Fringe reminded us that time has parallels just as space does , and that the past is emotionally overlaid on the present just as its Over There is overlaid on our world . "
+
+TV.com staff highlighted " Subject 13 " as one of the best television episodes of the 2010 – 11 United States network television schedule . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Subject 13 " the third best episode of the series , explaining " The nighttime scene between the two kids ( well played by Chandler Canterbury and Karley Scott Collins ) in the field of white tulips might be the most memorable scene in all of Fringe . ' Subject 13 ' is also one of the great parallel universe episodes , too , charting the shattering impact of Peter 's abduction on both sets of Walter and Elizabeth ( Orla Brady ) . ' Subject 13 ' was so essential , so emotionally wrenching . " IGN found the episode to be the fifth best of the series .
+
+= = = Awards and nominations = = =
+
+At the 33rd Young Artist Awards , Chandler Canterbury received a nomination for Best Performance In a TV Series – Guest Starring Young Actor 11 @-@ 13 , but lost to Austin Michael Coleman of House M.D. and Baljodh Nagra of R.L. Stine 's The Haunting Hour .
+
+= Indiana Territory =
+
+The Territory of Indiana was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from July 4 , 1800 , until December 11 , 1816 , when the remaining southern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the state of Indiana .
+
+The Indiana Territory was created by an Act of Congress and signed into law by President John Adams on May 7 , 1800 , effective on July 4 . It was the first new territory created from lands of the Northwest Territory , which had been organized in 1787 by the Northwest Ordinance . The territory originally contained approximately 259 @,@ 824 square miles ( 672 @,@ 940 km2 ) of land , but twice decreased in size as it was further subdivided into new territories ( Michigan Territory and Illinois Territory ) .
+
+The territory was first governed by William Henry Harrison who oversaw the negotiation with the native inhabitants to open large parts of the territory to settlement . In 1810 a popularly elected government was established as the territory continued to grow in population and develop a very basic road network , government , and education system . At the outbreak of Tecumseh 's War , the territory was on the front line of battle and Harrison led a military force in the opening hostilities at the Battle of Tippecanoe , and then in the subsequent invasion of Canada during the War of 1812 . Thomas Posey was appointed to the vacant governorship , but the opposition party , led by Congressman Jonathan Jennings , had dominance in the territorial affairs for its remaining years and began pressing for statehood . In June 1816 , a constitutional convention was held and a state government was formed . The territory was dissolved on December 11 , 1816 , by an act of Congress granting statehood to Indiana .
+
+= = Original boundaries = =
+
+The original boundaries of the Indiana Territory included the area of the Northwest Territory west of a line running from the bank opposite the mouth of the Kentucky River northeast to Fort Recovery , and from there due northward along a line approximately 84 deg 45 min W longitude . The territory initially included most of present @-@ day Indiana and all of present @-@ day Illinois , and Wisconsin , as well as fragments of three other states : the part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi River , almost all of the Upper Peninsula of present @-@ day Michigan and the western half of the Lower Peninsula , and finally , a narrow strip of present @-@ day Ohio lying to the north and west of Fort Recovery . This latter parcel became part of the state of Ohio when it was admitted to the Union in 1803 . At the same time in 1803 , the southeast boundary shifted to the mouth of the Great Miami River from its former location at the point opposite the mouth of the Kentucky River . The eastern part of Michigan was added to the Indiana Territory at that time . The area of the Indiana Territory was reduced in 1805 by the creation of the Michigan Territory , and in 1809 by the creation of the Illinois Territory .
+
+= = Government = =
+
+= = = Governors = = =
+
+= = = Legislature = = =
+
+When the Indiana Territory was first created , no provision was allowed for the creation of popularly elected government . Congress granted the President power to appoint a General Court to serve as a legislative and judicial branch of the territorial government . The court consisted of five members , and the President delegated the task of choosing the members to the Governor of the territory . This remained the form of government until 1805 when Congress granted the territory the right to legalize slavery if they so choose . In doing so , they removed the court 's legislative powers , leaving it with only judicial authority , but still to be appointed by the President through the Governor . The formation of a new legislative council was approved and each county in the territory was granted the right to elect one representative to it . The council had the authority to pass laws , but they all had to be approved by the Governor before they could be enacted .
+
+In 1809 , the makeup of the legislature was altered again by Congress to a bicameral body . A House of Representatives was created and the representation was apportioned by population . The House was then to choose ten candidates from whom the President , through the governor , would choose five to form a council which served as the upper house of the legislature . Thereafter , the structure of the legislature remained unchanged for the remainder of the territory 's existence .
+
+= = = Congressional delegation = = =
+
+The delegate from the Indiana Territory was elected at large in a territory @-@ wide election . The delegate attended Congress with the right to debate , submit legislation , and serve on committees , but was not permitted to vote on legislation .
+
+= = = Other high officials = = =
+
+The federal government paid the salaries of the governor , legislature , and judicial council , but did not provide funds for any additional governmental offices . At first , the territory had very limited revenue and could not afford to fund a large government . As the population increased , and revenues grew , so did the size and scope of the government with new offices being created at different times . The territory 's primary source of revenue was from the sale of federal lands ; the territory collected 3 % of the proceeds of each sale . Property tax and trading ventures with the Native American tribes also provided lesser revenues .
+
+Secretary
+
+Auditor
+
+Treasurer
+
+Attorney General
+
+= = History = =
+
+= = = Background = = =
+
+The Northwest Territory was formed by the Congress of the Confederation on July 13 , 1787 , and included all land between the Appalachia and the Mississippi River , the Great Lakes and the Ohio River . This single territory became the states of Ohio , Michigan , Indiana , Illinois , Wisconsin , and eastern Minnesota . The Northwest Territory act had all the newly acquired territory surveyed according to The Land Ordinance of 1785 for future development by the United States . The act also provided an administration to oversee the territory .
+
+At the time the territory was created , there were only three American settlements in what would later become the Indiana Territory , Vincennes , Kaskaskia and Clark 's Grant . The entire population was under five @-@ thousand Europeans . The Native American population was estimated to be near twenty @-@ thousand , but possibly as high as seventy @-@ five thousand .
+
+In 1785 , the Northwest Indian War began . In an attempt to end the native rebellion , the Miami town of Kekionga was unsuccessfully attacked by General Josiah Harmar and Northwest Territory governor Arthur St. Clair . St. Clair 's Defeat is the worst defeat of the U.S. army by Native Americans in history . The defeat led to the appointment of General " Mad Anthony " Wayne who organized the Legion of the United States and defeated a Native American force at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 . In 1795 the Treaty of Greenville was signed , taking a slice of eastern Indiana for the United States . Fort Miamis at Kekionga was occupied by the United States , who rebuilt it as Fort Wayne . The powerful Miami nation would consider themselves allies with the United States after the treaty .
+
+= = = Formation = = =
+
+On July 4 , 1800 , the Indiana Territory was established out of Northwest Territory in preparation for Ohio 's statehood . The capital of the new territory was Vincennes , a former French trading post and one of the only white settlements in the vast territory . The name Indiana meant " Land of the Indians " , and referred to the fact that most of the area north of the Ohio River was still inhabited by Native Americans . ( South of the river , Kentucky had been a traditional hunting ground for the Northwestern and other tribes , and early American settlers in Kentucky referred to the north bank as the land of the Indians . ) In 1768 , several colonies purchased the Iroquois claim to the northwest and established the Indiana Land Company to hold that claim , the first recorded use of the word Indiana . The claim to the land was disputed by Virginia , and the company 's claim was extinguished in a 1798 United States Supreme Court case . Two years later , Congress used the name of the company and applied it to the new territory .
+
+Indiana Territory began with just three counties : St. Clair ( part of present @-@ day Illinois , across the river from St Louis and south of the Illinois River ) , Randolph County ( part of present @-@ day Illinois , south of St. Clair county ) , and Knox ( present @-@ day Indiana , with parts of Illinois , Michigan and Wisconsin ) . There was also an area corresponding roughly to northern Illinois , much of Wisconsin , the northeastern corner of Minnesota , and the western part of Michigan 's upper peninsula that was unorganized .
+
+The first Governor of the Territory was William Henry Harrison . Harrison County was named in his honor ; he gained national fame during his term as a hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe . He later became the ninth President of the United States . Harrison served as governor from May 13 , 1800 to December 28 , 1812 . Harrison did not arrive in the territory to begin governing until January 1801 . John Gibson , the Territorial Secretary , served as acting governor , from the creation of the territory until his arrival . The governor was assisted in governing the territory by a three @-@ member panel of judges , the General Court . The court served as both the highest legislative and judicial authority in the territory and its members were appointed by the governor .
+
+As governor of a territory of the first stage ( as outlined in the Northwest Ordinance ) , Harrison had wide @-@ ranging powers in the new territory , including the authority to appoint all territorial officials as well as the territorial General Assembly , and the authority to divide the territory into districts . Harrison was eager to expand the territory , as his political fortunes were tied to Indiana 's rise to statehood . In 1803 President Thomas Jefferson granted Harrison authority to negotiate and conclude treaties with the Native American tribes in the territory . Harrison oversaw the creation of thirteen treaties , purchasing more than 60 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 240 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land from Native American leaders , including most present @-@ day southern Indiana .
+
+The Treaty of Vincennes was the first treaty Harrison negotiated with his new power . In 1803 he invited the leaders on the local tribes to Vincennes where they signed a treaty recognizing American possession of the Vincennes tract . This area had been captured by George Rogers Clark in the American Revolutionary War from the French . The Treaty of Grouseland in 1805 further secured possession of all of south @-@ western Indiana . Tensions however grew on the frontier and neared the breaking the point after the contentious and disputed 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne , in which Harrison purchased more than 250 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ) of American Indian land in central Indiana and eastern Illinois .
+
+The availability of new cheap land led to a rapid increase in the population of the territory , with thousands of new settlers entering the region every year . Large settlements began to spring up on the periphery of the territory around the Great Lakes , the Ohio River , the Wabash River , and the Mississippi River . Much of the interior , though , remained inhabited by the Native American tribes and was left unsettled .
+
+= = = District of Louisiana = = =
+
+From October 1 , 1804 until July 4 , 1805 , administrative powers of the [ D ] istrict of Louisiana were extended to the governor and judges of Indiana Territory as a temporary measure to govern the newly purchased lands . Under the terms of the act establishing the temporary government , the Governor and Judges of Indiana Territory were supposed to meet twice a year in a " at such place as will be most convenient to the inhabitants thereof in general " . Residents of the new district objected to many of the provisions of the new United States government , including their imposition of common law . Residents had previously lived under continental civil law .
+
+The " district of Louisiana " encompassed all Louisiana Purchase lands north of the 33rd parallel , the present @-@ day border of the states of Arkansas and Louisiana . South of the parallel , the more densely populated " territory of Orleans " was separately administered , largely under civil law .
+
+The [ D ] istrict of Louisiana was governed by Indiana Territory . One Kansas Territory source , recounting Kansas history up to 1855 , states that Kansas , as part of the district of Louisiana , was not only administered by but also " annexed to " Indiana Territory . Whether a temporary act can effect an annexation may depend on its actual duration , and most sources have declined to call Indiana Territory administration an annexation or even to use " annexed to " language . Less persuasively , maps generally fail to reflect the de jure common governance of Indiana Territory and the [ D ] istrict of Louisiana by way of , say , a common color scheme and / or a dotted border .
+
+In any event , the [ D ] istrict of Louisiana soon became part of a separately administered [ T ] erritory of Louisiana , effective July 4 , 1805 .
+
+One of the most notable events during this period was the Treaty of St. Louis in which the Sac and Fox tribes ceded northeastern Missouri , northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin to the United States . Resentments over this treaty were to cause the tribes to side with the British during the War of 1812 in raids along the Missouri , Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and was to spur the Black Hawk War in 1832 .
+
+= = = Politics = = =
+
+In 1803 , Harrison began to lobby Congress to repeal Article Six of the Northwest Ordinance , which prohibited slavery in the original Northwest Territory , in order permit slavery in the Indiana Territory . He claimed legalizing slavery was necessary to make the region more appealing to settlers and ultimately make the territory economically viable . That same year Harrison had indenturing legalized by the General Court . The territory was granted representation in the United States Congress in 1805 , and pro @-@ slavery Benjamin Parke became the territory 's first representative . Parke used his position to get Congress to support Harrison 's appeal . He was able pass legislation to have Article Six suspended for ten years , and the territories covered by the ordinance were granted the ability to legalize slavery . By the same act , Congress removed the General Court 's legislative power and created a legislative council to be elected by popular vote .
+
+Harrison 's attempts caused a significant stir among the many Quakers who had settled in the eastern part of the territory ; they responded by forming an anti @-@ slavery party . In the 1805 election , Davis Floyd of Clark County was the only anti @-@ slavery representative elected to the council . Harrison 's measures to legalize slavery were blocked by the representatives from St. Clair County , who refused to authorize slavery unless Harrison supported their request for a separate territory , which Harrison opposed . In 1809 , the St. Clair County settlers petitioned Congress for the formation of a separate territory . Despite Harrison 's disapproval , the Illinois Territory was created . The same year , Congress granted the Indiana Territory the right to elect a House of Representatives . Harrison found himself at odds with the legislature when the anti @-@ slavery party came to power in that year 's election . They promptly rebuffed many of his plans for slavery and repealed the indenturing laws he had enacted in 1803 .
+
+The capital of the territory remained in Vincennes for thirteen years . After the territory was reorganized in 1809 and the Illinois Territory was split off , Vincennes was then on the far west edge of the Indiana Territory . Due to this , the legislature made plans to move the capital to be more centralized with the population . Madison , Jeffersonville , and Corydon competed to become the new capital . Harrison favored Corydon , a town he had founded and named , and where he owned an estate . The new capitol building was finished in 1813 and the government quickly relocated to Corydon after the outbreak of the War of 1812 for fear of an attack on Vincennes .
+
+= = = Tecumseh 's War = = =
+
+An Indian resistance movement against U.S. expansion had been growing around the Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa ( The Prophet ) that became known as Tecumseh 's War . Tenskwatawa convinced the native tribes that they would be protected by the Great Spirit and no harm could befall them if they would rise up against the whites . He encouraged resistance by telling the tribes to only pay white traders half of what they owed , and to give up all the white man 's ways , including their clothing , whiskey , and guns . In 1810 , Tecumseh , with about 400 armed warriors , traveled to Vincennes where he confronted Harrison and demanded that the Treaty of Fort Wayne be rescinded . Although Harrison refused , the war party left peacefully , but Tecumseh was angry and threatened retaliation . After the meeting Tecumseh journeyed to meet with many of the tribes in the region , hoping to create a confederation with which to battle the Americans .
+
+In 1811 , while Tecumseh was still away , Harrison was authorized by Secretary of War William Eustis to march against the nascent confederation , as a show of force . Harrison moved north with an army of more than one thousand men in an attempt to intimidate the Shawnee into making peace . The ploy failed , and the tribes launched a surprise attack on Harrison 's army early on the morning of November 6 . The ensuing battle became known as the Battle of Tippecanoe . Harrison ultimately won his famous victory at Prophetstown , next to the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers . Harrison was publicly hailed as a national hero , despite the fact that his troops had greatly outnumbered the Indian forces , and had suffered many more casualties . The battle earned Harrison national fame , and the nickname " Old Tippecanoe " . The victory opened up central Indiana to settlement and allowed settlers to safely venture beyond the southern periphery of the state .
+
+= = = War of 1812 = = =
+
+The war between Tecumseh and Harrison merged with the War of 1812 when the Indian Confederation allied with the British in Canada . In May 1812 , a meeting of all the tribal leaders in the region was held in the Miami village of Mississinewa hosted by Chief Little Turtle . Most of the tribes decided to remain neutral during the conflict and rejected Tecumseh 's plans of continued rebellion . Despite their rejection , Tecumseh continued to lead his dwindling army against the Americans , and moved farther north where he could be supported by the British army . His followers who remained behind continued raiding the countryside and engaged in the Siege of Fort Harrison , which was the United States ' first land victory during the war . John Gibson served as acting Governor during the War of 1812 while Harrison was leading the army . After Harrison was replaced in June 1812 , Gibson continued as acting @-@ governor until incoming governor Thomas Posey arrived in May 1813 .
+
+Numerous other battles that occurred in the modern state of Indiana include the Siege of Fort Wayne , the Pigeon Roost Massacre and the Battle of the Mississinewa . Most of the Native Americans remained passive throughout the war , but there were many incidents between settlers and the tribes , leading to the deaths of hundreds in the territory . The Treaty of Ghent , signed in 1814 , ended the War and relieved American settlers from their fears of the nearby British and their Indian allies .
+
+= = = Statehood = = =
+
+In 1812 , Jonathan Jennings defeated Harrison 's chosen candidate and became the territory 's representative to Congress . Jennings used his position there to attempt to speed up Indiana 's path to statehood by immediately introducing legislation to grant Indiana statehood , even though the population of the entire territory was under 25 @,@ 000 . Jennings did this against the wishes of incoming governor Thomas Posey , and there was noted disagreement between the two men on the subject . No action was taken on the legislation at the time , though , because of the outbreak of the War of 1812 .
+
+Thomas Posey was appointed territorial Governor on March 3 , 1813 , and served until the state 's first Governor was sworn into office on November 7 , 1816 . Posey , who was age sixty @-@ two and in poor health , had created a rift in the politics of the territory by refusing to reside in the capital of Corydon , instead living in Jeffersonville to be closer to his doctor . He further complicated matters by being a supporter of slavery , much to the chagrin of opponents like Jennings , Dennis Pennington , and others who dominated the Territorial Legislature , and who sought to use the bid for statehood to permanently end the possibility of slavery in the state .
+
+In February 1815 , the United States House of Representatives began debate on granting Indiana Territory statehood . In early 1816 , the Territory approved a census and Pennington was named to be the census enumerator . The population of the territory was found to be 63 @,@ 897 , above the threshold required for statehood that was stated in the Northwest Ordinance . On May 13 , 1816 , the Enabling Act was passed and the state was granted permission to form a government subject to the approval of Congress . A constitutional convention met in 1816 in Corydon . The state 's first constitution was drawn up on June 10 , and elections were held in August to fill the offices of the new state government . In November of that year the constitution was approved by Congress and the territorial government was dissolved , ending the existence of the Indiana Territory and replacing it with the State of Indiana .
+
+= = Commemoration = =
+
+The Indiana Territory is celebrated at an annual event in Corydon centered on the territorial capitol building . The festival includes actors in period dress who reenact events and pretend to be some of the important settlers of early Indiana . Other commemorative festivals occur in Vincennes and Madison , and the history of the period is noted on historic markers and monuments across the former territory .
+
+= Mary Margaret O 'Reilly =
+
+Mary Margaret O 'Reilly ( October 14 , 1865 – December 6 , 1949 ) was an American civil servant who worked as the Assistant Director of the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1924 until 1938 . One of the United States ' highest @-@ ranking female civil servants of her time , she worked at the Mint for 34 years , during which she often served as acting director during the Mint Director 's absence .
+
+O 'Reilly was born in Springfield , Massachusetts to an Irish immigrant family . Growing up in that state , she left school around the age of 14 to help support both her widowed mother and her siblings . Likely starting work in the local textile mills , she gained clerical training at night school before working as a clerk in Worcester for eighteen years . In 1904 , O 'Reilly gained a position at the Mint Bureau , resulting in a move to Washington , D.C. She rose rapidly in the bureau 's hierarchy – an unusual feat for a woman at that time – and was frequently called upon to testify before the United States Congress . As many of the Mint 's directors were political appointees who had little knowledge or interest in the bureau 's operations , the task of running the institution often fell to her . In 1924 she was officially appointed Assistant Director .
+
+In 1933 , the Mint gained its first female Director , Nellie Tayloe Ross , and despite initial mistrust between her and O 'Reilly , they came to forge a strong bond . Although scheduled for mandatory retirement in 1935 , O 'Reilly was considered to be so indispensable to the bureau 's operations that U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt postponed this until 1938 . During her later years , O 'Reilly remained in Washington D.C. ; she no longer involved herself in Mint affairs , instead devoting much of her attention to Catholic charitable work .
+
+= = Early life and career = =
+
+Mary Margaret O 'Reilly was born in Springfield , Massachusetts , on October 14 , 1865 . Her parents , James A. and Joanna O 'Reilly , were immigrants from Ireland , and Mary was one of five children . The family lived in Springfield and nearby Chicopee , Massachusetts , where James O 'Reilly was a liquor wholesaler . He died after an illness in 1873 . As well as depriving the family of income , his death caused his family legal trouble : Austin O 'Reilly , a clerk in the now @-@ closed O 'Reilly business , tried to settle the estate by selling the remaining alcohol , but lacked a license to do so . Joanna O 'Reilly denied any knowledge of business affairs . Austin 's conviction for transporting liquor without a license was upheld by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court .
+
+Mary left school after ninth grade , at or soon after age 14 , as her help was needed to support the family . She likely worked for one of the local textile mills , and attended night school to train as a clerk and stenographer . From 1885 to 1903 , she worked as a clerk , living in Worcester along with a brother , in a boarding house owned by their mother .
+
+= = Mint career ( 1904 – 1938 ) = =
+
+= = = Rise to prominence = = =
+
+O 'Reilly was hired by the United States Bureau of the Mint as a Class D temporary clerk in 1904 , when she was 38 years old , older than most new employees . She served in the Washington , D.C. headquarters of the Bureau of the Mint , where Mint Director George E. Roberts was impressed by her business experience and competence . Initially having only temporary status , she was made a permanent employee in 1905 , and was promoted again that year to Clerk Class I at a salary of $ 1 @,@ 200 . When Margaret Kelly was commissioned Examiner of the Bureau of the Mint in 1911 , the ripple of promotions in her wake included O 'Reilly , who became adjuster of accounts . This made her in effect the chief clerk of the Mint Bureau , with responsibility for reviewing all contracts . According to Teva J. Scheer , biographer of Nellie Tayloe Ross ( O 'Reilly 's final Mint Director before retirement ) " it must have required an almost unprecedented combination of drive and intelligence for [ O 'Reilly ] to have climbed so far up through the organization in her male @-@ dominated work environment " .
+
+During the 1910s , O 'Reilly continued to gain promotion , serving both as examiner and as computer of bullion . She was frequently called upon to testify before Congress . In 1915 , Robert W. Woolley was appointed Mint Director , and was likely O 'Reilly 's favorite of those who served in that position during her third of a century at the Mint . She often concluded memoranda with personal good wishes , and Woolley reciprocated . After Woolley resigned in August 1916 , O 'Reilly served as acting director for part of the time until Woolley 's successor Friedrich Johannes Hugo von Engelken took office the next month , though Adjuster of the Bureau of the Mint Fred H. Chafflin held the acting position for much of the interregnum .
+
+= = = Assistant director = = =
+
+Most directors of the Mint of the early 20th century were political appointees , lacking previous experience with the bureau . Von Engelken during his six @-@ month term as director in 1916 and 1917 left almost all supervision of the mints and assay offices to O 'Reilly . The Mint eliminated production of proof coins , popular among collectors , in 1916 . Although the suggestion that the bureau eliminate the special coins , on which it lost money , came from Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Adam M. Joyce , and was approved by von Engelken , O 'Reilly signed many of the letters to numismatists , and thus was blamed for the change in policy .
+
+When von Engelken resigned in February 1917 , his successor was Raymond T. Baker , who foresaw that women would hold high government positions in increasing numbers , and gave O 'Reilly a more public role . Each year , Baker appeared before Congress to defend the bureau 's appropriation requests , and O 'Reilly sat behind him . In 1920 and 1921 , Baker tried to get Congress to formally designate O 'Reilly , who then held the title of executive clerk , as Assistant Director , but without success . After the Harding administration took office , Baker was replaced in 1922 by Frank E. Scobey , one of Harding 's Ohio Gang . The new director had little interest in Mint affairs , and O 'Reilly not only supervised the bureau 's operations , but was the chief witness before Congress in 1922 , defending both the appropriation request and the continuing drive to have herself designated Assistant Director . This time , Congress was more amenable , and she gained the title effective from 1924 .
+
+In December 1921 , a public relations crisis over the design of the new Peace dollar had erupted while Baker was on a three @-@ day trip by train to the West Coast . Anthony de Francisci , designer of the coin , had included a broken sword on the reverse , which he intended as a sign of the end of war , but which many interpreted as a symbol of disgrace . Anger at such a design resonated in a country deeply sensitive about such matters due to World War I. With Baker unreachable , O 'Reilly realized the sword would have to be removed , and approached Treasury Undersecretary Seymour Parker Gilbert , who as acting secretary approved a revised design . The Mint 's Chief Engraver , George T. Morgan , skillfully removed the sword from the already @-@ prepared coinage hubs even before Baker cabled his own approval of the revised design he had not seen .
+
+O 'Reilly ran most Mint operations under Scobey and his successor , Robert J. Grant . Although the Mint Bureau was very busy in the booming economy of the 1920s , numismatic historian Roger Burdette points out that there were flaws in operations — for example , Philadelphia Mint officials , instead of setting aside gold coins from each batch delivered for inspecting and testing by the annual Assay Commission , took all assay coins from a bag set aside at the start of the year , increasing the likelihood that nonstandard coins would go undetected . O 'Reilly did keep a close eye on coinage operations , warning the San Francisco Mint in November 1931 that it had produced fewer than 200 @,@ 000 nickels , a figure that if allowed to stand would have resulted in the issue being hoarded by collectors . She directed the mint to strike nothing but nickels for the remainder of the year , resulting in a total mintage for the 1931 – S of 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 , still the second @-@ lowest by date and mint mark in the Buffalo nickel series .
+
+= = = Roosevelt administration and retirement = = =
+
+When the Democratic Roosevelt administration took office in 1933 , O 'Reilly was serving as acting director following Grant 's resignation . President Franklin Roosevelt ( FDR ) appointed former Wyoming governor Nellie Tayloe Ross as Mint Director , the first woman to hold that position . By then , O 'Reilly was 67 years old , and appeared as a small , grandmotherly figure who was dubbed " the Sweetheart of the Treasury " — an appearance that hid her mental strength and determination . Ross 's personal secretary , Edness Wilkins , described the Assistant Director of the Mint as " ruthless " .
+
+Ross and O 'Reilly had mutual suspicions to overcome . Ross , who had recently endured poor relations with Eleanor Roosevelt and others on FDR 's campaign , did not trust the career staff . O 'Reilly saw another political appointee with no experience at the Mint Bureau replacing Grant , who had been Denver Mint superintendent before his directorship . After a brief period , the two women came to appreciate each other 's merits .
+
+Among the issues that the Mint Bureau had to face in 1933 and 1934 was the calling @-@ in of most gold coins . When the Treasury Department issued regulations allowing such coins to be surrendered at branches of the Federal Reserve Bank , O 'Reilly sent out a memorandum over her signature as acting director noting that the Fed had no facilities to accept any gold other than bars with a government stamp . At the time , the Mint Bureau was one of the lowest @-@ status branches of the Department of the Treasury , esteemed far less than the Secret Service and other law enforcement @-@ related agencies that fell under the Treasury Secretary . Burdette points out that the gold regulations showed a lack of basic Mint knowledge both by Roosevelt 's appointees and the holdover senior officials from the Hoover administration .
+
+Ross and O 'Reilly soon came to the usual division of labor between the director and assistant : the director would handle public affairs and make policy decisions as needed , while the assistant dealt with the day @-@ to @-@ day business of the bureau . Ross undertook a heavy travel schedule , visiting Mint facilities , making speeches backing Roosevelt , and campaigning for Democratic candidates in Wyoming . This left O 'Reilly running the Washington office as acting director . The two women carried on a businesslike but warm correspondence during these times , with O 'Reilly writing to Ross ( who had embarked on a tour of the mints ) " I am so anxious to have your mind at ease about the office here [ in Washington ] that I have resorted to rather frequent telegrams . They are so much more direct and up to date than letters ... my love to you and every good wish for the success of your visits to our beloved mint institutions . " Scheer suggests that O 'Reilly would have found Ross 's reports from the field valuable ; they showed how the Mint recovered from the initial years of the Depression , when relatively few coins were produced , to the mid @-@ 1930s , when strong demand for coinage led the bureau to run the mints with two or even three shifts .
+
+In 1935 , O 'Reilly reached the mandatory federal retirement age of 70 . Her knowledge of bureau affairs was so extensive , and was so badly needed , that she was exempted from mandatory retirement by special order of President Roosevelt , at the request of Ross , giving O 'Reilly an extra year in the Mint Service . Although Ross supported the extension , she could not be seen as unable to do her job without O 'Reilly 's assistance , and hired Frank Leland Howard of the University of Virginia , who had a background in accounting , as O 'Reilly 's prospective replacement . Roosevelt approved a similar extension in 1936 , a distinction considered so significant that Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau , Jr. hosted a luncheon in her honor . Roosevelt again extended her federal service by one year in late 1937 , though warning that he would not exempt her again . An attempt by Morgenthau to further extend her tenure was turned down by the president the next July , and she retired on October 29 , 1938 , to be replaced by Howard .
+
+At O 'Reilly 's request , there was no ceremony to mark her retirement , though her fellow employees chipped in to buy her a diamond @-@ encrusted watch , which they persuaded her to accept . President Roosevelt and Secretary Morgenthau sent letters of appreciation for her service . The New York Times carried word of her retirement , but no interview , and a week later editorialized that " there is modernity here , too . An answer to America 's challenge to women . It points to what women want out of life , and what women can get and give . "
+
+= = Retirement and death = =
+
+After her retirement , O 'Reilly continued to live in her rooms at the Hay – Adams residence in Washington . She did not involve herself in Mint affairs ; though Morgenthau sent her a few letters , they did not mention business . O 'Reilly kept busy by organizing fundraising for Catholic charities . She was not interviewed when the Mint in 1944 investigated how several 1933 double eagles , never officially released , had come onto the market , an omission Burdette finds unusual .
+
+O 'Reilly died on December 6 , 1949 in Washington . Her New York Times obituary recalled that when she had been granted the first extension by Roosevelt , reporters had sought to interview her , only to be met with the following statement :
+
+I am deeply grateful to the President for his extreme kindness . Life without work does not remotely interest me . But do you have to print anything about me ?
+
+= Big Bang =
+
+The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large @-@ scale evolution . The model accounts for the fact that the universe expanded from a very high density and high temperature state , and offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of phenomena , including the abundance of light elements , the cosmic microwave background , large scale structure and Hubble 's Law . If the known laws of physics are extrapolated beyond where they have been verified , there is a singularity . Some estimates place this moment at approximately 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago , which is thus considered the age of the universe . After the initial expansion , the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the formation of subatomic particles , and later simple atoms . Giant clouds of these primordial elements later coalesced through gravity to form stars and galaxies .
+
+Since Georges Lemaître first noted , in 1927 , that an expanding universe might be traced back in time to an originating single point , scientists have built on his idea of cosmic expansion . While the scientific community was once divided between supporters of two different expanding universe theories , the Big Bang and the Steady State theory , accumulated empirical evidence provides strong support for the former . In 1929 , from analysis of galactic redshifts , Edwin Hubble concluded that galaxies are drifting apart ; this is important observational evidence consistent with the hypothesis of an expanding universe . In 1965 the cosmic microwave background radiation was discovered , which was crucial evidence in favor of the Big Bang model , since that theory predicted the existence of background radiation throughout the universe before it was discovered . More recently , measurements of the redshifts of supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe is accelerating , an observation attributed to dark energy 's existence . The known physical laws of nature can be used to calculate the characteristics of the universe in detail back in time to an initial state of extreme density and temperature .
+
+= = Overview = =
+
+American astronomer Edwin Hubble observed that the distances to faraway galaxies were strongly correlated with their redshifts . This was interpreted to mean that all distant galaxies and clusters are receding away from our vantage point with an apparent velocity proportional to their distance : that is , the farther they are , the faster they move away from us , regardless of direction . Assuming the Copernican principle ( that the Earth is not the center of the universe ) , the only remaining interpretation is that all observable regions of the universe are receding from all others . Since we know that the distance between galaxies increases today , it must mean that in the past galaxies were closer together . The continuous expansion of the universe implies that the universe was denser and hotter in the past .
+
+Large particle accelerators can replicate the conditions that prevailed after the early moments of the universe , resulting in confirmation and refinement of the details of the Big Bang model . However , these accelerators can only probe so far into high energy regimes . Consequently , the state of the universe in the earliest instants of the Big Bang expansion is still poorly understood and an area of open investigation and speculation .
+
+The first subatomic particles to be formed included protons , neutrons , and electrons . Though simple atomic nuclei formed within the first three minutes after the Big Bang , thousands of years passed before the first electrically neutral atoms formed . The majority of atoms produced by the Big Bang were hydrogen , along with helium and traces of lithium . Giant clouds of these primordial elements later coalesced through gravity to form stars and galaxies , and the heavier elements were synthesized either within stars or during supernovae .
+
+The Big Bang theory offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena , including the abundance of light elements , the cosmic microwave background , large scale structure , and Hubble 's Law . The framework for the Big Bang model relies on Albert Einstein 's theory of general relativity and on simplifying assumptions such as homogeneity and isotropy of space . The governing equations were formulated by Alexander Friedmann , and similar solutions were worked on by Willem de Sitter . Since then , astrophysicists have incorporated observational and theoretical additions into the Big Bang model , and its parametrization as the Lambda @-@ CDM model serves as the framework for current investigations of theoretical cosmology . The Lambda @-@ CDM model is the standard model of Big Bang cosmology , the simplest model that provides a reasonably good account of various observations about the universe .
+
+= = Timeline = =
+
+= = = Singularity = = =
+
+Extrapolation of the expansion of the universe backwards in time using general relativity yields an infinite density and temperature at a finite time in the past . This singularity signals the breakdown of general relativity and thus , all the laws of physics . How closely this can be extrapolated toward the singularity is debated — certainly no closer than the end of the Planck epoch . This singularity is sometimes called " the Big Bang " , but the term can also refer to the early hot , dense phase itself , which can be considered the " birth " of our universe . Based on measurements of the expansion using Type Ia supernovae and measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background , the universe has an estimated age of 13 @.@ 799 ± 0 @.@ 021 billion years . The agreement of these three independent measurements strongly supports the ΛCDM model that describes in detail the contents of the universe .
+
+= = = Inflation and baryogenesis = = =
+
+The earliest phases of the Big Bang are subject to much speculation . In the most common models the universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with a very high energy density and huge temperatures and pressures and was very rapidly expanding and cooling . Approximately 10 − 37 seconds into the expansion , a phase transition caused a cosmic inflation , during which the universe grew exponentially . After inflation stopped , the universe consisted of a quark – gluon plasma , as well as all other elementary particles . Temperatures were so high that the random motions of particles were at relativistic speeds , and particle – antiparticle pairs of all kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions . At some point an unknown reaction called baryogenesis violated the conservation of baryon number , leading to a very small excess of quarks and leptons over antiquarks and antileptons — of the order of one part in 30 million . This resulted in the predominance of matter over antimatter in the present universe .
+
+= = = Cooling = = =
+
+The universe continued to decrease in density and fall in temperature , hence the typical energy of each particle was decreasing . Symmetry breaking phase transitions put the fundamental forces of physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their present form . After about 10 − 11 seconds , the picture becomes less speculative , since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in particle physics experiments . At about 10 − 6 seconds , quarks and gluons combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons . The small excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of baryons over antibaryons . The temperature was now no longer high enough to create new proton – antiproton pairs ( similarly for neutrons – antineutrons ) , so a mass annihilation immediately followed , leaving just one in 1010 of the original protons and neutrons , and none of their antiparticles . A similar process happened at about 1 second for electrons and positrons . After these annihilations , the remaining protons , neutrons and electrons were no longer moving relativistically and the energy density of the universe was dominated by photons ( with a minor contribution from neutrinos ) .
+
+A few minutes into the expansion , when the temperature was about a billion ( one thousand million ; 109 ; SI prefix giga- ) kelvin and the density was about that of air , neutrons combined with protons to form the universe 's deuterium and helium nuclei in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis . Most protons remained uncombined as hydrogen nuclei . As the universe cooled , the rest mass energy density of matter came to gravitationally dominate that of the photon radiation . After about 379 @,@ 000 years the electrons and nuclei combined into atoms ( mostly hydrogen ) ; hence the radiation decoupled from matter and continued through space largely unimpeded . This relic radiation is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation . The chemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang , 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago , during a habitable epoch when the universe was only 10 – 17 million years old .
+
+= = = Structure formation = = =
+
+Over a long period of time , the slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser , forming gas clouds , stars , galaxies , and the other astronomical structures observable today . The details of this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the universe . The four possible types of matter are known as cold dark matter , warm dark matter , hot dark matter , and baryonic matter . The best measurements available ( from WMAP ) show that the data is well @-@ fit by a Lambda @-@ CDM model in which dark matter is assumed to be cold ( warm dark matter is ruled out by early reionization ) , and is estimated to make up about 23 % of the matter / energy of the universe , while baryonic matter makes up about 4 @.@ 6 % . In an " extended model " which includes hot dark matter in the form of neutrinos , then if the " physical baryon density " Ωbh2 is estimated at about 0 @.@ 023 ( this is different from the ' baryon density ' Ωb expressed as a fraction of the total matter / energy density , which as noted above is about 0 @.@ 046 ) , and the corresponding cold dark matter density Ωch2 is about 0 @.@ 11 , the corresponding neutrino density Ωvh2 is estimated to be less than 0 @.@ 0062 .
+
+= = = Cosmic acceleration = = =
+
+Independent lines of evidence from Type Ia supernovae and the CMB imply that the universe today is dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as dark energy , which apparently permeates all of space . The observations suggest 73 % of the total energy density of today 's universe is in this form . When the universe was very young , it was likely infused with dark energy , but with less space and everything closer together , gravity predominated , and it was slowly braking the expansion . But eventually , after numerous billion years of expansion , the growing abundance of dark energy caused the expansion of the universe to slowly begin to accelerate . Dark energy in its simplest formulation takes the form of the cosmological constant term in Einstein 's field equations of general relativity , but its composition and mechanism are unknown and , more generally , the details of its equation of state and relationship with the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both through observation and theoretically .
+
+All of this cosmic evolution after the inflationary epoch can be rigorously described and modeled by the ΛCDM model of cosmology , which uses the independent frameworks of quantum mechanics and Einstein 's General Relativity . There is no well @-@ supported model describing the action prior to 10 − 15 seconds or so . Apparently a new unified theory of quantum gravitation is needed to break this barrier . Understanding this earliest of eras in the history of the universe is currently one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics .
+
+= = Underlying assumptions = =
+
+The Big Bang theory depends on two major assumptions : the universality of physical laws and the cosmological principle . The cosmological principle states that on large scales the universe is homogeneous and isotropic .
+
+These ideas were initially taken as postulates , but today there are efforts to test each of them . For example , the first assumption has been tested by observations showing that largest possible deviation of the fine structure constant over much of the age of the universe is of order 10 − 5 . Also , general relativity has passed stringent tests on the scale of the Solar System and binary stars .
+
+If the large @-@ scale universe appears isotropic as viewed from Earth , the cosmological principle can be derived from the simpler Copernican principle , which states that there is no preferred ( or special ) observer or vantage point . To this end , the cosmological principle has been confirmed to a level of 10 − 5 via observations of the CMB . The universe has been measured to be homogeneous on the largest scales at the 10 % level .
+
+= = = Expansion of space = = =
+
+General relativity describes spacetime by a metric , which determines the distances that separate nearby points . The points , which can be galaxies , stars , or other objects , themselves are specified using a coordinate chart or " grid " that is laid down over all spacetime . The cosmological principle implies that the metric should be homogeneous and isotropic on large scales , which uniquely singles out the Friedmann – Lemaître – Robertson – Walker metric ( FLRW metric ) . This metric contains a scale factor , which describes how the size of the universe changes with time . This enables a convenient choice of a coordinate system to be made , called comoving coordinates . In this coordinate system the grid expands along with the universe , and objects that are moving only because of the expansion of the universe remain at fixed points on the grid . While their coordinate distance ( comoving distance ) remains constant , the physical distance between two such comoving points expands proportionally with the scale factor of the universe .
+
+The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe . Instead , space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points . In other words , the Big Bang is not an explosion in space , but rather an expansion of space . Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy , it applies to our universe only on large scales — local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large @-@ scale expansion of space .
+
+= = = Horizons = = =
+
+An important feature of the Big Bang spacetime is the presence of horizons . Since the universe has a finite age , and light travels at a finite speed , there may be events in the past whose light has not had time to reach us . This places a limit or a past horizon on the most distant objects that can be observed . Conversely , because space is expanding , and more distant objects are receding ever more quickly , light emitted by us today may never " catch up " to very distant objects . This defines a future horizon , which limits the events in the future that we will be able to influence . The presence of either type of horizon depends on the details of the FLRW model that describes our universe . Our understanding of the universe back to very early times suggests that there is a past horizon , though in practice our view is also limited by the opacity of the universe at early times . So our view cannot extend further backward in time , though the horizon recedes in space . If the expansion of the universe continues to accelerate , there is a future horizon as well .
+
+= = History = =
+
+= = = Etymology = = =
+
+English astronomer Fred Hoyle is credited with coining the term " Big Bang " during a 1949 BBC radio broadcast . It is popularly reported that Hoyle , who favored an alternative " steady state " cosmological model , intended this to be pejorative , but Hoyle explicitly denied this and said it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between the two models .
+
+= = = Development = = =
+
+The Big Bang theory developed from observations of the structure of the universe and from theoretical considerations . In 1912 Vesto Slipher measured the first Doppler shift of a " spiral nebula " ( spiral nebula is the obsolete term for spiral galaxies ) , and soon discovered that almost all such nebulae were receding from Earth . He did not grasp the cosmological implications of this fact , and indeed at the time it was highly controversial whether or not these nebulae were " island universes " outside our Milky Way . Ten years later , Alexander Friedmann , a Russian cosmologist and mathematician , derived the Friedmann equations from Albert Einstein 's equations of general relativity , showing that the universe might be expanding in contrast to the static universe model advocated by Einstein at that time . In 1924 Edwin Hubble 's measurement of the great distance to the nearest spiral nebulae showed that these systems were indeed other galaxies . Independently deriving Friedmann 's equations in 1927 , Georges Lemaître , a Belgian physicist and Roman Catholic priest , proposed that the inferred recession of the nebulae was due to the expansion of the universe .
+
+In 1931 Lemaître went further and suggested that the evident expansion of the universe , if projected back in time , meant that the further in the past the smaller the universe was , until at some finite time in the past all the mass of the universe was concentrated into a single point , a " primeval atom " where and when the fabric of time and space came into existence .
+
+Starting in 1924 , Hubble painstakingly developed a series of distance indicators , the forerunner of the cosmic distance ladder , using the 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory . This allowed him to estimate distances to galaxies whose redshifts had already been measured , mostly by Slipher . In 1929 Hubble discovered a correlation between distance and recession velocity — now known as Hubble 's law . Lemaître had already shown that this was expected , given the cosmological principle .
+
+In the 1920s and 1930s almost every major cosmologist preferred an eternal steady state universe , and several complained that the beginning of time implied by the Big Bang imported religious concepts into physics ; this objection was later repeated by supporters of the steady state theory . This perception was enhanced by the fact that the originator of the Big Bang theory , Monsignor Georges Lemaître , was a Roman Catholic priest . Arthur Eddington agreed with Aristotle that the universe did not have a beginning in time , viz . , that matter is eternal . A beginning in time was " repugnant " to him . Lemaître , however , thought that
+
+If the world has begun with a single quantum , the notions of space and time would altogether fail to have any meaning at the beginning ; they would only begin to have a sensible meaning when the original quantum had been divided into a sufficient number of quanta . If this suggestion is correct , the beginning of the world happened a little before the beginning of space and time .
+
+During the 1930s other ideas were proposed as non @-@ standard cosmologies to explain Hubble 's observations , including the Milne model , the oscillatory universe ( originally suggested by Friedmann , but advocated by Albert Einstein and Richard Tolman ) and Fritz Zwicky 's tired light hypothesis .
+
+After World War II , two distinct possibilities emerged . One was Fred Hoyle 's steady state model , whereby new matter would be created as the universe seemed to expand . In this model the universe is roughly the same at any point in time . The other was Lemaître 's Big Bang theory , advocated and developed by George Gamow , who introduced big bang nucleosynthesis ( BBN ) and whose associates , Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman , predicted the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) . Ironically , it was Hoyle who coined the phrase that came to be applied to Lemaître 's theory , referring to it as " this big bang idea " during a BBC Radio broadcast in March 1949 . For a while , support was split between these two theories . Eventually , the observational evidence , most notably from radio source counts , began to favor Big Bang over Steady State . The discovery and confirmation of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1965 secured the Big Bang as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the universe . Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang , understanding the physics of the universe at earlier and earlier times , and reconciling observations with the basic theory .
+
+In 1968 and 1970 Roger Penrose , Stephen Hawking , and George F. R. Ellis published papers where they showed that mathematical singularities were an inevitable initial condition of general relativistic models of the Big Bang . Then , from the 1970s to the 1990s , cosmologists worked on characterizing the features of the Big Bang universe and resolving outstanding problems . In 1981 Alan Guth made a breakthrough in theoretical work on resolving certain outstanding theoretical problems in the Big Bang theory with the introduction of an epoch of rapid expansion in the early universe he called " inflation " . Meanwhile , during these decades , two questions in observational cosmology that generated much discussion and disagreement were over the precise values of the Hubble Constant and the matter @-@ density of the universe ( before the discovery of dark energy , thought to be the key predictor for the eventual fate of the universe ) . In the mid @-@ 1990s observations of certain globular clusters appeared to indicate that they were about 15 billion years old , which conflicted with most then @-@ current estimates of the age of the universe ( and indeed with the age measured today ) . This issue was later resolved when new computer simulations , which included the effects of mass loss due to stellar winds , indicated a much younger age for globular clusters . While there still remain some questions as to how accurately the ages of the clusters are measured , globular clusters are of interest to cosmology as some of the oldest objects in the universe .
+
+Significant progress in Big Bang cosmology have been made since the late 1990s as a result of advances in telescope technology as well as the analysis of data from satellites such as COBE , the Hubble Space Telescope and WMAP . Cosmologists now have fairly precise and accurate measurements of many of the parameters of the Big Bang model , and have made the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating .
+
+= = Observational evidence = =
+
+The earliest and most direct observational evidence of the validity of the theory are the expansion of the universe according to Hubble 's law ( as indicated by the redshifts of galaxies ) , discovery and measurement of the cosmic microwave background and the relative abundances of light elements produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis . More recent evidence includes observations of galaxy formation and evolution , and the distribution of large @-@ scale cosmic structures , These are sometimes called the " four pillars " of the Big Bang theory .
+
+Precise modern models of the Big Bang appeal to various exotic physical phenomena that have not been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments or incorporated into the Standard Model of particle physics . Of these features , dark matter is currently subjected to the most active laboratory investigations . Remaining issues include the cuspy halo problem and the dwarf galaxy problem of cold dark matter . Dark energy is also an area of intense interest for scientists , but it is not clear whether direct detection of dark energy will be possible . Inflation and baryogenesis remain more speculative features of current Big Bang models . Viable , quantitative explanations for such phenomena are still being sought . These are currently unsolved problems in physics .
+
+= = = Hubble 's law and the expansion of space = = =
+
+Observations of distant galaxies and quasars show that these objects are redshifted — the light emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths . This can be seen by taking a frequency spectrum of an object and matching the spectroscopic pattern of emission lines or absorption lines corresponding to atoms of the chemical elements interacting with the light . These redshifts are uniformly isotropic , distributed evenly among the observed objects in all directions . If the redshift is interpreted as a Doppler shift , the recessional velocity of the object can be calculated . For some galaxies , it is possible to estimate distances via the cosmic distance ladder . When the recessional velocities are plotted against these distances , a linear relationship known as Hubble 's law is observed :