079project 1.0.0

package/tests/test_FIrststep3.txt

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+
+= = = Stars = = =
+
+Keyser and de Houtman assigned twelve stars to the constellation . Bayer depicted Grus on his chart , but did not assign its stars Bayer designations . French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille labelled them Alpha to Phi in 1756 with some omissions . In 1879 , American astronomer Benjamin Gould added Kappa , Nu , Omicron and Xi , which had all been catalogued by Lacaille but not given Bayer designations . Lacaille considered them too faint , while Gould thought otherwise . Xi Gruis had originally been placed in Microscopium . Conversely , Gould dropped Lacaille 's Sigma as he thought it was too dim .
+
+Grus has several bright stars . Marking the left wing is Alpha Gruis , a blue @-@ white star of spectral type B6V and apparent magnitude 1 @.@ 7 , around 101 light @-@ years from Earth . Its traditional name , Alnair , means " the bright one " and refers to its status as the brightest star in Grus . Alnair is around 380 times as luminous and has over 3 times the diameter of the Sun . Lying 5 degrees west of Alnair , denoting the Crane 's heart is Beta Gruis , a red giant of spectral type M5III . It has a diameter of 0 @.@ 8 astronomical units ( AU ) ( if placed in the Solar System it would extend to the orbit of Venus ) located around 170 light @-@ years from Earth . It is a variable star with a minimum magnitude of 2 @.@ 3 and a maximum magnitude of 2 @.@ 0 . An imaginary line drawn from the Great Square of Pegasus through Fomalhaut will lead to Alnair and Beta Gruis .
+
+Lying in the northwest corner of the constellation and marking the crane 's eye is Gamma Gruis , a blue @-@ white subgiant of spectral type B8III and magnitude 3 @.@ 0 lying around 211 light @-@ years from Earth . Also known as Al Dhanab , it has finished fusing its core hydrogen and has begun cooling and expanding , which will see it transform into a red giant .
+
+There are several naked @-@ eye double stars in Grus . Forming a triangle with Alnair and Beta , Delta Gruis is an optical double whose components — Delta1 and Delta2 — are separated by 45 arcseconds . Delta1 is a yellow giant of spectral type G7III and magnitude 4 @.@ 0 , 309 light @-@ years from Earth , and may have its own magnitude 12 orange dwarf companion . Delta2 is a red giant of spectral type M4.5III and semiregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 3 @.@ 99 and 4 @.@ 2 , located 325 light @-@ years from Earth . It has around 3 times the mass and 135 times the diameter of our sun . Mu Gruis , composed of Mu1 and Mu2 , is also an optical double — both stars are yellow giants of spectral type G8III around 2 @.@ 5 times as massive as the Sun with surface temperatures of around 4900 K. Mu1 is the brighter of the two at magnitude 4 @.@ 8 located around 275 light @-@ years from Earth , while Mu2 the dimmer at magnitude 5 @.@ 11 lies 265 light @-@ years distant from Earth . Pi Gruis , an optical double with a variable component , is composed of Pi1 Gruis and Pi2 . Pi1 is a semi @-@ regular red giant of spectral type S5 , ranging from magnitude 5 @.@ 31 to 7 @.@ 01 over a period of 191 days , and is around 532 light @-@ years from Earth . One of the brightest S @-@ class stars to Earth viewers , it has a companion star of apparent magnitude 10 @.@ 9 with sunlike properties , being a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G0V . The pair make up a likely binary system . Pi2 is a giant star of spectral type F3III @-@ IV located around 130 light @-@ years from Earth , and is often brighter than its companion at magnitude 5 @.@ 6 . Marking the right wing is Theta Gruis , yet another double star , lying 5 degrees east of Delta1 and Delta2 .
+
+RZ Gruis is a binary system of apparent magnitude 12 @.@ 3 with occasional dimming to 13 @.@ 4 , whose components — a white dwarf and main sequence star — are thought to orbit each other roughly every 8 @.@ 5 to 10 hours . It belongs to the UX Ursae Majoris subgroup of cataclysmic variable star systems , where material from the donor star is drawn to the white dwarf where it forms an accretion disc that remains bright and outshines the two component stars . The system is poorly understood , though the donor star has been calculated to be of spectral type F5V . These stars have spectra very similar to novae that have returned to quiescence after outbursts , yet they have not been observed to have erupted themselves . The American Association of Variable Star Observers recommends watching them for future events . CE Gruis ( also known as Grus V @-@ 1 ) is a faint ( magnitude 18 – 21 ) star system also composed of a white dwarf and donor star ; in this case the two are so close they are tidally locked . Known as polars , material from the donor star does not form an accretion disc around the white dwarf , but rather streams directly onto it .
+
+Six star systems are thought to have planetary systems . Tau1 Gruis is a yellow star of magnitude 6 @.@ 0 located around 106 light @-@ years away . It may be a main sequence star or be just beginning to depart from the sequence as it expands and cools . In 2002 the star was found to have a planetary companion . HD 215456 , HD 213240 and WASP @-@ 95 are yellow sunlike stars discovered to have two planets , a planet and a remote red dwarf , and a hot Jupiter respectively ; this last — WASP @-@ 95b — completes an orbit round its sun in a mere two days . Gliese 832 is a red dwarf of spectral type M1.5V and apparent magnitude 8 @.@ 66 located only 16 @.@ 1 light @-@ years distant ; hence it is one of the nearest stars to the Solar System . A Jupiter @-@ like planet — Gliese 832 b — orbiting the red dwarf over a period of 9 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 4 years was discovered in 2008 . WISE 2220 − 3628 is a brown dwarf of spectral type Y , and hence one of the coolest star @-@ like objects known . It has been calculated as being around 26 light @-@ years distant from Earth .
+
+= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
+
+Nicknamed the spare @-@ tyre nebula , IC 5148 is a planetary nebula located around 1 degree west of Lambda Gruis . Around 3000 light @-@ years distant , it is expanding at 50 kilometres a second , one of the fastest rates of expansion of all planetary nebulae .
+
+Northeast of Theta Gruis are four interacting galaxies known as the Grus Quartet . These galaxies are NGC 7552 , NGC 7590 , NGC 7599 , and NGC 7582 . The latter three galaxies occupy an area of sky only 10 arcminutes across and are sometimes referred to as the " Grus Triplet , " although all four are part of a larger loose group of galaxies called the IC 1459 Grus Group . NGC 7552 and 7582 are exhibiting high starburst activity ; this is thought to have arisen because of the tidal forces from interacting . Located on the border of Grus with Piscis Austrinus , IC 1459 is a peculiar E3 giant elliptical galaxy . It has a fast counterrotating stellar core , and shells and ripples in its outer region . The galaxy has an apparent magnitude of 11 @.@ 9 and is around 80 million light years distant .
+
+NGC 7424 is a barred spiral galaxy with an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 4 @.@  located around 4 degrees west of the Grus Triplet . Approximately 37 @.@ 5 million light years distant , it is about 100 @,@ 000 light years in diameter , has well defined spiral arms and is thought to resemble the Milky Way . Two ultraluminous X @-@ ray sources and one supernova have been observed in NGC 7424 . SN 2001ig was discovered in 2001 and classified as a Type IIb supernova , one that initially showed a weak hydrogen line in its spectrum , but this emission later became undetectable and was replaced by lines of oxygen , magnesium and calcium , as well as other features that resembled the spectrum of a Type Ib supernova . A massive star of spectral type F , A or B is thought to be the surviving binary companion to SN 2001ig , which was believed to have been a Wolf – Rayet star .
+
+Located near Alnair is NGC 7213 , a face @-@ on type 1 Seyfert galaxy located approximately 71 @.@ 7 million light years from Earth . It has an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 1 . Appearing undisturbed in visible light , it shows signs of having undergone a collision or merger when viewed at longer wavelengths , with disturbed patterns of ionized hydrogen including a filament of gas around 64 @,@ 000 light @-@ years long . It is part of a group of ten galaxies .
+
+NGC 7410 is a spiral galaxy discovered by British astronomer John Herschel during observations at the Cape of Good Hope in October 1834 . The galaxy has a visual magnitude of 11 @.@ 7 and is approximately 122 million light years distant from Earth .
+
+= Pedro del Valle =
+
+Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle ( August 28 , 1893 — April 28 , 1978 ) was a United States Marine Corps officer who became the first Hispanic to reach the rank of Lieutenant General . His military career included service in World War I , Haiti and Nicaragua during the Banana Wars of the 1920s , in the seizure of Guadalcanal , and later as Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division during World War II .
+
+= = Early years = =
+
+Del Valle was born on August 28 , 1893 in San Juan , Puerto Rico when the island was still under Spanish colonial rule . He was related to Dr. Francisco del Valle , a surgeon who had served as mayor of San Juan from 1907 to 1910 . In 1900 , two years after the Spanish – American War , the del Valle family moved to Maryland where they became U.S. citizens ( The Jones Act of 1917 later gave United States Citizenship to all Puerto Ricans born on the island ) . He received his primary and secondary education in Maryland .
+
+On June 17 , 1911 , after he graduated from high school , del Valle received an appointment by George Radcliffe Colton , who served from 1909 to 1913 as the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico , to attend the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland . Del Valle graduated from the academy in June 1915 and was commissioned a second lieutenant of the Marine Corps on June 5 , 1915 .
+
+= = Military career = =
+
+= = = The Banana Wars & pre @-@ World War II = = =
+
+Pedro del Valle helped the Marine Corps in the capture of Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic , in 1916 , for which he was awarded his first Legion of Merit . Del Valle commanded the Marine detachment on board the USS Texas ( BB @-@ 35 ) in the North Atlantic during World War I. In 1919 , he participated in the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet . Later he served as " Aide @-@ de @-@ camp " to Major General Joseph Henry Pendleton after serving on a tour of sea duty aboard the USS Wyoming ( BB @-@ 32 ) . His job included an inspection tour of the West Indies in the company of General Pendleton .
+
+In 1926 , del Valle served with the Gendarmerie of Haiti for three years and , during that time , he also became active in the war against Augusto César Sandino in Nicaragua . In 1929 , he returned to the United States and attended the Field Officers Course at the Marine Corps School in MCB Quantico , Virginia .
+
+In 1931 , Brigadier General Randolph C. Berkeley appointed del Valle to the " Landing Operations Text Board " in Quantico , the first organizational step taken by the Marines to develop a working doctrine for amphibious assault . In 1932 , he wrote an essay titled " Ship @-@ to @-@ Shore in Amphibious Operations " which was published in the Marine Corps Gazette . In his essay , he stressed the importance of a coordinated amphibious assault and of an execution of an opposed landing .
+
+He worked as an intelligence officer in Havana , Cuba in 1933 under Admiral Charles Freeman , following the Cuban Sergeant 's Revolt . From 1935 – 1937 , del Valle was Assistant Naval Attache , attached to the American Embassy to Italy in Rome . While on duty , del Valle participated as an observer with the Italian Forces during the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War . The experiences which del Valle gained as an observer led him to author the book " Roman Eagles Over Ethiopia " where he describes the events leading up to the Italian expedition and the complete movements of combat operations by the Italian Army under Generals De Bono , Badoglio , and Graziani . In 1939 , he was ordered to attend the Army War College in Washington , D.C. and after graduating was named Executive Officer of the Division of Plans and Policies , USMC .
+
+= = = World War II = = =
+
+On March 1941 , del Valle became the commanding officer of the 11th Marine Regiment , ( artillery ) . Upon the outbreak of World War II , del Valle led his regiment and participated in the Guadalcanal Campaign , providing artillery support for the 1st Marine Division . In the Battle of the Tenaru , the firepower provided by del Valle 's artillery units killed many assaulting Japanese soldiers before they ever reached the Marine positions . The attackers were killed almost to the last man . The outcome of the battle was so stunning that the Japanese commander , Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki , committed seppuku shortly afterwards . Major General Alexander Vandegrift , impressed with del Valle 's leadership recommended his promotion and on October 1 , 1942 , del Valle became a brigadier general . Vandegrift retained del Valle as head of the 11th Marines , the only time that the regiment has ever had a general as their commanding officer . In 1943 , he served as Commander of Marine Forces overseeing Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and the Russell and Florida Islands .
+
+On April 1 , 1944 , del Valle , as Commanding General of the Third Corps Artillery , III Marine Amphibious Corps , took part in the Battle of Guam and was awarded an award star in lieu of a second Legion of Merit . The men under his command did such a good job with their heavy artillery that no one man could be singled out for commendation . Instead , each man was given a letter of commendation by del Valle which was carried in their record books .
+
+In late October 1944 , he succeeded Major General William H. Rupertus as Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division , being personally greeted in his new command by Colonel Lewis Burwell " Chesty " Puller . At the time , the 1st Marine Division was training on the island of Pavuvu for the invasion of Okinawa . He subsequently led the division throughout the campaign . Del Valle was awarded a Distinguished Service Medal for his leadership during the battle and the subsequent occupation and reorganization of Okinawa .
+
+= = = Post @-@ World War II = = =
+
+After World War II ended , del Valle was ordered back to Headquarters Marine Corps , where he was named Inspector General , a position which he held until he retired on January 1 , 1948 . On February 19 , 1946 New Mexico Senator Dennis Chavez and del Valle held a meeting with President Harry S. Truman in the White House , in which Chavez recommended del Valle for the position of governor of Puerto Rico . From 1898 to 1942 , the governors of the island were officials appointed by the President of the United States . Local Puerto Rican politicians , such as Luis Muñoz Marín , opposed the naming of del Valle in favor of Jesús T. Piñero ; to which Del Valle eventually asked President Truman to withdraw his name among those considered for the position . The first civilian and native Puerto Rican appointed governor of Puerto Rico thus became Piñero in 1946 . If Congress had not approved legislation in 1947 allowing Puerto Ricans to elect their own Governor , del Valle may have been appointed to the governorship .
+
+= = Later years = =
+
+After retiring from the Marine Corps , del Valle worked as a representative of ITT in the company 's office in Cairo , Egypt . After some time with the company he was named president of ITT for all South America in Buenos Aires , Argentina , a position that he held until 1951 .
+
+Believing that the United States was in danger of a communist threat , del Valle tried to convince the Central Intelligence Agency and Department of Defense to form a vigilante minuteman group . He also believed that the CIA should operate behind Russian and Chinese lines . After his ideas were turned down , he decided to form his own group . In 1953 , del Valle met with LtCol John H. Hoffman , LtCol Eugene Cowles Poneroy , Brigadier General Bonner Fellers , and Major General Claire Chennault ( USAF ) to form the " Defenders of the American Constitution " ( DAC ) . DAC 's main goal was to purge the United States of any communist influence . The idea behind the group was to organize the citizens in each state as vigilantes against sabotage and other forms of treason , then link them up in some national headquarters . Del Valle ran for governor of Maryland in 1953 and was defeated in his attempt to be nominated in the Republican primary election . The controversial views shared by some of the members of " DAC " was to blame for the organization 's decline in popularity . On April 12 , 1961 , del Valle invoked The Protocols of the Elders of Zion ( an antisemitic hoax ) during a speech before the United States Daughters of 1812 , in an attempt to " prove " that Communism and Socialism were introduced to Russia by an " Invisible Government " whose intention was to destroy that country . Del Valle also belonged to a group known as the Sons of Liberty , established in 1967 in Annapolis , Maryland and named after the secret patriotic society which directed the actions of the Boston Tea Party on December 13 , 1773 .
+
+Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle was married to Katharine Nelson ( 1890 – 1983 ) . He died on April 28 , 1978 in Annapolis , Maryland and was buried in the United States Naval Academy Cemetery and Columbarium . After del Valle ’ s death at age 85 , the DAC ceased to exist .
+
+= = Written Works by Pedro del Valle = =
+
+Books
+
+Diary and reports of the U.S. naval observer of Italian Operations in East Africa : March 1937 ( Washington : Government Printing Office , 1937 ) .
+
+Roman Eagles Over Ethiopia ( Harrisburg , PA : Military service Pub . Co . , 1940 ) .
+
+Semper fidelis : An autobiography ( Hawthorne , CA : Christian Book Club of America , 1976 ) .
+
+Lieutenant General Pedro A. del Valle , U.S. Marine Corps ( retired ) ( Oral history program ) .
+
+Articles
+
+" Guam , the Classical Amphibious Operation " Military Review ( 1944 ) .
+
+" Massed Fires on Guam " Marine Corps Gazette ( 1944 ) .
+
+= = Awards and recognitions = =
+
+Among Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle 's decorations and medals were the following :
+
+= September 11 attacks =
+
+The September 11 attacks ( also referred to as 9 / 11 ) were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al @-@ Qaeda on the United States on the morning of September 11 , 2001 . The attacks killed 2 @,@ 996 people and injured over 6 @,@ 000 others and caused at least $ 10 billion in property and infrastructure damage and $ 3 trillion in total costs .
+
+Four passenger airliners operated by two major U.S. passenger air carriers ( United Airlines and American Airlines ) — all of which departed from airports on the northeastern United States bound for California — were hijacked by 19 al @-@ Qaeda terrorists . Two of the planes , American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175 , were crashed into the North and South towers , respectively , of the World Trade Center complex in New York City . Within an hour and 42 minutes , both 110 @-@ story towers collapsed , with debris and the resulting fires causing partial or complete collapse of all other buildings in the World Trade Center complex , including the 47 @-@ story 7 World Trade Center tower , as well as significant damage to ten other large surrounding structures . A third plane , American Airlines Flight 77 , was crashed into the Pentagon ( the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense ) in Arlington County , Virginia , leading to a partial collapse of the building 's western side . The fourth plane , United Airlines Flight 93 , initially was steered toward Washington , D.C. , but crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville , Pennsylvania , after its passengers tried to overcome the hijackers . A total of 2 @,@ 996 people , including the 19 hijackers , were killed and more than 6 @,@ 000 others injured . It was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States , with 343 and 72 killed respectively .
+
+Suspicion for the attack quickly fell on al @-@ Qaeda . The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban , which had harbored al @-@ Qaeda . Many countries strengthened their anti @-@ terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks . Although al @-@ Qaeda 's leader , Osama bin Laden , initially denied any involvement , in 2004 he claimed responsibility for the attacks . Al @-@ Qaeda and bin Laden cited U.S. support of Israel , the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia , and sanctions against Iraq as motives . Having evaded capture for almost a decade , bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U.S. military in May 2011 .
+
+The destruction of the World Trade Center and nearby infrastructure caused serious damage to the economy of Lower Manhattan and had a significant effect on global markets , closing Wall Street until September 17 and the civilian airspace in the U.S. and Canada until September 13 . Many closings , evacuations , and cancellations followed , out of respect or fear of further attacks . Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002 , and the Pentagon was repaired within a year . On November 18 , 2006 , construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site . The building was officially opened on November 3 , 2014 . Numerous memorials have been constructed , including the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York City , the Pentagon Memorial in Arlington County , Virginia , and the Flight 93 National Memorial in a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville , Pennsylvania .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+= = = Al @-@ Qaeda = = =
+
+The origins of al @-@ Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan . Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets . Under the guidance of Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri , bin Laden became more radical . In 1996 , bin Laden issued his first fatwā , calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia .
+
+In a second fatwā in 1998 , bin Laden outlined his objections to American foreign policy with respect to Israel , as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War . Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed . Muslim legal scholars " have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries " , according to bin Laden .
+
+= = = = Osama bin Laden = = = =
+
+Bin Laden , who orchestrated the attacks , initially denied but later admitted involvement . Al Jazeera broadcast a statement by bin Laden on September 16 , 2001 , stating , " I stress that I have not carried out this act , which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation . " In November 2001 , U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad , Afghanistan . In the video , bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al @-@ Harbi and admits foreknowledge of the attacks . On December 27 , 2001 , a second bin Laden video was released . In the video , he said , " It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred for Islam . ... It is the hatred of crusaders . Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice , aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel , which kills our people . ... We say that the end of the United States is imminent , whether Bin Laden or his followers are alive or dead , for the awakening of the Muslim umma ( nation ) has occurred " , but he stopped short of admitting responsibility for the attacks . The transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims .
+
+Shortly before the U.S. presidential election in 2004 , in a taped statement , bin Laden publicly acknowledged al @-@ Qaeda 's involvement in the attacks on the U.S. and admitted his direct link to the attacks . He said that the attacks were carried out because , " we are free ... and want to regain freedom for our nation . As you undermine our security we undermine yours . " Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon . Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 shows bin Laden with Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh , as well as two hijackers , Hamza al @-@ Ghamdi and Wail al @-@ Shehri , as they make preparations for the attacks . The U.S. never formally indicted bin Laden for the 9 / 11 attacks but he was on the FBI 's Most Wanted List for the bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Dar es Salaam , Tanzania , and Nairobi , Kenya . After a 10 @-@ year manhunt , bin Laden was killed by American special forces in a compound in Abbottabad , Pakistan on May 2 , 2011 .
+
+= = = = Khalid Sheikh Mohammed = = = =
+
+The journalist Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel Al Jazeera reported that , in April 2002 , Khalid Sheikh Mohammed admitted his involvement , along with Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh . The 9 / 11 Commission Report determined that the animosity towards the United States felt by Mohammed , the principal architect of the 9 / 11 attacks , stemmed from his " violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel " . Mohammed was also an adviser and financier of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the uncle of Ramzi Yousef , the lead bomber in that attack .
+
+Mohammed was arrested on March 1 , 2003 , in Rawalpindi , Pakistan , by Pakistani security officials working with the CIA , then transported to Guantanamo Bay and interrogated using methods including waterboarding . During U.S. hearings at Guantanamo Bay in March 2007 , Mohammed again confessed his responsibility for the attacks , stating he " was responsible for the 9 / 11 operation from A to Z " and that his statement was not made under duress .
+
+= = = = Other al @-@ Qaeda members = = = =
+
+In " Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed " from the trial of Zacarias Moussaoui , five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation 's details . They are bin Laden , Khalid Sheikh Mohammed , Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh , Abu Turab al @-@ Urduni , and Mohammed Atef . To date , only peripheral figures have been tried or convicted for the attacks .
+
+On September 26 , 2005 , the Spanish high court sentenced Abu Dahdah to 27 years in prison for conspiracy on the 9 / 11 attacks and being a member of the terrorist organization al @-@ Qaeda . At the same time , another 17 al @-@ Qaeda members were sentenced to penalties of between six and eleven years . On February 16 , 2006 , the Spanish Supreme Court reduced the Abu Dahdah penalty to 12 years because it considered that his participation in the conspiracy was not proven .
+
+Also , in 2006 , Moussaoui , who some originally suspected might have been the assigned 20th hijacker , was convicted for the lesser role of conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism and air piracy . He is serving a life sentence without parole in the United States . Mounir el @-@ Motassadeq , an associate of the Hamburg @-@ based hijackers , is serving 15 years in Germany for his role in helping the hijackers prepare for the attacks .
+
+The Hamburg cell in Germany included radical Islamists who eventually came to be key operatives in the 9 / 11 attacks . Mohamed Atta , Marwan al @-@ Shehhi , Ziad Jarrah , Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh , and Said Bahaji were all members of al @-@ Qaeda 's Hamburg cell .
+
+= = = Motives = = =
+
+Osama bin Laden 's declaration of a holy war against the United States , and a 1998 fatwā signed by bin Laden and others , calling for the killing of Americans , are seen by investigators as evidence of his motivation . In bin Laden 's November 2002 " Letter to America " , he explicitly stated that al @-@ Qaeda 's motives for their attacks include :
+
+U.S. support of Israel
+
+support for the " attacks against Muslims " in Somalia
+
+support of Russian " atrocities against Muslims " in Chechnya
+
+pro @-@ American governments in the Middle East ( who " act as your agents " ) being against Muslim interests
+
+support of Indian " oppression against Muslims " in Kashmir
+
+the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia
+
+the sanctions against Iraq
+
+After the attacks , bin Laden and al @-@ Zawahiri released additional video tapes and audio tapes , some of which repeated those reasons for the attacks . Two particularly important publications were bin Laden 's 2002 " Letter to America " , and a 2004 video tape by bin Laden .
+
+Bin Laden interpreted Muhammad as having banned the " permanent presence of infidels in Arabia " . In 1996 , bin Laden issued a fatwā calling for American troops to leave Saudi Arabia . In 1998 , al @-@ Qaeda wrote , " for over seven years the United States has been occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of places , the Arabian Peninsula , plundering its riches , dictating to its rulers , humiliating its people , terrorizing its neighbors , and turning its bases in the Peninsula into a spearhead through which to fight the neighboring Muslim peoples . "
+
+In a December 1999 interview , bin Laden said he felt that Americans were " too near to Mecca " , and considered this a provocation to the entire Muslim world . One analysis of suicide terrorism suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia , al @-@ Qaeda likely would not have been able to get people to commit to suicide missions .
+
+In the 1998 fatwā , al @-@ Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans , condemning the " protracted blockade " among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against " Allah , his messenger , and Muslims . " The fatwā declared that " the ruling to kill the Americans and their allies – civilians and military – is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it , in order to liberate the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque of Mecca from their grip , and in order for their [ the Americans ' ] armies to move out of all the lands of Islam , defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim . "
+
+Bin Laden claimed , in 2004 , that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982 , when he witnessed Israel 's bombardment of high @-@ rise apartment buildings during the 1982 Lebanon War . Some analysts , including Mearsheimer and Walt , also claim that one motivation for the attacks was U.S. support of Israel . In 2004 and 2010 , bin Laden again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel , although most of the letter expressed bin Laden 's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden 's hope to " destroy and bankrupt " the U.S.
+
+Other motives have been suggested in addition to those stated by bin Laden and al @-@ Qaeda , including western support of Islamic and non @-@ Islamic authoritarian regimes in Saudi Arabia , Iran , Egypt , Iraq , Pakistan and northern Africa , and the presence of western troops in some of these countries . Some authors suggest the " humiliation " resulting from the Islamic world falling behind the Western world – this discrepancy rendered especially visible by the globalization trend and a desire to provoke the U.S. into a broader war against the Islamic world in the hope of motivating more allies to support al @-@ Qaeda . Similarly , others have argued that 9 / 11 was a strategic move with the objective of provoking America into a war that would incite a pan @-@ Islamic revolution .
+
+= = = Planning of the attacks = = =
+
+The idea for the attacks came from Khalid Sheikh Mohammed , who first presented it to Osama bin Laden in 1996 . At that time , bin Laden and al @-@ Qaeda were in a period of transition , having just relocated back to Afghanistan from Sudan . The 1998 African Embassy bombings and bin Laden 's 1998 fatwā marked a turning point , as bin Laden became intent on attacking the United States .
+
+In late 1998 or early 1999 , bin Laden gave approval for Mohammed to go forward with organizing the plot . A series of meetings occurred in early 1999 , involving Mohammed , bin Laden , and his deputy Mohammed Atef . Atef provided operational support for the plot , including target selections and helping arrange travel for the hijackers . Bin Laden overruled Mohammed , rejecting some potential targets such as the U.S. Bank Tower in Los Angeles because , " there was not enough time to prepare for such an operation " .
+
+Bin Laden provided leadership and financial support for the plot , and was involved in selecting participants . Bin Laden initially selected Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi and Khalid al @-@ Mihdhar , both experienced jihadists who had fought in Bosnia . Hazmi and Mihdhar arrived in the United States in mid @-@ January 2000 . In spring 2000 , Hazmi and Mihdhar took flying lessons in San Diego , California , but both spoke little English , performed poorly with flying lessons , and eventually served as secondary – or " muscle " – hijackers .
+
+In late 1999 , a group of men from Hamburg , Germany arrived in Afghanistan , including Mohamed Atta , Marwan al @-@ Shehhi , Ziad Jarrah , and Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh . Bin Laden selected these men because they were educated , could speak English , and had experience living in the West . New recruits were routinely screened for special skills and al @-@ Qaeda leaders consequently discovered that Hani Hanjour already had a commercial pilot 's license . Mohammed later said that he helped the hijackers blend in by teaching them how to order food in restaurants and dress in Western clothing .
+
+Hanjour arrived in San Diego on December 8 , 2000 , joining Hazmi . They soon left for Arizona , where Hanjour took refresher training . Marwan al @-@ Shehhi arrived at the end of May 2000 , while Atta arrived on June 3 , 2000 , and Jarrah arrived on June 27 , 2000 . Bin al @-@ Shibh applied several times for a visa to the United States , but as a Yemeni , he was rejected out of concerns he would overstay his visa and remain as an illegal immigrant . Bin al @-@ Shibh stayed in Hamburg , providing coordination between Atta and Mohammed . The three Hamburg cell members all took pilot training in South Florida .
+
+In spring 2001 , the secondary hijackers began arriving in the United States . In July 2001 , Atta met with bin al @-@ Shibh in Spain , where they coordinated details of the plot , including final target selection . Bin al @-@ Shibh also passed along bin Laden 's wish for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible . Some of the hijackers received passports from corrupt Saudi officials who were family members , or used fraudulent passports to gain entry .
+
+= = = Intelligence before the attacks = = =
+
+In late 1999 , al @-@ Qaeda associate Khallad contacted Mihdhar , telling him to meet him in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia ; Hazmi and Abu Bara al Yemeni would also be in attendance . The NSA intercepted a telephone call mentioning the meeting , Mihdhar , and the name " Nawaf " ( Hazmi ) . While the agency feared that " Something nefarious might be afoot , " it took no further action . The CIA had already been alerted by Saudi intelligence to the status of Mihdhar and Hazmi as al @-@ Qaeda members , and a CIA team broke into Mihdhar 's Dubai hotel room and discovered that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa . While Alec Station alerted intelligence agencies worldwide about this fact , it did not share this information with the FBI . The Malaysian Special Branch observed the January 5 , 2000 , meeting of the two al @-@ Qaeda members , and informed the CIA that Mihdhar , Hazmi , and Khallad were flying to Bangkok , but the CIA never notified other agencies of this , nor did it ask the State Department to put Mihdhar on its watchlist . An FBI liaison to Alec Station asked permission to inform the FBI of the meeting , but was told that " ' This is not a matter for the FBI . ' "
+
+By late June , senior counter @-@ terrorism official Richard Clarke and CIA director George Tenet were " convinced that a major series of attacks was about to come , " although the CIA believed that the attacks would likely occur in Saudi Arabia or Israel . In early July , Clarke put domestic agencies on " full alert , " telling them that " Something really spectacular is going to happen here ... soon . " He asked the FBI and the State Department to alert the embassies and police departments , and the Defense Department to go to " Threat Condition Delta . " Clarke would later write that " Somewhere in CIA there was information that two known al Qaeda terrorists had come into the United States ... in [ the ] FBI there was information that strange things had been going on at flight schools in the United States ... They had specific information about individual terrorists ... None of that information got to me or the White House . "
+
+On July 13 , Tom Wilshire , a CIA agent assigned to the FBI 's international terrorism division , emailed his superiors at the CIA 's Counterterrorism Center ( CTC ) , requesting permission to inform the FBI that Hazmi was in the country and that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa . However , the CIA never responded .
+
+The same day in July , Margarette Gillespie , an FBI analyst working in the CTC , was told to review material about the Malaysia meeting . She was not told of the participants ' presence in the U.S. However , the CIA did give Gillespie surveillance photos of Mihdhar and Hazmi from the meeting to show to FBI counterterrorism , but did not tell her their significance . The Intelink database informed her not to share intelligence material on the meeting to criminal investigators . When shown the photos , the FBI were refused more details on their significance , and also did not receive Mihdhar 's date of birth or passport number . In late August 2001 , Gillespie told the INS , the State Department , the Customs Service , and the FBI to put Hazmi and Mihdhar on their watchlists , but the FBI was prohibited from using criminal agents in the search for the duo , which hindered their efforts .
+
+Also in July , a Phoenix @-@ based FBI agent sent a message to FBI headquarters , Alec Station , and to FBI agents in New York , alerting them to " the possibility of a coordinated effort by Osama bin Laden to send students to the United States to attend civil aviation universities and colleges . " The agent , Kenneth Williams , suggested the need to interview all flight school managers and identify all Arab students seeking flight training . In July , Jordan alerted the U.S. that al @-@ Qaeda was planning an attack on the U.S. ; " months later , " Jordan notified the U.S. that the attack 's codename was " The Big Wedding , " and that it involved airplanes .
+
+On August 6 , the CIA 's Presidential Daily Brief , designated " For the President Only , " was entitled " Bin Ladin Determined to Strike in U.S. " The memo noted that " The FBI information ... indicates patterns of suspicious activity in this country consistent with preparations for hijackings or other types of attacks . "
+
+In mid @-@ August , one Minnesota flight school alerted the FBI to Zacarias Moussaoui , who had asked " suspicious questions . " The FBI found that he was a radical who had traveled to Pakistan , and the INS arrested him for overstaying his French visa . However , their request to search his laptop was denied by FBI headquarters due to the lack of probable cause .
+
+The failures in intelligence @-@ sharing were attributed to 1995 Justice Department policies limiting intelligence sharing , combined with CIA and NSA reluctance in revealing " sensitive sources and methods " such as tapped phones . Testifying before the 9 / 11 Commission in April 2004 , then @-@ Attorney General John Ashcroft recalled that the " single greatest structural cause for the September 11th problem was the wall that segregated or separated criminal investigators and intelligence agents . " Clarke also wrote that " There were failures in the organizations ... failures to get information to the right place at the right time ... "
+
+= = Attacks = =
+
+Early on the morning of September 11 , 2001 , 19 hijackers took control of four commercial airliners ( two Boeing 757 and two Boeing 767 ) en route to California ( three headed to LAX in Los Angeles , and one to SFO in San Francisco ) after takeoffs from Logan International Airport in Boston , Massachusetts ; Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark , New Jersey ; and Washington Dulles International Airport in Loudoun and Fairfax counties in Virginia . Large planes with long flights were selected for hijacking because they would be heavily fueled .
+
+The four flights were :
+
+American Airlines Flight 11 : a Boeing 767 aircraft , departed Logan Airport at 7 : 59 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of 11 and 76 passengers , not including five hijackers . The hijackers flew the plane into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 8 : 46 a.m.
+
+United Airlines Flight 175 : a Boeing 767 aircraft , departed Logan Airport at 8 : 14 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of nine and 51 passengers , not including five hijackers . The hijackers flew the plane into the South Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 9 : 03 a.m.
+
+American Airlines Flight 77 : a Boeing 757 aircraft , departed Washington Dulles International Airport at 8 : 20 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of six and 53 passengers , not including five hijackers . The hijackers flew the plane into the Pentagon in Arlington County , Virginia , at 9 : 37 a.m.
+
+United Airlines Flight 93 : a Boeing 757 aircraft , departed Newark International Airport at 8 : 42 a.m. en route to San Francisco , with a crew of seven and 33 passengers , not including four hijackers . As passengers attempted to subdue the hijackers , the aircraft crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville , Pennsylvania , at 10 : 03 a.m.
+
+Media coverage was extensive during the attacks and aftermath , beginning moments after the first crash into the World Trade Center .
+
+= = = Events = = =
+
+At 8 : 46 a.m. , five hijackers crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern façade of the World Trade Center 's North Tower ( 1 WTC ) , and at 9 : 03 a.m. , another five hijackers crashed United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern façade of the South Tower ( 2 WTC ) . Five hijackers flew American Airlines Flight 77 into the Pentagon at 9 : 37 a.m. A fourth flight , United Airlines Flight 93 , under the control of four hijackers , crashed near Shanksville , Pennsylvania , southeast of Pittsburgh , at 10 : 03 a.m. after the passengers fought the hijackers . Flight 93 's target is believed to have been either the Capitol or the White House . Flight 93 's cockpit voice recorder revealed crew and passengers tried to seize control of the plane from the hijackers after learning through phone calls that Flights 11 , 77 , and 175 had been crashed into buildings that morning . Once it became evident to the hijackers that the passengers might regain control of the plane , the hijackers rolled the plane and intentionally crashed it .
+
+Some passengers and crew members who called from the aircraft using the cabin airphone service and mobile phones provided details : several hijackers were aboard each plane ; they used mace , tear gas , or pepper spray to overcome attendants ; and some people aboard had been stabbed . Reports indicated hijackers stabbed and killed pilots , flight attendants , and one or more passengers . According to the 9 / 11 Commission 's final report , the hijackers had recently purchased multi @-@ function hand tools and assorted Leatherman @-@ type utility knives with locking blades , which were not forbidden to passengers at the time , but were not found among the possessions left behind by the hijackers . A flight attendant on Flight 11 , a passenger on Flight 175 , and passengers on Flight 93 said the hijackers had bombs , but one of the passengers said he thought the bombs were fake . The FBI found no traces of explosives at the crash sites , and the 9 / 11 Commission concluded that the bombs were probably fake .
+
+Three buildings in the World Trade Center collapsed due to fire @-@ induced structural failure . The South Tower collapsed at 9 : 59 a.m. after burning for 56 minutes in a fire caused by the impact of United Airlines Flight 175 and the explosion of its fuel . The North Tower collapsed at 10 : 28 a.m. after burning for 102 minutes . When the North Tower collapsed , debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center building ( 7 WTC ) , damaging it and starting fires . These fires burned for hours , compromising the building 's structural integrity , and 7 WTC collapsed at 5 : 21 p.m. The west side of the Pentagon sustained significant damage .
+
+At 9 : 42 a.m. , the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) grounded all civilian aircraft within the continental U.S. , and civilian aircraft already in flight were told to land immediately . All international civilian aircraft were either turned back or redirected to airports in Canada or Mexico , and were banned from landing on United States territory for three days . The attacks created widespread confusion among news organizations and air traffic controllers . Among the unconfirmed and often contradictory news reports aired throughout the day , one of the most prevalent said a car bomb had been detonated at the U.S. State Department 's headquarters in Washington , D.C. Another jet — Delta Air Lines Flight 1989 — was suspected of having been hijacked , but the aircraft responded to controllers and landed safely in Cleveland , Ohio .
+
+In an April 2002 interview , Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh , who are believed to have organized the attacks , said Flight 93 's intended target was the United States Capitol , not the White House . During the planning stage of the attacks , Mohamed Atta , the hijacker and pilot of Flight 11 , thought the White House might be too tough a target and sought an assessment from Hani Hanjour ( who hijacked and piloted Flight 77 ) . Mohammed said al @-@ Qaeda initially planned to target nuclear installations rather than the World Trade Center and the Pentagon , but decided against it , fearing things could " get out of control " . Final decisions on targets , according to Mohammed , were left in the hands of the pilots .
+
+= = = Casualties = = =
+
+The attacks resulted in the deaths of 2 @,@ 996 people and the injuries of 6 @,@ 000 + others . The death toll included 265 on the four planes ( from which there were no survivors ) , 2 @,@ 606 in the World Trade Center and in the surrounding area , and 125 at the Pentagon . Nearly all of those who perished were civilians with the exceptions of 343 firefighters , 72 law enforcement officers , 55 military personnel , and the 19 terrorists who died in the attacks . After New York , New Jersey lost the most state citizens , with the city of Hoboken having the most citizens that died in the attacks . More than 90 countries lost citizens in the September 11 attacks . The attacks of September 11 , 2001 , marked it the worst terrorist attack in world history and the deadliest foreign attack on American soil since the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 .
+
+In Arlington County , Virginia , 125 Pentagon workers lost their lives when Flight 77 crashed into the western side of the building . Of these , 70 were civilians and 55 were military personnel , many of them who worked for the United States Army or the United States Navy . The Army lost 47 civilian employees , six civilian contractors , and 22 soldiers , while the Navy lost six civilian employees , three civilian contractors , and 33 sailors . Seven Defense Intelligence Agency ( DIA ) civilian employees were also among the dead in the attack , as well as an Office of the Secretary of Defense ( OSD ) contractor . Lieutenant General Timothy Maude , an Army Deputy Chief of Staff , was the highest @-@ ranking military official killed at the Pentagon .
+
+In New York City , more than 90 % of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact . In the North Tower , 1 @,@ 355 people at or above the point of impact were trapped and died of smoke inhalation , fell or jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames , or were killed in the building 's eventual collapse . The destruction of all three staircases in the tower when Flight 11 hit made it impossible for anyone above the impact zone to escape . 107 people below the point of impact died as well .
+
+In the South Tower , one stairwell , Stairwell A , was left intact after Flight 175 hit , allowing 14 people located on the floors of impact ( including one man who saw the plane coming at him ) and four more from the floors above to escape . New York City 911 operators who received calls from individuals inside the tower were not well informed of the situation as it rapidly unfolded and as a result , told callers not to descend the tower on their own . In total 630 people died in that tower , fewer than half the number killed in the North Tower . Casualties in the South Tower were significantly reduced by some occupants deciding to start evacuating as soon as the North Tower was struck .
+
+At least 200 people fell or jumped to their deaths from the burning towers ( as exemplified in the photograph The Falling Man ) , landing on the streets and rooftops of adjacent buildings hundreds of feet below . Some occupants of each tower above the point of impact made their way toward the roof in hope of helicopter rescue , but the roof access doors were locked . No plan existed for helicopter rescues , and the combination of roof equipment and thick smoke and intense heat prevented helicopters from approaching . A total of 411 emergency workers died as they tried to rescue people and fight fires . The New York City Fire Department ( FDNY ) lost 343 firefighters , including a chaplain and two paramedics . The New York City Police Department ( NYPD ) lost 23 officers . The Port Authority Police Department ( PAPD ) lost 37 officers . Eight emergency medical technicians ( EMTs ) and paramedics from private emergency medical services units were killed .
+
+Cantor Fitzgerald L.P. , an investment bank on the 101st – 105th floors of the North Tower , lost 658 employees , considerably more than any other employer . Marsh Inc . , located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93 – 100 , lost 358 employees , and 175 employees of Aon Corporation were also killed . The National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) estimated that about 17 @,@ 400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks . Turnstile counts from the Port Authority suggest 14 @,@ 154 people were typically in the Twin Towers by 8 : 45 a.m. Most people below the impact zone safely evacuated the buildings .
+
+Weeks after the attack , the death toll was estimated to be over 6 @,@ 000 , more than twice the number of deaths eventually confirmed . The city was only able to identify remains for about 1 @,@ 600 of the World Trade Center victims . The medical examiner 's office collected " about 10 @,@ 000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead " . Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 by workers who were preparing to demolish the damaged Deutsche Bank Building . In 2010 , a team of anthropologists and archaeologists searched for human remains and personal items at the Fresh Kills Landfill , where seventy @-@ two more human remains were recovered , bringing the total found to 1 @,@ 845 . DNA profiling continues in an attempt to identify additional victims . The remains are being held in storage in Memorial Park , outside the New York City Medical Examiner 's facilities . It was expected that the remains would be moved in 2013 to a repository behind a wall at the 9 / 11 museum . In July 2011 , a team of scientists at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner was still trying to identify remains , in the hope that improved technology will allow them to identify other victims . On March 20 , 2015 , the 1,640th victim was identified . There are still 1 @,@ 113 victims who have not been identified .
+
+= = = Damage = = =
+
+Along with the 110 @-@ floor Twin Towers , numerous other buildings at the World Trade Center site were destroyed or badly damaged , including WTC buildings 3 through 7 and St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church . The North Tower , South Tower , the Marriott Hotel ( 3 WTC ) , and 7 WTC were completely destroyed . The U.S. Customs House ( 6 World Trade Center ) , 4 World Trade Center , 5 World Trade Center , and both pedestrian bridges connecting buildings were severely damaged . The Deutsche Bank Building on 130 Liberty Street was partially damaged and demolished some years later , starting in 2007 . The two buildings of the World Financial Center also suffered damage .
+
+The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned as uninhabitable because of toxic conditions inside the office tower , and was deconstructed . The Borough of Manhattan Community College 's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was condemned due to extensive damage in the attacks , and is being rebuilt . Other neighboring buildings ( including 90 West Street and the Verizon Building ) suffered major damage but have been restored . World Financial Center buildings , One Liberty Plaza , the Millenium Hilton , and 90 Church Street had moderate damage and have since been restored . Communications equipment on top of the North Tower was also destroyed , but media stations were quickly able to reroute the signals and resume their broadcasts .
+
+The Pentagon was severely damaged by the impact of American Airlines Flight 77 and ensuing fires , causing one section of the building to collapse . As the airplane approached the Pentagon , its wings knocked down light poles and its right engine hit a power generator before crashing into the western side of the building . The plane hit the Pentagon at the first @-@ floor level . The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact , while the mid and tail sections kept moving for another fraction of a second . Debris from the tail section penetrated furthest into the building , breaking through 310 feet ( 94 m ) of the three outermost of the building 's five rings .
+
+= = = Rescue efforts = = =
+
+The New York City Fire Department deployed 200 units ( half of the department ) to the World Trade Center . Their efforts were supplemented by numerous off @-@ duty firefighters and emergency medical technicians . The New York City Police Department sent Emergency Service Units and other police personnel , and deployed its aviation unit . Once on the scene , the FDNY , the NYPD , and the PAPD did not coordinate efforts and performed redundant searches for civilians . As conditions deteriorated , the NYPD aviation unit relayed information to police commanders , who issued orders for its personnel to evacuate the towers ; most NYPD officers were able to safely evacuate before the buildings collapsed . With separate command posts set up and incompatible radio communications between the agencies , warnings were not passed along to FDNY commanders .
+
+After the first tower collapsed , FDNY commanders issued evacuation warnings ; however , due to technical difficulties with malfunctioning radio repeater systems , many firefighters never heard the evacuation orders . 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 dispatchers also received information from callers that was not passed along to commanders on the scene . Within hours of the attack , a substantial search and rescue operation was launched . After months of around @-@ the @-@ clock operations , the World Trade Center site was cleared by the end of May 2002 .
+
+= = Aftermath = =
+
+= = = Immediate response = = =
+
+At 8 : 32 a.m. , FAA officials were notified Flight 11 had been hijacked and they in turn notified the North American Aerospace Defense Command ( NORAD ) . NORAD scrambled two F @-@ 15s from Otis Air National Guard Base in Massachusetts and they were airborne by 8 : 53 a.m. Because of slow and confused communication from FAA officials , NORAD had 9 minutes ' notice that Flight 11 had been hijacked , and no notice about any of the other flights before they crashed . After both of the Twin Towers had already been hit , more fighters were scrambled from Langley Air Force Base in Virginia at 9 : 30 a.m. At 10 : 20 a.m. Vice President Dick Cheney issued orders to shoot down any commercial aircraft that could be positively identified as being hijacked . However , these instructions were not relayed in time for the fighters to take action . Some fighters took to the air without live ammunition , knowing that to prevent the hijackers from striking their intended targets , the pilots might have to intercept and crash their fighters into the hijacked planes , possibly ejecting at the last moment .
+
+For the first time in U.S. history , SCATANA was invoked , thus stranding tens of thousands of passengers across the world . The FAA closed American airspace to all international flights , causing about five hundred flights to be turned back or redirected to other countries . Canada received 226 of the diverted flights and launched Operation Yellow Ribbon to deal with the large numbers of grounded planes and stranded passengers .
+
+The 9 / 11 attacks had immediate effects upon the American people . Police and rescue workers from around the country took leaves of absence , traveling to New York City to help recover bodies from the twisted remnants of the Twin Towers . Blood donations across the U.S. surged in the weeks after 9 / 11 .
+
+The deaths of adults in the attacks resulted in over 3 @,@ 000 children losing a parent . Subsequent studies documented children 's reactions to these actual losses and to feared losses of life , the protective environment in the aftermath of the attacks , and effects on surviving caregivers .
+
+= = = Domestic reactions = = =
+
+Following the attacks , President Bush 's approval rating soared to 90 % . On September 20 , 2001 , he addressed the nation and a joint session of the United States Congress regarding the events of September 11 and the subsequent nine days of rescue and recovery efforts , and described his intended response to the attacks . New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani 's highly visible role won him high praise in New York and nationally .
+
+Many relief funds were immediately set up to assist victims of the attacks , with the task of providing financial assistance to the survivors of the attacks and to the families of victims . By the deadline for victim 's compensation on September 11 , 2003 , 2 @,@ 833 applications had been received from the families of those who were killed .
+
+Contingency plans for the continuity of government and the evacuation of leaders were implemented soon after the attacks . However , Congress was not told that the United States had been under a continuity of government status until February 2002 .
+
+In the largest restructuring of the U.S. government in contemporary history , the United States enacted the Homeland Security Act of 2002 , creating the Department of Homeland Security . Congress also passed the USA PATRIOT Act , saying it would help detect and prosecute terrorism and other crimes . Civil liberties groups have criticized the PATRIOT Act , saying it allows law enforcement to invade the privacy of citizens and that it eliminates judicial oversight of law enforcement and domestic intelligence . In an effort to effectively combat future acts of terrorism , the National Security Agency ( NSA ) was given broad powers . NSA commenced warrantless surveillance of telecommunications , which was sometimes criticized since it permitted the agency " to eavesdrop on telephone and e @-@ mail communications between the United States and people overseas without a warrant " . In response to requests by various intelligence agencies , the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court permitted an expansion of powers by the U.S. government in seeking , obtaining , and sharing information on U.S. citizens as well as non @-@ U.S. people from around the world .
+
+= = = = Hate crimes = = = =
+
+Shortly after the attacks , President Bush made a public appearance at Washington 's largest Islamic Center and acknowledged the " incredibly valuable contribution " that millions of American Muslims made to their country and called for them " to be treated with respect . " However , numerous incidents of harassment and hate crimes against Muslims and South Asians were reported in the days following the attacks . Sikhs were also targeted because Sikh males usually wear turbans , which are stereotypically associated with Muslims . There were reports of attacks on mosques and other religious buildings ( including the firebombing of a Hindu temple ) , and assaults on people , including one murder : Balbir Singh Sodhi , a Sikh mistaken for a Muslim , was fatally shot on September 15 , 2001 , in Mesa , Arizona .
+
+According to an academic study , people perceived to be Middle Eastern were as likely to be victims of hate crimes as followers of Islam during this time . The study also found a similar increase in hate crimes against people who may have been perceived as Muslims , Arabs , and others thought to be of Middle Eastern origin . A report by the South Asian American advocacy group known as South Asian Americans Leading Together , documented media coverage of 645 bias incidents against Americans of South Asian or Middle Eastern descent between September 11 and 17 . Various crimes such as vandalism , arson , assault , shootings , harassment , and threats in numerous places were documented .
+
+= = = = Muslim American response = = = =
+
+Muslim organizations in the United States were swift to condemn the attacks and called " upon Muslim Americans to come forward with their skills and resources to help alleviate the sufferings of the affected people and their families " . These organizations included the Islamic Society of North America , American Muslim Alliance , American Muslim Council , Council on American @-@ Islamic Relations , Islamic Circle of North America , and the Shari 'a Scholars Association of North America . Along with monetary donations , many Islamic organizations launched blood drives and provided medical assistance , food , and shelter for victims .
+
+= = = International reactions = = =
+
+The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments worldwide . Across the globe , nations offered pro @-@ American support and solidarity . Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries , and Afghanistan , condemned the attacks . Iraq was a notable exception , with an immediate official statement that , " the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity " . While the government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks , privately many Saudis favored bin Laden 's cause . As in the United States , the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other countries between Muslims and non @-@ Muslims .
+
+United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368 condemned the attacks , and expressed readiness to take all necessary steps to respond and combat all forms of terrorism in accordance with their Charter . Numerous countries introduced anti @-@ terrorism legislation and froze bank accounts they suspected of al @-@ Qaeda ties . Law enforcement and intelligence agencies in a number of countries arrested alleged terrorists .
+
+British Prime Minister Tony Blair said Britain stood " shoulder to shoulder " with the United States . A few days later , Blair flew to Washington to affirm British solidarity with the United States . In a speech to Congress , nine days after the attacks , which Blair attended as a guest , President Bush declared " America has no truer friend than Great Britain . " Subsequently , Prime Minister Blair embarked on two months of diplomacy to rally international support for military action ; he held 54 meetings with world leaders and travelled more than 40 @,@ 000 miles ( 60 @,@ 000 km ) .
+
+Tens of thousands of people attempted to flee Afghanistan following the attacks , fearing a response by the United States . Pakistan , already home to many Afghan refugees from previous conflicts , closed its border with Afghanistan on September 17 , 2001 . Approximately one month after the attacks , the United States led a broad coalition of international forces to overthrow the Taliban regime from Afghanistan for their harboring of al @-@ Qaeda . Though Pakistani authorities were initially reluctant to align themselves with the United States against the Taliban , they permitted the coalition access to their military bases , and arrested and handed over to the U.S. over 600 suspected al @-@ Qaeda members .
+
+The U.S. set up the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to hold inmates they defined as " illegal enemy combatants " . The legitimacy of these detentions has been questioned by the European Union and human rights organizations .
+
+On September 25 , 2001 , Iran 's fifth president , Mohammad Khatami meeting British Foreign Secretary , Jack Straw , said : " Iran fully understands the feelings of the Americans about the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on September 11 . " He said although the American administrations had been at best indifferent about terrorist operations in Iran ( since 1979 ) , the Iranians instead felt differently and had expressed their sympathetic feelings with bereaved Americans in the tragic incidents in the two cities . He also stated that " Nations should not be punished in place of terrorists . " According to Radio Farda 's website , when the attacks ' news was released , some Iranian citizens gathered in front of the Embassy of Switzerland in Tehran , which serves as the protecting power of the United States in Iran ( US interests protecting office in Iran ) , to express their sympathy and some of them lit candles as a symbol of mourning . This piece of news at Radio Farda 's website also states that in 2011 , on the anniversary of the attacks , United States Department of State , published a post at its blog , in which the Department thanked Iranian people for their sympathy and stated that they would never forget Iranian people 's kindness on those harsh days . After the attacks , both the President and the Supreme Leader of Iran , condemned the attacks . BBC and Time magazine published reports on holding candlelit vigils for the victims by Iranian citizens at their websites . According to Politico magazine , following the attacks , Sayyed Ali Khamenei , the Supreme Leader of Iran , " suspended the usual ' Death to America ' chants at Friday prayers " temporarily .
+
+= = = Military operations = = =
+
+At 2 : 40 p.m. in the afternoon of September 11 , Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was issuing rapid orders to his aides to look for evidence of Iraqi involvement . According to notes taken by senior policy official Stephen Cambone , Rumsfeld asked for , " Best info fast . Judge whether good enough hit S.H. " ( Saddam Hussein ) " at same time . Not only UBL " ( Osama bin Laden ) . Cambone 's notes quoted Rumsfeld as saying , " Need to move swiftly – Near term target needs – go massive – sweep it all up . Things related and not . " In a meeting at Camp David on September 15 the Bush administration rejected the idea of attacking Iraq in response to 9 / 11 .
+
+The NATO council declared the attacks on the United States were an attack on all NATO nations which satisfied Article 5 of the NATO charter . This marked the first invocation of Article 5 , which had been written during the Cold War with an attack by the Soviet Union in mind . Australian Prime Minister John Howard who was in Washington D.C. during the attacks invoked Article IV of the ANZUS treaty . The Bush administration announced a War on Terror , with the stated goals of bringing bin Laden and al @-@ Qaeda to justice and preventing the emergence of other terrorist networks . These goals would be accomplished by imposing economic and military sanctions against states harboring terrorists , and increasing global surveillance and intelligence sharing .
+
+On September 14 , 2001 , the U.S. Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists . Still in effect , it grants the President the authority to use all " necessary and appropriate force " against those whom he determined " planned , authorized , committed or aided " the September 11th attacks , or who harbored said persons or groups .
+
+On October 7 , 2001 , the War in Afghanistan began when U.S. and British forces initiated aerial bombing campaigns targeting Taliban and al @-@ Qaeda camps , then later invaded Afghanistan with ground troops of the Special Forces . This eventually led to the overthrow of the Taliban rule of Afghanistan on December 9 , 2001 by U.S. led coalition forces . Conflict in Afghanistan between the Taliban insurgency and the Afghan forces backed by NATO Resolute Support Mission is ongoing . The Philippines and Indonesia , among other nations with their own internal conflicts with Islamic terrorism , also increased their military readiness .
+
+The military forces of the United States of America and the Islamic Republic of Iran cooperated with each other to overthrow Taliban regime which had had conflicts with the government of Iran . Iran 's Quds Force helped US forces and Afghan rebels in 2001 uprising in Herat .
+
+= = Effects = =
+
+= = = Health issues = = =
+
+Hundreds of thousands of tons of toxic debris containing more than 2 @,@ 500 contaminants , including known carcinogens , were spread across Lower Manhattan due to the collapse of the Twin Towers . Exposure to the toxins in the debris is alleged to have contributed to fatal or debilitating illnesses among people who were at ground zero . The Bush administration ordered the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks , citing national security , but the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre @-@ September 11 levels until June 2002 .
+
+Health effects extended to residents , students , and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby Chinatown . Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust , and the victims ' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial . Approximately 18 @,@ 000 people have been estimated to have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust . There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development . A notable children 's environmental health center is currently analyzing the children whose mothers were pregnant during the WTC collapse , and were living or working nearby . A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions , and that 30 – 40 % were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack .
+
+Years after the attacks , legal disputes over the costs of illnesses related to the attacks were still in the court system . On October 17 , 2006 , a federal judge rejected New York City 's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers , allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city . Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks . Christine Todd Whitman , administrator of the EPA in the aftermath of the attacks , was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe . Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater Wall Street area .
+
+The United States Congress passed the James L. Zadroga 9 / 11 Health and Compensation Act on December 22 , 2010 , and President Barack Obama signed the act into law on January 2 , 2011 . It allocated $ 4 @.@ 2 billion to create the World Trade Center Health Program , which provides testing and treatment for people suffering from long @-@ term health problems related to the 9 / 11 attacks . The WTC Health Program replaced preexisting 9 / 11 @-@ related health programs such as the Medical Monitoring and Treatment Program and the WTC Environmental Health Center program .
+
+According to a new study , pregnant women living near the World Trade Center during the 9 / 11 terror attacks experienced higher @-@ than @-@ normal negative birth outcomes . The study by Princeton University 's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs found that these mothers were more likely to give birth prematurely and deliver babies with low birth weights . Their babies were also more likely to be admitted to neonatal intensive care units after birth ( especially baby boys ) , according to the study led by the Wilson School 's Janet Currie and Hannes Schwandt .
+
+= = = Economic = = =
+
+The attacks had a significant economic impact on United States and world markets . The stock exchanges did not open on September 11 and remained closed until September 17 . Reopening , the Dow Jones Industrial Average ( DJIA ) fell 684 points , or 7 @.@ 1 % , to 8921 , a record @-@ setting one @-@ day point decline . By the end of the week , the DJIA had fallen 1 @,@ 369 @.@ 7 points ( 14 @.@ 3 % ) , at the time its largest one @-@ week point drop in history . In 2001 dollars , U.S. stocks lost $ 1 @.@ 4 trillion in valuation for the week .
+
+In New York City , about 430 @,@ 000 job @-@ months and $ 2 @.@ 8 billion dollars in wages were lost in the three months after the attacks . The economic effects were mainly on the economy 's export sectors . The city 's GDP was estimated to have declined by $ 27 @.@ 3 billion for the last three months of 2001 and all of 2002 . The U.S. government provided $ 11 @.@ 2 billion in immediate assistance to the Government of New York City in September 2001 , and $ 10 @.@ 5 billion in early 2002 for economic development and infrastructure needs . Also hurt were small businesses in Lower Manhattan near the World Trade Center , 18 @,@ 000 of which were destroyed or displaced , resulting in lost jobs and their consequent wages . Assistance was provided by Small Business Administration loans , federal government Community Development Block Grants , and Economic Injury Disaster Loans . Some 31 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 960 @,@ 000 m2 ) of Lower Manhattan office space was damaged or destroyed . Many wondered whether these jobs would return , and if the damaged tax base would recover . Studies of the economic effects of 9 / 11 show the Manhattan office real @-@ estate market and office employment were less affected than first feared , because of the financial services industry 's need for face @-@ to @-@ face interaction .
+
+North American air space was closed for several days after the attacks and air travel decreased upon its reopening , leading to a nearly 20 % cutback in air travel capacity , and exacerbating financial problems in the struggling U.S. airline industry .
+
+The September 11 attacks also led to the U.S. wars in Afghanistan and Iraq , as well as additional homeland security spending , totaling at least $ 5 trillion .
+
+= = = Cultural = = =
+
+The impact of 9 / 11 extends beyond geopolitics into society and culture in general . Immediate responses to 9 / 11 included greater focus on home life and time spent with family , higher church attendance , and increased expressions of patriotism such as the flying of flags . The radio industry responded by removing certain songs from playlists , and the attacks have subsequently been used as background , narrative or thematic elements in film , television , music and literature . Already @-@ running television shows as well as programs developed after 9 / 11 have reflected post @-@ 9 / 11 cultural concerns . 9 / 11 conspiracy theories have become social phenomena , despite lack of support from expert scientists , engineers , and historians . 9 / 11 has also had a major impact on the religious faith of many individuals ; for some it strengthened , to find consolation to cope with the loss of loved ones and overcome their grief ; others started to question their faith or lost it entirely , because they could not reconcile it with their view of religion .
+
+The culture of America succeeding the attacks is noted for heightened security and an increased demand thereof , as well as paranoia and anxiety regarding future terrorist attacks that includes most of the nation . Psychologists have also confirmed that there has been an increased amount of national anxiety in commercial air travel .
+
+= = = Government policies toward terrorism = = =
+
+As a result of the attacks , many governments across the world passed legislation to combat terrorism . In Germany , where several of the 9 / 11 terrorists had resided and taken advantage of that country 's liberal asylum policies , two major anti @-@ terrorism packages were enacted . The first removed legal loopholes that permitted terrorists to live and raise money in Germany . The second addressed the effectiveness and communication of intelligence and law enforcement . Canada passed the Canadian Anti @-@ Terrorism Act , that nation 's first anti @-@ terrorism law . The United Kingdom passed the Anti @-@ terrorism , Crime and Security Act 2001 and the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 . New Zealand enacted the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002 .
+
+In the United States , the Department of Homeland Security was created by the Homeland Security Act to coordinate domestic anti @-@ terrorism efforts . The USA Patriot Act gave the federal government greater powers , including the authority to detain foreign terror suspects for a week without charge , to monitor telephone communications , e @-@ mail , and Internet use by terror suspects , and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions . The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes , and assigned sky marshals to flights . Further , the Aviation and Transportation Security Act made the federal government , rather than airports , responsible for airport security . The law created the Transportation Security Administration to inspect passengers and luggage , causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy .
+
+= = Investigations = =
+
+= = = FBI = = =
+
+Immediately after the attacks , the Federal Bureau of Investigation started PENTTBOM , the largest criminal inquiry in the history of the United States . At its height , more than half of the FBI 's agents worked on the investigation and followed a half @-@ million leads . The FBI concluded that there was " clear and irrefutable " evidence linking al @-@ Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks .
+
+The FBI was quickly able to identify the hijackers , including leader Mohamed Atta , when his luggage was discovered at Boston 's Logan Airport . Atta had been forced to check two of his three bags due to space limitations on the 19 @-@ seat commuter flight he took to Boston . Due to a new policy instituted to prevent flight delays , the luggage failed to make it aboard American Airlines Flight 11 as planned . The luggage contained the hijackers ' names , assignments and al @-@ Qaeda connections . " It had all these Arab @-@ language ( sic ) papers that amounted to the Rosetta stone of the investigation " , said one FBI agent . Within hours of the attacks , the FBI released the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers . On September 27 , 2001 , they released photos of all 19 hijackers , along with information about possible nationalities and aliases . Fifteen of the men were from Saudi Arabia , two from the United Arab Emirates , one from Egypt , and one from Lebanon .
+
+By midday , the U.S. National Security Agency and German intelligence agencies had intercepted communications pointing to Osama bin Laden . Two of the hijackers were known to have travelled with a bin Laden associate to Malaysia in 2000 and hijacker Mohammed Atta had previously gone to Afghanistan . He and others were part of a terrorist cell in Hamburg . One of the members of the Hamburg cell was discovered to have been in communication with Khalid Sheik Mohammed who was identified as a member of al @-@ Qaeda .
+
+Authorities in the United States and Britain also obtained electronic intercepts , including telephone conversations and electronic bank transfers , which indicate that Mohammed Atef , a bin Laden deputy , was a key figure in the planning of the 9 / 11 attacks . Intercepts were also obtained that revealed conversations that took place days before September 11 between bin Laden and an associate in Pakistan . In those conversations , the two referred to " an incident that would take place in America on , or around , September 11 " and they discussed potential repercussions . In another conversation with an associate in Afghanistan , bin Laden discussed the " scale and effects of a forthcoming operation . " These conversations did not specifically mention the World Trade Center or Pentagon , or other specifics .
+
+= = = CIA = = =
+
+The Inspector General of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) conducted an internal review of the agency 's pre @-@ 9 / 11 performance and was harshly critical of senior CIA officials for not doing everything possible to confront terrorism . He criticized their failure to stop two of the 9 / 11 hijackers , Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi and Khalid al @-@ Mihdhar , as they entered the United States and their failure to share information on the two men with the FBI . In May 2007 , senators from both major U.S. political parties drafted legislation to make the review public . One of the backers , Senator Ron Wyden said , " The American people have a right to know what the Central Intelligence Agency was doing in those critical months before 9 / 11 . "
+
+= = = Congressional inquiry = = =
+
+In February 2002 the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence formed a joint inquiry into the performance of the U.S. Intelligence Community . Their 832 page report released in December 2002 detailed failings of the FBI and CIA to use available information , including about terrorists the CIA knew were in the United States , in order to disrupt the plots . The joint inquiry developed its information about possible involvement of Saudi Arabian government officials from non @-@ classified sources . Nevertheless , the Bush administration demanded 28 related pages remain classified . In December 2002 the inquiry 's chair Bob Graham ( D @-@ FL ) revealed in an interview that there was " evidence that there were foreign governments involved in facilitating the activities of at least some of the terrorists in the United States . " September 11th victim families were frustrated by the unanswered questions and redacted material from the Congressional inquiry and demanded an independent commission . September 11th victim families , members of congress and the Saudi Arabian government are still seeking release of the documents . In June 2016 , CIA chief John Brennan says that he believes 28 redacted pages of a congressional inquiry into 9 / 11 will soon be made public , and that they will prove that the government of Saudi Arabia had no involvement in the September 11 attacks .
+
+= = = 9 / 11 Commission = = =
+
+The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States ( 9 / 11 Commission ) , chaired by Thomas Kean and Lee H. Hamilton , was formed in late 2002 to prepare a thorough account of the circumstances surrounding the attacks , including preparedness for and the immediate response to the attacks . On July 22 , 2004 , the Commission issued the 9 / 11 Commission Report . The report detailed the events of 9 / 11 , found the attacks were carried out by members of al @-@ Qaeda , and examined how security and intelligence agencies were inadequately coordinated to prevent the attacks . Formed from an independent bipartisan group of mostly former Senators , Representatives , and Governors , the commissioners explained , " We believe the 9 / 11 attacks revealed four kinds of failures : in imagination , policy , capabilities , and management " . The Commission made numerous recommendations on how to prevent future attacks , and in 2011 was dismayed that several of its recommendations had yet to be implemented .
+
+= = = Collapse of the World Trade Center = = =
+
+The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) investigated the collapses of the Twin Towers and 7 WTC . The investigations examined why the buildings collapsed and what fire protection measures were in place , and evaluated how fire protection systems might be improved in future construction . The investigation into the collapse of 1 WTC and 2 WTC was concluded in October 2005 and that of 7 WTC was completed in August 2008 .
+
+NIST found that the fireproofing on the Twin Towers ' steel infrastructures was blown off by the initial impact of the planes and that , had this not occurred , the towers likely would have remained standing . A 2007 study of the north tower 's collapse published by researchers of Purdue University determined that , since the plane 's impact had stripped off much of the structure 's thermal insulation , the heat from a typical office fire would have softened and weakened the exposed girders and columns enough to initiate the collapse regardless of the number of columns cut or damaged by the impact .
+
+The director of the original investigation stated that , " the towers really did amazingly well . The terrorist aircraft didn 't bring the buildings down ; it was the fire which followed . It was proven that you could take out two thirds of the columns in a tower and the building would still stand . " The fires weakened the trusses supporting the floors , making the floors sag . The sagging floors pulled on the exterior steel columns causing the exterior columns to bow inward . With the damage to the core columns , the buckling exterior columns could no longer support the buildings , causing them to collapse . Additionally , the report found the towers ' stairwells were not adequately reinforced to provide adequate emergency escape for people above the impact zones . NIST concluded that uncontrolled fires in 7 WTC caused floor beams and girders to heat and subsequently " caused a critical support column to fail , initiating a fire @-@ induced progressive collapse that brought the building down " .
+
+= = Rebuilding = =
+
+On the day of the attacks , New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani stated : " We will rebuild . We 're going to come out of this stronger than before , politically stronger , economically stronger . The skyline will be made whole again . "
+
+The damaged section of the Pentagon was rebuilt and occupied within a year of the attacks . The temporary World Trade Center PATH station opened in late 2003 and construction of the new 7 World Trade Center was completed in 2006 . Work on rebuilding the main World Trade Center site was delayed until late 2006 when leaseholder Larry Silverstein and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed on financing . The construction of One World Trade Center began on April 27 , 2006 , and reached its full height on May 20 , 2013 . The spire was installed atop the building at that date , putting 1 WTC 's height at 1 @,@ 776 feet ( 541 m ) and thus claiming the title of the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere . One WTC finished construction and opened on November 3 , 2014 .
+
+On the World Trade Center site , three more office towers are expected to be built one block east of where the original towers stood . Construction has begun on all three of these towers .
+
+= = Memorials = =
+
+In the days immediately following the attacks , many memorials and vigils were held around the world , and photographs of the dead and missing were posted around Ground Zero . A witness described being unable to " get away from faces of innocent victims who were killed . Their pictures are everywhere , on phone booths , street lights , walls of subway stations . Everything reminded me of a huge funeral , people quiet and sad , but also very nice . Before , New York gave me a cold feeling ; now people were reaching out to help each other . "
+
+One of the first memorials was the Tribute in Light , an installation of 88 searchlights at the footprints of the World Trade Center towers . In New York , the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition was held to design an appropriate memorial on the site . The winning design , Reflecting Absence , was selected in August 2006 , and consists of a pair of reflecting pools in the footprints of the towers , surrounded by a list of the victims ' names in an underground memorial space .
+
+The Pentagon Memorial was completed and opened to the public on the seventh anniversary of the attacks in 2008 . It consists of a landscaped park with 184 benches facing the Pentagon . When the Pentagon was repaired in 2001 – 2002 , a private chapel and indoor memorial were included , located at the spot where Flight 77 crashed into the building .
+
+In Shanksville , a permanent Flight 93 National Memorial is planned to include a sculpted grove of trees forming a circle around the crash site , bisected by the plane 's path , while wind chimes will bear the names of the victims . A temporary memorial is located 500 yards ( 457 m ) from the crash site . New York City firefighters donated a cross made of steel from the World Trade Center and mounted on top of a platform shaped like the Pentagon . It was installed outside the firehouse on August 25 , 2008 . Many other permanent memorials are elsewhere . Scholarships and charities have been established by the victims ' families , and by many other organizations and private figures .
+
+On every anniversary , in New York City , the names of the victims who died there are read out against a background of somber music . The President of the United States attends a memorial service at the Pentagon , and asks Americans to observe Patriot Day with a moment of silence . Smaller services are held in Shanksville , Pennsylvania , which are usually attended by the President 's spouse .
+
+= Loyalty to Loyalty =
+
+Loyalty to Loyalty is the second studio album by American indie rock band Cold War Kids . It was released on September 23 , 2008 by Downtown Records .
+
+Following the success of their debut album Robbers & Cowards and spending the rest of 2007 touring across North America and Europe , the band started recording new material for their next album over the course of four months . Taking its title from the paper of the same name by American philosopher Josiah Royce , Loyalty to Loyalty carries a darker tone than its previous album by having a more experimental sound throughout and songs that deal with philosophies and politics , including suicide , crisis of faith , public security and job satisfaction .
+
+The album received a generally positive reception but critics said it was uneven in terms of songwriting and performance . Loyalty to Loyalty debuted at number 21 on the Billboard 200 and spawned two singles : " Something Is Not Right with Me " and " I 've Seen Enough " , the former was voted number 38 in the Triple J Hottest 100 in 2008 . To promote the album , the band toured across North America , Europe and Australia with appearances at music festivals and talk shows .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+Cold War Kids released their debut album Robbers & Cowards on October 11 , 2006 . The album garnered a largely positive reception from critics , but Marc Hogan of Pitchfork Media criticized the band for its songwriting , melodies and Christian symbolism , saying that " Robbers and Cowards insults our intelligence a few times too often . " Cat Dirt Sez of the San Diego CityBeat said that Hogan 's review was an example of lazy journalism , with lead guitarist Jonnie Russell saying that the reviewer wanted a wittier approach to the album rather than a thoughtful assessment of it . To promote the album , the band spent most of 2007 touring across North America and Europe through appearances at music festivals and talk shows . Bassist Matt Maust said that touring exhausted the band and that they were eager to return to the studio to write new material for their next album .
+
+Loyalty to Loyalty 's title comes from a paper of the same name by American philosopher Josiah Royce , in which he challenged Friedrich Nietzsche 's ideas about " will to power " and the übermensch , " saying that the ultimate pursuit of mankind should be to live in community and embrace each other , not to try to trample each other and rise to the top . " Maust said that he could relate to that phrase with the band saying that it 's " very similar to how [ we ] conduct ourselves , the way that [ we ] write songs and the way that [ we ] view each other in the band . No one person is writing for the other person , but we are loyal to each other . We 're loyal to loyalty . " For the recording process , Maust explained that they took four months to experiment with deeper and grittier sounds they were comfortable with , compared to the first record that took eight days to create that carried " a much more polished , for @-@ radio sound . " He also commented that the overall dark tone throughout the album was the cause of constant touring across Europe , but said that it did more good than harm for the band because it led to them crafting songs that weren 't written from the perspective of being on the road .
+
+= = Music and lyrics = =
+
+For the techniques used to craft the overall sound of the album , August Brown of the Los Angeles Times described the band foregoing the use of full chords and verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse structures in favor of " distant guitar effects , crunchy bass grooves and smatterings of percussion . " Regarding the songs from the album , Maust said that lead singer Nathan Willett 's lyrics were a mixture of folk tales and topical stories , stating that " a lot of people say the last record was more about yesteryear . This [ new record ] has some of that , but it 's much more today . The characters are people from today . " The thirteen tracks off the album deal with a variety of philosophies and politics that range from contemplating suicide , crisis of faith , alienation , anonymity , public security and job satisfaction .
+
+Opening track " Against Privacy " was described by Willett as a " bohemian manifesto " made by a person with an affinity for the arts and wanting to live on an art commune . " Mexican Dogs " was written by the band during a trip in Mexico City where they saw a pack of unnamed three @-@ legged dogs running wild across the field . Maust said that he saw it as a metaphor for how the band operates as a whole , saying it 's " the way we conduct business as a band and art as a band . The way we write songs is very community oriented and very democratic . " The overall sound of the track is reminiscent of boogie rock . The track " Every Valley Is Not a Lake " was a song that was left off Robbers & Cowards . It tells the story about a mother lecturing her daughter about going wild in the world and the consequences she may face if not careful . The song utilizes jazz piano for its melodies . " Something Is Not Right with Me " is an upbeat track about a person losing touch with the revolving world and its constant changes from people to technology . Critics described the song as having " Stones @-@ styled bluesy licks " and " Lodger @-@ era Bowie rhythms . "
+
+" Welcome to the Occupation " is about a teacher limited with his career who strives to be an artist . Willett was inspired by his job as an English high school teacher in Torrance to write the song , saying that it didn 't give him " a lot of creative space to really be very inspired to be a teacher . " " Golden Gate Jumpers " is about a woman who goes to the Golden Gate Bridge and contemplates taking her life away . The tracks " Avalanche in B " and " I 've Seen Enough " were originally conceived by the band as one @-@ long track but instead cut into two songs . The former uses snow as a metaphor for how bleak and empty life is when it is coming straight towards you . The latter was created during a jam session in which the band played one continuous chord progression that stuck with them throughout the session . " Every Man I Fall For " is about a woman 's perspective on relationships . Inspired by his own mother 's relationship with men , Willett saw something he could craft from that emotion , saying that it 's " important to me in ways , because it was something I always saw in relationships ; like my mom being a single mother and seeing how men treat these women and how they operate in relationships . "
+
+" Dreams Old Men Dream " was inspired by the Ingmar Bergman film Wild Strawberries and Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's short story The Dream of a Ridiculous Man . It tells the story of an elderly man reflecting back on the life he had and what he wished he had done before . " On the Night My Love Broke Through " was the last song made for the album that was recorded live . It was inspired by the works of German @-@ American poet Charles Bukowski . " Relief " is written from the perspective of a person that questions God 's way of controlling the Earth and handling its inhabitants . God himself answers the person 's question when Willett sings , " Flash flood , you got too comfortable , so I showed you , who 's really in control . " The overall sound of the track is described as electronica in the vein of " mid @-@ era Radiohead . " The album closer , " Cryptomnesia " , was inspired by a case involving Russian @-@ American novelist Vladimir Nabokov being accused of plagiarism involving his 1955 novel Lolita . Willett said that it is " an apt word for the way history seeps into his songwriting today . "
+
+= = Singles and promotion = =
+
+The band released a one @-@ minute long " teaser " for the album on their YouTube page on June 25 , 2008 . The album 's lead single , " Something Is Not Right with Me " , first appeared on the Cold War Kids Myspace page in July 2008 and was given an official release on September 1 , 2008 through iTunes . It debuted and peaked at number 39 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart ; their second top 40 hit on that chart . A music video directed by Sophie Muller was created for the single and premiered on the band 's YouTube page on September 17 , 2008 . The song was voted number 38 in the Triple J Hottest 100 , 2008 . A second single , " I 've Seen Enough " , was released on October 22 , 2008 but failed to chart . Two music videos were created to promote the single . The first video was directed by Vern Moen and shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , premiering on the band 's YouTube page on February 23 , 2009 . The second video was a collaboration with director Sam Jones ( who had previously directed I Am Trying to Break Your Heart : A Film About Wilco ) and his production company Tool of North America . The video was interactive and involved each band member playing his instrument solo on a dark stage , with the viewers given free rein to choose which instruments were played and to make their own mixes of the song . The video was nominated in the ' Online Film & Video ' category for Best Use of Interactive Video at the 2010 Webby Awards and won the People 's Choice Award .
+
+On July 25 , the band announced a 55 @-@ city nationwide tour to promote Loyalty to Loyalty ahead of its release , beginning with Byron Bay 's Splendour in the Grass festival and finishing at Paris ' Bataclan . The tour was marked with several festival appearances at Belladrum and Outside Lands . During that tour , they made television appearances on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson .
+
+= = Critical reception = =
+
+Loyalty to Loyalty received generally favorable reviews but music critics were divided by the band 's musical departure and Nathan Willett 's delivery in terms of performance and songwriting . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 66 , based on 20 reviews .
+
+James McMahon of NME praised the band for their production and songwriting , concluding with " Almost in defiance of poor sales and cult following , CWK and their charming second album embody everything you hoped music might be . " Bart Blasengame of Paste found the album " [ to be ] more interesting than Robbers and Cowards , " praising the band for the new direction in their sound and calling it " a better @-@ than @-@ solid album from a band that seemed equipped to someday make a classic one . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone commended the band for continuing with their blues rock sound , saying that " Cold War Kids attack their songs with unusual intensity , infusing even the most nourish , unsettling songs – fractured narratives about hipster bohemia and suicide – with a feeling enchantment . "
+
+Rudy Klap of Sputnikmusic gave praise to the production and songwriting , singling out " Golden Gate Jumpers " with having " one of the record 's best lyrics and melodies , " but was critical of Willett 's performance saying that " his voice can turn from interesting and fresh to grating and intolerable with just a few misplaced falsettos . " Heather Phares of AllMusic was also critical about Willett throughout the album , finding his voice " unfettered to the point of grating ( " Something Is Not Right with Me " ) " and lyrics to be " overworked instead of clever ( " Against Privacy " ) " but found some of the songs carried sharp songwriting skills ( " Golden Gate Jumpers " ) and flair ( " I 've Seen Enough " ) concluding that " Cold War Kids deserve credit for their ambitions , but there 's a fine line between trying hard and trying too hard . More often than not , Loyalty to Loyalty takes a disappointing stumble on it . "
+
+Chris Mincher of The A.V. Club was disappointed with the album , finding it stripped of its songwriting and control in lead singer Nathan Willett 's voice from their debut album . Blake Solomon of AbsolutePunk found the album lacking in terms of instrumentals and songwriting saying , " It 's easy to see the great ideas from previous songs at work here , but there seems to be an intentional restraint placed on the band 's likeable pop inclinations . " The Guardian criticized the album for its lackluster blues rock production and Willett 's performance , saying " his voice is too drearily clean @-@ cut to deliver a true emotional punch . " Ian Cohen of Pitchfork Media felt that the album was hampered by the band 's uninspired musicianship and songwriting and the hype surrounding them , saying that " Proponents raved that Cold War Kids arrived fully formed , but as the band continues to stubbornly emphasize their weaknesses , Loyalty To Loyalty is proof that their detractors can say the same thing . "
+
+= = Commercial performance = =
+
+Loyalty to Loyalty was the band 's first album to reach the top 50 on the Billboard 200 , debuting at number 21 with 22 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . It later dropped to number 74 the next week before leaving the chart . It additionally charted within the top 40 of several additional territories , surpassing what Robbers & Cowards achieved previously . The record debuted at number 20 in Australia before dropping to number 35 the next week and leaving the chart . It debuted at numbers 29 and 48 in Belgium and France respectively ( whereas their previous album charted at numbers 43 and 79 ) . However , it charted thirty @-@ three spots lower than Robbers & Cowards in the United Kingdom , entering at number 68 in that country for one week .
+
+= = Track listing = =
+
+All songs written and composed by Cold War Kids .
+
+= = Personnel = =
+
+Adapted from the Loyalty to Loyalty inlay notes .
+
+= = Charts = =
+
+= = Release history = =
+
+= Lice ( The Office ) =
+
+" Lice " is the tenth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office . The episode was written by Niki Schwartz @-@ Wright and directed by Rodman Flender . It originally aired on NBC on January 10 , 2013 . The episode guest stars Julius " Dr. J " Erving as himself .
+
+The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) accidentally brings lice into the office but lets Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) take the fall while Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) vows to destroy the parasites . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) spends a great day in Philadelphia with a potential business associate ( Erving ) ; Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) , Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) , and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) interfere with Darryl Philbin 's ( Craig Robinson ) love life .
+
+" Lice " received mixed reviews from television critics ; many reviewers enjoyed the emphasis the episode placed on Flannery 's character , although others felt the story did not work . The episode was also viewed by 4 @.@ 54 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 2 / 6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its timeslot . The episode ultimately ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
+
+= = Plot = =
+
+Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) finds managing her household without her husband Jim ( John Krasinski ) to be more difficult than anticipated , as she struggles with duties such as taking out the trash . Her already frazzled condition worsens when she finds lice on her daughter Cece , leaving her no choice but to wash all the clothing in the house . At work the next day , she notices Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) frantically scratching her head , and realizes she may have transferred the lice from Cece to the office . She initiates an investigation and Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) finds that all of the employees except Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) , Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) , Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) , and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) have lice . Given her disregard for cleanliness , the employees assume Meredith is responsible ; Pam defends her but neglects to admit her guilt . To eliminate the lice , Meredith shaves her head . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) also overreacts , donning a hazmat suit and accidentally exposing himself to a hallucinogenic bug bomb that causes him to faint . On Erin 's advice , the other infected employees pair up to put mayonnaise on each other 's hair to suffocate the lice , which allows Pete ( Jake Lacy ) and Erin to spend time together and Angela Martin to prank Oscar Martinez in retaliation for his affair with her husband . Pam 's mother calls to inform her that Cece still has lice ; the other staff overhear and realize Pam is responsible for the lice infestation , much to Meredith 's delight .
+
+Meanwhile , Jim goes to Philadelphia to meet with a potential investor in his sports marketing company ; the investor is none other than Julius " Dr. J " Erving , a personal hero of Jim 's . Being sensitive to how difficult it must be to manage the house and kids by herself , Jim doesn 't tell her who the investor is during their phone conversations and pretends to be stressed over the meeting ; Pam , in turn , affects to be having no problems so that she won 't add to Jim 's supposed stress . Back at the office , Pam apologizes to Meredith , and the two go out for a beer . While at the bar , Pam tells Meredith — who is a single parent — she now realizes how hard it is to handle children without a husband .
+
+The uninfected workers are sent down to the warehouse to avoid contracting lice . Darryl had recently manipulated the warehouse foreman Val ( Ameenah Kaplan ) into breaking up with him because he wanted to have a new start when he moves to Philadelphia for his job at Jim 's new sports marketing company . Darryl tells the others about this so that they will be careful what they say to Val . Nellie , Phyllis , and Kevin confront Val and try to convince her to take Darryl back , to no avail . However , when Kevin then tries to get a date with Val , she is so mortified at her apparent dating prospects that she decides to get back together with Darryl , much to his annoyance .
+
+= = Production = =
+
+" Lice " was written by story editor Niki Schwartz @-@ Wright , marking her debut writing credit for the series . It was directed by Rodman Flender . This marked his second directorial effort for the series , after the earlier ninth season entry " The Whale " . As mentioned before , the episode guest starred Erving as himself . In addition , " Lice " featured performances by Ameenah Kaplan , who reprised her role as Val ; and Linda Purl as Pam 's mother , whose voice was heard on the phone . Kate Flannery did not actually shave her head for the episode . According to her Twitter account , make @-@ up artist Ed French was responsible for the bald cap and Kim M. Ferry designed the shaved hair effect . According to the actress , the prosthetics took three hours to apply . Afterwards , she joked that she has " newfound respect for the actors in Planet of the Apes ! " This is the third episode to not feature Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) or Clark ( Clark Duke ) . Helms left the show temporarily in the season 's sixth episode " The Boat " in order to film The Hangover Part III , whereas Duke left for a few episodes to film Kick @-@ Ass 2 .
+
+The scenes at the end of the episode take place at The Bog ; this is an actual bar in Scranton . In addition , the exterior shots were all actually filmed in Scranton . In order to secure permission , the series ' production staff phoned the bar 's co @-@ owner , Brian Craig , and requested that the bar be featured on the show . Reportedly , parts of the scenes were filmed with an iPhone .
+
+= = Cultural references = =
+
+Jim compares spending a day with Julius Erving to a hypothetical situation wherein Pam would spend the day with John Stamos . Pam and Meredith bond over karaoke , and the two sing the song " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " , which was made famous by Cyndi Lauper in 1983 .
+
+= = Broadcast and reception = =
+
+= = = Ratings = = =
+
+" Lice " originally aired on NBC on January 10 , 2013 . In its original American broadcast , the episode was viewed by 4 @.@ 54 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 6 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 2 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The Office ranked third in its timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the CBS series Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 9 / 8 percent rating , and an entry of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 percent rating . In addition , The Office was the highest @-@ rated NBC television program on the night it aired . The episode was the twenty @-@ fourth most @-@ watched episode of television for the week it aired in the 18 – 49 demographic , with 2 @.@ 772 million viewers in the age group .
+
+= = = Reviews = = =
+
+USA Today writer Whitney Matheson called the episode " the funniest ep this season " and that " it also ranks as one of the best since Steve Carell 's departure in 2011 " . She lauded Flannery 's performance , writing that " the actress has never made me laugh harder than on last night 's episode " . Mark Trammell of TV Equals called the episode " excellent " ; he was particularly pleased with the episode 's humor . Michael Tedder of Vulture awarded the episode four out of five stars and said that it allowed Meredith , who until the episode had been " a mostly one @-@ dimensional source of promiscuity jokes " to have " two dimensions for once " . He also applauded Fischer 's performance , writing that it " would make for a terrific Emmy submission episode " .
+
+Farihah Zaman of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " and criticized its excessive narrative threads . She felt that Pam and Jim 's separation brought " out the worst in them " , but that " the same situations that force Jim and Pam to confront their flaws reveal the overlooked strengths of a couple of less prominent characters " . She also wrote that the ending was " touching " because it humanized Meredith and made her out as a " badass " . Cindy White of IGN awarded the episode a score of 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 , denoting a " good " episode . She felt that the final scenes with Pam and Meredith singing were " a nice callback to the show 's glory days " and made the ending feel " layered and grounded " . White also applauded the short sequence that showed many of the office staff mundanely going about their day with mayonnaise on their heads , noting that the pacing was reminiscent of the first season when the episodes " had room to breathe " . White , however , did feel that Jim 's storyline was too reminiscent of the story arc in the fifth season when Pam went to art school .
+
+Nick Campbell of TV.com wrote an extremely negative review of the episode and called it " terrible " . He felt that Pam 's behavior due to Jim being gone was uncalled for . Furthermore , he felt that Dwight " swung too far into the territory that is known as ' annoying caricature ' " . Campbell did , however , write highly of Ellie Kemper , saying that " she 's played [ her character ] funnily and warmly as anyone else " . Several reviewers argued that the episode functioned as a filler episode . Brett Davinger of The California Literary Review called it the " epitome of filler " . ScreenCrush reviewer Damon Houx wrote that " if everyone were in the same location this would be a bottle episode " . Furthermore , Darryl 's subplot was mostly criticized . Tedder wrote that while " it 's fine to have a story line where someone pursues something and then realizes it wasn 't what it was cracked up to be " he wished that the show had actually developed Val as a character . White wrote that she did not enjoy seeing " this manipulative version of Darryl " because it contrasted with his earlier characterization in episodes like " The Deposition " . Zaman called the subplot " surprising " .
+
+= Christina Milian ( album ) =
+
+Christina Milian is the self @-@ titled debut studio album by American singer Christina Milian released by Def Soul on October 9 , 2001 . Its release was postponed because of the September 11 attacks , which occurred just two weeks before its release date . Her label opted to release it later that year in Europe , but due to changing music trends , Milian decided not to release the album domestically .
+
+Milian made her first professional musical appearance on Ja Rule 's single " Between Me and You " , which led to a record deal with Def Soul and The Inc . Records in 2000 . Milian traveled to Sweden where she collaborated with several producers , most notably Bloodshy & Avant , who helmed five tracks . Milian co @-@ wrote eleven of the twelve songs on the album , taking inspiration from personal experiences . The album 's musical style is mostly dance and R & B , and critics noted similarities to her contemporaries Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera . Milian was displeased by Def Soul 's portrayal of her image , which she felt was constantly changing and confusing the audience .
+
+The critical response to Christina Milian was mixed ; critics who gave a positive review enjoyed the catchy tracks and lead single " AM to PM " , while others found that it lacked original ideas . The album peaked at number 23 in the UK , selling a total of 101 @,@ 986 copies , and achieved Silver certification . Internationally , the album also charted in the Netherlands , Sweden and France . The album spawned two singles , " AM to PM " and When You Look at Me " , which charted worldwide .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+When Milian moved to Los Angeles at the age of 13 , she wanted to be in the record business , but did not know how to obtain a recording contract . After living in Los Angeles for six months , Milian moved into the same apartment complex as songwriter and producer Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins . Jerkins heard about Milian from a boy band he was working with and once he heard her sing , they began working together . For a year and a half , Milian went into a studio everyday and worked with Jerkins , which is where she started meeting people in the record business .
+
+Milian began writing songs at the age of seventeen because she needed a demo to help her obtain a recording contract . According to Milian , every time she recorded a song , the producer would refuse to give her the demo , or would write lyrics that she did not agree with . She felt that she had to write a song , record a demo , and send it out on her own .
+
+Milian made her first professional musical appearance on Ja Rule 's second studio album Rule 3 : 36 , performing vocals on the song " Between Me and You " . The song was released as the album 's lead single in 2000 , peaking at number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 , and in the top thirty of the UK Singles Chart . Milian then co @-@ wrote and performed backing vocals for the track " Play " for Jennifer Lopez 's album J.Lo ( 2001 ) . " Play " was released as the second single from the album and was a commercial success , peaking at number 3 in the UK and number 18 on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
+
+= = Production and composition = =
+
+Following her collaboration with Ja Rule , Milian signed a deal with Island Def Jam Music Group in 2000 . Milian traveled to Sweden and recorded her self @-@ titled debut album , working with the popular producers of that time . Milian collaborated with Bloodshy & Avant , Jermaine Dupri , Focus , Irv Gotti , Mark Hill , Montell Jordan and Evan Rogers . Soren Baker of the Los Angeles Times later suggested that instead of launching her career off the success of " Between Me and You " , and by recording in Sweden without the " platinum production touch " of Irv Gotti , the owner of The Inc . Records , the momentum created by the song had evaporated . Milian received writing credit for eleven of the twelve songs on the album . It was during the production of the album that Milian had first started to write songs , and wrote about things that she could relate to at the time .
+
+Milian described the sound of the album as " hip hop under @-@ toned with nice , pop melodies " , and later said the genre of the album was " bubble @-@ gum pop " . She described lead single " AM to PM " as a " very pop " and " fun , party / club song " . The genre of the album was described by one critic as " light @-@ hearted , energetic R & B pop tunes " . Critics compared Milian to Janet Jackson and Aaliyah . Sonically , the album was said to stick " rigidly to the sherbert @-@ snorting pop formula of Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera " . One reviewer compared Milian to other singers of her generation , and found that " while Spears has gone raunchy with ' I Love Rock ' n ' Roll ' , Christina Aguilera down and dirty on Stripped , and even clean @-@ cut Mandy Moore has brashly cut her hair Felicity @-@ style , Milian still seems young and real . " The critic also compared Milian to Beyoncé Knowles , " while Beyonce is shaking her bootylicious body like crazy on ' Crazy In Love ' , Milian is simply enjoying becoming a young star . "
+
+Many live instruments were used during the album 's production , especially violin . Milian named " You Make Me Laugh " one of her favorite songs on the album . It was the first song written by Milian for the album , and she worked with Bloodshy for the song 's production . The album 's second and final single , " When You Look at Me " , was written by Milian . Using her school days as the inspiration for the song , Milian said that " when I was growing up , I found people were always trying to label me . The first day of school it would be like ' Here comes this girl all dressed up . She thinks she 's all that ' and they didn 't even know me . The message behind ' When You Look At Me ' is never judge a book by its cover . " Milian asked Ja Rule to appear on her album , however she did not want to put him " on just any song " , and wanted to make sure it was the right song for him . Milian hoped Ja Rule would appear on the track " A Girl Like Me " , but he ended up rapping on " Get Away " . Milian co @-@ wrote the track " Twitch " with R & B singer Montell Jordan , which explains that men have a certain twitch of their shoulders whenever they tell lies .
+
+= = Critical reception = =
+
+The critical response to the album was mixed to generally positive . Imran Ahmed of the New Musical Express enjoyed " genius single ' AM to PM ' " , and praised the tracks " Got to Have You " and " When You Look at Me " . Ahmed guessed that " beneath the froth , there 's a certain depth of soul " in Milian , and thought " Get Away " had similar excellent results to her previous collaboration with Ja Rule , " Between Me and You " . The reviewer also commended the lyrics of " Twitch " , which he thought was " remarkable for being what may be the first ever song about someone with a facial tic " . Ahmed was impressed that alongside the impressive production credit list , it was " still Milian 's name that tops the list of executive producers " , and predicted , " genius can 't be more than a few albums away " . Contrastingly , Andrew Lynch of entertainment.ie described the album as " relentlessly ordinary " , and suggested that Milian needed original ideas . The reviewer felt that apart from " AM to PM " and " You Make Me Laugh " there was nothing above the average . Lynch said that if Milian " really wants to compete with the big girls , she badly needs to spice up her tired formula . "
+
+A reviewer for Dawn commended the album for being " full of danceable , likeable tracks , and even the occasional , successful ballad like ' Until I Get Over You ' " . The reviewer called the album to be " a refreshing change with its charming lyrics and teen outlook " . " AM to PM " was said to hint at " quite a lot of talent " , and was praised for its " slick lyrics , a fast pace , and a phat vibe " . The reviewer also praised " When You Look at Me " , " Get Away " , and " Got to Have You " . Carmen Meyer of iafrica.com found the " smooth , groovy and refreshing " album to be filled " with light @-@ hearted and catchy tracks , which can be enjoyed either in a club , your car or even when chilling at home . " She commented on the album 's tracks , which ranged from " melodic and heart @-@ rending ballads to funky dance beats that are bound to keep you moving " . Meyer praised the " infectious " " AM to PM " , the " exciting " " A Girl Like Me " , and " Till I Get Over You " , which is " guaranteed to pull at your heartstrings and make you want to pull your loved ones closer " .
+
+= = Release and commercial performance = =
+
+The album was released on October 21 , 2001 in the United Kingdom . It peaked at number 23 in the UK , selling a total of 101 @,@ 986 copies , and achieved Silver certification . Internationally , the album peaked at number 36 in the Netherlands , 98 in Sweden , and 138 in France . Two weeks before the album 's release in the U.S. , the September 11 attacks occurred and the release date was postponed , eventually released three years later . The album 's lead single , " AM to PM " , peaked at number three in the UK , the top five in Denmark , the top 10 in the Netherlands , and the top 30 in Australia and the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 . The album 's second and final single , " When You Look at Me " , reached number three in the UK and in the Netherlands , the top 10 in Australia , and the top 20 in Denmark and France . A music video for the track " Get Away " was filmed in Paris , although it was not officially released as a single . To promote the album , Milian toured with NSYNC , serving as the opening act . Band member JC Chasez said , " she was like the cute , spunky kid sister . Not everyone could take Justin 's practical jokes or my teasing . "
+
+Milian believed that the public expected " a certain thing " from her when she first appeared with Ja Rule , however she wanted to record the type of music she was signed to do . She said that " AM to PM " was a " cool record " , but it was not what the public expected . Milian felt that her record label was confused as to how they wanted her image to be portrayed ; one second she was young and singing " AM to PM " , and next she was a grown woman singing " Get Away " . She realized that the change confused the audience , and that " nobody was buying it " . To explain that she was serious about her musical career , Milian approached the executives at Island Def Jam , and " cussed them all out " , telling them that they were not listening to her .
+
+= = Track listing = =
+
+= = Personnel = =
+
+= = Charts = =
+
+= The Old Man and the " C " Student =
+
+" The Old Man and the " C " Student " is the twentieth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 25 , 1999 . In the episode , after offending the Olympic committee during their visit to Springfield Elementary , the school 's students are committed to 20 hours of community service . Bart , along with his sister Lisa , is put in charge of Springfield 's retirement home , where Bart notices the doldrums that the old people go through every day . Meanwhile , Bart and Lisa 's father Homer tries to sell springs .
+
+" The Old Man and the " C " Student " was directed by Mark Kirkland and was the first episode Julie Thacker wrote for The Simpsons . While Bart 's storyline was pitched by Thacker , the B @-@ story , involving Homer , was conceived by Thacker 's husband Mike Scully , who also was an executive producer and the showrunner for the episode . Jack Lalanne guest @-@ starred as himself in the episode .
+
+On its original broadcast , " The Old Man and the " C " Student " was seen by approximately 6 @.@ 9 million viewers . Following the release of The Simpsons : The Complete Tenth Season , the episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
+
+= = Plot = =
+
+When Lisa writes a letter to the International Olympic Committee , they decide that Springfield will be home to the next Olympics . To honor the Olympics , there is a contest for the games ' mascot . Homer creates a mascot for the Olympic Games named Springy , the Springfield Spring , which becomes the mascot ( much to Patty and Selma 's dismay , who created a mascot named Ciggy the Cigarette ) and everyone in Springfield prepares for the games . When the IOC inspects the town , things go well until Bart does a stand @-@ up comedy routine that insults foreign nations , which only Principal Skinner , Homer , and the children find funny . In response , the IOC decides not to let Springfield have the Olympics anymore ( they award it to Shelbyville , who presumably and chronologically lost it to Sydney ) , and Superintendent Chalmers blames Skinner for putting Bart on stage with his racy jokes . Skinner initially keeps his case strong by telling Chalmers that the comedy worked well during rehearsal , but to prevent losing his job , he makes every one of the school 's students do 20 hours of community service . After sending Milhouse to collect medical waste on the beach and leaving Martin to start a basketball program between inter @-@ city gangs , Skinner has Bart assigned to work at the Springfield Retirement Castle , where Lisa also works voluntarily . Bart is dismayed at how little the seniors are allowed to do .
+
+Meanwhile , Homer gets 1 @,@ 000 springs he intended to sell as Olympic mascots . He uses various get @-@ rich @-@ quick schemes to sell off the mascots , but fails miserably due to Springfield 's hatred of Bart 's comedy routine . Ultimately , he is forced to flush the mascots down the toilet . At the time Lisa leads the seniors in " imagination time " , but when she departs , Bart makes the seniors escape to get a taste of freedom . Bart takes the seniors on a trip on the town and on a boat ride , and Lisa is initially shocked to see these things happen , but nevertheless , she is quite impressed by what Bart does for the seniors . The seniors have fun until their boat crashes into Mr. Burns 's schooner . The boat begins to sink and the seniors turn on Bart , but Grampa defends him , saying Bart gave them the best fun they have had in years . However , the springs that Homer flushed down the toilet save them , causing the boat to bob up at the surface long enough for the Coast Guard to rescue everyone . Bart finishes his community service time , but decides to help the seniors still enjoy themselves .
+
+= = Production = =
+
+" The Old Man and the " C " Student " was directed by Mark Kirkland and was the first episode Julie Thacker wrote for The Simpsons . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on April 25 , 1999 . The episode 's plot was based on a " disastrous " school program , in which students had to participate in community service in order to be allowed to advance to the next grade . Thacker , whose oldest daughter was a student at the school , was signed up to do community service at an old folks home in the town they lived in . It became the inspiration for the episode 's A @-@ story , while the B @-@ story , which involved Homer selling springs , was conceived by Thacker 's husband Mike Scully , an executive producer and the showrunner for the episode .
+
+In a scene in the episode , Lenny gets one of Homer 's springs stuck in his eye . Lenny 's eye injuries have since become a running gag , and " The Old Man and the " C " Student " " started the trend " , according to Thacker . The " clunky , Up With People @-@ type " dance that the students perform for the Olympic jury was partly demonstrated during the animatic by Simpsons writer George Meyer . When Meyer later watched the episode , he found out , to his " horror " , that he had been given a choreographer credit at the end of the episode . The episode features American fitness expert Jack Lalanne as himself . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Scully stated that Lalanne was " very funny " and that he " gave a great performance " . Lalanne 's lines were recorded separately from the series main cast members .
+
+= = Cultural references = =
+
+The episode title is a reference to the novel and film " The Old Man and the Sea " . In the beginning of the episode , a sign reading " International Olympic Committee " can be seen . The logo below the text parodies the logo of the real International Olympic Committee . Because they did not want to " upset " the committee , the Simpsons staff slightly altered the logo by changing the colors and not making the rings interlock . In a scene in the episode , the old people can be seen watching an edited and over @-@ dubbed version of the 1939 film Gone With the Wind . The nurse that works in the old folks home is based on Nurse Ratched from the American drama film One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest . The film is referenced again in a scene where Bart takes the old folks on a boat trip and a scene where a Native American chief in the old folk 's home throws a dishwasher through a window , and jumps out , mirroring the last scene in the film . The character then returns , and hands Lisa a pamphlet that reads " Prop 217 " . The pamphlet is a reference to Proposition 217 , a proposition that allowed Native Americans to operate casinos in certain states . It is also a reference to the day Scully and Thacker met , which was on February 17 . The scene in which Smithers is drawing a portrait of Mr Burns is a reference to the 1997 drama film Titanic . The scene where the old people celebrate their escape from the home is a reference to a sequence from The Beatles ' 1964 film A Hard Day 's Night . Both are set to the group 's song " Can 't Buy Me Love " , although in the episode the song is a cover performed by NRBQ . During the end credits , an album cover reading " A Bart Day 's Night " , a reference to The Beatles ' album A Hard Day 's Night , the film 's soundtrack , is shown . " Can 't Buy Me Love " also plays over the end credits .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+In its original American broadcast on April 25 , 1999 , " The Old Man and the " C " Student " received a 6 @.@ 9 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 6 @.@ 9 million viewers . The episode finished in 41st place in the ratings for the week of April 19 – 25 , 1999 . On August 7 , 2007 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , George Meyer , Julie Thacker , Ron Hauge , Nancy Cartwright and Mark Kirkland participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
+
+Following its home video release , " The Old Man and the " C " Student " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Aaron Roxby of Collider gave it a positive review , calling it one the season 's best episodes . He wrote " The Simpsons has always been great about addressing / mocking the way that out culture treats the elderly . " He added that Lenny 's eye injury gave the episode " Extra points " . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide described the episode as " A marvellous feel @-@ good story " and " Very sweet , very endearing . " They added that the " stereotyped Olympic Committee debate " at the beginning of the episode is " marvellous " , and concluded by describing the episode as " terrific " . Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide was positive as well , writing " I gotta admit I like Springy , the Olympic mascot , and the spring @-@ related aspects of the show entertain . " He added that the story involving Bart " offer more than a few good moments , " and concluded by writing " Though the episode never quite excels , it ’ s pretty solid . " James Plath of DVD Town called it an " okay " episode . Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News described the episode as " not @-@ so @-@ good , " adding that " by this point , this show has expended just about every old folks joke there is . " However , he also wrote that " ' I want some taquitos ' never grows old . "
+
+= Lynching of Jesse Washington =
+
+Jesse Washington , a teenage black farmhand , was lynched in Waco , Texas , on May 15 , 1916 , in what became a well @-@ known example of racially motivated lynching . Washington was convicted of raping and murdering Lucy Fryer , the wife of his white employer in rural Robinson , Texas . There were no eyewitnesses to the crime , but during his interrogation by the McLennan County sheriff he signed a confession and described the location of the murder weapon .
+
+Washington was tried for murder in Waco , in a courtroom filled with furious locals . He entered a guilty plea and was quickly sentenced to death . After his sentence was pronounced , he was dragged out of the court by observers and lynched in front of Waco 's city hall . Over 10 @,@ 000 spectators , including city officials and police , gathered to watch the attack . There was a celebratory atmosphere at the event , and many children attended during their lunch hour . Members of the mob castrated Washington , cut off his fingers , and hung him over a bonfire . He was repeatedly lowered and raised over the fire for about two hours . After the fire was extinguished , his charred torso was dragged through the town and parts of his body were sold as souvenirs . A professional photographer took pictures as the event unfolded , providing rare imagery of a lynching in progress . The pictures were printed and sold as postcards in Waco .
+
+Although the lynching was supported by many Waco residents , it was condemned by newspapers around the United States . The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) hired Elisabeth Freeman to investigate ; she conducted a detailed probe in Waco , despite the reluctance of many residents to speak about the event . After receiving Freeman 's report on the lynching , NAACP co @-@ founder and editor W. E. B. Du Bois published an in @-@ depth report featuring photographs of Washington 's charred body in The Crisis , and the NAACP featured his death in their anti @-@ lynching campaign . Although Waco had been regarded as a modern , progressive city , the lynching demonstrated that it still tolerated racial violence ; the event was nicknamed the " Waco horror " . The city subsequently gained a reputation for racism , but city leaders prevented violence on several occasions in subsequent decades . Historians have noted that Washington 's death helped alter the way that lynching was viewed ; the publicity it received curbed public support for the practice , which became viewed as barbarism rather than as an acceptable form of justice . In the 1990s and 2000s , some Waco residents lobbied for a monument to the lynching , an idea that has failed to garner wide support in the city .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , a significant number of lynchings occurred in the Southern United States , primarily of African Americans in the states of Georgia , Mississippi , and Texas . Between 1890 and 1920 , about 3 @,@ 000 African Americans were killed by lynch mobs , usually after whites were the victims of crimes purportedly committed by blacks . Supporters of lynching justified the practice as a way to assert dominance over African Americans , to whom they attributed a criminal nature . Lynching also provided a sense of white solidarity in a culture with changing demographics and power structures . Although lynching was tolerated by much of southern society , opponents of the practice emerged , including some religious leaders and the nascent National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) .
+
+In 1916 , Waco , Texas , was a prosperous city with a population of more than 30 @,@ 000 . After it became associated with crime in the 19th century , community leaders sought to change its reputation , sending delegations across the U.S. to promote it as an idyllic locale . By the 1910s , Waco 's economy had become strong and the city had gained a pious reputation . A black middle class had emerged in the area , along with two black colleges . In the mid @-@ 1910s , blacks comprised about twenty percent of the Waco population . In her 2006 study of lynching , journalist Patricia Bernstein describes the city as then having a " thin veneer " of peace and respectability . Racial tension was present in the city : local newspapers often emphasized crimes committed by African Americans , and Sank Majors , a black man , was hanged from a bridge near downtown Waco in 1905 . A small number of anti @-@ lynching activists lived in the area , including the president of Waco 's Baylor University . In 1916 , several factors led to an increase in local racism , including the screening of The Birth of a Nation , a movie that promoted white supremacy and glorified the Ku Klux Klan , and the sale of photographs of a recently lynched black man in Temple , Texas .
+
+= = Murder and arrest = =
+
+In Robinson , Texas , Lucy Fryer was murdered while alone at her house on May 8 , 1916 . She and her husband George were English immigrants , and had become well respected in the rural community where they operated a farm . News of the death quickly reached the McLennan County sheriff , Samuel Fleming , who immediately investigated with a team of law enforcement officers , a group of local men , and a doctor . The doctor determined that Fryer had been killed by blunt @-@ force trauma to the head . The local men suspected that Jesse Washington , a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old black man who had worked on the Fryers ' farm for five months , was responsible ; one of them stated that he had seen Washington near the Fryer house a few minutes before Lucy 's body was discovered . That night , sheriff 's deputies traveled to Washington 's home , finding him in front of the house wearing blood @-@ stained overalls . He attributed the stains to a nosebleed . Jesse , his brother William , and their parents were taken to nearby Waco to be questioned by the sheriff 's department ; although Jesse 's parents and brother were released after a short time , he was held for further interrogation . His questioners in Waco reported that he denied complicity in Fryer 's death , but offered contradictory details about his actions . Rumors spread after his arrest that he had been in an altercation with a white man a few days before the murder .
+
+On May 9 , Fleming took Washington to Hill County to prevent vigilante action . The Hill County sheriff , Fred Long , questioned Washington with Fleming ; Washington told them he had killed Fryer following an argument about her mules , and described the murder weapon and its location . Long brought Washington to Dallas , Texas , while Fleming returned to Robinson . Fleming soon reported that he found a bloody hammer where Washington had indicated . In Dallas , Washington dictated and signed a statement that described the rape and murder of Fryer ; the confession was published the next day in Waco newspapers . Newspapers sensationalized the murder , describing Fryer 's attempts to resist Washington 's attack , although the doctor who had examined her body concluded that she was killed before she could resist . A lynch mob assembled in Waco that night to search the local jail , but dispersed after they did not find Washington . Nevertheless , a local paper praised their effort . That night , a small private funeral and burial were held for Lucy Fryer .
+
+On May 11 , a grand jury was assembled in McLennan County and quickly returned an indictment against Washington ; the trial was scheduled for May 15 . The Times @-@ Herald of Waco published a notice on May 12 requesting that residents let the justice system determine Washington 's fate . Fleming traveled to Robinson on May 13 to ask residents to remain calm ; his address was well received . Washington was assigned several inexperienced lawyers . His lawyers prepared no defense , and noted that he appeared placid in the days before the trial .
+
+= = Trial and lynching = =
+
+On the morning of May 15 , Waco 's courthouse quickly filled to capacity in anticipation of the trial : the crowd nearly prevented some jurors from entering . Observers also filled the sidewalks around the courthouse ; over two thousand spectators were present . Attendees were almost entirely white , but a few quiet members of Waco 's black community were present . As Washington was led into the courtroom , one audience member pointed a gun at him , but was quickly overpowered . As the trial commenced , the judge attempted to keep order , insisting that the audience remain silent . Jury selection proceeded quickly : the defense did not challenge any selections of the prosecution . Bernstein states that the trial had a " kangaroo @-@ court atmosphere " . The judge asked Washington for a plea , and explained the potential sentences . Washington muttered a response , possibly " yes " , interpreted by the court as a guilty plea . The prosecution described the charges , and the court heard testimony from law enforcement officers and the doctor who examined Fryer 's body . The doctor discussed how Fryer died , but did not mention rape . The prosecution rested , and Washington 's attorney asked him whether he had committed the offense . Washington replied , " That 's what I done [ sic ] " and quietly apologized . The lead prosecutor addressed the courtroom and declared that the trial had been conducted fairly , prompting an ovation from the crowd . The jury was then sent to deliberate .
+
+After four minutes of deliberation , the jury 's foreman announced a guilty verdict and a sentence of death . The trial lasted about one hour . Court officers approached Washington to escort him away , but were pushed aside by a surge of spectators , who seized Washington and dragged him outside . Washington initially fought back , biting one man , but was soon beaten . A chain was placed around his neck and he was dragged toward city hall by a growing mob ; on the way downtown , he was stripped , stabbed , and repeatedly beaten with blunt objects . By the time he arrived at city hall , a group had prepared wood for a bonfire next to a tree in front of the building . Washington , semiconscious and covered in blood , was doused with oil , hung from the tree by a chain , and then lowered to the ground . Members of the crowd cut off his fingers , toes , and genitals . The fire was lit and Washington was repeatedly raised and lowered into the flames until he burned to death . German scholar Manfred Berg posits that the executioners attempted to keep him alive to increase his suffering . Washington attempted to climb the chain , but was unable to , owing to his lack of fingers . The fire was extinguished after two hours , allowing bystanders to collect souvenirs from the site of the lynching , including Washington 's bones and links of the chain . One attendee kept part of Washington 's genitalia ; a group of children snapped the teeth out of Washington 's head to sell as souvenirs . By the time that the fire was extinguished , parts of Washington 's arms and legs had been burned off and his torso and head were charred . His body was removed from the tree and dragged behind a horse throughout the town . Washington 's remains were transported to Robinson , where they were publicly displayed until a constable obtained the body late in the day and buried it .
+
+The lynching drew a large crowd , including the mayor and the chief of police , although lynching was illegal in Texas . Sheriff Fleming told his deputies not to stop the lynching , and no one was arrested after the event . Bernstein speculates that his actions were motivated by a desire to harshly deal with crime to help his candidacy for re @-@ election that year . Mayor John Dollins may have also encouraged the mob owing to the belief that a lynching would be politically beneficial . The crowd numbered 15 @,@ 000 at its peak . Telephones helped spread word of the lynching , allowing spectators to gather more quickly than was previously possible . Local media reported that " shouts of delight " were heard as Washington burned , although they noted that some attendees disapproved . The Waco Semi @-@ Weekly Tribune maintained that a number of black Waco residents attended , a claim that historian Grace Hale of the University of Virginia sees as dubious . Waco residents , who likely had no connection with the rural Fryer family , comprised most of the crowd . Some people from nearby rural communities traveled to the city before the trial to witness the events . As the lynching occurred at midday , children from local schools walked downtown to observe , some climbing into trees for a better view . Many parents approved of their children 's attendance , hoping that the lynching would reinforce a belief in white supremacy . Some Texans saw participation in a lynching as a rite of passage for young men .
+
+= = Aftermath = =
+
+Fred Gildersleeve , a Waco @-@ based professional photographer , arrived at city hall shortly before the lynching , possibly at the mayor 's request , and photographed the event . His photographs provide rare depictions of a lynching in progress , rather than typical lynching photography , which only shows dead victims . Gildersleeve 's photographs include views of the crowd shot from a building and close images of Washington 's body ; some may have been taken by an assistant . Gildersleeve produced postcards featuring images of adolescents , some as young as twelve , gathered around Washington 's body . The individuals in the photographs made no attempts to hide their identities . Berg believes that their willingness to be photographed indicates that they knew that no one would be prosecuted for Washington 's death . Although some Waco residents sent the cards to out @-@ of @-@ town relatives , several prominent local citizens persuaded Gildersleeve to stop selling them , fearing that the images would come to characterize the town .
+
+In the days after the lynching , newspapers fiercely condemned the event . Within a week , news of the lynching was published as far away as London . A New York Times editorial opined that , " in no other land even pretending to be civilized could a man be burned to death in the streets of a considerable city amid the savage exultation of its inhabitants " . In the New York Age , James Weldon Johnson described the members of the lynch mob as " lower than any other people who at present inhabit the earth " . Although many southern newspapers had previously defended lynching as a defense of civilized society , after Washington 's death , they did not cast the practice in such terms . The Montgomery Advertiser wrote that , " no savage was ever more cruel ... than the men who participated in this horrible , almost unbelievable episode " . In Texas , the Houston Chronicle and the Austin American criticized the lynch mob , but spoke highly of Waco . The Morning News of Dallas reported the story , but did not publish an accompanying editorial . In Waco , the Times @-@ Herald refrained from editorializing about the lynching . The Waco Morning News briefly noted their disapproval of the lynching , focusing their criticism on papers they felt had attacked the city unfairly . They cast the condemnatory editorials in the aftermath of the lynching as " Holier than thou " remarks . A writer for the Waco Semi @-@ Weekly Tribune defended the lynching , stating that Washington deserved to die and that blacks should view Washington 's death as a warning against crime . The paper later carried an editorial from the Houston Post condemning the lynching , characterizing the column as part of an attack on the city .
+
+Some Waco residents condemned the lynching , including local ministers and leaders of Baylor University . The judge who presided over Washington 's trial later stated that members of the lynch mob were " murderers " ; the jury 's foreman told the NAACP that he disapproved of their actions . Some people who witnessed the lynching recorded persistent nightmares and psychological trauma . A few citizens contemplated staging a protest against the lynching , but declined to do so owing to concerns about reprisals or the appearance of hypocrisy . After the lynching , town officials maintained that it was attended by a small group of malcontents . Although their claim is contradicted by photographic evidence , several histories of Waco have repeated this assertion . There were no negative repercussions for Dollins or Police Chief John McNamara : although they made no attempt to stop the mob , they remained well respected in Waco . As was common with such attacks , no one was prosecuted for the lynching .
+
+Although leaders of Waco 's black community gave public condolences to the Fryer family , they complained about Washington 's lynching only in private . One exception was the Paul Quinn Weekly newspaper , of Texas ' Paul Quinn College — an all @-@ black institution — which published several articles that criticized the lynch mob and city leadership . In one article , the author proclaimed that Jesse Washington was innocent and George Fryer was guilty . A. T. Smith , the paper 's editor , was subsequently convicted of libel . George Fryer also sued the college for libel ; his vehemence caused some Robinson residents to suspect that he played a part in his wife 's death . Bernstein states that it is " highly unlikely " that George Fryer played a role in Lucy 's murder , but notes that there is the " shadow of a possibility " that he bore some guilt .
+
+= = NAACP investigation and campaign = =
+
+The NAACP hired Elisabeth Freeman , a women 's suffrage activist from New York City , to investigate the lynching . She had traveled to Texas in late 1915 or early 1916 to help organize the suffrage movement there . After attending a suffrage convention in Dallas in early May , she began her assignment in Waco , posing as a journalist and attempting to interview people about the lynching . She found that almost all residents were reluctant to discuss the event . She spoke with town officials and obtained pictures of the lynching from Gildersleeve , who was initially reluctant to provide them . Although she feared for her safety , she enjoyed the challenge of the investigation . When speaking with city leaders , Freeman convinced them that she planned to defend Waco against criticism when she returned to the north . Some journalists soon grew suspicious of her presence and warned residents not to talk to outsiders . Local African Americans , however , gave her a warm reception .
+
+Fleming and the judge who presided over the trial each spoke with her ; both argued that they did not deserve blame for the lynching . A schoolteacher who had known Washington told Freeman that Washington was illiterate , and that all attempts to teach him to read had been futile . Freeman concluded that white residents were generally supportive of Washington 's lynching , although many disliked that his body was mutilated . She determined that the mob was led by a bricklayer , a saloonkeeper , and several employees of an ice company . The NAACP did not publicly identify them . Freeman concluded that Washington killed Fryer , and that he was motivated by her domineering attitude towards him .
+
+W. E. B. Du Bois was incensed by news of the attack , saying " any talk of the triumph of Christianity , or the spread of human culture , is idle twaddle as long as the Waco lynching is possible in the United States " . After receiving Freeman 's report , he placed an image of Washington 's body on the cover of an issue of The Crisis , the NAACP 's newsletter , which discussed the event . The issue was titled " The Waco Horror " and was published as an eight @-@ page supplement to the July edition . Du Bois popularized " Waco Horror " as a name for Washington 's lynching ; the Houston Chronicle and the New York Times had previously used the word " horror " to describe the event . In 1916 , The Crisis had a circulation of about 30 @,@ 000 , three times the size of the NAACP 's membership . Although the paper had campaigned against lynching in the past , this issue was the first that contained images of an attack . The NAACP 's board was initially hesitant to publish such graphic content , but Du Bois insisted on doing so , arguing that uncensored coverage would push white Americans to support change . In addition to images , the issue included accounts of the lynching that Freeman obtained from Waco residents . Du Bois wrote The Crisis ' article on the lynching ; he edited and organized Freeman 's report for publication , although she was not named in the issue . The article concluded with a call to support the anti @-@ lynching movement . The NAACP distributed the report to hundreds of newspapers and politicians , a campaign that led to wide condemnation of the lynching . Many white observers were disturbed by the southerners who celebrated the lynching . The Crisis included more images of lynchings in subsequent issues . Washington 's death received continued discussion in The Crisis . Oswald Garrison Villard wrote in a later edition of the paper that " the crime at Waco is a challenge to our American civilization " .
+
+Other black newspapers also carried significant coverage of the lynching , as did liberal papers such as The New Republic and The Nation . Freeman traveled around the U.S. to speak to audiences about her investigation , maintaining that a shift in public opinion could accomplish more than legislative actions . Although there were other lynchings as brutal as Washington 's , the availability of images and the setting of his death made it a cause célèbre . Leaders of the NAACP hoped to launch a legal battle against those responsible for Washington 's death , but abandoned the plan owing to the projected cost .
+
+The NAACP had struggled financially around that time . Their anti @-@ lynching campaign saw some success in raising funds , but it was scaled back as the U.S. entered World War I. NAACP president Joel Elias Spingarn later stated that the group 's campaign placed " lynching into the public mind as something like a national problem " . In her 2006 study of lynching , Bernstein describes this anti @-@ lynching campaign as the " barest beginnings of a battle that would last many years " .
+
+The number of lynchings in the U.S. increased in the late 1910s . Additional lynchings occurred in Waco in the 1920s , partially owing to the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan . By the late 1920s , however , Waco authorities had begun to protect blacks from lynching , as in the case of Roy Mitchell . Authorities feared that negative publicity generated by lynchings — such as the NAACP 's campaign following Washington 's death — would hinder their efforts to attract investors . The NAACP fought to portray lynching as a savage , barbaric practice , an idea which eventually gained traction in the public mind . Bernstein credits the group 's efforts with helping to end " the worst public atrocities of the racist system " in the Waco region .
+
+= = Analysis and legacy = =
+
+In 2011 , Berg concluded that Washington probably murdered Fryer , but doubted that he raped her . The same year , Julie Armstrong of the University of South Florida argued that Washington was probably innocent of both charges . Bernstein notes that Washington 's motives have never been established . She also states that his confession could have been coerced , and that the murder weapon — perhaps the strongest evidence against him — could have been planted by authorities .
+
+Bernstein states that Washington 's lynching was a unique event because it occurred in a city with a reputation for progressiveness , but was attended by thousands of people who were excited by the brutal torture . Similar acts of mob violence typically occurred in smaller towns with fewer spectators . William Carrigan of Rowan University argues that the culture of central Texas had glorified retributive mob violence for decades before Washington 's lynching , maintaining that this culture of violence explains how such a brutal attack could be publicly celebrated . Hale posits that Washington 's death signaled a transition in the practice of lynching , demonstrating its acceptance in modernized , 20th @-@ century cities . She notes that Washington 's lynching illustrates how technological innovations , such as telephones and inexpensive photographs , could empower lynch mobs but also increase society 's condemnation of their actions .
+
+In their 2004 study of lynching , Peter Ehrenhaus and A. Susan Owen compare the lynching to a blood sacrifice , arguing Waco residents felt a sense of collective righteousness after Washington 's death , as they saw him as the presence of evil in the community . Bernstein compares the public brutality of the lynch mob to the medieval English practice of hanging , drawing , and quartering people convicted of high treason .
+
+Amy Louise Wood of Illinois State University writes that the event was " a defining moment in the history of lynching , " arguing that with Washington 's death , " lynching began to sow the seeds of its own collapse . " Although the spectacle of violent mob attacks had previously benefited white supremacists , Wood contends that after Washington 's death was publicized , the anti @-@ lynching movement included images of racially motivated brutality in their campaigns . Carrigan notes that Washington 's death may have received more public attention than any other lynching in the United States , and sees the event as a " turning point in the history of mob violence in Central Texas " . Although the outcry it provoked did not end the practice , it helped bring an end to public support of such attacks by city leaders . Carrigan states that the lynching was " the most infamous day in the history of central Texas " until the Waco siege of 1993 .
+
+After the practice of lynching was suppressed in central Texas , it received little attention from local historians . However , Waco developed a reputation for racism — propagated in part by American history textbooks — to the vexation of the city 's white residents . In the years following the lynching , African Americans often held Waco in disdain , and some viewed the 1953 Waco tornado outbreak as divine retribution . White leaders of Waco took a non @-@ violent approach in response to demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement , possibly owing to a desire to avoid stigmatizing the city again .
+
+Blues musician Sammy Price recorded a version of " Hesitation Blues " that referenced Washington 's lynching . Price lived in Waco as a child , possibly at the time of Washington 's death . Waco @-@ based novelist Madison Cooper featured a lynching , thought to be based on Washington 's death , as a key event in his 1952 novel Sironia , Texas .
+
+In the 1990s , Lawrence Johnson , a member of Waco 's city council , viewed pictures of the Washington lynching at the National Civil Rights Museum , and began to lobby for a monument to the lynching . In 2002 , Lester Gibson , another member of the city council , proposed that a plaque be installed at the courthouse where Washington was lynched . He further stated that the plaque should carry an apology from the city . The ideas were discussed , but proved unfruitful . In the 2000s , the idea of a memorial was revived by a McLennan County commissioner and the Waco Chamber of Commerce ; the Waco Herald Tribune has editorialized in support of a historical marker on the site of the lynching . Some descendants of Fryer objected to the proposed memorial .
+
+= = = Books = = =
+
+Apel , Dora ( 2004 ) . Imagery of Lynching : Black Men , White Women , and the Mob . Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8135 @-@ 3459 @-@ 6 .
+
+Armstrong , Julie Buckner ( 2011 ) . Mary Turner and the Memory of Lynching . University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8203 @-@ 3765 @-@ 4 .
+
+Berg , Manfred ( 2011 ) . Popular Justice : A History of Lynching in America . Government Institutes . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56663 @-@ 802 @-@ 9 .
+
+Bernstein , Patricia ( 2006 ) . The First Waco Horror : The Lynching of Jesse Washington and the Rise of the NAACP . Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 544 @-@ 8 .
+
+Bernstein , Patricia ( 2007 ) . " Waco Lynching " . In Paul Finkelman . Encyclopedia of African American History , 1896 to the Present : From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty @-@ First Century 5 . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 516779 @-@ 5 .
+
+Carrigan , William D. ( 2006 ) . The Making of a Lynching Culture : Violence and Vigilantism in Central Texas , 1836 – 1916 . University of Illinois Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 07430 @-@ 1 .
+
+DuRocher , Kristina ( 2011 ) . Raising Racists : The Socialization of White Children in the Jim Crow South . University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8131 @-@ 3001 @-@ 9 .
+
+Gussow , Adam ( 2002 ) . Seems Like Murder Here : Southern Violence and the Blues Tradition . University of Chicago Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 31098 @-@ 5 .
+
+Hale , Grace Elizabeth ( 1998 ) . Making Whiteness : the Culture of Segregation in the South , 1890 – 1940 . Vintage Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 77620 @-@ 8 .
+
+Nevels , Cynthia Skove ( 2007 ) . Lynching to Belong : Claiming Whiteness Through Racial Violence . Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 589 @-@ 9 .
+
+Rice , Anne P. ( 2003 ) . Witnessing Lynching : American Writers Respond . Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8135 @-@ 3330 @-@ 8 .
+
+SoRelle , James M. ( 2007 ) . " The " Waco Horror " : The Lynching of Jesse Washington " . In Bruce A. Glasrud and James Smallwood . The African American Experience in Texas : An Anthology . Texas Tech University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89672 @-@ 609 @-@ 3 .
+
+Waldrep , Christopher ( 2009 ) . African Americans Confront Lynching : Strategies of Resistance from the Civil War to the Civil Rights Era . Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7425 @-@ 5272 @-@ 2 .
+
+Wood , Amy Louise ( 2009 ) . Lynching and Spectacle : Witnessing Racial Violence in America , 1890 – 1940 . University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8078 @-@ 3254 @-@ 7 .
+
+Zangrando , Robert L. ( 1980 ) . The NAACP Crusade Against Lynching , 1909 – 1950 . Temple University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87722 @-@ 174 @-@ 6 .
+
+= = = Journals = = =
+
+Francis , Megan Ming ( 2011 ) . " The Battle for the Hearts and Minds of America " . Souls : A Critical Journal of Black Politics , Culture , and Society 13 ( 1 ) : 46 – 71 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 10999949 @.@ 2011 @.@ 551477 .
+
+Ehrenhaus , Peter ; Owen , A. Susan ( July – October 2004 ) . " Race Lynching and Christian Evangelicalism : Performances of Faith " . Text and Performance Quarterly 24 ( 3 / 4 ) : 276 – 301 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 1046293042000312779 .
+
+Wood , Amy Louise ( 2005 ) . " Lynching Photography and the Visual Reproduction of White Supremacy " . American Nineteenth Century History 6 ( 3 ) : 373 – 99 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 14664650500381090 .
+
+= = = Newspapers = = =
+
+Blumenthal , Ralph ( May 1 , 2005 ) . " Fresh Outrage in Waco at Grisly Lynching of 1916 " . The New York Times . Retrieved April 19 , 2012 .
+
+Moreno , Sylvia ( April 26 , 2006 ) . " In Waco , a Push To Atone for The Region 's Lynch @-@ Mob Past " . The Washington Post . Retrieved April 19 , 2012 .
+
+= = = Websites = = =
+
+" The Crisis Vol . 12 , No. 3 " . Digitized Journals . Modernist Journals Project . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 .
+
+= Love Kraft =
+
+Love Kraft is the seventh studio album by Welsh indie rock band Super Furry Animals , released on 22 August 2005 through Epic Records in the United Kingdom . The album was recorded in Spain with producer Mario Caldato Jr and was something of a departure for the band , with all members contributing songs and lead vocals alongside Gruff Rhys who had been main songwriter for the Super Furries until this point . In selecting tracks for Love Kraft a conscious effort was made by the band not to choose songs on their individual merit but rather to pick those which went well together in order to create as cohesive an album as possible . The album 's name was taken from a sex shop , Love Craft , near the Cardiff offices of the Super Furries ' management team and is also a nod to American horror writer H. P. Lovecraft .
+
+Critical response was generally positive with some reviews claiming the album was the best of the group 's career . However , a few reviewers expressed reservations that Love Kraft was " merely a very good Super Furry Animals effort " and was not as impressive as the band 's previous records . The track " Lazer Beam " was released as a single and reached # 28 in the UK Singles Chart .
+
+= = Recording = =
+
+Love Kraft was recorded in Figueres , a small city in Catalonia , Spain . According to Rhys the band found themselves in the " unusual " position of recording their seventh album together and began looking at groups who had made lots of records , such as Fleetwood Mac and The Beach Boys . These bands had made " foreign records " ( Tusk and Holland respectively ) so the Super Furries decided to do the same although on " a much tighter budget . " Leaving their usual Cardiff studio behind had an effect on the songs according to Rhys :
+
+The band did a lot of experimenting and arranging in Cardiff before going into the studio , as a result of which Love Kraft was recorded in just three weeks . Drummer Dafydd Ieuan also attributes the album sessions ' speedy conclusion to producer Mario Caldato Jr. who was very good at keeping the group together and on the right track .
+
+The album represented a departure from the band 's previous working methods : although all five members had always contributed to the development of the songs , Gruff Rhys had been the main songwriter . On Love Kraft this was no longer the case , as Rhys , Huw Bunford , Dafydd Ieuan and Cian Ciaran all contributed songs and lead vocals . The group also abandoned their usual practise of picking songs on their individual merit , instead choosing tracks that would work well together and " create a sound that was as cohesive as possible " . Of the " 30 @-@ 40 " songs written by band members the group chose " the more introspective ones " which meant that some of Rhys 's tracks were left off the album as they were " energetic and poppy " and " didn 't really fit in with everybody else 's work " .
+
+Several ' found sounds ' were recorded and used on the album including the buzzing of a Brazilian electrical substation , the sound of pool balls being rubbed against each other and a recording of Huw Bunford jumping into a swimming pool . The latter opens the album , preceding the intro to " Zoom ! " .
+
+Love Kraft was mixed in a suburb of Rio de Janeiro at the request of Brazilian born Caldato . According to Rhys the band toyed with the idea of using Latin musical elements and had fantasies of " Marcos Valle doing backing vocals , and getting Rogerio Duprat to arrange the strings " but ultimately thought it would be a " bit too embarrassing " and actively tried not to make a " Brazilian sounding " record . This point was echoed by Guto Pryce in an interview with Birmingham 's Metro although he conceded that " in Rio music is everywhere . The beats and rhythms are non @-@ stop so that probably seeped into our minds as a subconscious influence . "
+
+The album is named after a sex shop , Lovecraft Limited , near the Ankst Management offices on Cowbridge Road , Cardiff and is also a reference to American horror writer H. P. Lovecraft . In a 2005 interview with The Daily Telegraph , Gruff Rhys explained that the name also stems from the fact that the record has " a general warm glow of love " and that it was originally conceived as a " love record " before " some of the lyrics went completely off the rails " .
+
+= = Release = =
+
+Love Kraft was released on CD , SACD , vinyl and as a digital download on 22 August 2005 in the United Kingdom and was the band 's last release for Sony 's Epic imprint before they moved to independent label Rough Trade . The album reached # 19 in the UK Albums Chart . In America the album was released on 13 September 2005 by Beggars Banquet US . " Lazer Beam " was the only track to be released as a single from the album , reaching # 28 in the UK Singles Chart .
+
+= = Critical response = =
+
+The album received a generally positive reaction from critics . British newspaper The Guardian described Love Kraft as the band 's " best album yet " and musicOMH claimed it to be " the greatest realisation of the Super Furry vision to date " . Uncut was similarly impressed calling the album " perhaps the defining record of [ the band 's ] career " while Yahoo Music UK thought Love Kraft was " perfect pop " .
+
+The NME had reservations however , stating that although the album is " easily as engaging and full of the wild possibilities of pop music as anything else in their peerless canon " it is " not quite up there with Radiator due to its brace of shonky ballad filler ( " Cloudberries " and " Cabin Fever " ) " . Writing for Allmusic , Stephen Thomas Erlewine was largely impressed with Love Kraft but admitted to being disappointed that it is " merely a very good Super Furry Animals effort , with few surprises outside of its alluring sleek " . The band 's singer , Gruff Rhys , has described the album as " the most beautiful record we 've made ... really orchestral and fairly timeless " .
+
+= = = Accolades = = =
+
+= = Tour = =
+
+The Super Furry Animals played numerous festivals in Great Britain prior to Love Kraft 's release including Scotland 's T in the Park , Oxegen , the Secret Garden Party in Cambridge and the V Festival , warming up for these dates with a small show at Barry Memorial Hall on 22 July 2005 . A gig at Somerset House in London on 8 July 2005 went ahead despite coming just one day after the 7 / 7 bombings caused Queens of the Stone Age to cancel their show at the venue .
+
+Following the release of Love Kraft in the United Kingdom the Super Furry Animals played Bestival on the Isle of Wight before embarking on an 11 date tour of the UK and Ireland , beginning at the University of East Anglia in Norwich on 14 September 2005 and ending on 27 September at Dublin 's Olympia Theatre venue . A month long tour of Canada and the United States followed , starting on 1 November in Montreal and ending in San Diego on 1 December .
+
+The band experienced a " very different atmosphere " at initial shows on the Love Kraft tour , when they played the " slow " songs from the album . This contributed to their decision to make follow up Hey Venus ! a " rowdy pop record " .
+
+= = Track listing = =
+
+All songs written and composed by Super Furry Animals .
+
+= = Personnel = =
+
+The following people contributed to Love Kraft :
+
+= = = Band = = =
+
+Gruff Rhys – vocals , guitar
+
+Huw Bunford – guitar , backing vocals , lead vocals on " The Horn " , " Oi Frango " , and " Back on a Roll "
+
+Guto Pryce – bass guitar
+
+Cian Ciaran – keyboards , backing vocals , lead vocals on " Walk You Home " and " Cabin Fever "
+
+Dafydd Ieuan – drums , backing vocals , lead vocals on " Atomik Lust " and " Cabin Fever "
+
+= = = Additional musicians = = =
+
+= = = Recording personnel = = =
+
+Mario Caldato Jr . – production , mixing , engineering
+
+Super Furry Animals – production , mixing , surround sound mix
+
+Richard Jackson – engineering ( Stir Studios )
+
+Greg Jackman – engineering ( The Dairy )
+
+Jordi – recording assistant ( Musician )
+
+Jordan – recording assistant ( Musician )
+
+Luizao Dantas – recording assistant ( AR Studios )
+
+Leo Moreira – recording assistant ( AR Studios )
+
+Sam Wetmore – surround sound mix
+
+= = = Artwork = = =
+
+Pete Fowler – artwork
+
+Mark James – artwork
+
+Alexis West – photography
+
+Leon West – photography
+
+= = Album chart positions = =
+
+= SS Fort Stikine =
+
+Fort Stikine was a British Fort ship which was built in Canada in 1942 . Owned by the American War Shipping Administration , she was leased under charter to the Ministry of War Transport under the Lend @-@ Lease scheme and operated under the management of the Port Line . Fort Stikine only had a short career , and was destroyed in an explosion at Bombay , India , in April 1944 that caused the loss of a further thirteen ships .
+
+= = Construction = =
+
+Fort Stikine was 441 feet 5 inches ( 134 @.@ 54 m ) long , with a beam of 57 feet 2 inches ( 17 @.@ 42 m ) . She had a depth of 35 feet 0 inches ( 10 @.@ 67 m ) and a draught of 26 feet 11 @.@ 5 inches ( 8 @.@ 22 m ) . The ship was propelled by a 505 NHP triple expansion steam engine which was built by the Dominion Engineering Works , Montreal , Quebec , Canada . It had cylinders of 241 ⁄ 2 inches ( 62 cm ) , 37 inches ( 94 cm ) and 70 inches ( 180 cm ) bore by 48 inches ( 120 cm ) stroke .
+
+= = History = =
+
+Fort Stikine was built by Prince Rupert Drydock & Shipyard , Prince Rupert , British Columbia , Canada as yard number 43 . She was built under auspices of the Wartime Merchant Shipping Ltd . , a Canadian government corporation coordinating wartime shipbuilding in Canada , and on completion on 31 July 1942 delivered by that corporation to the United States War Shipping Administration ( WSA ) which then delivered the ship to the Ministry of War Transport under Lend Lease at Vancouver , British Columbia on the same date . Ownership was retained by WSA with the Ministry of War Transport placing her under the management of the Port Line . The United Kingdom Official Number 168351 and Code Letters BKLG were allocated . Her port of registry was London .
+
+Fort Stikine departed from New Westminster , British Columbia , Canada on 7 September 1942 and arrived at Vancouver the next day . She then sailed to Comox , British Columbia , arriving on 10 September . She sailed two days later for Victoria , British Columbia arriving on 13 September . Fort Stikine sailed that day for Los Angeles , California , United States , where she arrived on 23 September . She sailed five days later for Balboa , Panama , arriving on 10 October . After transiting the Panama Canal , Fort Stikine departed from Cristobal , Panama on 17 October with Convoy ZG8 . The convoy consisted eighteen merchant vessels escorted by six United States Navy warships . It arrived at Guantanamo Bay , Cuba on 21 October .
+
+Fort Stikine departed from Guantanamo Bay on 23 October as a member of Convoy GN 14 . The unescorted convoy consisted of 33 merchant ships ; it arrived at New York on 30 October . She departed on 3 November with Convoy HX 214 . The convoy consisted of 33 merchant ships , escorted by a total of seventeen warships over the duration of the convoy . Fort Stikine carried general cargo and mails . The convoy arrived at Liverpool , Lancashire , United Kingdom on 14 December . She then sailed to the Clyde , arriving on 16 December .
+
+Fort Stikine departed from the Clyde on 24 December with Convoy KMS 6G . The convoy comprised 60 merchant ships escorted by a total of 22 warships over the duration of the convoy . The CAM ship Empire Darwin also provided some protection to the convoy . Two merchant ships were lost to enemy action and another was damaged . The convoy arrived at Bône , Algeria on 8 January 1943 , but Fort Stikine had split from the convoy the previous day and arrived at Oran , Algeria . She sailed on 21 January to join Convoy MKS 6 , which had departed from Philippeville , Algeria on 19 January and arrived back at Liverpool on 1 February . The convoy consisted of 50 merchant ships escorted by a total of 30 warships over the duration of the convoy , which also included Empire Darwin . One merchant vessel was lost to enemy action . The convoy arrived at Liverpool on 1 February . Fort Stikine had left the convoy off Ireland and arrived at the Clyde on 31 January .
+
+Fort Stikine was a member of Convoy KMS 10G , which departed from the Clyde on 26 February . It consisted of 62 merchant ships , escorted by a total of nineteen warships over the duration of the convoy . One merchant ship was sunk and three were damaged by enemy action . On 4 March U @-@ 87 attacked the convoy , but was attacked with depth charges and sunk by HMCS Shediac and HMCS St. Croix . The convoy arrived at Bône on 11 March . As with Convoy KMS 6G , Fort Stikine left the convoy and arrived at Oran a day earlier . She sailed on 31 March to join Convoy ET 16 , which had departed from Bône earlier that day . The unescorted convoy included fifteen merchant vessels , two of which were sunk by enemy action . ET 16 arrived at Gibraltar on 1 April . The Fort Stikine then joined Convoy RS 4 , which departed on 14 April . The unescorted convoy , comprising nineteen merchant ships , arrived at Freetown , Sierra Leone on 25 April . Laden with a cargo of iron ore , Fort Stikine departed with Convoy SL 129 on 11 May . The convoy , comprising 47 merchant ships and nine warships , combined at sea with Convoy MKS 13 on 24 May . The combined convoy arrived at Liverpool on 1 June . Fort Stikine left the convoy before arrival at Liverpool and entered Loch Ewe . She then sailed to Middlesbrough , Yorkshire , via convoys WN 436 and FS 1133 .
+
+Fort Stikine departed from Middlesbrough on 20 June to join Convoy FN 1051 , which had departed from Southend , Essex the previous day and arrived at Methil on 21 June . She then joined Convoy EN 246 which sailed the next day and arrived at Loch Ewe on 24 June . Fort Stikine joined Convoy ON 190 , which had departed from Liverpool on 24 June . The convoy consisted of 85 merchant ships escorted by 23 warships over the duration of the convoy , which arrived at New York on 9 July . Fort Stikine sailed on to Baltimore , Maryland , arriving the next day . She departed from Baltimore on 3 August for the Hampton Roads , off the coast of Virginia . Fort Stikine sailed on 7 August with Convoy UGS 14 . The convoy consisted of 106 merchant ships escorted by 31 warships over the duration of the convoy . Two merchant ships were lost to enemy action . The convoy arrived at Alexandria , Egypt on 2 September . Fort Stikine departed from Alexandria on 22 September and sailed via Port Said and Suez to Aden , where she arrived on 30 September .
+
+On 10 October , Fort Stikine departed from Aden with Convoy AKD 3 . The unescorted convoy , consisting eighteen merchant vessels , arrived at Durban , South Africa on 29 October . She left the convoy at Beira , Mozambique , arriving on 26 October . Fort Stikine sailed on 11 November and joined Convoy DKA 6 . The unescorted convoy , consisting 20 merchant ships in total , had departed from Durban five days earlier and arrived at Aden on 28 November , but Fort Stikine had put in to Dar es Salaam , Tanganyika , where she arrived on 17 November . She sailed on 20 November for Mombasa , Kenya , arriving the next day . She sailed a week later for Aden , from where she departed on 9 December for Suez and Port Said , arriving at the latter port on 19 December . Fort Stikine was a member of Convoy GUS 25 , which departed from Port Said on 16 December . The convoy , consisting 106 merchant ships escorted by sixteen warships over its duration , arrived at the Hampton Roads on 17 January 1944 . One merchant vessel was lost to enemy action . Fort Stikine left the convoy at Gibraltar , where she arrived on 28 December 1943 .
+
+Laden with copper , sisal and general cargo , Fort Stikine departed from Gibraltar on 11 January 1944 as a member of Convoy MKS 36G . The convoy , of twenty merchant ships and five escorting warships , made a rendezvous at sea with Convoy SL 145 the next day . The combined convoy arrived at Liverpool on 24 January .
+
+Fort Stikine loaded at Birkenhead , Cheshire . Her cargo was described as general cargo ; it consisted 1 @,@ 396 long tons ( 1 @,@ 418 t ) of flares and signal rockets , incendiary bombs , mines , shells and torpedoes . These were bound for Bombay , India . A container with 31 crates each containing four gold bars was loaded in № 2 hold . Each gold bar weighed 28 pounds ( 12 @.@ 70 kg ) . She was also carrying twelve Supermarine Spitfire aircraft , some gliders and a further quantity of explosives that were destined to be offloaded at Karachi , India .
+
+Fort Stikine joined Convoy OS 69KM , which departed from Liverpool on 23 February 1944 . The convoy , consisting of 49 merchant ships escorted by twelve warships , split at sea on 5 March . The two convoys thus formed were OS 69 , which arrived at Freetown on 15 March ; and Convoy KMS 43G , which arrived at Gibraltar on 6 March . During the voyage to Gibraltar , a stowaway was discovered . He was put to work under the charge of the ship 's Chief Engineer .
+
+Fort Stikine continued her voyage as part of Convoy KMS 43 , which departed from Gibraltar that day . The convoy , consisting 81 merchant ships and 4 escorting warships , arrived at Port Said on 16 March , having evaded an attack by four Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 Condor aircraft . She sailed on to Suez , from where she departed the next day for Aden . The stowaway was offloaded at Port Tawfiq , Suez . Having reached Aden on 23 March , she sailed the same day for Karachi , arriving on 30 March .
+
+To replace the cargo offloaded at Karachi , 8 @,@ 700 bales of raw cotton were loaded , along with various quantities of fish manure , resin , rice , scrap iron , sulphur , and timber . Added to this were 1 @,@ 000 barrels of lubricating oil . The ship 's captain was concerned about having to take the flammable items but was told that they had to go . A proposal to add 750 drums of turpentine was refused . The ship 's officers also expressed concerns over mixing the cargoes of cotton and the oil and explosives , but were unable to find paperwork that advised against this practice . In 1942 , the United States Government had published a book which advised against the carriage of raw cotton . A common myth at the time was that wet cotton bales could spontaneously combust . This was not the case , although cotton soaked in oil would readily do so . Before the ship sailed , the crew discovered that the barrels of lubricating oil leaked . Tarpaulins were nailed over the lower hold covers and the firefighting equipment on board was thoroughly tested . Extra fire drills were scheduled during the voyage to Karachi . Fort Stikine sailed on 9 April to join Convoy PB 74 , which had departed from Bandar Abbas , Iran on 6 April . The unescorted convoy arrived at Bombay on 12 April .
+
+= = Loss = =
+
+Fort Stikine arrived at Bombay in the early morning of 12 April . Having taken on a pilot shortly before 10 : 00 she was docked at the Victoria Dock at midday . The practice of flying a red flag to signify dangerous cargo on board had been discontinued in wartime as doing so would identify such vessels in the event of an enemy air raid on a port . Also , the practice on unloading such vessels into lighters offshore had also been discontinued due to the war . At the time , explosives were graded as Category A , B , or C. Category A explosives , such as those carried on board Fort Stikine , were the most dangerous . These were only allowed to be offloaded onto lighters , and not directly to the quayside .
+
+Unloading of Fort Stikine began with the lubricating oil , followed by the fish manure . An extra gang of stevedores were employed on this task , which continued through the night of 13 – 14 April . At midday on 13 April , lighters arrived for the explosives . Minor engine repairs also started at that time , rendering the ship unable to move under her own power . At 12 : 30 , the Chief Officer of Fort Crevier noticed smoke issuing from the ventilators of the № 2 hold of Fort Stikine . This was also seen a short time later by a DEMS gunner on board Iran . Despite being seen by these ( and other ) witnesses , everyone assumed that the situation was under control . The alarm was not raised until 13 : 45 . The fire pump in the ship 's engine room was started and the firefighting operation began .
+
+With crew members and stevedores abandoning ship , it was realised by the dock authorities that there was a problem on board Fort Stikine . A fire crew was sent on board and an order was given for more fire engines to be sent for . Due to difficulties in contacting the fire control centre , initially only two engines were sent . Those on board Fort Stikine were unable to discover the seat of the fire and water was poured blindly into the hold . With the arrival of the two fire appliances , there were now eleven hoses in use . Captain Oberst , of the Indian Army Ordnance Corps arrived a few minutes later to assess the situation . He was in charge of the explosives only after they had been landed . A meeting was held on board between the ship 's officers , Oberst , and Commander Longmore of the Royal Indian Navy , the Chief Salvage Officer in Bombay . It was stated by Oberst that Fort Stikine had explosives equivalent to 150 Blockbuster bombs on board and that the ship should be scuttled . Her captain countered that the boiler room and engine room could be flooded , but he doubted that the ship would sink in that condition . More fire appliances arrived , bringing the total number of hoses in use to 32 @.@  by 14 : 45 , ammunition in № 2 hold was exploding . Colonel Sadler , the General Manager of the docks at Bombay , was sent for . He arrived at 14 : 50 and suggested that Fort Stikine should be removed from the docks , which would have required the use of tugs due to Fort Stikine being disabled . An argument developed and Colonel Sadler 's parting remark was that the ship would probably explode before she could be taken out of port .
+
+Shortly after 15 : 00 , two fireboats , the Doris and Panwell , arrived . A further nine hoses were played on the ship . Neither of the two people who could have taken overall charge of the situation were contactable , and none of those on board Fort Stikine were willing to take charge . Firefighting continued , but at 15 : 50 a flame erupted from the hold , reaching higher than the ship 's mast . The order was given to abandon ship , with some jumping from the ship onto the quayside , and others into the water . At 16 : 06 , an explosion occurred on board Fort Stikine . The ship was split in two , with her boiler found half a mile ( 800m ) away . The explosion caused a tsunami within the dock , which deposited one vessel on the quayside . At 16 : 33 , a second explosion occurred . The cargo ship Jalapadma had her stern blown off . It landed about 200 yards ( 180 m ) away . This explosion also wrecked the cargo liner Baroda .
+
+= = = Investigation = = =
+
+The accident was investigated by the authorities at Bombay . The report was released on 11 September 1944 and concluded that the fire and subsequent explosion on Fort Stikine was an accident . Sabotage was ruled out . The death toll was given as 231 service and port personnel killed , with 476 injured . Civilian casualties were in excess of 500 killed , with 2 @,@ 408 treated in hospital .
+
+= = = Ships lost or severely damaged = = =
+
+Apart from Fort Stikine , the following vessels were sunk or severely damaged .
+
+= A Trip to the Moon =
+
+A Trip to the Moon ( French : Le Voyage dans la Lune ) is a 1902 French silent film directed by Georges Méliès . Inspired by a wide variety of sources , including Jules Verne 's novels From the Earth to the Moon and Around the Moon , the film follows a group of astronomers who travel to the Moon in a cannon @-@ propelled capsule , explore the Moon 's surface , escape from an underground group of Selenites ( lunar inhabitants ) , and return to Earth with a captive Selenite . It features an ensemble cast of French theatrical performers , led by Méliès himself in the main role of Professor Barbenfouillis , and is filmed in the overtly theatrical style for which Méliès became famous .
+
+The film was an internationally popular success on its release , and was extensively pirated by other studios , especially in the United States . Its unusual length , lavish production values , innovative special effects , and emphasis on storytelling were markedly influential on other film @-@ makers and ultimately on the development of narrative film as a whole . Scholars have commented upon the film 's extensive use of pataphysical and anti @-@ imperialist satire , as well as on its wide influence on later film @-@ makers and its artistic significance within the French theatrical féerie tradition . Though the film disappeared into obscurity after Méliès 's retirement from the film industry , it was rediscovered around 1930 , when Méliès 's importance to the history of cinema was beginning to be recognized by film devotees . An original hand @-@ colored print was discovered in 1993 and restored in 2011 .
+
+A Trip to the Moon was named one of the 100 greatest films of the 20th century by The Village Voice , ranked 84th . The film remains the best @-@ known of the hundreds of films made by Méliès , and the moment in which the capsule lands in the Moon 's eye remains one of the most iconic and frequently referenced images in the history of cinema . It is widely regarded as the earliest example of the science fiction film genre and , more generally , as one of the most influential films in cinema history .
+
+= = Plot = =
+
+At a meeting of the Astronomic Club , its president , Professor Barbenfouillis , proposes a trip to the Moon . After addressing some dissent , five other brave astronomers — Nostradamus , Alcofrisbas , Omega , Micromegas , and Parafaragaramus — agree to the plan . They build a space capsule in the shape of a bullet , and a huge cannon to shoot it into space . The astronomers embark and their capsule is fired from the cannon with the help of " marines " , most of whom are played by a bevy of young women in sailors ' outfits . The Man in the Moon watches the capsule as it approaches , and it hits him in the eye .
+
+Landing safely on the Moon , the astronomers get out of the capsule ( without the need of space suits ) and watch the Earth rise in the distance . Exhausted by their journey , they unroll their blankets and sleep . As they sleep , a comet passes , the Big Dipper appears with human faces peering out of each star , old Saturn leans out of a window in his ringed planet , and Phoebe , goddess of the Moon , appears seated in a crescent @-@ moon swing . Phoebe causes a snowfall that awakens the astronomers , and they seek shelter in a cavern where they discover giant mushrooms . One astronomer opens his umbrella ; it promptly takes root and turns into a giant mushroom itself .
+
+At this point , a Selenite ( an insectoid alien inhabitant of the Moon , named after one of the Greek moon goddesses , Selene ) appears , but it is killed easily by an astronomer , as the creatures explode if they are hit with force . More Selenites appear and it becomes increasingly difficult for the astronomers to destroy them as they are surrounded . The Selenites capture the astronomers and take them to the palace of their king . An astronomer lifts the Selenite King off his throne and throws him to the ground , causing him to explode .
+
+The astronomers run back to their capsule while continuing to hit the pursuing Selenites , and five get inside . The sixth astronomer , Barbenfouillis himself , uses a rope to tip the capsule over a ledge on the Moon and into space . A Selenite tries to seize the capsule at the last minute . Astronomer , capsule , and Selenite fall through space and land in an ocean on Earth , where they are rescued by a ship and towed ashore . The final sequence ( missing from some prints of the film ) depicts a celebratory parade in honor of the travelers ' return , including a display of the captive Selenite and the unveiling of a commemorative statue bearing the motto " Labor omnia vincit " .
+
+= = Cast = =
+
+When A Trip to the Moon was made , film actors performed anonymously and no credits were given ; the practice of supplying opening and closing credits in films was a later innovation . Nonetheless , the following cast details can be reconstructed from available evidence :
+
+Georges Méliès as Professor Barbenfouillis . Méliès , a pioneering French film @-@ maker and magician now generally regarded as the first person to recognize the potential of narrative film , had already achieved considerable success with his film versions of Cinderella ( 1899 ) and Joan of Arc ( 1900 ) . His extensive involvement in all of his films as director , producer , writer , designer , technician , publicist , editor , and often actor makes him one of the first cinematic auteurs . Speaking about his work late in life , Méliès commented : " The greatest difficulty in realising my own ideas forced me to sometimes play the leading role in my films ... I was a star without knowing I was one , since the term did not yet exist . " All told , Méliès took an acting role in at least 300 of his 520 films .
+
+Bleuette Bernon as Phoebe ( the woman on the crescent moon ) . Méliès discovered Bernon in the 1890s , when she was performing as a singer at the cabaret L 'Enfer . She also appeared in his 1899 adaption of Cinderella .
+
+François Lallement as the officer of the marines . Lallement was one of the salaried camera operators for the Star Film Company .
+
+Henri Delannoy as the captain of the rocket
+
+Jules @-@ Eugène Legris as the parade leader . Legris was a magician who performed at Méliès 's theater of stage illusions , the Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin in Paris .
+
+Victor André , Delpierre , Farjaux , Kelm , and Brunnet as the astronomers . André worked at the Théâtre de Cluny ; the others were singers in French music halls .
+
+Ballet of the Théâtre du Châtelet as stars and as cannon attendants
+
+Acrobats of the Folies Bergère as Selenites
+
+= = Production = =
+
+= = = Inspiration = = =
+
+When asked in 1930 what inspired him for A Trip to the Moon , Méliès credited Jules Verne 's novels From the Earth to the Moon and Around the Moon . Cinema historians , the mid @-@ 20th @-@ century French writer Georges Sadoul first among them , have frequently suggested H. G. Wells 's The First Men in the Moon , a French translation of which was published a few months before Méliès made the film , as another likely influence . Sadoul argued that the first half of the film ( up to the shooting of the projectile ) is derived from Verne and that the second half ( the travelers ' adventures on and in the moon ) is derived from Wells .
+
+In addition to these literary sources , various film scholars have suggested that Méliès was heavily influenced by other works , especially Jacques Offenbach 's operetta Le voyage dans la lune ( an unauthorized parody of Verne 's novels ) and the A Trip to the Moon attraction at the 1901 Pan @-@ American Exposition in Buffalo , New York . The French film historian Thierry Lefebvre hypothesizes that Méliès drew upon both of these works , but in different ways : he appears to have taken the structure of the film — " a trip to the moon , a moon landing , an encounter with extraterrestrials with a deformity , an underground trek , an interview with the Man in the Moon , and a brutal return to reality back on earth " — directly from the 1901 attraction , but also incorporated many plot elements ( including the presence of six astronomers with pseudo @-@ scientific names , telescopes that transform into stools , a moonshot cannon mounted above ground , a scene in which the moon appears to approach the viewer , a lunar snowstorm , an earthrise scene , and umbrella @-@ wielding travelers ) , not to mention the parodic tone of the film , from the Offenbach operetta .
+
+= = = Filming = = =
+
+As the science writer Ron Miller notes , A Trip to the Moon was one of the most complex films that Méliès had made , and employed " every trick he had learned or invented " . It was his longest film at the time ; both the budget and filming duration were unusually lavish , costing ₣ 10 @,@ 000 to make and taking three months to complete . The camera operators were Théophile Michault and Lucien Tainguy , who worked on a daily basis with Méliès as salaried employees for the Star Film Company . In addition to their work as cameramen , Méliès 's operators also did odd jobs for the company such as developing film and helping to set up scenery , and another salaried operator , François Lallement , appeared onscreen as the marine officer . By contrast , Méliès hired his actors on a film @-@ by @-@ film basis , drawing from talented individuals in the Parisian theatrical world , with which he had many connections . They were paid one Louis d 'or per day , a considerably higher salary than that offered by competitors , and had a full free meal at noon with Méliès .
+
+Méliès 's film studio , which he had built in Montreuil , Seine @-@ Saint @-@ Denis in 1897 , was a greenhouse @-@ like building with glass walls and a glass ceiling to let in as much sunlight as possible , a concept used by most still photography studios from the 1860s onward ; it was built with the same dimensions as Méliès 's own Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin ( 13 @.@ 5 × 6.6m ) . Throughout his film career , Méliès worked on a strict schedule of planning films in the morning , filming scenes during the brightest hours of the day , tending to the film laboratory and the Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin in the late afternoon , and attending performances at Parisian theaters in the evening .
+
+According to Méliès 's recollections , much of the unusual cost of A Trip to the Moon was due to the mechanically operated scenery and the Selenite costumes in particular , which were made for the film using cardboard and canvas . Méliès himself sculpted prototypes for the heads , feet , and kneecap pieces in terra cotta , and then created plaster molds for them . A specialist in mask @-@ making used these molds to produce cardboard versions for the actors to wear . One of the backdrops for the film , showing the inside of the glass @-@ roofed workshop in which the space capsule is built , was painted to look like the actual glass @-@ roofed studio in which the film was made .
+
+Many of the special effects in A Trip to the Moon , as in numerous other Méliès films , were created using the substitution splice technique , in which the camera operator stopped filming long enough for something onscreen to be altered , added , or taken away . Méliès carefully spliced the resulting shots together to create apparently magical effects , such as the transformation of the astronomers ' telescopes into stools or the disappearance of the exploding Selenites in puffs of smoke . Other effects were created using theatrical means , such as stage machinery and pyrotechnics . The film also features transitional dissolves .
+
+The pseudo @-@ tracking shot in which the camera appears to approach the Man in the Moon was accomplished using an effect Méliès had invented the previous year for the film The Man with the Rubber Head . Rather than attempting to move his weighty camera toward an actor , he set a pulley @-@ operated chair upon a rail @-@ fitted ramp , placed the actor ( covered up to the neck in black velvet ) on the chair , and pulled him toward the camera . In addition to its technical practicality , this technique also allowed Méliès to control the placement of the face within the frame to a much greater degree of specificity than moving his camera allowed . A substitution splice allowed a model capsule to suddenly appear in the eye of the actor playing the Moon , completing the shot . Another notable sequence in the film , the plunge of the capsule into real ocean waves filmed on location , was created through multiple exposure , with a shot of the capsule falling in front of a black background superimposed upon the footage of the ocean . The shot is followed by an underwater glimpse of the capsule floating back to the surface , created by combining a moving cardboard cutout of the capsule with an aquarium containing tadpoles and air jets . The descent of the rocket from the Moon was covered in four shots , taking up about twenty seconds of film time .
+
+= = = Coloring = = =
+
+As with at least 4 % of Méliès 's output ( including major films such as The Kingdom of the Fairies , The Impossible Voyage , and The Barber of Seville ) , some prints of A Trip to the Moon were individually hand @-@ colored by Elisabeth Thuillier 's coloring lab in Paris . Thuillier , a former colorist of glass and celluloid products , directed a studio of two hundred people painting directly on film stock with brushes , in the colors she chose and specified . Each worker was assigned a different color in assembly line style , with more than twenty separate colors often used for a single film . On average , Thuillier 's lab produced about sixty hand @-@ colored copies of a film .
+
+= = = Music = = =
+
+Though Méliès 's films were of course silent , they were not intended to be seen silently ; exhibitors often used a bonimenteur , or narrator , to explain the story as it unfolded on the screen , accompanied by sound effects and live music . Méliès himself took considerable interest in musical accompaniment for his films , and prepared special film scores for several of them , including The Kingdom of the Fairies and The Barber of Seville . However , Méliès never required a specific musical score to be used with any film , allowing exhibitors freedom to choose whatever accompaniment they felt most suitable . When the film was screened at the Olympia music hall in Paris in 1902 , an original film score was reportedly written for it .
+
+In 1903 , the English composer Ezra Read published a piano piece called A Trip to the Moon : Comic Descriptive Fantasia , which follows Méliès 's film scene by scene and may have been used as a score for the film ; it may have been commissioned by Méliès himself , who had likely met Read on one of his trips to England . More recent composers who have recorded scores for A Trip to the Moon include Nicolas Godin and Jean @-@ Benoit Dunckel of Air ( for the 2011 restoration ; see the Hand @-@ colored version section below ) , Frederick Hodges , Robert Israel , Eric Le Guen , Lawrence Lehérissey ( a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Méliès ) , Donald Sosin , and Victor Young ( for an abridged print featured as a prologue to the 1956 film Around the World in 80 Days ) .
+
+= = Style = =
+
+The film 's style , like that of most of Méliès 's other films , is deliberately theatrical . The mise en scéne is highly stylized , recalling the traditions of the 19th @-@ century stage , and is filmed by a stationary camera , placed to evoke the perspective of an audience member sitting in a theatre . This stylistic choice was one of Méliès 's first and biggest innovations . Although he had initially followed the popular trend of the time by making mainly actuality films ( short " slice of life " documentary films capturing actual scenes and events for the camera ) , in his first few years of filming Méliès gradually moved into the far less common genre of fictional narrative films , which he called his scènes composées or " artificially arranged scenes . " The new genre was extensively influenced by Méliès 's experience in theatre and magic , especially his familiarity with the popular French féerie stage tradition . In an advertisement he proudly described the difference between his innovative films and the actualities still being made by his contemporaries : " these fantastic and artistic films reproduce stage scenes and create a new genre entirely different from the ordinary cinematographic views of real people and real streets . "
+
+Because A Trip to the Moon preceded the development of narrative film editing by filmmakers such as Edwin S. Porter and D. W. Griffith , it does not use the cinematic vocabulary to which American and European audiences later became accustomed , a vocabulary built on the purposeful use of techniques such as varied camera angles , intercutting , juxtapositions of shots , and other filmic ideas . Rather , each camera setup in Méliès 's film is designed as a distinct dramatic scene uninterrupted by visible editing , an approach fitting the theatrical style in which the film was designed . Similarly , film scholars have noted that the most famous moment in A Trip to the Moon plays with temporal continuity by showing an event twice : first the capsule is shown suddenly appearing in the eye of an anthropomorphic moon ; then , in a much closer shot , the landing occurs very differently , and much more realistically , with the capsule actually plummeting into believable lunar terrain . This kind of nonlinear storytelling — in which time and space are treated as repeatable and flexible rather than linear and causal — is highly unconventional by the standards of Griffith and his followers ; before the development of continuity editing , however , other filmmakers performed similar experiments with time . ( Porter , for instance , used temporal discontinuity and repetition extensively in his 1903 film Life of an American Fireman . ) Later in the twentieth century , with sports television 's development of the instant replay , temporal repetition again became a familiar device to screen audiences .
+
+Because Méliès does not use a modern cinematic vocabulary , some film scholars have created other frameworks of thought with which to assess his films . For example , some recent academicians , while not necessarily denying Méliès 's influence on film , have argued that his works are better understood as spectacular theatrical creations rooted in the 19th @-@ century stage tradition of the féerie . Similarly , Tom Gunning has argued that to fault Méliès for not inventing a more intimate and cinematic storytelling style is to misunderstand the purpose of his films ; in Gunning 's view , the first decade of film history may be considered a " cinema of attractions , " in which filmmakers experimented with a presentational style based on spectacle and direct address rather than on intricate editing . Though the attraction style of filmmaking declined in popularity in favor of a more integrated " story film " approach , it remains an important component of certain types of cinema , including science fiction films , musicals , and avant @-@ garde films .
+
+= = Themes = =
+
+With its pioneering use of themes of scientific ambition and discovery , A Trip to the Moon is sometimes described as the first science fiction film . A Short History of Film argues that it codified " many of the basic generic situations that are still used in science fiction films today " . However , several other genre designations are possible ; Méliès himself advertised the film as a pièce à grand spectacle , a term referring to a type of spectacular Parisian stage extravaganza popularized by Jules Verne and Adolphe d 'Ennery in the second half of the nineteenth century . Richard Abel describes the film as belonging to the féerie genre , as does Frank Kessler . It can also be described simply as a trick film , a catch @-@ all term for the popular early film genre of innovative , special @-@ effects @-@ filled shorts — a genre Méliès himself had codified and popularized in his earlier works .
+
+A Trip to the Moon is highly satirical in tone , poking fun at nineteenth @-@ century science by exaggerating it in the format of an adventure story . The film makes no pretense whatsoever to be scientifically plausible ; the real waves in the splashdown scene are the only concession to realism . The film scholar Alison McMahan calls A Trip to the Moon one of the earliest examples of pataphysical film , saying it " aims to show the illogicality of logical thinking " with its satirically portrayed inept scientists , anthropomorphic moon face , and impossible transgressions of laws of physics . The film historian Richard Abel believes Méliès aimed in the film to " invert the hierarchal values of modern French society and hold them up to ridicule in a riot of the carnivalesque " . Similarly , the literary and film scholar Edward Wagenknecht described the film as a work " satirizing the pretensions of professors and scientific societies while simultaneously appealing to man 's sense of wonder in the face of an unexplored universe . "
+
+There is also a strong anti @-@ imperialist vein in the film 's satire . The film scholar Matthew Solomon notes that the last part of the film ( the parade and commemoration sequence missing in some prints ) is especially forceful in this regard . He argues that Méliès , who had previously worked as an anti @-@ Boulangist political cartoonist , mocks imperialistic domination in the film by presenting his colonial conquerors as bumbling pedants who mercilessly attack the alien lifeforms they meet and return with a mistreated captive amid fanfares of self @-@ congratulation . The statue of Barbenfouillis shown in the film 's final shot even resembles the pompous , bullying colonialists in Méliès 's political cartoons . The film scholar Elizabeth Ezra agrees that " Méliès mocks the pretensions of colonialist accounts of the conquest of one culture by another , " and adds that " his film also thematizes social differentiation on the home front , as the hierarchical patterns on the moon are shown to bear a curious resemblance to those on earth . "
+
+= = Release = =
+
+Méliès , who had begun A Trip to the Moon in May 1902 , finished the film in August of that year and began selling prints to French distributors in the same month . From September through December 1902 , a hand @-@ colored print of A Trip to the Moon was screened at Méliès 's Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin in Paris . The film was shown after Saturday and Thursday matinee performances by Méliès 's colleague and fellow magician , Jules @-@ Eugène Legris , who appeared as the leader of the parade in the two final scenes . Méliès sold black @-@ and @-@ white and color prints of the film through his Star Film Company , where the film was assigned the catalogue number 399 – 411 and given the descriptive subtitle Pièce à grand spectacle en 30 tableaux . In France , black @-@ and @-@ white prints sold for ₣ 560 , and hand @-@ colored prints for ₣ 1 @,@ 000 . Méliès also sold the film indirectly through Charles Urban 's Warwick Trading Company in London .
+
+Many circumstances surrounding the film — including its unusual budget , length , and production time , as well as its similarities to the 1901 New York attraction — indicate that Méliès was especially keen to release the film in the United States . Because of rampant film piracy , Méliès never received most of the profits of the popular film . One account reports that Méliès sold a print of the film to the Paris photographer Charles Gerschel for use in an Algiers theatre , under strict stipulation that the print only be shown in Algeria . Gerschel sold the print , and various other Méliès films , to the Edison Manufacturing Company employee Alfred C. Abadie , who sent them directly to Edison 's laboratories to be duplicated and sold by Vitagraph . Copies of the print spread to other firms , and by 1904 Siegmund Lubin , the Selig Polyscope Company , and Edison were all redistributing it . Edison 's print of the film was even offered in a hand @-@ colored version available at a higher price , just as Méliès had done . Méliès was often uncredited altogether ; for the first six months of the film 's distribution , the only American exhibitor to credit Méliès in advertisements for the film was Thomas Lincoln Tally , who chose the film as the inaugural presentation of his Electric Theater .
+
+In order to combat the problem of film piracy that became clear during the release of A Trip to the Moon , Méliès opened an American branch of the Star Film Company , directed by his brother Gaston Méliès , in New York in 1903 . The office was designed to sell Méliès 's films directly and to protect them by registering them under United States copyright . The introduction to the English @-@ language edition of the Star Film Company catalog announced : " In opening a factory and office in New York we are prepared and determined energetically to pursue all counterfeiters and pirates . We will not speak twice , we will act ! "
+
+In addition to the opening of the American branch , various trade arrangements were made with other film companies , including American Mutoscope and Biograph , the Warwick Trading Company , the Charles Urban Trading Co . , Robert W. Paul 's studio , and Gaumont . In these negotiations , a print sale price of US $ 0 @.@ 15 per foot was standardized across the American market , which proved useful to Méliès . However , later price standardizations by the Motion Picture Patents Company in 1908 hastened Méliès 's financial ruin , as his films were impractically expensive under the new standards . In addition , in the years following 1908 his films suffered from the fashions of the time , as the fanciful magic films he made were no longer in vogue .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+According to Méliès 's memoirs , his initial attempts to sell A Trip to the Moon to French fairground exhibitors met with failure because of the film 's unusually high price . Finally , Méliès offered to let one such exhibitor borrow a print of the film to screen for free . The applause from the very first showing was so enthusiastic that fairgoers kept the theater packed until midnight . The exhibitor bought the film immediately , and when he was reminded of his initial reluctance he even offered to add ₣ 200 to compensate " for [ Méliès 's ] inconvenience . " The film was a pronounced success in France , running uninterrupted at the Olympia music hall in Paris for several months .
+
+A Trip to the Moon was met with especially large enthusiasm in the United States , where ( to Méliès 's chagrin ) its piracy by Lubin , Selig , Edison and others gave it wide distribution . Exhibitors in New York City , Washington D.C. , Cleveland , Detroit , New Orleans , and Kansas City reported on the film 's great success in their theaters . The film also did well in other countries , including Germany , Canada , and Italy , where it was featured as a headline attraction through 1904 .
+
+A Trip to the Moon was one of the most popular films of the first few years of the twentieth century , rivaled only by a small handful of others ( similarly spectacular Méliès films such as The Kingdom of the Fairies and The Impossible Voyage among them ) . Late in life , Méliès remarked that A Trip to the Moon was " surely not one of my best , " but acknowledged that it was widely considered his masterpiece and that " it left an indelible trace because it was the first of its kind . " The film which Méliès was proudest of was Humanity Through the Ages , a serious historical drama now presumed lost .
+
+= = Rediscovery = =
+
+= = = Black @-@ and @-@ white print = = =
+
+After Méliès 's financial difficulties and decline , most copies of his prints were lost . In 1917 , his offices were occupied by the French military , who melted down many of Méliès 's films to gather the traces of silver from the film stock and make boot heels from the celluloid . When the Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin was demolished in 1923 , the prints kept there were sold by weight to a vendor of second @-@ hand film . Finally , in that same year , Méliès had a moment of anger and burned all his remaining negatives in his garden in Montreuil . In 1925 , he began selling toys and candy from a stand in the Gare Montparnasse in Paris . A Trip to the Moon was largely forgotten to history and went unseen for years .
+
+Thanks to the efforts of film history devotées , especially René Clair , Jean @-@ George Auriol , and Paul Gilson , Méliès and his work were rediscovered in the late 1920s . A " Gala Méliès " was held at the Salle Pleyel in Paris on 16 December 1929 in celebration of the filmmaker , and he was awarded the Legion of Honor in 1931 . During this renaissance of interest in Méliès , the cinema manager Jean Mauclaire and the early film experimenter Jean Acme LeRoy both set out independently to locate a surviving print of A Trip to the Moon . Mauclaire obtained a copy from Paris in October 1929 , and LeRoy one from London in 1930 , though both prints were incomplete ; Mauclaire 's lacked the first and last scenes , and LeRoy 's was missing the entire final sequence featuring the parade and commemorative statue . These prints were occasionally screened at retrospectives ( including the Gala Méliès ) , avant @-@ garde cinema showings , and other special occasions , sometimes in presentations by Méliès himself .
+
+Following LeRoy 's death in 1932 , his film collection was bought by the Museum of Modern Art in 1936 . The museum 's acquisition and subsequent screenings of A Trip to the Moon , under the direction of MoMA 's film curator Iris Barry , opened the film up once again to a wide audience of Americans and Canadians and established it definitively as a landmark in the history of cinema . LeRoy 's incomplete print became the most commonly seen version of the film and the source print for most other copies , including the Cinémathèque française 's print . A complete version of the film , including the entire celebration sequence , was finally reconstructed in 1997 from various sources by the Cinémathèque Méliès , a foundation set up by the Méliès family .
+
+= = = Hand @-@ colored print = = =
+
+No hand @-@ colored prints of A Trip to the Moon were known to survive until 1993 , when one was given to the Filmoteca de Catalunya by an anonymous donor as part of a collection of two hundred silent films . It is unknown whether this version , a hand @-@ colored print struck from a second @-@ generation negative , was colored by Elisabeth Thuillier 's lab , but the perforations used imply that the copy was made before 1906 . The flag waved during the launching scene in this copy is colored to resemble the flag of Spain , indicating that the hand @-@ colored copy was made for a Spanish exhibitor .
+
+In 1999 , Anton Gimenez of the Filmoteca de Catalunya mentioned the existence of this print , which he believed to be in a state of total decomposition , to Serge Bromberg and Eric Lange of the French film company Lobster Films . Bromberg and Lange offered to trade a recently rediscovered film by Segundo de Chomón for the hand @-@ colored print , and Gimenez accepted . Bromberg and Lange consulted various specialist laboratories in an attempt to restore the film , but because the reel of film had apparently decomposed into a rigid mass , none believed restoration to be possible . Consequently , Bromberg and Lange themselves set to work separating the film frames , discovering that only the edges of the film stock had decomposed and congealed together , and thus that many of the frames themselves were still salvageable . Between 2002 and 2005 , various digitization efforts allowed 13 @,@ 375 fragments of images from the print to be saved . In 2010 , a complete restoration of the hand @-@ colored print was launched by Lobster Films , the Groupama Gan Foundation for Cinema , and the Technicolor Foundation for Cinema Heritage . The digitized fragments of the hand @-@ colored print were reassembled and restored , with missing frames recreated with the help of a black @-@ and @-@ white print in the possession of the Méliès family , and time @-@ converted to run at an authentic silent @-@ film speed , 14 frames per second . The restoration was completed in 2011 at Technicolor 's laboratories in Los Angeles .
+
+The restored version premiered on 11 May 2011 , eighteen years after its discovery and 109 years after its original release , at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival , with a new soundtrack by the French band Air . The restoration was released by Flicker Alley in a 2 @-@ disc Blu @-@ Ray and DVD edition also including The Extraordinary Voyage , a feature @-@ length documentary by Bromberg and Lange about the film 's restoration , in 2012 . In The New York Times , A. O. Scott called the restoration " surely a cinematic highlight of the year , maybe the century . "
+
+= = Legacy = =
+
+As A Short History of Film notes , A Trip to the Moon combined " spectacle , sensation , and technical wizardry to create a cosmic fantasy that was an international sensation . " It was profoundly influential on later filmmakers , bringing creativity to the cinematic medium and offering fantasy for pure entertainment , a rare goal in film at the time . In addition , Méliès 's innovative editing and special effects techniques were widely imitated and became important elements of the medium . The film also spurred on the development of cinematic science fiction and fantasy by demonstrating that scientific themes worked on the screen and that reality could be transformed by the camera . In a 1940 interview , Edwin S. Porter said that it was by seeing A Trip to the Moon and other Méliès films that he " came to the conclusion that a picture telling a story might draw the customers back to the theatres , and set to work in this direction . " Similarly , D. W. Griffith said simply of Méliès : " I owe him everything . " Since these American directors are widely credited with developing modern film narrative technique , the literary and film scholar Edward Wagenknecht once summed up Méliès 's importance to film history by commenting that Méliès " profoundly influenced both Porter and Griffith and through them the whole course of American film @-@ making . "
+
+It remains Méliès 's most famous film as well as a classic example of early cinema , with the image of the capsule stuck in the Man in the Moon 's eye particularly well @-@ known . The film has been evoked in other creative works many times , ranging from Segundo de Chomón 's 1908 unauthorized remake Excursion to the Moon through the extensive tribute to Méliès and the film in the Brian Selznick novel The Invention of Hugo Cabret and its 2011 Martin Scorsese film adaptation Hugo . Film scholar Andrew J. Rausch includes A Trip to the Moon among the " 32 most pivotal moments in the history of [ film ] , " saying it " changed the way movies were produced . " Chiara Ferrari 's essay on the film in 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die , which places A Trip to the Moon as the first entry , argues that the film " directly reflects the histrionic personality of its director " , and that the film " deserves a legitimate place among the milestones in world cinema history . "
+
+= Rivadavia @-@ class battleship =
+
+The Rivadavia class consisted of two battleships designed by the American Fore River Shipbuilding Company for the Argentine Navy . Named Rivadavia and Moreno after important figures in Argentine history , they were Argentina 's entry in the South American dreadnought race and a counter to Brazil 's two Minas Geraes @-@ class battleships .
+
+In 1904 , Brazil scrapped a previous naval building program in favor of an order that included three warships of the new " dreadnought " type , despite signs that such an action would spark a South American naval arms race . To counter this acquisition by a major rival , Argentina began seeking bids for at least two dreadnoughts in 1908 . Over the next two years , shipbuilders from five countries vied for the contracts , complemented by efforts from their respective governments . Argentina was able to play this hyper @-@ competitive environment to its own advantage by rejecting all of the initial proposals and calling for new ones that required the best aspects of each . They then repeated this process , despite complaints from shipbuilders that their trade secrets were being given away . The contracts were awarded to the lowest bidder , Fore River , in early 1910 . This move shocked the European bidders , but could partly be explained by the American steel trust 's ability to produce steel at a lower cost than any other country .
+
+With increasing tensions in Europe that would eventually lead to the First World War , newspapers speculated that the Argentine dreadnoughts would be sold to another country . Under diplomatic pressure , Argentina kept the ships . Throughout their careers , Rivadavia and Moreno were based in Puerto Belgrano and served principally as training ships and diplomatic envoys . They were modernized in the United States in 1924 and 1925 and were inactive for much of the Second World War due to Argentina 's neutrality . Struck from the navy lists on 1 February 1957 , Rivadavia was scrapped in Italy beginning in 1959 . Moreno was struck on 1 October 1956 and was towed to Japan in 1957 for scrapping in what was then the world 's longest tow ( 96 days ) .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+The raison d 'être for the Rivadavia class can be traced back to Argentine – Chilean territorial disputes over the boundary of Patagonia and control of the Beagle Channel going back to the 1840s . It nearly led to war in 1878 and kindled a naval arms race from 1887 to 1902 which was only settled via British mediation . As part of the three pacts which ended the dispute , restrictions were placed on the navies of both countries . The British Royal Navy bought two Swiftsure @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships that were being built for Chile , and Argentina sold its two Rivadavia @-@ class armored cruisers under construction in Italy to Japan . Meanwhile , beginning in the late 1880s , Brazil 's navy fell into obsolescence after an 1889 revolution , which deposed Emperor Dom Pedro II , and a 1893 civil war . By the turn of the 20th century it was lagging behind the Chilean and Argentine navies in quality and total tonnage , despite Brazil having nearly three times the population of Argentina and almost five times the population of Chile .
+
+By 1904 , however , Brazil began to seriously consider upgrading its navy to compete with Argentina and Chile . Soaring demand for coffee and rubber brought the Brazilian economy an influx of revenue , which paid for a US $ 31 @.@ 25 million naval repair scheme , a substantial amount for the time period . The bill authorized 28 ships , including three battleships and three armored cruisers . It was not possible to lay down the battleships until 1906 , the same year the trend @-@ setting HMS Dreadnought was constructed . This ship prompted the Brazilians to cancel their battleship plans in favor of two Minas Geraes @-@ class dreadnoughts . The ordering of these powerful ships — designed to carry the heaviest armament in the world at the time — shocked Argentina and Chile . Historian Robert Scheina comments that the dreadnoughts alone " outclassed the entire [ elderly ] Argentinian fleet . "
+
+Debates raged in Argentina over the wisdom of acquiring dreadnoughts to counter Brazil 's . The National Autonomist Party cabinet was in favor , despite a probable cost of nearly $ 10 million , but a specific plan for two 14 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 14 @,@ 225 t ) battleships and ten destroyers was not popular with the public . Alarmed , the American ambassador to Brazil sent a cablegram to his Department of State , warning them of the destabilizing effects that would occur if the situation devolved into a full naval arms race .
+
+Despite American entreaties to preclude the naval arms race , Brazil continued development on the ships . This , combined with renewed border disputes , particularly in the River Plate ( Río de la Plata , literally " Silver River " ) area , spurred Argentina to move forward with plans for their own battleships . Inflamed by newspaper editors , the public was now fully supportive of a naval building program . While an early plan called for $ 35 million to be invested — $ 7 million from foreign loans — a $ 55 million plan was adopted in August 1908 . Hoping to end the arms race , Argentina made an offer to purchase one of the two Brazilian ships , but the refusal prompted the dispatch of an Argentine naval commission to Europe to acquire dreadnoughts .
+
+= = Bidding = =
+
+Proposals from shipbuilders for two dreadnoughts ( along with a possible third , to match Brazil should a third ship be ordered ) and twelve destroyers were solicited in 1908 by open tender . In order to ensure that the designs reflected the most modern practices , the requirements were intentionally vague .
+
+Fifteen shipyards from the United States , Great Britain , Germany , France , and Italy began bidding on the battleships . Diplomatic pressure to give the contracts was brought to bear from all these countries , especially the first three . Even with this assistance , industry leaders in the United States believed that they had no chance in the bidding without active cooperation from their government , as Europe was the traditional arms supplier to Argentina ( and to all of South America ) . Even when this was given , including the removal of import tariffs on hides from Argentina , promises for additional concessions if American shipbuilders were selected , and an offer to include the most technologically advanced fire @-@ control system and torpedo tubes available on the Argentine battleships , the United States was widely viewed as a non @-@ contender . Historian Seward W. Livermore remarked that " opposition to the United States was formidable . The naval commission was pro @-@ British ; the vice @-@ president of the republic , Roque Sáenz Peña , favored Italy , where he had been the Argentine envoy for many years ; and the minister of war wanted the contracts to go to Germany , so as to standardize the military and naval equipment of the country . "
+
+The president of the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company believed that the United States would not receive contracts due to what he saw as a large amount of European meddling in Argentina :
+
+The political influence of foreign powers is being exerted in a very forceful manner to turn the business to English and Continental firms ; the King of Italy , the German Emperor , and the force of English diplomacy are being made use of ; and American firms will have very little consideration , I fear , unless our government will exert some very powerful influence in favor of this country .
+
+The United States , however , found an ally in Buenos Aires ' main daily newspaper , La Prensa . The owner , editor , and naval editor were all in favor of acquiring American @-@ designed dreadnoughts . In addition , the paper found evidence of British wrongdoing in a related naval contract . Under public pressure , the naval commission was forced to reconsider its original list , which had placed Italy first and Britain second . It now featured the United States first , Britain second , and Italy last .
+
+In a surprise move , the Argentine naval commission then threw out all of the opening tenders and called for another round of bidding ; they simultaneously updated the specifications to include what were judged to be the best aspects of all the plans . The competitors were given three weeks to come up with new designs and cost estimates . After diplomatic protests , this was modified slightly ; the original bids were kept , but alterations to attempt to conform to the new desired characteristics were allowed .
+
+The commission found that the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company bid was lowest on one battleship , and the Fore River Shipbuilding Company was lowest on the other . Despite a British attempt to allow the Armstrong Whitworth @-@ Vickers team to lower their price by $ 570 @,@ 000 , prompt American diplomacy granting various assurances regarding recent events between the United States and Brazil , the upcoming 1910 Pan @-@ American Conference , and a guarantee of American participation in the Argentine centennial celebrations secured the battleship contracts for Fore River on 21 January 1910 . The maximum price Fore River tendered , $ 10 @.@ 7 million , underbid the British by more than $ 973 @,@ 000 , but their ship 's displacement was 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) smaller , the belt armor was 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thinner , and the top speed was slightly lower . Orders for the twelve destroyers were divided among Britain , France , and Germany .
+
+Rivadavia was built by Fore River at its shipyard in Massachusetts , but they were contractually obligated to subcontract the second ship to a different shipyard in the hope that both would be completed faster , so Moreno was constructed by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden , New Jersey . The steel for the ships was largely supplied by the Bethlehem Steel Company of Pennsylvania , which , due to their ability to produce steel at a lower price than other nations , was an integral cost @-@ saving measure . The Secretary of the Argentine Naval Commission , the body which chose the final design , said the reason the American tender was lower than that of the English was that " steel for construction work and armor @-@ plating is a great deal cheaper in the United States than in England . Wages are higher there , but the contractors ... are able to obtain it more cheaply owing to the manipulations of the Steel Trust . "
+
+A third dreadnought , provided for in the contract , was strongly supported by Argentina and by U.S. diplomats during 1910 , while the Minas Geraes class was still under construction . La Prensa and one of its rivals , La Argentina , heavily advocated a third ship ; the latter even started a petition to raise money for a new battleship . An American diplomat wrote back to the United States that " this newspaper rivalry promises the early conclusion of a movement which means a third battleship whether by public subscription or by Government funds . " However , Brazil 's 21 – 26 November Revolt of the Lash — in which the three most powerful ships in the fleet ( the battleships Minas Geraes , São Paulo , and the cruiser Bahia ) and several smaller warships violently rebelled — crushed the previous sentiment for a new battleship . About two years later in October 1912 , a third dreadnought was authorized by Argentina in case Brazil 's Rio de Janeiro was completed and delivered . The ship was never named or built , as Rio de Janeiro was sold to the Ottoman Empire due to monetary issues , and a later planned Brazilian ship ( Riachuelo ) was canceled due to the beginning of the First World War .
+
+= = International reaction = =
+
+The choice of Fore River came as a complete surprise to the European bidders . Britain 's reaction in particular was scathing : Sir John H. Biles , a professor and well @-@ known naval architect , decried the bidding process as " unethical " :
+
+... it may be presumed that everything ... good in the first proposals [ was ] seized upon by the Argentine authorities and asked for in the new design . This second request went not only to British builders but to all the builders of the world , and in this way it is exceedingly probable that a serious leakage of ideas and practice of our ships was disseminated through the world by the Argentine government .... The third inquiry that was issued showed to all the builders of the world what has been eliminated or modified in the second inquiry ; and so the process of leakage went merrily on , and with it that of the education of foreign builders and the Argentine government .
+
+Various British newspapers also cried foul . The Evening Standard believed that as " Argentina 's greatest creditor and greatest client " , Britain ought to have been awarded the two ships . The Times took a different track , accusing American shipbuilders of slashing prices to an obscene degree , and accusing the government of exerting undue diplomatic pressure to obtain the contracts .
+
+New Zealand 's Evening Post noted that the United States had previously built major warships for other countries , including Russia , and Britain 's ally Japan , and commented , " The severity of the blow to England rests in ... the amount of English capital in [ Argentina ] " , possibly echoing the Evening Standard 's argument . They referred to a " startling " fact printed by the Daily Mail : the steel used for the armor of the American design was obtained for a much lower price . With Bethlehem 's ability to produce it at £ 8 less per ton than British foundries , a cost savings of more than 10 % in steel over the British ship could be realized .
+
+Germany asserted that the United States was given the opportunity to view the other nations ' tenders and lower their price accordingly . Germany also alleged that the United States had secured the deal by pledging to come to Argentina 's defense should they become embroiled in a military conflict .
+
+The New York Times noted that with Argentina 's and Brazil 's dreadnought orders , countries in North and South America were building the five biggest capital ships in the world ( Brazil 's Rio de Janeiro , Argentina 's Rivadavia and Moreno , and the United States ' New York and Texas ) in addition to seven of the ten largest ( including the United States ' Wyoming and Arkansas ) . Shortly after Rivadavia had completed its trials , the U.S. Navy 's Board of Inspection and Survey remarked that the ship " handle [ d ] remarkably well ... with comparatively minor modifications the vessel would practically meet the requirements of our own vessels . " The Board of Inspection was less pleased with the wing turrets , stating that " while theoretically the Rivadavia has an ahead and astern fire of six guns , this is not so in reality , as it is almost certain that the blast from the waist turrets would dish in the smokepipes and damage the uptakes . "
+
+= = Possible sale = =
+
+After Brazil sold Rio de Janeiro to the Ottoman Empire , Argentina began to actively seek a buyer for their two ships so the profits could be invested in education . In the tension that preceded the First World War , there were many suitors . The United States , however , abhorred the idea of their latest technological advances falling into the hands of a possible future combat opponent . While the contract allowed the United States Navy an option to acquire the ships if a deal was reached with a third nation , the Navy did not want the ships ; with the rapid advances in dreadnought technology , such as the " all or nothing " armor arrangement , even new ships like Rivadavia and Moreno were seen as outmoded .
+
+Three bills directing that the battleships be sold were introduced into the Argentine National Congress in the summer of 1914 , but all were defeated . Still , soon after the beginning of the First World War , the German ambassador to Argentina alleged to the U.S. State Department that Britain 's Royal Navy was going to take over the ships as soon as the ships reached the River Plate , and the British put diplomatic pressure on the United States to try to ensure the ships were not sold to any other country ( as this new country could in turn sell them to Germany ) . Italy , the Ottomans , and Greece were all reportedly interested in buying both ships , the latter as a counter to the Ottoman purchase of Rio de Janeiro . The United States , worried that its neutrality would not be respected and its technology would be released for study to a foreign competitor , put diplomatic pressure on Argentina to keep the ships , which it eventually did .
+
+= = Design influences = =
+
+The Rivadavia design was very similar to a 1906 proposal from Fore River for an American dreadnought class . This ship would have mounted a main battery of fourteen 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns in dual turrets ( two superfiring fore , two wing , and three non @-@ superfiring aft ) , a secondary battery of twenty 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns and four torpedo tubes on a hull of 22 @,@ 000 long tons ( 22 @,@ 000 t ) that would be capable of 21 knots ( 24 mph ; 39 km / h ) . Foreign practices also bore a large influence on the design ; most were acquired through the unique design process of rejecting multiple bids and calling for the best aspects of each . For example , the superfiring arrangement of the main battery was an American innovation , while the wing turrets were similar to British designs of the time . The secondary battery of 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns and the three @-@ shaft system were influenced by German design practices , while the engine and boiler layout was reminiscent of the Italian battleship Dante Alighieri .
+
+= = Service histories = =
+
+Rivadavia was named after Bernardino Rivadavia , the first president of Argentina , and was built by Fore River Shipyard . The ship was laid down on 25 May 1910 , launched on 26 August 1911 , and completed in December 1914 . Moreno was named after Mariano Moreno , a member of the first Argentine government ; laid down on 10 July 1910 by New York Shipbuilding Corporation , it was launched on 23 September 1911 and completed in February 1915 . Both ships had engine trouble soon after completion : Rivadavia 's completion was delayed due to a damaged turbine , while Moreno had an entire turbine fail while on its trials .
+
+The ships finally arrived in Argentina in February and May 1915 , respectively . In the early 1920s , both ships spent time in the reserve fleet due to an economic depression , but enough money was available by 1924 to have the dreadnoughts modernized in the United States . Both refits included a conversion from coal to fuel oil , a new fire @-@ control system , and other minor improvements . In the 1930s they participated in training cruises and diplomatic trips , including :
+
+Moreno 's 1933 visit to Brazil with Argentine president Agustín Pedro Justo aboard ;
+
+A second visit in 1934 to mark the centennial of Brazilian independence ;
+
+Rivadavia 's and Moreno 's 1937 voyage to Europe , where they visited Brest ( France ) , Wilhelmshaven , Bremen , and Hamburg ( Germany ) ;
+
+Moreno 's additional participation on the same voyage in the British Spithead Naval Review , where the New York Times ' Hanson Baldwin described it as a " a strange vestigial sea monster in this company of more modern fighting ships " ;
+
+Rivadavia 's and Moreno 's 1939 training cruise to Brazil with naval cadets embarked ; with the beginning of the Second World War in September , destroyers had to be sent from Argentina to escort them home .
+
+During the war , both ships were mainly inactive due to Argentine neutrality . Rivadavia undertook a last diplomatic cruise to Trinidad , Venezuela , and Colombia in 1946 , but both ships were immobile by 1948 . Moreno was stricken from the naval register on 1 October 1956 and was brought to Japan in 1957 for scrapping in a then @-@ world @-@ record 96 @-@ day tow . Rivadavia was stricken on 1 February 1957 and scrapped in Italy beginning in 1959 . The money gained from selling the two dreadnoughts along with an older armored cruiser , Pueyrredón , was used to buy an aircraft carrier from the United Kingdom , Independencia ( ex @-@ Warrior ) .
+
+= = Specifications = =
+
+The two ships of the Rivadavia class were 594 feet 9 inches ( 181 @.@ 28 m ) overall and 585 feet ( 178 m ) between perpendiculars . They had a beam of 98 feet 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 29 @.@ 985 m ) , a normal draft of 27 feet 8 @.@ 5 inches ( 8 @.@ 446 m ) , and displaced 27 @,@ 500 long tons ( 27 @,@ 900 t ) normally and 30 @,@ 100 long tons ( 30 @,@ 600 t ) at full load . The ships were staffed by 130 officers and about 1000 enlisted men .
+
+For armament , the Rivadavia class was equipped with a main battery of twelve 12 @-@ inch / 50 caliber guns , a secondary battery of twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 155 mm ) / 50 and twelve 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) / 50 QF , and two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes .
+
+The 12 " / 50 was a Bethlehem development . It was most likely based on the weapon used in the United States ' Wyoming @-@ class battleship , the 12 " / 50 caliber Mark 7 gun . The twelve guns were mounted in six dual turrets . Four turrets were superfiring fore and aft , while the other two were located en echelon in wing turrets . The latter weapons could , in theory , fire on a 180 ° range on their respective sides of the hull and 100 ° on the other , but in reality this was not possible , as the blast damage from the weapons would damage the ship . A more reasonable estimate would be 90 ° on their sides . The 6 @-@ inch secondary armament was placed in casemates , with six on either side of the ship . For protection , they were provided with 6 inches of armor . The 4 @-@ inch weaponry , intended for use against marauding destroyers , was mounted unarmored in various places around the ship , including the main deck , superstructure , and far up near the bow . As originally built , there were sixteen 4 @-@ inch guns , but four of those were replaced with four 3 @-@ inch AA guns and four 3 @-@ pounders during the 1924 @-@ 1926 modernization . The torpedo tubes were located underneath the waterline and were loaded in a dedicated compartment .
+
+Full ammunition loads were 1 @,@ 440 rounds for the 12 @-@ inch guns ( 120 per gun ) , 3 @,@ 600 rounds for the 6 @-@ inch ( 300 ) , 5 @,@ 600 rounds for the 4 @-@ inch ( 350 ) , and 16 torpedoes manufactured by Whitehead . To assist the main battery with targeting during a battle , the two ships were equipped with two Barr & Stroud rangefinders that were located above the conning towers .
+
+Rivadavia and Moreno used Brown – Curtis geared steam turbines , powered by 18 Babcock & Wilcox boilers and connected to three propellers . With a total output of about 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) , the ships were designed to travel at a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) and may have been capable of slightly more . At speeds of 11 to 15 knots ( 20 to 28 km / h ; 13 to 17 mph ) , their endurance ranged from 11 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 20 @,@ 000 to 13 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 700 to 8 @,@ 100 mi ) , respectively . Their fuel was a coal – oil mix and the ships carried 3 @,@ 900 long tons ( 4 @,@ 000 t ) of the former and 590 long tons ( 600 t ) of the latter .
+
+Typical of American @-@ designed dreadnoughts at the time , the Rivadavia class included substantial armor protection . A 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) belt was fitted amidships , covering 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below the designed waterline , gradually decreasing towards the bow and stern to 5 inches ( 130 mm ) and 4 inches ( 100 mm ) , respectively . The gun turrets received heavy armor , including 12 inches ( 300 mm ) on the front , 9 inches ( 230 mm ) on the sides , 9 @.@ 5 inches ( 240 mm ) on the back , and 4 inches ( 100 mm ) on the top . Deck armor consisted of .5 inches ( 13 mm ) medium steel and 2 inches ( 51 mm ) nickel steel .
+
+= = Endnotes = =
+
+= Cyclogenesis =
+
+Cyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere ( a low @-@ pressure area ) . Cyclogenesis is an umbrella term for at least three different processes , all of which result in the development of some sort of cyclone , and at any size from the microscale to the synoptic scale .
+
+Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity , and are warm core .
+
+Extratropical cyclones form as waves along weather fronts before occluding later in their life cycle as cold core cyclones .
+
+Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land , and can lead to tornado formation . Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones , but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear .
+
+The process in which an extratropical cyclone undergoes a rapid drop in atmospheric pressure ( 24 millibars or more ) in a 24 @-@ hour period is referred to as explosive cyclogenesis , and is usually present during the formation of a nor 'easter . The anticyclonic equivalent , the process of formation of high pressure areas , is anticyclogenesis . The opposite of cyclogenesis is cyclolysis .
+
+= = Meteorological scales = =
+
+There are four main scales , or sizes of systems , dealt with in meteorology : the macroscale , the synoptic scale , the mesoscale , and the microscale . The macroscale deals with systems with global size , such as the Madden – Julian oscillation . Synoptic scale systems cover a portion of a continent , such as extratropical cyclones , with dimensions of 1 @,@ 000 @-@ 2 @,@ 500 km ( 620 @-@ 1 @,@ 550 mi ) across . The mesoscale is the next smaller scale , and often is divided into two ranges : meso @-@ alpha phenomena range from 200 @-@ 2 @,@ 000 km ( 125 @-@ 1 @,@ 243 mi ) across ( the realm of the tropical cyclone ) , while meso @-@ beta phenomena range from 20 – 200 km ( 12 @-@ 125 mi ) across ( the scale of the mesocyclone ) . The microscale is the smallest of the meteorological scales , with a size under two kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) ( the scale of tornadoes and waterspouts ) . These horizontal dimensions are not rigid divisions but instead reflect typical sizes of phenomena having certain dynamic characteristics . For example , a system does not necessarily transition from meso @-@ alpha to synoptic scale when its horizontal extent grows from 2 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 001 km ( 1 @,@ 243 mi ) .
+
+= = Extratropical cyclones = =
+
+= = = Norwegian Cyclone Model = = =
+
+The Norwegian Cyclone Model is an idealized formation model of cold @-@ core cyclonic storms developed by Norwegian meteorologists during the First World War . The main concept behind this model , relating to cyclogenesis , is that cyclones progress through a predictable evolution as they move up a frontal boundary , with the most mature cyclone near the northeast end of the front and the least mature near the tail end of the front .
+
+= = = Precursors for development = = =
+
+A preexisting frontal boundary , as defined in surface weather analysis , is required for the development of a mid @-@ latitude cyclone . The cyclonic flow begins around a disturbed section of the stationary front due to an upper level disturbance , such as a short wave or an upper @-@ level trough , near a favorable quadrant of the upper level jet . However , enhanced along @-@ frontal stretching rates in the lower troposphere can suppress the growth of extratropical cyclones .
+
+= = = Vertical motion affecting development = = =
+
+Cyclogenesis can only occur when temperature decreases polewards ( to the north , in the northern hemisphere ) , and pressure perturbation lines tilt westward with height . Cyclogenesis is most likely to occur in regions of cyclonic vorticity advection , downstream of a strong westerly jet . The combination of vorticity advection and thermal advection created by the temperature gradient and a low pressure center cause upward motion around the low . If the temperature gradient is strong enough , temperature advection will increase , driving more vertical motion . This increases the overall strength of the system . Shearwise updrafts are the most important factor in determining cyclonic growth and strength .
+
+= = = Modes of development = = =
+
+The surface low could have a variety of causes for forming . Topography can force a surface low when dense low @-@ level high pressure system ridges in east of a north @-@ south mountain barrier . Mesoscale convective systems can spawn surface lows which are initially warm core . The disturbance can grow into a wave @-@ like formation along the front and the low will be positioned at the crest . Around the low , flow will become cyclonic , by definition . This rotational flow will push polar air equatorward west of the low via its trailing cold front , and warmer air will push poleward low via the warm front . Usually the cold front will move at a quicker pace than the warm front and “ catch up ” with it due to the slow erosion of higher density airmass located out ahead of the cyclone and the higher density airmass sweeping in behind the cyclone , usually resulting in a narrowing warm sector . At this point an occluded front forms where the warm air mass is pushed upwards into a trough of warm air aloft , which is also known as a trowal ( a trough of warm air aloft ) . All developing low pressure areas share one important aspect , that of upward vertical motion within the troposphere . Such upward motions decrease the mass of local atmospheric columns of air , which lower surface pressure .
+
+= = = Maturity = = =
+
+Maturity is after the time of occlusion when the storm has completed strengthening and the cyclonic flow is at its most intense . Thereafter , the strength of the storm diminishes as the cyclone couples with the upper level trough or upper level low , becoming increasingly cold core . The spin @-@ down of cyclones , also known as cyclolysis , can be understood from an energetics perspective . As occlusion occurs and the warm air mass is pushed upwards over a cold air airmass , the atmosphere becomes increasingly stable and the centre of gravity of the system lowers . As the occlusion process extends further down the warm front and away from the central low , more and more of the available potential energy of the system is exhausted . This potential energy sink creates a kinetic energy source which injects a final burst of energy into the storm 's motions . After this process occurs , the growth period of the cyclone , or cyclogenesis , ends , and the low begins to spin down ( fill ) as more air is converging into the bottom of the cyclone than is being removed out the top since upper @-@ level divergence has decreased .
+
+Occasionally , cyclogenesis will re @-@ occur with occluded cyclones . When this happens a new low center will form on the triple @-@ point ( the point where the cold front , warm front , and occluded front meet ) . During triple @-@ point cyclogenesis , the occluded parent low will fill as the secondary low deepens into the main weathermaker .
+
+= = Tropical cyclones = =
+
+Tropical cyclones exist within a mesoscale alpha domain . As opposed to mid @-@ latitude cyclogenesis , tropical cyclogenesis is driven by strong convection organised into a central core with no baroclinic zones , or fronts , extending through their center . Although the formation of tropical cyclones is the topic of extensive ongoing research and is still not fully understood , there are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis : sea surface temperatures that are warm enough , atmospheric instability , high humidity in lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a pre @-@ existing low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . These warm core cyclones tend to form over the oceans between 10 and 30 degrees of the equator .
+
+= = Mesocyclones = =
+
+Mesocyclones range in size from mesoscale beta to microscale . The term mesocyclone is usually reserved for mid @-@ level rotations within severe thunderstorms , and are warm core cyclones driven by latent heat of its associated thunderstorm activity .
+
+Tornadoes form in the warm sector of extratropical cyclones where a strong upper level jet stream exists . Mesocyclones are believed to form when strong changes of wind speed and / or direction with height ( " wind shear " ) sets parts of the lower part of the atmosphere spinning in invisible tube @-@ like rolls . The convective updraft of a thunderstorm is then thought to draw up this spinning air , tilting the rolls ' orientation upward ( from parallel to the ground to perpendicular ) and causing the entire updraft to rotate as a vertical column .
+
+As the updraft rotates , it may form what is known as a wall cloud . The wall cloud is a spinning layer of clouds descending from the mesocyclone . The wall cloud tends to form closer to the center of the mesocyclone . It should be noted the wall clouds do not necessarily need a mesocyclone to form and do not always rotate . As the wall cloud descends , a funnel @-@ shaped cloud may form at its center . This is the first stage of tornado formation . The presence of a mesocyclone is believed to be a key factor in the formation of the strong tornadoes associated with severe thunderstorms .
+
+= = Tornadoes = =
+
+Tornadoes exist on the microscale or low end of the mesoscale gamma domain . The cycle begins when a strong thunderstorm develops a rotating mesocyclone a few miles up in the atmosphere , becoming a supercell . As rainfall in the storm increases , it drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft ( RFD ) . This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground , and drags the rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it .
+
+As the mesocyclone approaches the ground , a visible condensation funnel appears to descend from the base of the storm , often from a rotating wall cloud . As the funnel descends , the RFD also reaches the ground , creating a gust front that can cause damage a good distance from the tornado . Usually , the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground ( becoming a tornado ) within minutes of the RFD reaching the ground .
+
+= = Waterspouts = =
+
+Waterspouts exist on the microscale . While some waterspouts are strong ( tornadic ) like their land @-@ based counterparts , most are much weaker and caused by different atmospheric dynamics . They normally develop in moisture @-@ laden environments with little vertical wind shear along lines of convergence , such as land breezes , lines of frictional convergence from nearby landmasses , or surface troughs . Their parent cloud can be as innocuous as a moderate cumulus , or as significant as a thunderstorm . Waterspouts normally develop as their parent clouds are in the process of development , and it is theorized that they spin up as they move up the surface boundary from the horizontal wind shear near the surface , and then stretch upwards to the cloud once the low level shear vortex aligns with a developing cumulus or thunderstorm . Weak tornadoes , known as landspouts , across eastern Colorado have been witnessed to develop in a similar manner . An outbreak occurred in the Great Lakes in late September and early October 2003 along a lake effect band . September is the peak month of landspout and waterspout occurrence around Florida and for waterspout occurrence around the Great Lakes .
+
+= = Related terms = =
+
+Cyclogenesis is the opposite of cyclolysis , which concerns the weakening of surface cyclones . The term has an anticyclonic ( high pressure system ) equivalent — Anticyclogenesis , which deals with the formation of surface high pressure systems .
+
+= Tartu Offensive =
+
+The Tartu Offensive Operation ( Russian : Тартуская наступательная операция ) , also known as the Battle of Tartu ( Estonian : Tartu lahing ) and the Battle of Emajõgi ( Estonian : Emajõe lahingud , German : Schlacht am Embach ) was a campaign fought over southeastern Estonia in 1944 . It took place on the Eastern Front during World War II between the Soviet 3rd Baltic Front and parts of the German Army Group North .
+
+The Soviet tactical aim was to defeat the 18th Army and to capture the city of Tartu . The strategic goal was a quick occupation of Estonia . The Soviet command planned to reach the coast of the Gulf of Riga and trap the Army Detachment " Narwa " . The German side involved Estonian conscripts , which fought to defend their country against the looming Soviet annexation . The 3rd Baltic Front captured Tartu . The conquest caused the destruction of the Estonian National Museum and 40 million rubles worth of damage to the University of Tartu . Kampfgruppe " Wagner " stabilised the front at the Emajõgi River . The XXVIII Army Corps supported by Omakaitse militia stalled the front at the Väike Emajõgi and Gauja Rivers , preventing the 3rd Baltic Front from cutting off the " Narwa " .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+Attacks of the Leningrad Front had pushed the Army Group North to the west of Lake Peipus resulting in a series of operations around Narva . The German Command considered it important to maintain control over the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland , which eased the situation in Finland and kept the Soviet Baltic Fleet in its eastern bay . From a military economy viewpoint , the preservation of the oil shale reserves and oil shale industry in Ida @-@ Viru was also important . In the south , Soviet forces advanced towards the Baltic seacoast at the end of their Operation Bagration of June – August 1944 against the German Army Group Centre .
+
+= = = Comparison of forces = = =
+
+At the beginning of the Soviet Tartu Operation , the ratio of Soviet to German strength was 4 @.@ 3 : 1 for troops , 14 @.@ 8 : 1 for artillery and 4 @.@ 1 : 1 for armour . The German forces were mostly battle groups from various formations and smaller units from different branches . A significant proportion of the German side was constituted of Omakaitse militia battalions with poor weaponry and little fighting ability .
+
+= = Combat activities = =
+
+The main thrust of the Soviet operation was first aimed at the southern Petseri County . On 10 August , the Soviet 67th Army broke through the defence of the XXVIII Army Corps and captured the town of Võru on 13 August . The XXVIII Army Corps were forced to the banks of the Väike Emajõgi and Gauja Rivers in the west where they were supported by the Viljandi County Omakaitse militia battalion . While the defence prevented the 3rd Baltic Front from cutting off the retreat of the Army Detachment " Narwa " from Estonia , there was open ground towards the city of Tartu , the capital of Southeast Estonia . Army Group North created a Kampfgruppe ( an ad @-@ hoc combat formation ) , led by SS @-@ Brigadeführer Jürgen Wagner and manned by the army detachment , for the defence of the new line . The Soviet tank units forced a wedge between the Kampfgruppe and the XXVIIIth Army Corps ; Wagner had insufficient troops ahead of the city . On 16 August , Lieutenant General Alexey Grechkin 's group launched an amphibious assault over Lake Peipus behind the German left ( east ) flank , beating the Omakaitse defence and forming a bridgehead in the village of Mehikoorma . In fierce battles , a local border guard regiment stopped their advance .
+
+The 3rd Baltic Front launched an artillery barrage at the positions of the 2nd Battalion , 45 Waffen SS Grenadier Regiment ( 1st Estonian ) covering the German right flank in the village of Nõo southeast of Tartu on 23 August . The Soviet 282nd Rifle Division backed by the 16th Single Tank Brigade and two self @-@ propelled artillery regiments bypassed the defence on the west side and captured the Kärevere Bridge across the Emajõgi River west of Tartu . Being one of only four bridges across the 100 kilometres long marshy floodplains of the river , it was of high strategic importance . After sappers failed to destroy the bridge , Sturmbannführer Leon Degrelle improvised a defence line of the 5th SS Volunteer Sturmbrigade Wallonien , avoiding a Soviet breakthrough to Tartu . As a result , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves .
+
+A heavy German tank assault had been planned to attack behind the western flank of the Soviet lines in Elva on 24 August . On the night before the attack , the designated commander of the operation Brigadeführer Hyazinth von Strachwitz had a serious car accident . The Soviet tank squadrons repulsed the German attack on the following day . Four Soviet rifle divisions launched an attack at Tartu with the support of armour and artillery . After fierce street battles , the Soviet forces conquered the city and established a bridgehead on the north bank of the Emajõgi on 25 August . Due to " Wagner " ' s inability to hold back the Soviet offensive , the headquarters of the Army Group North turned over command of the Emajõgi Front to the II Army Corps , commanded by Infantry General Wilhelm Hasse . At the end of August , the III . Battalion , 1st Estonian Regiment was formed from the 1st Battalion of the Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 , recently returned to Estonia . As their largest operation , supported by Estonian Police Battalions No. 37 , 38 and Mauritz Freiherr von Strachwitz 's tank squadron , they destroyed the bridgehead of two Soviet divisions and recaptured Kärevere Bridge by 30 August . The operation shifted the entire front back to the southern bank of the Emajõgi and encouraged the II Army Corps to launch an operation attempting to recapture Tartu . The attack of 4 – 6 September reached the northern outskirts of the city but was repulsed by units of four Soviet rifle divisions . Relative calm settled on the front for the subsequent thirteen days .
+
+= = Losses = =
+
+The property of the University of Tartu suffered heavy losses in the campaign , accounting for 40 million rubles of damage ( equalling to the purchasing power of 90 million U.S. dollars in 2008 ) . The university lost fifteen buildings permanently . The damage done to the roofs , interiors , doors , windows , heating systems , study cabinets and laboratories was three times the damage to the ruined buildings . The Museum of Zoology lost all of its wet preparations . The interiors of the laboratories of chemistry , physics , pathology and dairy , and a large amount of instruments for the observatories of astronomy and geophysics were destroyed by shrapnel or looted . Bombing destroyed Raadi Manor the main building of the Estonian National Museum .
+
+= = Aftermath = =
+
+= = = Baltic Offensive = = =
+
+The 2nd Shock Army crossed Lake Peipus in 5 – 11 September and acquired command over the Emajõgi front . In the Riga Offensive Operation on 14 – 16 September , the 3rd Baltic Front attacked the German XXVIII Army Corps and the Omakaitse militia battalions in the front segment from the Valga railway junction to Lake Võrtsjärv . In fierce battles , the German and Estonian units held their positions .
+
+The Soviet Tallinn Offensive of the 2nd Shock and 8th Armies commenced on the early morning of 17 September . The 2nd Shock Army forced its way through the II Army Corps divisional headquarters and artillery positions along the Emajõgi . The Army Detachment " Narwa " and the XXVIII Army Corps , the northernmost elements of Army Group North , were at risk of being encircled and destroyed . The headquarters of the Army Group North ordered the II Army Corps to abandon the defence of the Emajõgi line and to move quickly around the northern tip of Lake Võrtsjärv to Latvia .
+
+The code name for the withdrawal of the Army Detachment " Narwa " from mainland Estonia was Operation " Aster " . Beginning on 17 September 1944 , a naval force under Vice @-@ Admiral Theodor Burchardi evacuated elements of the Army Detachment and Estonian civilians . Within six days , around 50 @,@ 000 troops , 20 @,@ 000 civilians and 1 @,@ 000 prisoners were evacuated . The remaining elements of the Army Detachment were ordered to withdraw into Latvia by way of Pärnu and Viljandi . The III SS ( Germanic ) Panzer Corps reached Pärnu by September 20 , while the II Army Corps retreated south of Viljandi to form the 18th Army 's rearguard . As they retreated , the Soviet 2nd Shock and 8th Armies advanced and took Tallinn on September 22 .
+
+= = = Soviet reoccupation = = =
+
+Soviet rule of Estonia was re @-@ established by force , and sovietisation followed , which was mostly carried out in 1944 – 1950 . The forced collectivisation of agriculture began in 1947 , and was completed after the mass deportation of Estonians in March 1949 . All private farms were confiscated , and farmers were made to join the collective farms . An armed resistance movement of ' forest brothers ' was active until the mass deportations . A total of 30 @,@ 000 participated or supported the movement ; 2 @,@ 000 were killed . The Soviet authorities fighting the forest brothers suffered also hundreds of deaths . Among those killed on both sides were innocent civilians . Besides the armed resistance of the forest brothers , a number of underground nationalist schoolchildren groups were active . Most of their members were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment . The punitive actions decreased rapidly after Joseph Stalin 's death in 1953 ; from 1956 – 58 , a large part of the deportees and political prisoners were allowed to return to Estonia . Political arrests and numerous other crimes against humanity were committed all through the occupation period until the late 1980s . After all , the attempt to integrate Estonian society into the Soviet system failed . Although the armed resistance was defeated , the population remained anti @-@ Soviet . This helped the Estonians to organise a new resistance movement in the late 1980s , regain their independence in 1991 , and then rapidly develop a modern society .
+
+= Tropical Storm Gabrielle ( 1995 ) =
+
+Tropical Storm Gabrielle caused moderate flooding in northeastern Mexico and southern Texas in August 1995 . The eighth tropical cyclone and seventh named storm of the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season , Gabrielle developed from a tropical wave in the west @-@ central Gulf of Mexico on August 9 . Initially a tropical depression , the system gradually intensified and by the following day , it became a tropical storm . Favorable conditions caused Gabrielle to continue to strengthen , with the storm nearly reaching hurricane status late on August 11 . However , it soon made landfall near La Pesca , Tamaulipas , thus halting further intensification . Once inland , Gabrielle rapidly weakened and dissipated by early on August 12 .
+
+As Gabrielle was impacting the east coast of Mexico , Hurricane Flossie in the Eastern Pacific was brushing the Baja Peninsula . The storm produced torrential rainfall in northeastern Mexico , totaling to 19 @.@ 44 inches ( 494 mm ) . As a result , numerous reservoirs were filled , forcing dozens in southern Nuevo Leon to evacuate their homes . Additionally , highway infrastructure and streets in the region were affected . Damage in Mexico is unknown , though six fatalities were reported . Rainfall up to 6 inches ( 150 mm ) brought minor flooding to Texas , mainly damaging unharvested cotton . Three days after dissipation , the remnants of Gabrielle also produced heavy thunderstorms in New Mexico on August 15 .
+
+= = Meteorological history = =
+
+A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean off the west coast of Africa during the last week of July . As it tracked across the Atlantic , it remained a well @-@ defined system , but never organized into a tropical cyclone . On August 8 , the system entered the Gulf of Mexico , and by the following day , it developed a weak low @-@ level circulation . The circulation became better defined later that day , and was confirmed by Reconnaissance aircraft that afternoon , when it was declared Tropical Depression Eight while east of Tamaulipas .
+
+From the outset , the cyclone 's motion was altered by Hurricane Flossie off the Pacific coast of Mexico . Initially , deep convection fired up gradually as the depression slowly tracked westward in the Gulf of Mexico . At 1200 UTC on August 10 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Gabrielle , as the storm curved southward . Gabrielle then strengthened slowly over the warm sea surface temperatures in a low wind shear environment , although land interaction slowed the intensification somewhat . The storm shifted once again onto a west @-@ northwest course on August 11 , moving very slowly towards the coast .
+
+The storm made landfall at 2000 UTC on August 11 , just south of La Pesca in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas , about 175 miles ( 280 km ) south of the United States @-@ Mexico border and about 90 miles ( 145 km ) north of Tampico . Simultaneously , Gabrielle attained its peak intensity with a maximum sustained wind speed of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 988 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) . After landfall , the storm rapidly weakened , deteriorating to tropical depression status by early on August 12 over northeast Mexico . Six hours later , the surface circulation of Gabrielle dissipated over the mountains of the Sierra Madre Oriental , although its cloud pattern transited Mexico intact , moving into the Gulf of California before it sheared across northwest Mexico on August 15 .
+
+= = Preparations and impact = =
+
+Starting at 2100 UTC on August 9 , a tropical storm warning was issued from Baffin Bay , Texas to La Pesca , Tamaulipas while Gabrielle was still Tropical Depression Eight . By 0900 UTC on the following day , the warning was expanded to include areas south to Tampico , Tamaulipas and extended further to Tuxpan , Veracruz twelve hours later . As the latter was occurring , the tropical storm warning was discontinued for Texas . Early on August 12 , all the warnings in Mexico were discontinued , as the storm had already moved inland . 800 people were evacuated in Soto la Marina and San Fernando in Tamaulipas . People in poor villages in the Rio Grande Valley were given sandbags with Tropical Storm Gabrielle approaching .
+
+Overall damage was generally minor . There were no reports of wind damage , although tropical storm @-@ force winds affected the northern coast of Tamaulipas . A newspaper in Mexico reported up to 24 inches ( 600 mm ) of precipitation across much of Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon ; this figure is in dispute , however , as the rainfall database maintained by Mexico 's National Weather Service shows the maximum amount to lie under 20 inches ( 508 mm ) . The heavy rainfall from the storm filled nearly half the reservoirs in Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas , which were almost empty due to drought conditions in the region . As a result , dozens in southern Nuevo Leon were forced to evacuation their homes . Rains from Gabrielle flooded streets and destroyed bridges and highways in northern Mexico . No storm surge recordings were taken in Mexico , although it is estimated by the National Hurricane Center that a surge of a few feet took place to the north of the track . Six fatalities were reported in Mexico as a result of Gabrielle .
+
+In Texas , rainfall from the storm peaked at 6 @.@ 26 inches ( 159 mm ) in Weslaco , while many other areas in southern Texas reported only 1 to 3 inches ( 25 to 76 mm ) of precipitation . Gabrielle 's rain came after a drought , and some of it soaked in . The rains also damaged unharvested cotton . Otherwise , minor flooding occurred . Brownsville reported up to 4 inches ( 102 mm ) of rain in association with Gabrielle . In extreme southern Texas , minor beach flooding took place at some of the beaches in the region . The remains of Gabrielle produced heavy thunderstorms in New Mexico on August 15 .
+
+= Connecticut Indian Land Claims Settlement =
+
+The Connecticut Indian Land Claims Settlement was an Indian Land Claims Settlement passed by the United States Congress in 1983 . The settlement act ended a lawsuit by the Mashantucket Pequot Tribe to recover 800 acres of their 1666 reservation in Ledyard , Connecticut , sold in 1855 , allegedly in violation of the Nonintercourse Act that regulates commerce between Native Americans and non @-@ Indians .
+
+The settlement act appropriated $ 900 @,@ 000 to buy the disputed lands and transferred those lands and the state reservation to the federal government in trust . The settlement act permits the state of Connecticut to exercise civil and criminal , but not regulatory , jurisdiction over the lands . This laid the foundation for the Mashantucket Pequot to create the Foxwoods Resort Casino , the largest casino in the world by revenue and floor space , and ( at one time ) the most profitable .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+The Pequot War ( 1634 – 1638 ) all but exterminated the Pequots , dividing the captives up between the Mohegan and Narragansett tribes who had allied with the settlers . In 1651 , John Winthrop the Younger persuaded the Connecticut Colony to create a 500 @-@ acre reservation for the Pequots in Noank , removing them from their previous places of residence . In 1666 , the Connecticut General Assembly voted to create a 2 @,@ 000 acre reservation for the " western " Pequots ( the group previously in the custody of the Mohegans ) in Ledyard , Connecticut ; the eastern Pequots were given 280 acres in present @-@ day North Stonington , Connecticut . By 1790 ( the year that Congress passed the first Nonintercourse Act ) , the reservation was only 1 @,@ 000 acres . In 1855 , Connecticut sold 800 of the remaining acres at $ 10 / acre , putting the money into a state administered trust account for the Pequots .
+
+In the 1970s , David Crosby of Pine Tree Legal Assistance , a non @-@ profit law firm that was then litigating Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton in Maine , arrived on the Pequot reservation to discuss the possibility of a land claim . Advised by Crosby , the Pequots established a non @-@ profit corporation — Western Pequot Indians of Connecticut , Inc . — in 1974 . In April 1975 , Crosby finished his research and presented his findings to the Pequots .
+
+= = Litigation = =
+
+The Pequots filed suit in May 1976 in the United States District Court for the District of Connecticut . The case was assigned to Judge Mosher Joseph Blumenfeld . The named plaintiffs were the Western Pequot Tribe and Richard " Skip " Hawyard ( the leader of the Pequot tribe ) ; among the named defendants were Holdridge Enterprises and its president , David Holdridge . The 800 @-@ acre claim embraced only about a dozen to thirty @-@ five landowner defendants . The state of Connecticut was sued , and declined requests from the defendants to become involved in the litigation .
+
+One of the lawyers for the defendants was Jackson King , a partner at Brown , Jacobson , Jewett & Laudone . King was first in his class at University of Connecticut School of Law and became involved in the case when one of the named defendants , who had served with him on a local land conservation commission , contacted him .
+
+= = Federal recognition = =
+
+HUD
+
+The Pequots pursued federal recognition in parallel with their land claims litigation . They applied to the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development ( HUD ) to participate in HUD 's Indian housing assistance program . In March 1976 , Connecticut Governor Ella Grasso certified to HUD that the Pequots were " an autonomous unit or government " for the purposes of the revenue sharing program . At this time , there were thirty @-@ two tribal members .
+
+BIA
+
+On January 15 , 1979 , the Pequots filed a preliminary petition for federal tribal recognition with the Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ) . Historian Jack Campisi , who had previously worked as an expert witness with attorney Tom Tureen ( known for his role in Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton ( 1975 ) and other Nonintercourse Act claims ) , authored the petition . The Pequots did not submit a full recognition application to the BIA until mid @-@ 1983 .
+
+= = Settlement Act = =
+
+With the passage of the Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act in 1980 , attorney Tom Tureen turned his attention to the Mashantucket Pequot case .
+
+In October 1981 , Tureen approached King ( the defendants ' lawyer ) regarding a federally legislated settlement . Tureen proposed that the state of Connecticut turn over the reservation to the federal government , and that the federal government pay the property owners fair market value to include their land in the federal reservation . As part of the deal , the state would retain civil and criminal , but not regulatory , authority of the reservation . The state approved the settlement in June 1982 .
+
+The federal settlement bill included a $ 900 @,@ 000 appropriation , the appraisal value of the 800 acres , which the Pequots would use to buy the land from the landowner defendants . The legislation also provided that the landowners would not have to pay capital gains tax as long as they reinvested the money in real estate .
+
+Senator Lowell P. Weicker , Jr . ( R @-@ CT ) delivered the draft bill to the Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs . Peter Taylor , the committee 's general counsel noticed that the bill did not limit the amount or location of the lands that the Pequots could buy with the settlement funds . Tureen and King prepared a map in accordance with Taylor 's wishes .
+
+Senator William Cohen ( R @-@ ME ) , the chairman of the committee , began hearings on July 14 , 1982 . William Coldiron , the solicitor general of the Department of the Interior , testified against the bill , which he viewed as circumventing the BIA 's recognition process and as costing too much money . Cohen criticized Coldiron for lacking enough knowledge about the Pequots . Representative Sam Gejdenson ( D @-@ CT ) also supported the bill .
+
+The House passed the bill , H.R. 6612 , on October 1 , 1982 , and the Senate passed a different version on December 21 . The compromise version was passed by the Senate on February 24 , 1982 by voice vote , and by the House on March 22 . However , President Ronald Reagan vetoed the bill , opining that the state should pay more of the cost and that the Pequots may not meet the BIA 's definition of a tribe . Tureen , King , Hayward , and Sandy Cadwalader of the Indian Rights Association began lobbying for a veto override . Once 67 Senators had committed to voting for the bill — enough to have been the first veto override of Reagan 's presidency — a compromise was proposed whereby Connecticut would contribute $ 200 @,@ 000 toward road improvements ( which became known as " the veto road " ) .
+
+At a new set of hearings in July 1983 , Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs John W. Fritz declared that the administration would not object to the new bill . Reagan signed the new bill , S. 1499 , into law on October 18 , 1983 . Since 1983 , the Mashuntucket Pequots have appeared on every list of federally recognized tribes published by the Department of the Interior in the Federal Register .