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+= = = Literature = = =
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+Ianto appears in the first six of the Torchwood novels , published by BBC Books . The first wave , Another Life by Peter Anghelides , Border Princes by Dan Abnett , and Slow Decay by Andy Lane , were published in January 2007 . Published in March 2008 , and tying in with the concurrently airing second series of Torchwood , Ianto appears in the novels Trace Memory by David Llewellyn , The Twilight Streets by Gary Russell , and Something in the Water by Trevor Baxendale . October 2008 saw the release of three more Torchwood books by Peter Anghelides , series writer Phil Ford and writer for the Doctor Who and Torchwood websites , James Goss , the latter 's cover for Almost Perfect reflecting changes to the cast after the episode 2008 finale episode " Exit Wounds " . The character next appears in Into the Silence , Bay of the Dead and The House that Jack Built in June 2009 , and Risk Assessment , The Undertaker 's Gift and the short story anthology Consequences in October of that year .
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+First published in January 2008 , the monthly Torchwood Magazine began occasionally including Torchwood comic strips , in which Ianto also appears . In 2010 , Shrouded is one such two @-@ part comic , written by Gareth David @-@ Lloyd . The comic posits a " what @-@ if " scenario wherein Ianto , " who struggles with his feelings for Jack from the offset " , sees a face from the future and embarks on a mission that could change the course of his life ( from that of his eventual death in Children of Earth ) . David Lloyd comments that he " knows [ the ] character implicitly " . In the first part , Ianto ( originating from the timeframe of Season Two ) is approached by Rhys and Captain John , both post @-@ Children of Earth , who warn Ianto not to believe the offer made by a seductive , time @-@ travelling woman ; they do not tell him that their mission is to preserve the timeline in which he dies . In part two , the woman , Mairwyn , informs Ianto of the events of " Exit Wounds " and Children of Earth , and of Jack 's departure . Ianto tearfully watches the scene where Jack learns of Gwen 's engagement , and sleeps with Mairwyn . After learning of the devastating consequences of assisting Mairwyn , he defeats her and later " retcons " himself . However , in a divergent timeline Ianto appears with Mairwyn , observing his funeral , saying " I can 't believe there 's a reality where I said no . " In 2010 , " Shrouded " was republished in Titan 's dedicated Torchwood comic book .
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+During series two , the Torchwood website , www.torchwood.org.uk also hosted an interactive online game written by series writer Phil Ford . Updated weekly with the airing of the new episodes , the website features specially shot footage with Gareth David @-@ Lloyd in character as Ianto debriefing and informing the ' player ' with regards to their mission . Throughout both series one and two , the interactive websites co @-@ written by James Goss featured electronic literature content ( such as fictitious internet messaging conversations and letters ) which depict aspects of Ianto and the other Torchwood characters ' work and personal lives . The Torchwood Archives by Gary Russell collects much of this online literature in hardback form , along with new original material , some of which expands on what we know of Ianto . For example , it introduces his sister , Rhiannon and brother @-@ in @-@ law Johnny ; Rhiannon and Johnny later appear in 2009 's third televised series .
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+Spin @-@ off media has tried to fill in the gaps of Ianto 's character history from before he began working at Torchwood Three ; Ianto 's first week at Torchwood One is shown in a flashback in the novel Trace Memory . The segment also depicts his budding relationship with Lisa Hallett . Also expanding on Jones 's time living in London , the comic The Legacy of Torchwood One ! ( Torchwood # 1 ) shows how Ianto was taken under the wing of Rupert Howarth , a senior researcher , during his first few weeks at Torchwood One . Ianto 's characterisation is explored in The Twilight Streets , in which Ianto sheds some light on the difficulty he had " coming out " as a teenager ; Ianto 's mother tried to have a conversation with him about it , but he remarks " She didn 't work me out , Gwen . No one has . And if I ever do , I 'll let you know . " He then engages in a diatribe with Gwen about what it means to him to be bisexual after Gwen jokes to him that he has the " best of both worlds " . A scene in David @-@ Lloyd 's " Shrouded " , in which Ianto is emailing his sister , Owen is seen to wrestle control of the computer and tries to write to her that " I 've recently discovered that I 'm a Big Old Gay " ; Ianto rebukes him . In the storyline 's conclusion , an alternate timeline is created where Ianto did not die in the events of Children of Earth .
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+However , as with all Doctor Who and Torchwood spin @-@ off media , the canonicity in relation to the television series is unclear .
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+= = = Audio drama = = =
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+Ianto also appears in Torchwood audio books , the first two being Hidden written by Steven Savile and narrated by Naoko Mori , Everyone Says Hello written by Dan Abnett and narrated by Burn Gorman , released February 2008 , and In the Shadows by Joseph Lidster , released in September 2008 . Joseph Lidster also wrote a BBC Radio 4 Torchwood drama , " Lost Souls " which aired in Summer 2008 as an Afternoon Play featuring the voices of John Barrowman , Eve Myles , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd and Freema Agyeman ( Martha ) . Set after the events of the 2008 series , Ianto and the team make their first international adventure to CERN in Geneva , as part of Radio 4 's special celebration of the Large Hadron Collider being switched on . The special radio episode 's plot focuses on the Large Hadron Collider 's activation and the doomsday scenario some predicted it might incite , as well as the team 's mourning of Toshiko and Owen 's recent deaths .
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+Three further BBC radio dramas were produced in 2009 for the Afternoon Play slot on Radio 4 , each of which feature Ianto Jones . Chronologically , these occur between the second and third televised series but after " Lost Souls " . Transmitted in July 2009 , the first drama is " Asylum " , the second is " Golden Age " , and the third is " The Dead Line " . " The Dead Line " in particular focuses on Ianto 's characterisation , particularly with respect to his relationship with Jack . AfterElton reviewers stated that the radio drama " delivers for Janto [ a portmanteau used by the shipping fandom ] fans " ; David @-@ Lloyd delivers a monologue as Ianto , verbalising his insecurities to a comatose Jack . When Jack awakens from his coma , he promises " You will never be just a blip in time , Ianto Jones . "
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+After his character was written out of the televised series , David @-@ Lloyd still lends his voice 2011 audio drama series The Lost Files , tying into the televised fourth series , Torchwood : Miracle Day . Of these , " The House of the Dead " by James Goss focuses the most on Ianto . Ianto encounters the spirit of his father , with the claim that he , Ianto 's mother , Owen , Toshiko and Lisa will all be resurrected if Ianto betrays Jack . Exploiting its radio format , the drama reveals that Ianto too is a spirit , and that the story is a Jack solo mission set after series three . Jack and Ianto say a final goodbye and tell each other they love one another for the first time . Jack attempts to return to the land of the living alongside Ianto , but Ianto stays behind to close the Cardiff Rift forever with Jack 's device .
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+= = Characterisation = =
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+= = = Conception = = =
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+Gareth David @-@ Lloyd has revealed that his character was originally named Idris Hopper . This has led to speculation that he was the same Idris Hopper played by Aled Pedrick who appeared in the 2005 Doctor Who episode " Boom Town " as Margaret Blaine 's ( Annette Badland ) personal assistant . Writer Stephen James Walker wonders if Russell T Davies intended Idris to become a major character on Torchwood in the same way as Toshiko Sato , who originated in Doctor Who 's " Aliens of London " . Idris Hopper has since appeared in Gary Russell 's Torchwood novel The Twilight Streets . Initially , Ianto is introduced as a quiet worker and the least active character in the supporting cast . David @-@ Lloyd started the role believing Ianto would be killed off at the end of the first series , and was surprised when they " worked the character to become more popular , and it started growing from there . "
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+When Gareth David @-@ Lloyd was cast in the role , the character was renamed Ianto Jones . This was inspired by the character of Yanto Jones , also played by David @-@ Lloyd , in Russell T Davies 's 2004 comedy @-@ drama Mine All Mine . Ianto shares the surname " Jones " with Doctor Who characters Martha Jones and family as well as Harriet Jones , Torchwood character Eugene Jones ( " Random Shoes " ) , and Stuart Allen Jones in Davies 's earlier Queer as Folk ; Davies states that reusing names ( such as Tyler , Smith , Harper , Harkness and Jones ) allows him to get a grip of the character on the blank page . In developing the character 's attire , costume designer Ray Holman comments : " Ianto has a very distinct look but his suits actually vary quite a lot . He started off with some nice but boring Marks and Spencers suits in series one , which were top @-@ end fitted ones but always very sober . Towards the end of series one , I also got him into a waistcoat , and everyone thought that looked really good .
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+= = = Development = = =
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+On how he views the character , David @-@ Lloyd says that " outwardly , he 's straight @-@ laced , but there 's a darker side to him and a very playful side too . " Initially , in series one , Ianto is a quiet and more reserved character . Throughout the first series , Ianto 's secrets are exposed to the team , particularly in " Cyberwoman " when his motives for joining Torchwood Three are exposed . David @-@ Lloyd was " bowled over " by the Ianto @-@ centric script for " Cyberwoman " and the " wide range of emotions " it allowed him to play . From this point , Ianto 's focus changes and he begins more and more to come out of his shell .
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+Appearing in series two , Ianto assists the team in field missions and is used by the writers as a vehicle for one @-@ liner jokes . Commenting on this , portrayer Gareth David @-@ Lloyd notes that " This season it 's much more relaxed and he 's not all about keeping secrets , he 's about Torchwood and Jack — he 's found his meaning and his place so his dry humour comes out a lot more and he 's happier . " The developments in Ianto 's character were also reflected in the wardrobe choice . " For series two , " comments Ray Holman , " we evolved the look quite a lot , and now his suits come from all over the place . It 's just a question of where I see something that looks right for Gareth , so I 've brought him a suit from Savile Row and suits from Zara and Next . We realised we could be a bit more flash with Ianto now he 's come out of the background and started to assert himself a bit more . So we moved him into coloured shirts and snazzier ties . He started off in white and grey shirts but we realised his skin tones can take the extra colour and now he 's evolving into something much sharper , which looks really good filmed in high definition . "
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+In Torchwood Magazine , actor Gareth David @-@ Lloyd comments on some original character developments intended for Ianto . Originally , his character was the one supposed to die at the end of series two episode " Reset " . Davies 's plan had originally intended for Ianto to be revived , as Owen eventually was , in episode seven . From this point on , the character was intended to be " the Living Dead — pale , but still sexy " . The night before filming , however , Davies changed his mind and seven scripts began a process of being rewritten . New lines had to be handed to the actors on the day of filming . Davies also called a discussion with the actors involved to explain the change in the storyline . In the discussion with executive producer Russell T Davies and Burn Gorman , who portrays Owen , it was decided that Owen would experience the zombification storyline as he is a character who more overtly enjoys life , making it more interesting from a narrative perspective .
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+David @-@ Lloyd described the character 's development in the third series as " really exciting " . He felt that it was " great to be a fully @-@ fledged member of the team now rather than just the administration man . " He felt flattered to have the writer and producers put so much confidence in him . In this series , the writers also explore Jones 's background ; David @-@ Lloyd was happy with the execution of this backstory , through meeting Ianto 's sister , and commented that it was quite beautifully written . Through meeting his family , we discover that his father has died and that Ianto has grown very distant from his relatives as per the demands of his job . David @-@ Lloyd first concluded that Ianto was being killed off when his agent told him he was only needed for four out of five episodes . Although there was " a bit of disappointment " , he considers himself " lucky " for lasting so long on the series , especially since Ianto was supposed to die in series two . He believed the character 's death was justified by " the impact and the drama , and to keep the dangerous reality of Torchwood ever present " . Although it was " a tragedy that [ Ianto ] died " , David @-@ Lloyd felt that the series had " addressed everything about him that needed to be said " .
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+Creator Russell T Davies felt that killing off Ianto was necessary for Children of Earth ; it was his first decision to create a " horrible war casualty " for the story , because it would be unrealistic to have a great threat and have the main characters all come out unscathed . Ianto 's death also precedes the death of Captain Jack 's grandson Steven ( Bear McCausland ) , and for that scene to occur it necessitated making Jack " badly , badly damaged " . Ianto 's death caused " maximum damage " to Jack , and the loss of his lover ( and grandson ) makes Children of Earth a tale of retribution , as Jack had given away twelve children to the same aliens in 1965 . Davies has said that Ianto is " absolutely dead " . He explains his reasoning ; because it 's a " much more real world in Torchwood " , it wouldn 't work to " regenerate or go to a parallel universe . " Davies feels that Barrowman and David @-@ Lloyd would both be dismayed were that to happen . He stated " it would devalue the entire plot if we brought him back " . Wired magazine described Ianto 's arc , ending in the third series , as an " evolution from meek office assistant to heroic warrior " .
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+= = = Relationship with Jack = = =
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+Much of Ianto 's character development is centred on the character 's relationship with Captain Jack . On the character 's evolution from minor character to romantic interest , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd has commented that " To have a storyline where you 're involved with the leading character for any actor is awesome . " On the character 's development , David @-@ Lloyd has said that through Jack 's relationship , " he 's found his meaning and ... he 's happier . " Asked what it is that Ianto receives from Jack , David @-@ Lloyd responds " Support , meaning . I think he lost meaning . He was tortured and Jack gave him that meaning back . And reliability that he 'll always be there , I think . " John Barrowman and Gareth David @-@ Lloyd have also opined that Jack 's relationship with Ianto has however brought out Jack 's empathy , and helped to ground him , with John Barrowman reported as saying that Ianto " brings out the ' human ' in him , it brings out more of the empathy because he 's actually fallen for someone and he really cares about somebody . So , it 's really great and I think that 's what makes him warm to other people . It makes him more approachable . " In the same interview , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd said of the relationship and his character that " I think Ianto 's always made him care and that is really the heart of the show . Ianto 's always bearing his emotional side and vulnerable side and keeping his feet on the ground . I think of all the characters , he 's the one who tries to keep everyone else 's feet on the ground . He brings everyone back to reality , often with a dry , witty remark or taking a dig at somebody just to sort of bring people back down . "
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+Comparing Jack 's relationship with Ianto to his romantic tension with Gwen , David @-@ Lloyd states " I think [ there are ] different sorts of love or lust , as it might be , and I think that 's an ongoing thing ... At the moment , I think there 's two different sorts of love going on there . " He also states that he feels that Ianto 's relationship with Jack is his first same @-@ sex relationship , and doesn 't feel that Ianto would be a " labelist " , but were he , he would identify as bisexual , but that he " wouldn 't regard himself the same way as Jack does because they 're from different times . " Author Stephen James Walker feels sorry for Ianto , perceiving his relationship with Jack as a one @-@ sided one . To him , Ianto views the relationship as " serious and committed " , as seen in " A Day in the Death " where he tells Owen that it is not just about sex . However , from dialogue in " Something Borrowed " , Walker believes that Jack appears to equate his relationship with Ianto to nothing more than a " recreational activity " . Walker also notes how important it was for Ianto when he cut in to dance with Jack , as this is the first time that his relationship with Jack is presented before the rest of the crew . The novel The House that Jack Built includes a scene where Gwen tries to clarify whether Ianto understands the nature of his relationship with Jack , saying " You do know he 's ... " , which Ianto finishes " Just a shag ? " before adding " Yes I know . I can 't help it , though . I 've never been much good at casual . " In radio play " The Dead Line " , set just prior to series three , Ianto expounds his insecurities to Jack , who refutes them , confirming that his feelings for Ianto are real . When asked if the relationship will continue in series three , executive producer Julie Gardner replied , " Yes , I like seeing them as a couple " , while director Euros Lyn stated that " the love story between Captain Jack and Ianto [ would continue ] to unfold " in the third series . While Gareth David @-@ Lloyd feels that the love story between Jack and Ianto was not fully resolved , which is " part of the tragedy " , the character and his relationship with Jack had been sufficiently explored in the third series for David @-@ Lloyd to be " happy to walk away from it . "
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+Ianto makes a post @-@ death appearance in 2011 audio drama " The House of the Dead " . Encountering Ianto 's spirit at a haunted location in Wales , Jack and Ianto are permitted a final goodbye . Without Ianto in his life , Jack wishes to be swept up into the Rift as it closes in an attempt at suicide . Ianto tricks Jack into leaving the House of the Dead , however , despite the possibility of resurrection . As they are forced to part forever by the closing of the Rift , the couple declare their love for one another for the first and last time .
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+= = Reception = =
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+= = = Critical reception = = =
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+Awarding the character of Ianto the status of " Cult Spy Icon " , British entertainment news website Digital Spy describes him as a " cult legend " , citing his dour demeanour , one @-@ liners and " eye candy " label . Gay men 's website AfterElton placed Ianto as their seventh best gay and bisexual character in modern science fiction ( encompassing television , film and comic books ) , with Torchwood 's Jack , Ianto 's love interest , receiving first place . Wired magazine was impressed with the way Ianto 's romantic storyline was handled in the third series , and praised Davies 's writing for the " deft , sympathetic handling " of the Harkness @-@ Jones romance , compared with the " clumsiness " of the show 's homoerotic overtones in previous series . Because Ianto 's storyline grows out of the reality of the show , " it plays with such genuine sympathy and pathos that Jones 's eventual fate is easily the miniseries ' most powerful moment . " Wired describes David @-@ Lloyd 's performance as Jones as " a key element in the success of the five @-@ episode story arc . " One AfterElton contributor disliked the death scene partially for the loss of a " beloved gay character " , and because Ianto 's death was caused by Jack 's stupidity , goading on the aliens . They compared the death scene to that of Tara ( Amber Benson ) in Joss Whedon 's Buffy the Vampire Slayer which he felt was more satisfying , although " unbearably sad " because of its pivotal role in the character arc for Willow ( Alyson Hannigan ) , and as being " possibly the single most significant event in the whole seven @-@ season series . " He feels that both Joss Whedon and Russell T Davies toyed with their LGBT fans ' affections , and claim " neither Whedon nor Davies seem aware of the impact that these characters were having on viewers starved for such representations . " Later , AfterElton published an opposing view , which analysed the character 's death in view of the character 's earlier refusal to admit to his relationship with a man , and claimed that , instead of being an expression of homophobia , the death was a sign that the LGBT community was leaving behind its image of victimhood . In 2012 David Brown of the Radio Times described Ianto 's demise as one of televisions five most shocking death scenes and " surely [ Torchwood 's ] finest hour " .
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+The website Den of Geek praised Davies 's writing of Ianto 's death , and likened the tough story @-@ driven decision to those used in critically acclaimed shows The Sopranos , Battlestar Galactica and The Wire . Den of Geek felt the real tension of knowing any character could die , however popular , was " refreshing " in comparison to impossibly death @-@ defying characters such as 24 's Jack Bauer ( Kiefer Sutherland ) . In 2010 , Davies 's replacement as Doctor Who executive producer , Steven Moffat , commented saying " I thought his death scene was brilliant . " When the series screened in New Zealand , GayNZ compared the two contending perspectives , comparing those who viewed Ianto 's death from the perspective of " dramatic necessity " to those who disparaged it as the result of thoughtlessness on the part of the series creators about the relative absence of representations of enduring lesbian and gay couples within television series . Ianto 's death was compared to that of Tara as in the above critiques , but also contrasted to other television series where lesbian and gay couples were able to have enduring relationships , such as Six Feet Under 's David Fisher ( Michael C. Hall ) and Keith Charles ( Mathew St. Patrick ) and Bad Girls ' Nikki Wade ( Mandana Jones ) and Helen Stewart ( Simone Lahbib ) .
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+GayNZ writer Craig Young places Ianto , like Buffy 's Tara , in a larger literary tradition , commenting " just as Iphigenia 's sacrifice at the hands of Agamemnon was necessary to set in train the events of Aeschylus 's Oresteia ... just as Ophelia 's madness , suicide and accidental death led to the climatic duel between Hamlet and Laertes ... Ianto 's death can be argued to be a dramatic necessity which adds to character and narrative development . " The article acknowledged there being some validity in criticisms of modern TV dramas which uphold that it is frequently the gay relationships which " can never be seen to have long @-@ term , fulfilled relationships " . However , GayNZ questioned whether the pattern was solely gay , noting the equally tragic outcomes of homosexual and heterosexual relationships in American shows Buffy and Nip / Tuck . The website also took note of Ianto fans ' displeasure when Jack was introduced to a new romantic partner in Alonso Frame ( Russell Tovey ) in Doctor Who episode The End of Time ( 2010 ) , mirroring Willow 's romance with Kennedy ( Iyari Limon ) in Season Seven of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . The article intentionally avoided making a definitive conclusion as to which " side " of the argument was correct . Young later compared Ianto 's death with the subsequent killing off of core heterosexual couples in two British shows , Misfits and Being Human . These latter deaths are described as even more heartbreaking than Ianto 's , and Young argues that these character deaths tell us more about transatlantic differences in storytelling than about portrayals of sexuality .
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+= = = Fan reaction to death = = =
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+Some fans expressed their displeasure following Ianto 's death in the third series . The website End of Show comments that " writer James Moran was so inundated with messages to his Twitter account that he posted a number of impassioned pleas to tone down the vitriol . " End of Show writer Kirsty Walker comments that fans on Twitter accused Moran of " deliberately egging on the ' shippers ' . " Moran noted in his blog that of the thousands of messages from viewers , the " vast majority " were extremely positive , managing to express that they were " upset , angry and shocked " without making personal attacks . Moran declared the response from other commentators to be unacceptable , describing their conduct as the spewing of insults and " passive aggressive nonsense " . He noted that fans had accused him of deliberately trying to " mislead " , " lie " and " hurt " them , said that he hated them , was " laughing at them " and " slapping [ them ] in the face " , and claimed that he had " killed the show " , had attempted to drive away existing fans to court newer and " cooler " viewers , and had deliberately hurt depressed people " with dark storylines . " In a poll conducted by Digital Spy shortly after Ianto 's death , 27 @.@ 4 % of voters claimed that they would no longer watch Torchwood . Responding to these results , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd thanked the fans for their dedication to the show and the character but urged them to have faith in the writers . On the show 's Facebook groups , fans expressed anger towards creator Russell T Davies and some claimed they would stop watching the show . Walker herself had felt that the end of Jack 's relationship with Ianto could " change the show beyond all recognition . "
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+io9 commented that fans on Moran 's blog accused him of homophobia ; one quoted fan likened it to 1950s @-@ style homophobia " where all the queer folks died ... and the straight people walk away completely unscathed . " io9 writer Charlie Jane Anders comments , however , that " as people have had a bit more time to consider the new series , more thoughtful discussions have arisen . " One such cited notes that it is unlikely that Children of Earth was intentionally homophobic since the writer ( Davies ) and lead actor ( John Barrowman ) are both openly gay . The same reviewer notes that however , " especially when viewed on its own , Children of Earth looks a lot like the same heteronormative , homophobic , biphobic and gratuitous tropes that appear in so many bad representations of queer people in popular culture . " In response to the accusations of " de @-@ gaying " Torchwood , Davies advised those people do some research into his career ( creator of Queer as Folk ) and " stop riding on a bandwagon that they actually don 't know anything about " . Asked to respond to viewers who felt " cheated " that Jack and Ianto 's relationship did not come to fruition , Davies said :
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+That 's the point actually . Both in fiction and in life . When someone dies you lose all that potential . You grieve over everything they could have been . Everything you hoped for them . Everything they might have achieved with their lives , everyone they could have loved . Every job they could have had . Every joy they could have had . It 's gone .
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+Soon after the death of Ianto Jones during Torchwood 's third series , a campaign to bring him back was started through networking sites such as LiveJournal , Twitter and Facebook . The resulting website , www.saveiantojones.com , has organised a protest which encourages fans to send coffee , along with postcards and letters of complaint , to the BBC , a reference to Ianto 's status as the " coffee boy " . Via the Save Ianto Jones website , fans are also campaigning to raise money for the BBC charity Children in Need in honour of the character . The fundraising site states that " Though we , his devoted fans , still hope that he 'll come back ... we mourn him . In the series , he died saving the children of Earth ; so it seems fitting to honour his memory by helping the Children in Need . " Torchwood Magazine reported that the site had raised nearly £ 4 @,@ 000 , with individual donations ranging from £ 2 to £ 50 . John Barrowman described the charity campaign as " a fun way to mourn Ianto " and stated that it was " the kind of thing that 's really appreciated " . Gareth David @-@ Lloyd was flattered by the strong fan reaction , saying it is " satisfying in drama when you create such an emotional response , because that 's what you set out to do in the first place " . He praised the fan donations , claiming " So far , they 've raised about £ 3 @,@ 000 for Children in Need , and £ 1 @,@ 000 for Lluest Horse and Pony Trust in West Wales , which I 'm a patron of , so that 's got to be a good thing " . Coventry Telegraph records that by 21 July 2009 , £ 4 @,@ 172 had been donated in Ianto 's name .
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+In an interview with io9 on 28 July 2009 , creator Russell T Davies was asked about the controversy surrounding Ianto 's death and the fan reaction campaign . He replied " There 's a campaign , because he was a coffee boy . But do you know how many packets of coffee they 've received so far ? Nine . So I think people writing online might sound like thousands of people , but they are nine . " However , those involved in the movement believe that this number is much higher due to a post tallying the coffee sent within the community . When asked about the backlash in a separate interview with Michael Ausiello , Russell T Davies said " It 's not particularly a backlash . What 's actually happening is , well , nothing really to be honest . It 's a few people posting online and getting fans upset " . He also stated that the character was gone for good , and that his resurrection would devalue the " entire plot . " He recommended that fans who wish to stop watching the show should watch Supernatural " because those boys are beautiful " , or " look at poetry " if they " can 't handle drama " . Following these statements , the Save Ianto Jones website encouraged fans to contact BBC Wales rather than Davies , and temporarily presented on its front page the message " Mr Davies has made it clear in recent interviews that he views his fans with contempt , and as disposable , which saddens us " and asked not to be " abused " . At Comic @-@ Con 2009 , a fan claimed that Davies " hurt " a lot of internet fans with his decision to kill Ianto , which she called " out of line . " Davies replied that he would not change his mind regarding the decision , adding , " I 've got to be blunt about this , there have been campaigns to send packets of coffee to BBC Wales in protest . There have been nine packets sent . I 'm not taking the mickey , but that 's a very small number . " Executive producer Julie Gardner stated " We want people to be engaged , discuss and not always agree with us . At the end of the day , I make drama to support each author 's vision . It 's not a democracy . Whether people like it or not , it 's storytelling . " Simon Brew of Den of Geek has criticised the Internet campaigns to resurrect the character , citing that the show would " lose far more credibility " if he were brought back . Brew also expressed doubt that the fans stating they would boycott a fourth series will do so . He summarised : " Torchwood now needs to continue to have the courage of its convictions , and for that to happen , the reset switch simply isn 't an option . "
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+On 31 July 2009 , Digital Spy conducted a poll asking if it was " time to move on " from Ianto . However , a week later the website did not immediately publish the results , announcing " unfortunately it seems that this particular Poll was the subject of a campaign by diehard fans to distort the outcome " . Neil Wilkes opined that this action by the fans " suggests the answer to the question ' Have people overreacted to Ianto 's death ? ' is quite obvious " . Later , a footnote amendment noted that 31 @.@ 4 % said it was time to move on , " while the remainder demanded RTD 's head on a plate " , a reference to his own wording of the original poll , which gave readers the option of moving on from Ianto , or the executive producer 's head on a plate . James McCarthy of Wales Online described the reaction from some fans as " sickening " and quoted " crazed " fans on DeviantArt and Facebook who made explicit death threats against the Children of Earth writers . Gareth David @-@ Lloyd stated he was very disappointed in those fans , whose message board conduct he does not support at all and called " completely unacceptable " . David @-@ Lloyd added that he " would hope the writers would be able to ignore comments like that " . A number of fans were upset by the tone of the first Wales Online article , and their response prompted a follow up from McCarthy . In their comments , fans pointed out that his article disproportionately highlights what they called the " ill @-@ conceived , knee @-@ jerk reactions " of a few individuals , and stressed that these reactions in no way represent the movement to bring Ianto Jones back , which they hold as fundamentally respectful towards the show 's actors and writers . Fans have distanced themselves from the small minority of extremists , and have been keen to stress their peaceful activism , described as " thousands of fans who are raising money for charity , sending polite letters , and doing what we can to be supportive of the character and actor " . In 2010 , Doctor Who executive producer Steven Moffat told fans who contacted him that he wouldn 't want to resurrect Ianto even if he could : " Not reversing it . Stop asking . " In a 2011 poll published by the Liverpool Daily Post as part of a live Interview with writer John Fay , 70 % of respondents replied that the decision to kill Ianto had been the right one , with 19 % responding " indifferent " and only 11 % stating that it had been the wrong decision , contrasting with the initial fan response . In response to a question , Fay also stated that he had not been affected by the " scary " fan reaction , maintaining that " a universe in which fictional characters aren 't ' allowed ' to die is ridiculous and limiting " .
+
+The public reaction to the death of Ianto has had a wider @-@ reaching impact than simply the Torchwood fan community . For example , comic book writer Peter David cited the reaction to Ianto Jones 's death when reflecting on where to go with the gay relationship between the Marvel Comics characters Rictor and Shatterstar in X @-@ Factor v. 3 . He opined that in " virtually any happy relationship " , one of the characters has to die to " provide angst " to the more major character . His concern was " being tagged as against gay people " , the way Russell T Davies was , even though Davies is himself gay .
+
+= Hurricane Iniki =
+
+Hurricane Iniki ( / iːˈniːkiː / ee @-@ NEE @-@ kee ; Hawaiian : ʻiniki meaning " strong and piercing wind " ) was the most powerful hurricane to strike the U.S. state of Hawaii in recorded history . Forming on September 5 , 1992 , during the strong 1990 – 95 El Niño , Iniki was one of eleven Central Pacific tropical cyclones during that season . It attained tropical storm status on September 8 and further intensified into a hurricane the next day . After turning north , Iniki struck the island of Kauaʻi on September 11 at peak intensity ; it had winds of 145 miles per hour ( 233 km / h ) and reached Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . It was the first hurricane to hit the state since Hurricane Iwa in the 1982 season , and the first major hurricane since Hurricane Dot in 1959 . Iniki dissipated on September 13 about halfway between Hawaii and Alaska .
+
+Iniki caused around $ 1 @.@ 8 billion ( 1992 USD ) of damage and six deaths . At the time , Iniki was among the costliest United States hurricanes , and it remains one of the costliest hurricanes on record in the eastern Pacific . The storm struck just weeks after Hurricane Andrew , the costliest tropical cyclone ever at the time , struck Florida .
+
+The Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) failed to issue tropical cyclone warnings and watches 24 hours in advance . Despite the lack of early warning , only six deaths ensued . Damage was greatest on Kauaʻi , where the hurricane destroyed more than 1 @,@ 400 houses and severely damaged more than 5 @,@ 000 . Though not directly in the path of the eye , Oʻahu experienced moderate damage from wind and storm surge .
+
+= = Meteorological history = =
+
+The origin of Iniki is unclear , but it possibly began as a tropical wave that exited the African coast on August 18 . It moved westward across the unfavorable Atlantic Ocean and crossed Central America into the Pacific on the August 28 . The wave continued rapidly westward and remained disorganized . Conditions slowly became more favorable , and , as the convection concentrated around a center , the wave was classified Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E on September 5 . At this time , the wave was located 1700 miles ( 2700 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas or 1550 miles ( 2500 km ) east @-@ southeast of Hilo . Initially , the thunderstorm activity was not concentrated towards the center and thus the depression was not expected to intensify beyond minimal tropical storm strength . The depression continued quickly westward and remained weak until the September 8 , when it slowed enough to strengthen to a tropical storm .
+
+Located at the southern periphery of a subtropical ridge , Iniki continued westward and strengthened over the unusually favorable central Pacific ; it reached hurricane status on September 9 while 470 miles ( 760 km ) south @-@ southeast of Hilo . The subtropical ridge , which typically keeps hurricanes well away from the Hawaiian Islands , weakened due to an approaching upper level @-@ trough and allowed Iniki to turn to the northwest . With very favorable upper @-@ level outflow and warm water temperatures , Iniki steadily intensified , and attained major hurricane status on September 10 while south @-@ southwest of the island chain .
+
+As Iniki turned to the north , it continued to strengthen , reaching a peak of 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) winds on September 11 while 170 miles ( 270 km ) south @-@ southwest of Poʻipū on the island of Kauaʻi . It continued rapidly to the north @-@ northeast , and made landfall on south @-@ central Kauai early on the 11th with sustained winds of 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) , making Iniki a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The National Weather Service reported wind gusts of up to 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . The highest recorded wind speed from Hurricane Iniki was a 227 mph ( 365 km / h ) reading from the Navy 's Makaha Ridge radar station . According to the Honolulu Advertiser , that remarkable figure was recorded at a digital weather station whose wind gauging equipment blew off after taking the measurement during the storm . After crossing the island , Iniki rapidly accelerated north @-@ northeastward , weakened rapidly , and was absorbed by a cold front as it lost tropical characteristics and became extratropical on September 13 about halfway between Alaska and Hawaiʻi .
+
+= = Preparations = =
+
+The Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) failed to issue tropical cyclone warnings and watches for the hurricane well in advance . For several days prior to the disaster , the CPHC and the news media forecast Iniki to remain well south of the island chain , with the only effect being some high surf conditions . Some of the standard international computer models were indicating a northward turn towards the populated Hawaiian Islands , but these were rejected by the CPHC forecasters . As late as early September 11 , the CPHC suggested that Iniki would remain well to the south of the island group . It was not until a special bulletin was issued by the CPHC less than 24 hours before landfall — that any warning was given to the public .
+
+A hurricane watch was issued for Kauaʻi early on September 11 and was upgraded to a hurricane warning later that day . Prior to Iniki 's arrival in Kauaʻi , 8 @,@ 000 people were housed in shelters , many of whom remembered Hurricane Iwa 10 years prior . Because schools were canceled , traffic was light during the evacuation , and streets were clear by mid @-@ morning . Rather than sending tourists to public shelters , two major hotels kept their occupants in the buildings during the storm 's passage .
+
+The CPHC issued a tropical storm warning for Oʻahu on September 11 which was upgraded to a hurricane warning later that day . Though not hit by the hurricane , Iniki 's large wind field caused nearly 30 @,@ 000 people to evacuate to 110 public shelters in Oʻahu . Public school buildings acted as shelters , and were for refuge only , meaning they did not provide food , cots , blankets , medications or other comfort items . Roughly one @-@ third of Oʻahu 's population participated in the evacuation , though many others went to the house of a family member or friend for shelter . The execution of the evacuations went well , beginning with the vulnerable coastal area . For those in need , vans and buses gave emergency transportation , while police manned certain overused intersections . The two main problems that occurred during the evacuation were lack of parking at shelters and exit routes for the coastlines .
+
+= = Impact = =
+
+Hurricane Iniki was the costliest hurricane to strike the state of Hawaiʻi , causing $ 1 @.@ 8 billion in damage . Most damage was on the island of Kauaʻi , where the storm destroyed thousands of homes and left a large amount of the island without power , although Oʻahu also suffered significant damage . Iniki also was responsible for six deaths .
+
+The hurricane nearly struck the Central Pacific Hurricane Center in Honolulu . Had it hit there , Iniki , along with Hurricane Andrew and Typhoon Omar , would have struck each of the three National Weather Service offices responsible for tropical cyclone warnings within a two @-@ month period .
+
+= = = Kauaʻi = = =
+
+Hurricane Iniki made landfall on the south @-@ central portion of Kauaʻi island , bringing its dangerous inner core to the entire island . Upon making landfall the hurricane produced storm tides of 4 @.@ 5 – 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 8 m ) , with some portions of the coastlines having high @-@ water marks of up to 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) . In addition , strong waves of up to 35 feet ( 10 @.@ 5 m ) in height crashed along the southern coastline for several hours , causing a debris line of more than 800 feet ( 250 m ) inland . Because it moved quickly through the island , there were no reports of significant rainfall .
+
+Hurricane Iniki 's making landfall during daylight hours , combined with the popularity of camcorders , led many Kauaʻi residents to record much of the damage as it was occurring . The footage was later used to create an hour @-@ long video documentary . Airline service was down .
+
+Hurricane Iniki 's high winds caused extensive damage in Kauaʻi . 1 @,@ 421 houses were destroyed , and 63 were lost from the storm surge and wave action . A total of 5 @,@ 152 homes were severely damaged , while 7 @,@ 178 received minor damage . On the south coast , hotels and condominiums received severe damage as well . A few were restored quickly , though some took several years to be rebuilt . One hotel — the Coco Palms Resort famous for Elvis Presley 's Blue Hawaii — never reopened after the hurricane . Destroyed housing across the island left more than 7 @,@ 000 people homeless after the storm 's passage .
+
+Iniki 's high winds also downed 26 @.@ 5 % of the island 's transmission poles , 37 % of its distribution poles , and 35 % of its 800 mile ( 1300 km ) distribution wire system . The entire island lacked electricity and television service for an extended period of time . Electric companies restored only 20 % of the island 's power service within four weeks of Iniki , while other areas were without power for up to three months . Also affected by the storm was the agricultural sector . Though much of the sugar cane was already harvested , what was left was severely damaged . The winds destroyed tender tropical plants like bananas and papayas and uprooted or damaged fruit and nut trees .
+
+Most of Iniki 's damage occurred in Kauaʻi . On the island , one person died when struck by debris , while another lost her life when a portion of her house fell on her . Offshore , two Japanese nationals died when their boat capsized . The reduced death toll was likely due to well @-@ executed warnings and preparation . More than 100 injuries can be attributed to Iniki , though most occurred in the aftermath of the hurricane .
+
+Among those on Kauaʻi was filmmaker Steven Spielberg , who was preparing for the final day of on @-@ location shooting of the film Jurassic Park . He and the 130 of his cast and crew remained safely in a hotel during Iniki 's passage . According to Spielberg , " every single structure was in shambles ; roofs and walls were torn away ; telephone poles and trees were down as far as the eye could see . " Members of the film 's crew helped to clear some of the debris off of nearby roads .
+
+The U.S. Coast Guard station at Nawiliwili Harbor was hard hit by the storm , which fatally damaged the service 's 82 @-@ foot ( 25 m ) cutter stationed there . The Coast Guard promptly established a humanitarian response detachment , commanded by Lt. Kenneth Armstrong , which helped to provide medical supplies , food , ice , water , and cash grants to island residents , as well as making temporary repairs to public buildings . Under Armstrong 's command , the port was recertified to receive gasoline and diesel fuel , which helped to relieve a major fuel shortage caused by the widespread use of personal electrical generators . A larger DoD contingent , nicknamed " Operation Garden Sweep , " provided large scale relief in the form of tent cities , utility repairs , road clearings , and major medical operations .
+
+= = = Oʻahu = = =
+
+Upon passing by Oʻahu , Iniki produced tides of 1 @.@ 7 – 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 9 m ) above normal . Prolonged periods of high waves severely eroded and damaged the southwestern coast of Oʻahu , with the areas most affected being Barbers Point through Kaʻena . The Waiʻanae coastline experienced the most damage , with waves and storm surge flooding the second floor of beachside apartments . In all , Hurricane Iniki caused several million dollars in property damage , and two deaths on Oʻahu .
+
+= = = Big Island = = =
+
+Damage on the big island was minor . Seas of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) were reported , along with 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds . In Kona Harbor , three or four sailboats were tossed onto the rocks and one trimaran at another harbor was sunk . The Napoʻopoʻo Beach , in the Kealakekua Bay lost some sand and to this day has never been the same .
+
+= = Aftermath = =
+
+Immediately after the storm , many were relieved to have survived the worst of the Category 4 hurricane ; their complacency turned to apprehensiveness due to lack of information , as every radio station was out and there was no news available for several days . Because Iniki knocked out electrical power for most of the island , communities held parties to necessarily consume perishable food from unpowered refrigerators and freezers . Though food markets allowed those affected to take what they needed , many Kauaʻi citizens insisted on paying . In addition , entertainers from all of Hawaiʻi , including Graham Nash ( who owns a home on the north shore of Kauaʻi ) and the Honolulu Symphony , provided free concerts to the victims .
+
+Looting occurred in the aftermath of Iniki , though it was very minor . A group of Army Corps of Engineers , who experienced the looting of Hurricane Andrew just weeks before , were surprised at the overall calmness and lack of violence on the island . Although electrical power was restored to most of the island approximately six weeks following the hurricane , students returned to Kauaʻi public schools two weeks after the disaster . Kauaʻi citizens remained hopeful for monetary aid from the government or insurance companies , though after six months they felt annoyed with the lack of help . The military effectively provided aid for their immediate needs , though , and help arrived before local officials requested aid .
+
+Amateur radio proved to be extremely helpful during the three weeks after the storm , with volunteers coming from the neighboring islands as well as from around the Pacific to assist in the recovery . There was support of local government communications in Lihue in the first week of recovery as well as a hastily organized effort by local operators to assist with the American Red Cross and their efforts to provide shelters and disaster relief centers across Kauaʻi .
+
+In the months after the storm , many insurance companies left Hawaiʻi . To combat this , State Governor John D. Waihee III enacted the Hurricane Relief Fund in 1993 to help unprotected Hawaiʻi residents . The fund was never needed for another Hawaiʻi hurricane , and it was stopped in 2000 when insurance companies returned to the island .
+
+It is thought that Hurricane Iniki blew apart many chicken coops , some possibly used to house fighting chickens ; this caused a dramatic increase in the numbers of wild chickens roaming Kauaʻi .
+
+The name Iniki was retired due to this storm , and was replaced with Iolana within the Central North Pacific tropical storm list . Less than three days after Iniki struck , Hurricane Orlene struck the Big Island as a depression .
+
+= Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band =
+
+The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band ( also known as the Noble Men of Kyle or just the Aggie Band ) is the official marching band of Texas A & M University . Composed of over 400 men and women from the school 's Corps of Cadets , it is the largest military marching band in the world . The band 's complex straight @-@ line marching maneuvers are performed exclusively to traditional marches .
+
+Since its inception in 1894 , its members eat together , sleep in the same dormitories , and practice up to forty hours per week on top of a full academic schedule . The Aggie Band performs at all home football games , some away games , and university and Corps functions throughout the year . The band has also participated in inauguration parades for many United States Presidents and Texas Governors , major annual parades across the country , and the dedication ceremony for the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library .
+
+= = History = =
+
+= = = Early years = = =
+
+The Aggie Band owes its existence to Joseph Holick . In 1885 , Holick and his brother Louis boarded an empty boxcar bound for Orange , Texas so that they could gain employment in a lumber mill . En route , the two stopped in Bryan , Texas , near the campus of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas . The 22 @-@ year @-@ old Holick began to doubt his choice , stating , " I was a small boy and couldn 't do lumbering work " , and chose to remain in Bryan working under Raymond Blatherwick , owner of a prominent boot shop . Lawrence Sullivan Ross , the president of the nearby college and a former Governor of Texas , stopped into Blatherwick 's boot shop and noted how inconvenient it was for cadets to go to Bryan for their boots . Ross requested Holick be stationed at the new military college to perform cobbler duties .
+
+Holick accepted the proposal and moved to work at Texas A & M. Shortly after his arrival , the Commandant 's staff discovered his musical talents . They requested him to play the bugle for Corps functions and for US $ 65 a month , he was assigned to play Reveille and Taps . Because the new job paid much more than his previous one , Holick wanted to give the school " more than just two tunes for its money and he asked the commandant for permission to start a cadet band " . The commandant agreed and named Holick its first bandmaster . Under his tutelage and the leadership of subsequent bandmasters , the band grew from 13 members at its inception in 1894 to 75 bandsmen in 1924 .
+
+Early drum majors are credited with inspiring the band 's name . The first student drum major , H.A. " California " Morse , was asked to leave the college due to fighting . In addition , the early drum majors were chosen in physical combat ; insomuch that the candidates were placed in a locked room , with the best fighter / the one emerging victorious , being named to the coveted position . This tradition of aggressiveness and physical combat was noted by band members , who then took to calling themselves the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band .
+
+= = = Dunn years = = =
+
+In 1924 , Lieutenant Colonel Richard J. Dunn was appointed as bandmaster . As a former member of John Philip Sousa 's Marine Band and with 26 years of military band leadership experience , Dunn quickly instituted changes within the band . The first was to the position of bugler , whose duties had fallen to the bandmaster since 1894 . When informed that he was expected to fill the role , Dunn told college officials , " I have blown enough bugles . I am the Bandmaster . Someone else can blow the bugle calls . " From then on , the Corps Bugler was chosen from the ranks of the Aggie Band .
+
+Dunn also instituted uniform changes which added white canvas to the band uniform , resulting in a " flash effect " every other step . Dunn tried , to no avail , to rid the band of the Senior Boots , but this tradition was too well @-@ established . Other additions included crossed white belts , later discarded in favor of a white Sam Browne belt , silver buckles , and the addition of a bugle rank to lead the band in its maneuvers . Changes in the drills included the " Block T " , the band 's signature , and such intricate designs which led to talk amongst fans about the band " always winning halftime " .
+
+Under Dunn 's experience , the band instituted some traditions that the university uses to the present . In 1925 , Marvin H. Mimms wrote the lyrics for an alma mater for the school . Dunn , who found the Aggie War Hymn " inappropriate " for social functions and solemn occasions , wrote its accompanying music and presented it to the student body titled Spirit of Aggieland . In 1926 , the tradition of Elephant Walk began when two seniors in the band led a procession of seniors throughout the school grounds visiting all the important places on campus . All the seniors in one single file was " quite a site to behold " , and one junior commented that they looked like a bunch of old elephants wandering around trying to find some place to die . The name stuck and the tradition continues to the present .
+
+Beginning in 1939 , the U.S. Army required all cadets to be in either infantry or field artillery units . Therefore , the band was split into two separate units at opposite ends of the campus dormitories and named Infantry and Artillery Bands . When the two units performed together , they formed the Combined Band . 1942 saw the band expand to 250 members , but the need for manpower for the war effort caused membership to plummet . By the end of the 1942 – 1943 school year , it dropped it to only 90 bandsmen . As " a crusty old army man " , Dunn understood the nation 's urgent need for troops , and he accepted the fact that the Aggie Band could only return after the war was over .
+
+Along with conducting the Aggie Band , Dunn started his own orchestra with the newly built A & M Consolidated High School on the Texas A & M Campus , called the " Little Symphony Orchestra " . Dunn was also the founder of the famous A & M Consolidated High School Tiger Band in 1947 .
+
+= = = Adams era = = =
+
+Dunn once told then @-@ cadet Edward Vergne Adams , " One day I want you to direct this band . " Adams thought the Colonel was joking , but " went to music school after graduation just in case he wasn 't " . After music school , he joined the Army and put his musical skills to rest for the duration of the war , with one exception : while on regimental staff during the retreat ceremony at the end of the day , the assigned bugler had no experience and couldn 't play a single note , so Adams stepped out of formation , took the bugle from the bugler 's hands , blew the appropriate calls , handed the bugle back , and marched back into his spot in the formation .
+
+This intolerance for incompetence served him well when he accepted the invitation of Dunn to be his replacement as director of the Aggie Band . Adams began his tenure with an undisciplined band devoid of experience and ravaged by years of war , but in his first year of leadership , the ranks of the band quickly swelled to 225 members . Infantry and field artillery associations were no longer required by the Army and Adams changed the units ' names to the Maroon and White Bands .
+
+Adams began to make the drills far more intricate and precise than they had been in the past by adding a countermarch , maneuvers from the Army Drill Manual , and established a 30 inch ( 76 cm ) step , or six steps for every five yards ( 4.57m ) , as the band standard . Adams also added the criss @-@ cross maneuver . First performed November 27 , 1947 at the annual Thanksgiving Day game with the University of Texas , the criss @-@ cross maneuver and its later variations became the band 's most anticipated maneuver . Other band directors said it was impossible to do because it required two people to be in the same place at the same time ( indeed , to this day computer programs that chart band formations say that this maneuver cannot be performed ) . To accomplish this , band members step between each other 's feet . In later years , people who did not know that the maneuver was first done in 1947 claimed that the drill was designed by a computer . Adams explained , " It 's all a matter of mathematics . One man can take up only a certain amount of space at one time and moves in one direction at a predictable rate of speed . "
+
+The band 's reputation spread and other bands had begun to have some apprehension about performing in the same halftime as the Aggie Band . One Southwest Conference band director stated , " I dread going against the Aggie Band .... What is so humiliating is to see the Aggie Band do things band directors talk about as being impossible , and do them perfectly . It takes two weeks to recover from the trauma . " In 1960 , " one band gave up without a fight " : the Trinity Tiger Band opted to sit instead of perform and gave the Aggie Band the entire halftime to perform .
+
+During Adams ' tenure , the college acquired a new mascot , the first since the original Reveille died in 1944 . Reveille II , like the original Reveille , was cared for and attended to by band members . During halftime performances , the young dog was allowed to be on the field with the band without her leash . During these breaks where she could get out and run , she had a tendency to " do her business " on Kyle Field 's playing surface . This didn 't bother the band members much , as Reveille stayed away from the band , but Adams discovered a gambling scheme whereby cadets were taking bets on what yardline the dog would defecate . He quickly ended the practice and turned the responsibility of caring for Reveille over to Company E @-@ 2 , which has since been called the Mascot Company .
+
+On October 7 , 1967 , the first meeting of the Aggie Band Association took place to support the band . The organization , composed of former members and supporters , continue to assist the band through fundraising , scholarships , instrument repair , and general welfare of the cadets in the band . In 1970 , Adams acquired funds and built a new band hall which was named in his honor .
+
+= = = Modernization and expansion = = =
+
+Colonel Joe T. Haney took over the band in 1973 . He felt his obligation was , " not to build up the band ... [ but ] to keep it at its already exceptional level " . During Haney 's years , the band expanded to include a concert band , a symphonic band , the Aggieland Orchestra , and a Drum and Bugle Corps , and the names of the two subunits reverted to their earlier designations of Infantry and Artillery Bands .
+
+This simple philosophy was tested as Texas A & M transitioned from an all @-@ male military college to a coeducational research university . The addition of women to the Corps presented some challenges , including one high @-@ profile lawsuit and fierce resistance from former Corps and Band members . When women were finally admitted to the band under court order ( Fall Semester , 1985 ) ; the first three women had to be housed in a separate dorm until accommodations could be made within the band dorms . Reporters were relentless and Haney finally called an open press conference with the three young ladies . The female cadets refused pictures unless their fish buddies ( members of their freshman class in their unit ) were included in the photos . With a band dropout rate of 33 % the odds were against all of the female cadets succeeding , only Andrea Abat remained in the band through her senior year . Haney realized the separate living conditions were not conducive to good order and discipline and integrated the dorms , grouping females at one end of the dorm and designating one bathroom for exclusive female use .
+
+Amidst these drastic changes , large proportions of the freshmen classes ( some as high as 30 % ) contained all @-@ state high school band members . As the band 's experience and musical talents grew , the quality of the music improved dramatically . Haney even rewrote the drills to include a portion where the band stopped moving and played to the audience . This innovation was well received and became a staple of the band 's repertoire . In 1975 , at a televised game versus the University of Arkansas , the Aggie Band was repeatedly asked to play music during lulls in the game . By the fourth quarter , the Aggie Band had played on TV during every break and Colonel Haney , trying his best to be fair , told the cameraman that they really should let the Razorback Band play a little too . The cameraman called up to the broadcast booth to get guidance and then replied , " The director doesn 't want to hear the Arkansas band , he wants to hear the Aggie Band . "
+
+The drills became even more complicated as Haney added formations and maneuvers never before seen . The excellence shown on the field belied its heavy dependence on precision . On October 24 , 1981 the band suffered a serious misstep during the halftime show at Rice University when four members of a lead element turned early and , before anyone could make a correction , colliding band members ground the drill to a halt . With so many members doing exactly what the person in front of them does with mere inches of clearance , the cascade effect was unrecoverable and the band simply stopped and left the field . Although it was first rumored that the collision was intended to mock the Rice Marching Owl Band , and later that Rice students were using whistles to throw off the band 's response to drum major whistle commands , all of the rumors proved to be unsubstantiated . Thereafter the band performed all drills in Houston without whistle commands .
+
+The following weekend the band attempted their most complicated drill and performed flawlessly . Each subsequent week , the drills became more complicated . The Bryan @-@ College Station Eagle 's editor opined , " A & M is probably the only school anywhere that throws in a free football game with its performance . One of these days , I fully expect the band to be invited to a bowl game — and to be told it can bring along its football team if it wants to . "
+
+= = = Into a new millennium = = =
+
+Lieutenant Colonel Ray E. Toler , a Texas Christian University graduate , replaced Haney when he stepped down in 1989 . As a veteran of many Air Force Bands and with a Grammy Award nomination under his belt , Toler was quick to realize the potential and traditions of the Aggie Band and quickly set about publicizing it . Under his direction , the Aggie Band began a weekly television show ( the " Texas Aggie Band Show " ) that showcased the band , the Corps of Cadets , and the daily life of a band member . As of 2007 , the Aggie Band is the only university or college band with its own weekly television show . The Aggie Band was recognized nationally as the 2001 recipient of the Louis Sudler Trophy for collegiate marching bands , administered by the John Philip Sousa Foundation . During Toler 's leadership of the Aggie Band , its presence was personally requested by President @-@ elect George W. Bush for his inauguration parade .
+
+During Toler 's tenure , many of the Aggie drills and music were written by Dr. Timothy Rhea , who succeeded Toler as Director of Bands in 2002 . Rhea actively arranges and composes music , which has been published by TRN Music Publisher , RBC Music Publisher , and Arranger 's Publishing Company .
+
+= = Cadet life = =
+
+The members of the band are called BQs and , since the band 's inception , are part of the Corps of Cadets . All BQs are assigned to one of six units : A @-@ Battery , B @-@ Battery , C @-@ Battery , A @-@ Company , B @-@ Company or C @-@ Company . C @-@ Company and C @-@ Battery were reactivated on August 23 , 2013 . The band is a major unit within the Corps , comparable in size to a Brigade or a Wing . Due to its status as a Senior Military College all cadets are required to take ROTC classes at least their first two years , though follow @-@ on military service is not required .
+
+The Aggie Band is unique among college bands ; no other band eats and lives together as a military unit , even at the Service Academies and military colleges . Bandsmen wear their cadet uniforms to class , drill , meetings , and other functions on campus . As a requested component of football away games , they perform at more football games than any other band . As of 1993 , the band performed at 125 of the last 131 football games , including a streak of 42 straight from 1981 to 1984 . Demand is extremely high for the band and one person , upon finding out the Aggie Band would not be performing at the local football game versus A & M , returned and requested a refund for 40 tickets .
+
+The Aggie Band performs a new show each week during the football season and does not generally repeat drills from week to week . During the fall semester , the Aggie Band practices one to three hours every weekday morning and on Saturdays every week with a football game . In addition , some components of the band also practice on Sunday afternoons and planning of the drills takes place throughout the fall semester . During weeks with complicated drills , extra practice and planning time is sometimes also done on weekday afternoons . All told , drills can take up to 40 hours per week on top of a full academic schedule and Corps / ROTC activities .
+
+All seniors in the Corps of Cadets wear distinctive cavalry riding boots with their uniforms . These boots usually cost more than US $ 1 @,@ 000 and are generally made at Victor 's or Holick 's , formerly owned by the family of Joseph Holick , the first Band Director .
+
+= = = Leadership = = =
+
+Unlike many bands , the drum majors are not in charge of the band as a whole . Since the band is part of the Corps , it has its own unit commander , a Cadet Colonel . Due to necessity for military functions , the Band Commander is accorded the privilege of the first file in bugle rank ( the lead rank of the band ) . During formal military ceremonies , the commander carries a sabre instead of a bugle , as do all other commanders . Subordinate to the Band Commander are the commanders of the Artillery and Infantry bands , each a Cadet Lieutenant Colonel ; and the unit commanders of A @-@ Battery , B @-@ Battery , C @-@ Battery , A @-@ Company , B @-@ Company , and C @-@ Company . The Batteries are called the Artillery Band and the Companies the Infantry Band . The two bands perform together for halftime shows , but are often split for minor performances such as local parades and functions where the entire band is not needed . Furthermore , the band is composed of three different ROTC programs and appoints commanders to manage and train the cadets within their respective ROTC affiliations .
+
+On the field , the band is led by three drum majors and the twelve members of bugle rank . Each drum major carries a mace and directs the band based on its movements and whistle commands during a drill . The head drum major is a Cadet Lieutenant Colonel , while the two side drum majors , the Infantry Band Drum Major and the Artillery Band Drum Major , are Cadet Majors .
+
+Bugle rank consists of the Band Commander and eleven other senior cadets who are well respected in the band and have impeccable marching abilities . Each bugle rank member carries a bugle with a banner , but are never played during a performance . Together , the drum majors and bugle rank lead the band through the maneuvers on the field . In addition to their primary functions within the band , the bugles and maces also serve a military ceremonial function and are used to salute commissioned officers , much as a rifleman would salute with a rifle or a commander would salute with a sabre .
+
+= = = Composition = = =
+
+The band has approximately 420 members with more than 90 trumpets and cornets , 70 trombones , 30 mellophones , 30 baritones , 45 bass horns , 50 drummers , and 80 assorted woodwinds , though the actual composition varies annually . There are no flutes in the Aggie Band , as their position while being played would hinder the intricate marching maneuvers . Piccolos are used instead . All members of the band must have high school marching experience , an audition during the spring semester leading into the first fall semester of attendance to include major scales and sight reading , and an individual interview with the band director . Prospective members are also encouraged to participate in the Spend the Night with the Corps program to better understand the rigors of life in the Corps of Cadets .
+
+= = Marching = =
+
+= = = Complex maneuvers = = =
+
+The repertoire of the Aggie Band 's maneuvers is designed by the directors and drum majors and can include obliques , flanks , countermarches , and other Army marching maneuvers . The Band is generally led by the bugle rank with each person following the person in front of them , also known as follow @-@ the @-@ leader . Space between band members during countermarches is less than six inches ( 15 cm ) and during other maneuvers even less . This space is insufficient for the bass horns and some members must turn their horns to complete the maneuver . According to an article in The Battalion , " some of the Aggie band 's maneuvers are so complex that some drill @-@ charting software says that the drills are impossible because they require multiple people to be in the same place at the same time . " This is also discussed in a video by The Association of Former Students of Texas A & M University .
+
+The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band has performed at inauguration parades for many Presidents of the United States in Washington , D.C. , including at the personal request of President @-@ elect George H. W. Bush . Other events in which the band has participated include inauguration parades for Governors of Texas , major annual parades across the country , and the dedication ceremony for the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library .
+
+= = = Typical halftime drill = = =
+
+The halftime drill always begins with the band running into place at the command of the drum major 's whistle . The announcer ( Lieutenant Colonel Jay Brewer ) then states , usually in unison with the crowd , " Now forming at the north end of Kyle Field , the nationally famous Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band . " A whoop and cheers come from the audience . The drum majors then march out in front of the band and the head drum major calls the band to attention and vocally gives directions to the band , referencing the composition of the Aggie War Hymn , by shouting , " Recall ! Step off on Hullabaloo ! " ( Recall is a traditional Army bugle call – the first 34 notes , and intro of the Aggie War Hymn . " Hullabaloo " is the first word sung in the Aggie War Hymn . ) These directions are not amplified in any way , but can be heard across the entire stadium . After another whoop , the drum majors signal for the horns to be lifted into playing position with two quick whistle blasts and the bugle rank does a flourish .
+
+The drill then begins with the band playing the opening notes of the War Hymn and stepping off into the initial formation . At some point in the drill , the band converts from Spread formation to Block formation . With no cessation of the music until the band leaves the field , the drill continues and often stops with the band playing the last stanza in place in the center of the field before moving into the signature " Block T " or " Block ATM " . When done playing , the band runs off the field . Specific maneuvers in the drill can include :
+
+The Criss Cross : the band files split into two halves and march through each other at 90 ° angles
+
+The Four @-@ way Cross : The band splits into four groups of three files and march through each other from each of the corners of the field ( this maneuver is one of the more popular among fans , due to its difficulty )
+
+Minstrel Turns : band members pass through each other by stepping between each other 's feet .
+
+Spread @-@ to @-@ Block : the band moves from being 30 files wide ( i.e. , across the width of the football field ) by 12 ranks deep ( i.e. , along the length of the football field ) to 12 files wide by 30 ranks deep
+
+Block @-@ to @-@ Spread : the opposite of Spread @-@ to @-@ Block
+
+Continuous Countermarch : the bugle rank leads two successive countermarches following the back of the band through the maneuver
+
+Wheel Turns ( also known as a Gate Turn ) : A turn of a block of the band where the people on the inside of the turn reduce their step size . This is only done during parades when going around corners .
+
+= = Music = =
+
+As a military marching band , the Aggie Band exclusively plays traditional marches . Among many other marches , its primary repertoire includes :
+
+Fightin ' Texas Aggie War Hymn
+
+Spirit of Aggieland : The school 's alma mater
+
+The Noble Men of Kyle : The group 's signature march ; also a nickname for the band
+
+Ballad of the Green Berets
+
+The main theme from the movie Patton
+
+When Johnny Comes Marching Home
+
+Strategic Air Command March
+
+The Aggie Band frequently performs a number of standard military and circus marches :
+
+The Trombone King
+
+Stars and Stripes Forever
+
+Bravura
+
+National Emblem
+
+Them Basses
+
+Washington Post
+
+Many contemporary works are also commonly played by the band , several of them arranged by Dr. Rhea . These include movie marches ( Theme from 1941 , Parade of the Charioteers ) , concert marches ( The Sinfonians ) , and even symphonic and orchestral music ( " Cathedral Chorus " from Russian Christmas Music , Great Gate of Kiev ) .
+
+= Crucifixion darkness =
+
+The Crucifixion darkness is an episode in three of the Canonical Gospels in which the sky becomes dark in daytime during the crucifixion of Jesus .
+
+Ancient and medieval Christian writers treated this as a miracle , and believed it to be one of the few episodes from the New Testament which were confirmed by non @-@ Christian sources . Pagan commentators of the Roman era explained it as an eclipse , although Christian writers pointed out that an eclipse during Passover , when the crucifixion took place , would have been impossible ; a solar eclipse cannot occur during a full moon .
+
+Modern scholarship , noting the way in which similar accounts were associated in ancient times with the deaths of notable figures , sees the phenomenon as a literary invention that attempts to convey a sense of the power of Jesus in the face of death , or a sign of God 's displeasure with the Jewish people . Scholars have also noted the ways in which this episode appears to draw on earlier biblical accounts of darkness from the Book of Amos and the Book of Exodus .
+
+= = Biblical account = =
+
+The oldest biblical reference to the crucifixion darkness is found in the Gospel of Mark , written around the year 70 . In its account of the crucifixion , on the eve of Passover , it says that after Jesus was crucified at nine in the morning , darkness fell over all the land , or all the world ( Greek : γῆν gēn can mean either ) from around noon ( " the sixth hour " ) until 3 o 'clock ( " the ninth hour " ) . It adds , immediately after the death of Jesus , that " the curtain of the temple was torn in two , from top to bottom " .
+
+The Gospel of Matthew , written around the year 85 or 90 , and using Mark as a source , has an almost identical wording : " From noon on , darkness came over the whole land [ or , earth ] until three in the afternoon . " The author adds dramatic details , including an earthquake and the raising of the dead , which were stock motifs from Jewish apocalyptic literature : " The earth shook , and the rocks were split . The tombs also were opened , and many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were raised . "
+
+The Gospel of Luke , written around the year 90 and also using Mark as a source , has none of the details added in the Matthew version , moves the tearing of the temple veil to before the death of Jesus , and explains the darkness as a darkening of the sun :
+
+It was now about noon , and darkness came over the whole land [ or , earth ] until three in the afternoon , while the sun 's light failed [ or , the sun was eclipsed ] ; and the curtain of the temple was torn in two .
+
+It appears that the Luke Gospel originally explained the event as an eclipse . The majority of manuscripts of the Gospel of Luke have the Greek phrase " eskotisthe ho helios " ( " the sun was darkened " ) , but the earliest manuscripts say " tou heliou eklipontos " ( " the sun 's light failed " or " the sun was in eclipse " ) . This earlier version is likely to have been the original one , amended by later scribes to correct what they assumed was an error , since they knew that an eclipse was impossible during Passover . One early Christian commentator even suggested that the text had been deliberately corrupted by opponents of the Church to make it easier to attack .
+
+The account of the crucifixion given in the Gospel of John is very different . It takes place on the day of Passover , the crucifixion does not take place until after noon , and there is no mention of darkness , the tearing of the veil , or the raising of the dead .
+
+= = Later versions = =
+
+= = = Apocryphal writers = = =
+
+A number of accounts in apocryphal literature built on the accounts of the crucifixion darkness . The Gospel of Peter , probably from the second century , expanded on the canonical gospel accounts in creative ways . As one writer puts it , " accompanying miracles become more fabulous and the apocalyptic portents are more vivid " . In this version , the darkness which covers the whole of Judaea leads people to go about with lamps believing it to be night . The fourth century Gospel of Nicodemus describes how Pilate and his wife are disturbed by a report of what had happened , and the Judeans he has summoned tell him it was an ordinary solar eclipse . Another text from the fourth century , the purported Report of Pontius Pilate to Tiberius , claimed the darkness had started at the sixth hour , covered the whole world , and during the subsequent evening the full moon resembled blood for the entire night . In a fifth- or sixth @-@ century text by Pseudo @-@ Dionysius the Areopagite , the author claims to have observed a solar eclipse from Heliopolis at the time of the crucifixion .
+
+= = = Ancient historians = = =
+
+No contemporary references to this darkness have been found outside of the New Testament . Later commentators speculated about a reference in a work by the chronicler Thallus . In the ninth century , the Byzantine historian George Syncellus quoted from the third @-@ century Christian historian Sextus Julius Africanus , who remarked that " Thallos dismisses this darkness as a solar eclipse " . It is not known when Thallus lived , and it is unclear whether he himself made any reference to the crucifixion . Tertullian , in his Apologeticus , told the story of the crucifixion darkness and suggested that the evidence must still be held in the Roman archives .
+
+Until the Enlightenment era , the crucifixion darkness story was often used by Christian apologists because they believed it was a rare example of the biblical account being supported by non @-@ Christian sources . When the pagan critic Celsus claimed that Jesus could hardly be a God because he had performed no great deeds , the third @-@ century Christian commentator Origen responded , in Against Celsus , by recounting the darkness , earthquake and opening of tombs . As proof that the incident had happened , he referred to a description by Phlegon of Tralles of an eclipse , accompanied by earthquakes felt in other parts of the Empire during the reign of Tiberius ( probably that of 29 CE ) .
+
+In his Commentary on Matthew , however , Origen offered a different approach . Answering criticisms that there was no mention of this incident in any of the many non @-@ Christian sources , he insisted that it was local to Palestine , and therefore would have gone unnoticed outside . To suggestions it was merely an eclipse , Origen pointed out that this was impossible and suggested other explanations , such as heavy clouds , drawing only on the accounts given in Matthew and Mark , which make no mention of the sun .
+
+= = Explanations = =
+
+= = = Miracle = = =
+
+Because it was known in ancient and medieval times that a solar eclipse could not take place during Passover ( solar eclipses require a new moon while Passover only takes place during a full moon ) it was considered a miraculous sign rather than a naturally occurring event . The astronomer Johannes de Sacrobosco wrote , in his The Sphere of the World , " the eclipse was not natural , but , rather , miraculous and contrary to nature " . Modern writers who regard this as a miraculous event tend either to see it as operating through a natural phenomenon — such as volcanic dust or heavy cloud cover — or avoid explanation completely . The Reformation Study Bible , for instance , simply states " This was a supernatural darkness . "
+
+= = = Naturalistic explanations = = =
+
+The Gospel of Luke account appears to describe the event as an eclipse , and some non @-@ Christian writers dismissed it in these terms . However , the biblical details do not accord with an eclipse : a solar eclipse could not have occurred on or near the Passover , when Jesus was crucified , and would have been too brief to account for three hours of darkness . The maximum possible duration of a total solar eclipse is seven minutes and 31 @.@ 1 seconds . The only total eclipse visible in Jerusalem in this era fell later in the year , on 24 November 29 CE at 11 : 05 AM . Around the Sea of Galilee , it would have been visible for just one minute and forty @-@ nine seconds , and would have been apparent only to those indoors .
+
+In 1983 , Colin Humphreys and W. G. Waddington argued that the darkness could be accounted for by a partial lunar eclipse that had taken place on that day : lunar eclipses can last much longer than solar ones . Astronomer Bradley E. Schaefer , on the other hand , pointed out that the eclipse would not have been visible during daylight hours . Humphreys and Waddington speculated that the reference in the Luke Gospel to a solar eclipse must have been the result of a scribe wrongly amending the text , a claim historian David Henige describes as " indefensible " .
+
+Some writers have explained the crucifixion darkness in terms of sunstorms , heavy cloud cover , the aftermath of a volcanic eruption , or a khamsin dust storm that tends to occur from March to May . A popular work of the nineteenth century described it as an ' oppressive gloom ' and suggested this was a typical phenomenon related to earthquakes .
+
+= = = Literary creation = = =
+
+A common view in modern scholarship is that the account in the synoptic gospels is a literary creation of the gospel writers , intended to heighten the importance of what they saw as a theologically significant event . Burton Mack describes it as a fabrication by the author of the Gospel of Mark , while G. B. Caird and Joseph Fitzmyer conclude that the author did not intend the description to be taken literally . W. D. Davies and Dale Allison similarly conclude " It is probable that , without any factual basis , darkness was added in order to wrap the cross in a rich symbol and / or assimilate Jesus to other worthies " .
+
+The image of darkness over the land would have been understood by ancient readers as a cosmic sign , a typical element in the description of the death of kings and other major figures by writers such as Philo , Dio Cassius , Virgil , Plutarch and Josephus . Géza Vermes describes the darkness account as " part of the Jewish eschatological imagery of the day of the Lord . It is to be treated as a literary rather than historical phenomenon notwithstanding naive scientists and over @-@ eager television documentary makers , tempted to interpret the account as a datable eclipse of the sun . They would be barking up the wrong tree " .
+
+= = Interpretations = =
+
+This sequence plays an important part in the gospel 's literary narrative . The author of Mark 's gospel has been described as operating here " at the peak of his rhetorical and theological powers " . One suggestion is that the darkness is a deliberate inversion of the transfiguration ; alternately , Jesus 's earlier discourse about a future tribulation mentions the sun being darkened , and can be seen as foreshadowing this scene . Striking details such as the darkening of the sky and the tearing of the temple veil may be a way of focusing the reader away from the shame and humiliation of the crucifixion ; one professor of biblical theology concluded , " it is clear that Jesus is not a humiliated criminal but a man of great significance . His death is therefore not a sign of his weakness but of his power . "
+
+When considering the theological meaning of the event , some authors have interpreted the darkness as a period of mourning by the cosmos itself at the death of Jesus . Others have seen it as a sign of God 's judgement on the Jewish people , sometimes connecting it with the destruction of the city of Jerusalem in the year 70 ; or as symbolising shame , fear , or the mental suffering of Jesus . Fitzmyer compares the event to a contemporary description recorded in Josephus ' Antiquities of the Jews , which recounts " unlawful acts against the gods , from which we believe the very sun turned away , as if it too were loath to look upon the foul deed " .
+
+Many writers have adopted an intertextual approach , looking at earlier texts from which the author of the Mark Gospel may have drawn . In particular , parallels have often been noted between the darkness and the prediction in the Book of Amos of an earthquake in the reign of King Uzziah of Judah : " On that day , says the Lord God , I will make the sun go down at noon , and darken the earth in broad daylight " . Particularly in connection with this reference , read as a prophecy of the future , the darkness can be seen as portending the end times .
+
+Another likely literary source is the plague narrative in the Book of Exodus , in which Egypt is covered by darkness for three days . It has been suggested that the author of the Matthew Gospel changed the Marcan text slightly to more closely match this source . Commentators have also drawn comparisons with the description of darkness in the Genesis creation narrative , with a prophecy regarding mid @-@ day darkness by Jeremiah , and with an end @-@ times prophecy in the Book of Zechariah .
+
+Roman literary sources have also been postulated , namely those on the apotheosis of the mythical king Romulus , and about the death of Julius Caesar .
+
+= = Iconography = =
+
+In traditional artistic representations of the crucifixion , the sun and moon sometimes appear above and to either side of the cross , in allusion to the darkening of the skies .
+
+= Sleight of hand =
+
+Sleight of hand ( also known as prestidigitation or legerdemain ) refers to fine motor skills when used by performing artists in different art forms to entertain or manipulate . It is closely associated with close @-@ up magic , card cheating , card flourishing and stealing .
+
+Because of its heavy use and practice by magicians , sleight of hand is often confused as a branch of magic , but is in reality a separate genre of entertainment , as many artists practice sleight of hand without the slightest interest in magic .
+
+Sleight of hand pioneers with worldwide acclaim include Dan and Dave , Ricky Jay , David Blaine , David Copperfield , Yann Frisch , Dai Vernon and Tony Slydini .
+
+= = Etymology and history = =
+
+The word sleight , meaning " the use of dexterity or cunning , especially so as to deceive " , comes from the Old Norse . The phrase sleight of hand means " quick fingers " or " trickster fingers " . Common synonyms from the Latin language include prestidigitation and legerdemain . Seneca the Younger , philosopher of the Silver Age of Latin literature , famously compared rhetoric techniques and illusionist techniques .
+
+= = Association with close @-@ up magic = =
+
+Sleight of hand is often used in close @-@ up magic , where the sleights are performed with the audience close to the magician , usually in physical contact or within 3 to 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) . This close contact eliminate theories of fake audience members and the use of gimmicks . It makes use of everyday items as props , such as cards , coins , rubber bands , paper , phones and even saltshakers . A well @-@ performed sleight looks like an ordinary , natural and completely innocent gesture , change in hand @-@ position or body posture . In addition to manual dexterity , sleight of hand in close @-@ up magic depends on the use of psychology , timing , misdirection , and natural choreography in accomplishing a magical effect .
+
+= = Association with stage magic = =
+
+Sleight of hand during stage magic performances is not common , as most magic events and stunts are performed with objects visible to a much larger audience , but is nevertheless done occasionally by many stage performers . The most common magic tricks performed with sleight of hand on stage are rope manipulations and card tricks , with the first typically being done with a member of the audience to rule out the possibility of stooges and the latter primarily being done on a table while a camera is live @-@ recording , allowing the rest of audience to see the performance on a big screen . Worldwide acclaimed stage magician David Copperfield often include illusions featuring sleight of hand in his stage shows .
+
+= = Association with card cheating = =
+
+Although being mostly used for entertainment and comedy purposes , sleight of hand is also notoriously used to cheat at casinos and gambling facilities throughout the world . Common ways to professionally cheat at card games using sleight of hand include palming , switching , ditching , and stealing cards from the table . Such techniques include extreme misdirection and years of practice . For these reasons , the term sleight of hand frequently carries negative associations of dishonesty and deceit at many gambling halls , and many magicians known around the world are publicly banned from casinos , such as British mentalist and close @-@ up magician Derren Brown , who is banned from every casino in Britain .
+
+= = Association with cardistry = =
+
+Unlike card tricks done on the streets or on stage and card cheating , cardistry is solely about impressing without illusions , deceit , misdirection and other elements commonly used in card tricks and card cheating . Cardistry , or card flourishes , are always intended to be visually impressive and appear extremely difficult to perform . Card flourishing is often associated with card tricks , but many sleight of hand artists perform flourishing without considering themselves magicians or having any real interest in card tricks .
+
+= = Association with card throwing = =
+
+The art of card throwing generally consist of throwing standard playing cards with excessively high speed and accuracy , powerful enough to slice fruits like carrots and even melons . Like flourishing , throwing cards are meant to be visibly impressive and does not include magic elements . Magician Ricky Jay popularized throwing cards within the sleight of hand industry with the release of his 1977 book entitled Cards as Weapons , which was met with large sales and critical acclaim . Some magic tricks , both close @-@ up and on stage , are heavily connected to throwing cards .
+
+= = = Printed = = =
+
+Henry , Hay ( 1975 ) . Cyclopedia of Magic . Dover Publications . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 21808 @-@ 3 .
+
+Hugard , Jean ; Braué , Frederick , eds . ( 2012 ) . The Royal Road to Card Magic . Courier Corporation . ISBN 978 @-@ 0486156682 .
+
+Jones , Jessica ( 2007 ) . The Art of Cheating : A Nasty Little Book for Tricky Little Schemers and Their Helpless Victims . Simon and Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 1416571384 .
+
+Jay , Joshua ( 2008 ) . Magic : The Complete Course . Workman Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0761159681 .
+
+Longe , Robert ( 2003 ) . Clever Close @-@ up Magic . Sterling Publishing Company . ISBN 978 @-@ 1402700279 .
+
+Ostovich , Helen ; Hopkins , Lisa , eds . ( 2014 ) . Magical Transformations on the Early Modern English Stage . Ashgate Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1472432865 .
+
+Scarne , John ( 2003 ) . Scarne 's Magic Tricks . Courier Corporation . ISBN 978 @-@ 0486427799 .
+
+Tarr , William ( 1976 ) . Now You See It , Now You Don 't ! Lessons in Sleight of Hand . Vintage Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 72202 @-@ 7 .
+
+Whaley , Barton ; Bell , John , eds . ( 1991 ) . Cheating and Deception . Transaction Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1412819435 .
+
+= = = Online = = =
+
+Jones , Finn @-@ Olaf ( 22 April 2006 ) . " Houdini in the Desert " . Forbes . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .
+
+Singer , Mark ( 5 April 1993 ) . " Ricky Jay 's Magical Secrets " . The New Yorker . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .
+
+" Sleight " . Oxford Dictionary . 2015 . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .
+
+Wells , Dominic ( 26 January 2008 ) . " The Derren Brown Factor " . The Times . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .
+
+= Southern Rhodesia in World War I =
+
+When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany at the start of World War I in August 1914 , settler society in Southern Rhodesia , then administered by the British South Africa Company , received the news with great patriotic enthusiasm . The Company administrator , Sir William Milton , wired the UK government , " All Rhodesia ... ready to do its duty " . Although it supported Britain , the Company was concerned about the possible financial implications for its chartered territory should it make direct commitments to the war effort , particularly at first , so most of the colony 's contribution to the war was made by Southern Rhodesians individually — not only those who volunteered to fight abroad , but also those who remained at home and raised funds to donate food , equipment and other supplies .
+
+Starting immediately after the outbreak of war , parties of white Southern Rhodesians paid their own way to England to join the British Army . Most Southern Rhodesians who served in the war enlisted in this way and fought on the Western Front , taking part in many of the major battles with an assortment of British , South African and other colonial units , most commonly the King 's Royal Rifle Corps , which recruited hundreds of men from the colony , and created homogenous Rhodesian platoons . Troopers from Southern Rhodesia became renowned on the Western Front for their marksmanship , a result of their frontier lifestyle . Some of the colony 's men served in the Royal Flying Corps , one of the two predecessors of the Royal Air Force . The Rhodesia Regiment , the Rhodesia Native Regiment and the British South Africa Police served in the African theatre of the conflict , contributing to the South @-@ West African and East African campaigns .
+
+Though it was one of the few combatant territories not to raise fighting men through conscription , proportional to white population , Southern Rhodesia contributed more manpower to the British war effort than any other dominion or colony , and more than Britain itself . White troops numbered 5 @,@ 716 , about 40 % of white men in the colony , with 1 @,@ 720 of these serving as commissioned officers . The Rhodesia Native Regiment enlisted 2 @,@ 507 black soldiers , about 30 black recruits scouted for the Rhodesia Regiment , and around 350 served in British and South African units . Over 800 Southern Rhodesians of all races lost their lives on operational service during the war , with many more seriously wounded .
+
+The territory 's contributions during the First World War became a major entry in many histories of the colony , and a great source of pride for the white community , as well as for some black Rhodesians . It played a part in the UK government 's decision to grant self @-@ government in 1923 , and remained prominent in the national consciousness for decades . When the colonial government unilaterally declared independence from Britain in 1965 , it deliberately did so on Armistice Day , 11 November , and signed the proclamation at 11 : 00 local time . Since the territory 's reconstitution and recognised independence as Zimbabwe in 1980 , the modern government has removed many references to the war , such as memorial monuments and plaques , from public view , regarding them as unwelcome vestiges of white minority rule and colonialism . The Zimbabwean cultural memory has largely forgotten the First World War ; the country 's war dead today have no official commemoration , either there or overseas .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+At the time of World War I ( also known as the First World War or the Great War ) , Southern Rhodesia was administered by the British South Africa Company , which had controlled it and Northern Rhodesia since acquiring them through diplomacy and conquest during the 1890s . The white population in Southern Rhodesia stood at 23 @,@ 606 in 1911 ( a minority of 3 % ) , while Northern Rhodesia had about 3 @,@ 000 white settlers ( less than half of 1 % ) . With the Company 's charter due to expire in late 1914 , most Southern Rhodesian public attention was focused on this issue before the outbreak of war . The settlers were split between those who backed continued administration by the Chartered Company and those who advocated responsible government , which would make Southern Rhodesia a self @-@ governing colony within the British Empire . Still others favoured the integration of Southern Rhodesia into the Union of South Africa , which had been formed in 1910 . Following the intervention of the war , the charter was renewed for 10 years in early 1915 .
+
+Before 1914 , Southern Rhodesia 's police force was the British South Africa Police ( BSAP ) , first raised in 1889 and reconstituted into a more permanent form in 1896 . This paramilitary , mounted infantry force was theoretically also the country 's standing army . Organised along military lines , it served in the First and Second Matabele Wars of the 1890s , operated on Britain 's side in the Anglo @-@ Boer War of 1899 – 1902 ( alongside the specially @-@ raised Rhodesia Regiment ) , and by 1914 comprised about 1 @,@ 150 men ( including officers ) . Reserves existed in the form of the Southern Rhodesia Volunteers , an all @-@ white amateur force with a paper strength of 2 @,@ 000 intended for mobilisation against local uprisings . Few doubted the Volunteers ' enthusiasm , but they were not extensively trained or equipped ; though perhaps useful in a Rhodesian bush skirmish , most observers agreed they would be no match for professional soldiers in a conventional war . In any case , the Volunteers ' enlistment contracts bound them for domestic service only .
+
+= = Outbreak of war = =
+
+= = = Announcement and reception = = =
+
+When Britain declared war on Germany at 23 : 00 Greenwich Mean Time on 4 August 1914 , the British Empire 's dominions and colonies automatically became involved as well . Word of this reached the Southern Rhodesian capital Salisbury during the night . Early on 5 August , the Company administrator Sir William Milton wired Whitehall : " All Rhodesia united in devoted loyalty to King and Empire and ready to do its duty . " A few hours later he officially announced to the populace that Southern Rhodesia was at war . The Rhodesia Herald and Bulawayo Chronicle newspapers published special editions the same day to spread the news ; it took about half a week for word to reach the whole country , but jingoistic demonstrations began in the major towns almost immediately .
+
+In the words of the historian Peter McLaughlin , the Southern Rhodesian settlers " seemed to out @-@ British the British " in their patriotic zeal , so it was to the frustration of many of them that the Company did not immediately commit to any martial action . While it sent supportive messages to Whitehall , the Company felt it could not raise any kind of expeditionary force without first considering the implications for its administrative operations ; as a commercial concern , it was possible for the Company to go bankrupt . Who would foot the bill for war expenditure , its hierarchy pondered : the Company itself , the Rhodesian taxpayers or the British government ?
+
+As the local newspapers filled with letters from readers clamouring for Rhodesian troops to be mustered and despatched to Europe post @-@ haste , the administration limited its initial contribution to posting a section of BSAP troopers to the Victoria Falls Bridge to guard against possible German attack from South @-@ West Africa though the Caprivi Strip . In early September , an indignant letter to the Rhodesia Herald from Colonel Raleigh Grey , a major figure in local business , politics and military matters , accused the Company of bringing " a slur on a British country " by doing so little .
+
+= = = Rhodesian Reserves = = =
+
+A few days after the war began , the Chartered Company formed the Rhodesian Reserves , an amorphous entity intended to accommodate the many white men who were keen to put on uniform , as well as to make a start towards organising what might eventually become an expeditionary force . Eminent citizens and elected leaders formed their own platoons , each bringing 24 volunteers ; three or four of these 25 @-@ man troops made a company . Units representing the Caledonian Society , the Lancashire and Yorkshire Society , the Legion of Frontiersmen and other local organisations mirrored the Pals battalions in Britain . Volunteers could opt to serve overseas , within Rhodesia or only locally ; around 1 @,@ 000 had volunteered in all by 13 August .
+
+The Company suggested to the UK government that it might despatch 500 troopers from the Rhodesian Reserves to Europe to act as an all @-@ Southern Rhodesian unit on the Western Front ( in Belgium and France ) , but the War Office in London replied that such an expeditionary force would be more practically deployed in Africa , within the South African forces . When the Company relayed this idea south , the South Africans said they were happy to take the Southern Rhodesians , but only if they enlisted independently in existing Union regiments . The Company found itself in the unusual position of having a prospective expeditionary force that nobody wanted . Unwilling to wait , some Southern Rhodesian would @-@ be soldiers made their own way to England to join the British Army directly , as individuals or in groups . By the end of October 1914 , about 300 were on their way .
+
+= = Europe = =
+
+= = = Western Front = = =
+
+In terms of fighting manpower , Southern Rhodesia 's main contribution to World War I was in the trenches of the Western Front . As the white Southern Rhodesians in this theatre joined the British Army separately , at different times and under their own steam ( or were already connected to specific units as reservists ) , they were spread across dozens of regiments , including the Black Watch , the Coldstream Guards , the Grenadier Guards , the Royal Engineers and the Royal Marines , as well as many South African units and others . During the war 's opening months , Southern Rhodesian volunteers who could not afford to travel to England were assisted by a private fund set up by Ernest Lucas Guest , a Salisbury lawyer and Anglo @-@ Boer War veteran who also organised an accompanying recruitment campaign for European service . Guest stopped recruiting at the Company 's request after it created the 1st Rhodesia Regiment , an expeditionary force to South and South @-@ West Africa , in October 1914 .
+
+A link developed during the war with the King 's Royal Rifle Corps ( KRRC ) , whose Southern Rhodesian contingent — numbering a few hundred , chiefly in its 2nd and 3rd Battalions — was the largest on the Western Front . The connection with this particular corps began as the result of a chance conversation aboard the ship that took the first batch of Southern Rhodesians from Cape Town to Southampton in late 1914 . The 16th Marquess of Winchester , who had links with Rhodesia dating back to the 1890s , was also aboard the ship , returning from a visit to the colony . Encountering Captain John Banks Brady , the officer of Irish origin who led the volunteers , the Marquess asked where his party was headed . Brady enthusiastically replied that they were going to war together in France . The Marquess suggested to Brady that since it might be difficult to prevent his men from being split up during the enlistment process , it might be a good idea for the Rhodesians to join the KRRC , where he could keep an eye on them through his connections with the Winchester @-@ based regiment . The Southern Rhodesian contingent duly mustered into the KRRC . A designated Rhodesian platoon , widely referred to thereafter as " the Rhodesian Platoon " , was formed under Brady at the KRRC training camp at Sheerness , on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent .
+
+As a rule , the white Rhodesians overseas combined stridently pro @-@ British attitudes with an even stronger pride in Rhodesia . Many of them saw participation in the war , particularly in distinct " Rhodesian " formations , as a step towards forging a distinctive national identity , like those of Australia and the other more mature British dominions , and building a case for Southern Rhodesian self @-@ government . The existence of an explicitly Rhodesian Platoon in the KRRC endeared the regiment to the Southern Rhodesian public , and attracted many of the colony 's volunteers who arrived in England later in the war ; in time , the KRRC formed further Rhodesian platoons from additional personnel . While the average Rhodesian colonial , living on the frontier of the Empire , was at least casually acquainted with rifles , most Englishmen had never held one . At Sheerness , Brady 's Rhodesian Platoon won a reputation for fine sharpshooting , and set a regimental record score at the shooting range .
+
+Once posted to France in December 1914 , the Rhodesian Platoon almost immediately began suffering regular heavy casualties . Southern Rhodesian volunteers continued to arrive piecemeal in England throughout the conflict , so Rhodesian formations on the Western Front received regular reinforcements in small batches , but because casualties were usually concentrated in far larger groups it often took a few months for a depleted Southern Rhodesian unit to return to full numerical strength . A cycle developed whereby Rhodesian platoons in Belgium and France were abruptly decimated and then gradually built up again only to suffer the same fate on returning to action . When the KRRC 's Rhodesian platoons took part in British offensives , they were easily recognised by a distinctive battle cry that their men shouted as they went over the top . Sometimes the British and German positions were so close that troopers on each front line could hear what was said in the opposite trench ; one group of Southern Rhodesians avoided being understood in this situation by speaking a mixture of Shona and Sindebele ( two African languages ) instead of English .
+
+Trench warfare was a dreadful ordeal for soldiers , and the Southern Rhodesians , coming from the open veld of southern Africa , had a particularly difficult time getting used to the cold and the mud . Brady reported that some of his men had contracted frostbite within 48 hours of reaching the trenches . Despite this , the KRRC 's Rhodesians acquitted themselves well in the eyes of their superiors ; Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Sir Edward Hutton , who wrote a history of the KRRC , commented that the Southern Rhodesian contingent " earned for itself great reputation for valour and good shooting " . Southern Rhodesians became especially valuable to the KRRC as designated snipers , grenadiers , Lewis Gunners and other specialists . While discussing a KRRC sniper section , Hutton singles its Southern Rhodesian members out for their fine marksmanship , commenting that " accustomed to big game shooting , [ they ] particularly excelled in this system of ' snipers ' , and inflicted continual losses upon the enemy " . In their 2008 history of sniping , Pat Farey and Mark Spicer highlight the prowess of South African and Rhodesian sharpshooters on the Western Front , and claim that one group of 24 southern African colonials collectively accounted for over 3 @,@ 000 German casualties and fatalities .
+
+So many Southern Rhodesians were withdrawn from the trenches for officer training that in mid @-@ 1915 Brady appealed through the Salisbury and Bulawayo presses for more volunteers to replace those who had been commissioned . A platoon of Southern Rhodesians with the 2nd Battalion , KRRC took part in the " big push " of 1 July 1916 , the first day of the Battle of the Somme , charging German positions elsewhere on the line early that morning . There were 90 Rhodesians on the eve of the attack and only 10 alive and unwounded afterwards . On the Somme battlefield itself , Rhodesians were among those at Delville Wood , which began on 14 July . This was the South African 1st Infantry Brigade 's first engagement , and some of the colonials blacked up and imitated Zulu battle cries and war dances . Despite suffering casualties of catastrophic proportions — about 80 % of the brigade 's personnel were killed , wounded or captured — they took the Wood and held it as ordered until they were relieved on 20 July . By the time of its withdrawal , the South African Brigade , originally numbering 3 @,@ 155 ( 123 officers and 3 @,@ 032 other ranks ) , had been reduced to 19 officers and 600 men . Delville Wood was later described by Sir B H Liddell Hart as " the bloodiest battle hell of 1916 " . " God knows I never wish to see such horrible sights again , " a Southern Rhodesian veteran of the battle wrote home ; " at times I wished it would come fast , anything to get out of that terrible death @-@ trap and murderous place . "
+
+German gas attacks were among the most traumatic experiences for the Southern Rhodesians in Europe . One Rhodesian survivor of a gas attack described the sensation as like " suffocation , [ or ] slow drowning " . The Germans used both disabling agents , such as tear gas and the more severe mustard gas , and lethal chemicals like chlorine and phosgene . Though generally not fatal , gas attacks caused extreme physical discomfort and pain , often to the point where soldiers lost consciousness . Mustard gas in particular caused blistering of the skin , vomiting and internal and external bleeding . The British Army issued gas masks , but according to Brady these did little to help the men . Injuries sustained to the eyes , lungs and nasal passages in gas attacks were often extremely debilitating and lasting , remaining with the men for years after the war .
+
+In July 1917 , a KRRC Rhodesian platoon received lofty praise from a senior British officer , who described the colonials as " absolutely first @-@ class soldiers and great gentlemen , every bit as good as soldiers ... as our old Expeditionary Force " . Around the same time , a platoon of Southern Rhodesians in the KRRC took part in an engagement near Nieuwpoort in Flanders , where it and the Northamptonshire Regiment manned positions on the eastern banks of the river Yser . After a heavy artillery bombardment , German infantry and marines charged the British positions and surrounded the Rhodesian platoon . Brutal hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting ensued in which most of the Southern Rhodesians were killed and some were taken prisoner . The Bulawayo Chronicle ran a eulogy for them soon after , comparing their last stand to that of Allan Wilson 's Shangani Patrol in 1893 . Later in 1917 , a Rhodesian platoon in the KRRC fought in the Battle of Passchendaele , near Ypres in western Flanders .
+
+The Western Front continued to receive Southern Rhodesian troops right up to the end of the war , including veterans of the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment 's campaign in East Africa . During the conflict 's latter stages , the British Army sent some of its Southern Rhodesian officers to the Western Front to promote the colony 's benefits , hoping to encourage emigration there by British servicemen after the war .
+
+= = = Salonika = = =
+
+The KRRC 's 3rd Battalion , including a platoon of 70 Rhodesians , was transferred from France to the Salonika Front in 1915 . On this comparatively quiet front , they were slowly whittled down over the course of the war : 26 of them remained in January 1917 , and by the end of the war so few were left that the platoon no longer existed . Most of the men had been killed in action , while others were prisoners of the Bulgarians .
+
+= = = Aviators = = =
+
+Some Southern Rhodesians mustered into the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) , which merged with the Royal Naval Air Service in April 1918 to form the Royal Air Force . Towards the end of the war , the service of airmen from the dominions and colonies was observed by the issuing of shoulder patches denoting the wearer 's country of origin : from October 1918 , Southern Rhodesians received labels marked " rhodesia " . One of the territory 's first military aviators was Lieutenant Arthur R H Browne , a fighter pilot from Umvuma in the Southern Rhodesian Midlands , who was attached to No. 13 Squadron , RFC . He was killed in action in a dogfight on 5 December 1915 ; his aircraft , donated by the people of Gatooma in western Mashonaland , was Gatooma No. 2 , one of five aeroplanes purchased by Southern Rhodesian public donations . From Dryden Farm , near the south @-@ western border town of Plumtree , came Lieutenant Frank W H Thomas , an RFC combat pilot who won the Military Cross , as well as the French Croix de Guerre ( with palms ) , before he died on 5 January 1918 from wounds attained on operational service .
+
+Lieutenant Daniel S " Pat " Judson , born in Bulawayo in 1898 , became the first Rhodesia @-@ born airman in history when he joined the RFC in April 1916 . He was severely wounded while bombing enemy positions in March 1918 , but recovered and remained in the unit until April 1919 . The first flying ace born in Rhodesia was Major George Lloyd , nicknamed " Zulu " , who joined No. 60 Squadron in April 1917 , and won four aerial victories before transferring to No. 40 Squadron in July 1917 , where he won four more . He received the Military Cross in March 1918 for " conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty " , and also won the Air Force Cross later that year . Second Lieutenant David " Tommy " Greswolde @-@ Lewis , a born and bred Bulawayan , was the 80th and final pilot defeated by Manfred von Richthofen , the German ace widely known as the Red Baron . Richthofen downed Lewis just north @-@ east of Villers @-@ Bretonneux on 20 April 1918 ; the Rhodesian 's aircraft caught fire in mid @-@ air , and when it crashed he was thrown from the wreckage . The Baron 's bullets had hit Lewis ' compass , goggles , coat and trouser leg , but he was practically unhurt , having suffered only minor burns . He spent the rest of the war a German prisoner .
+
+The Great War airman associated with Southern Rhodesia who ultimately earned the most distinction was Arthur Harris , originally from England , who joined the Royal Flying Corps in late 1915 after serving as a bugler with the 1st Rhodesia Regiment in South @-@ West Africa . Harris alternated between Britain and France during the latter part of the war . He led No. 45 Squadron over the Western Front in 1917 , destroying five German aircraft and winning the Air Force Cross , and afterwards commanded No. 44 Squadron in Britain . Intending to return to Southern Rhodesia after the war , he wore a " rhodesia " flash on his uniform during the hostilities , but ended up staying with the RAF as a career officer . He finished the war a major , rose through the ranks during the interwar period and became famous during World War II as " Bomber Harris " , the head of RAF Bomber Command .
+
+= = Southern Africa = =
+
+= = = Maritz Rebellion ; formation of 1st Rhodesia Regiment = = =
+
+Apart from the capture of Schuckmannsburg in the Caprivi Strip by a combined force of BSAP and Northern Rhodesia Police on 21 September 1914 , the British South Africa Company 's own armed forces and police remained almost totally uninvolved in the war until the following month . The South African Prime Minister , the former Boer general Louis Botha , had told Britain that the Union could both handle its own security during the hostilities and defeat German South @-@ West Africa without help , so the Imperial garrison had been sent to the Western Front . Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Manie Maritz — an ex @-@ Boer commander who now headed a column of Afrikaans @-@ speaking Union troops — defected to the Germans in mid @-@ September , hoping to spark an uprising that would overthrow British supremacy in South Africa and restore the old Boer Republics . Botha requested the 500 @-@ man column that the Chartered Company had raised , hoping to reduce the possibility of further defections by interspersing his own forces with firmly pro @-@ British Rhodesians . The expeditionary force was promptly formalised in Salisbury , and named the 1st Rhodesia Regiment after the unit of Southern Rhodesian volunteers that had fought in the Anglo @-@ Boer War . Apart from a small contingent of Matabele ( or Ndebele ) scouts , the unit was all white .
+
+After six weeks ' training in the capital , the 1st Rhodesia Regiment travelled south by railway in late October 1914 . During its stopover in Bulawayo , it paraded in front of about 90 % of the town 's population ; Plumtree , the last stop before crossing the border , provided the soldiers with a lavish parting banquet . Notwithstanding these grand farewells , the Maritz Rebellion was all but over by the time the Southern Rhodesian contingent reached its destination at Bloemfontein . The vast majority of South African troops , including most of Boer origin , had remained loyal to the Union government , and the uprising had been quashed . The Rhodesians garrisoned Bloemfontein for about a month , then redeployed to Cape Town , where they underwent further training for the South @-@ West Africa Campaign as part of South Africa 's Northern Force , which Botha personally commanded .
+
+= = = 1st Rhodesia Regiment in South @-@ West Africa = = =
+
+During late December 1914 , Northern Force travelled to the South African exclave of Walvis Bay , about halfway up the coast of German South @-@ West Africa . The 1st Rhodesia Regiment disembarked on 26 December 1914 .
+
+Northern Force made up the northern prong of a pincer movement designed by Botha to encircle the German forces in South @-@ West Africa . Two smaller South African columns came from the Cape and the Orange Free State ( the latter coming over the deserts of Bechuanaland ) . The principal target was Windhoek , the capital of South @-@ West Africa . The field of operations was arid and barren in the extreme ; water was a precious commodity , so the South Africans and Southern Rhodesians brought thousands of tons of it with them . In the 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of desert between Walvis Bay and Windhoek , temperatures could rise to above 50 ° C ( 122 ° F ) in the daytime , then drop below freezing at night , all while desert winds blew sand and dust into every bodily and mechanical orifice . Germany based much of its defensive strategy in South @-@ West Africa around the assumption that no enemy commander could feasibly attempt to advance across the desert from Walvis Bay to Windhoek , but Botha resolved to do exactly that .
+
+The South African offensive from Walvis Bay began in February 1915 , when Northern Force took Swakopmund — the nearest German coastal settlement , about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north — without facing major resistance . The Germans almost immediately retreated , leaving behind explosive booby traps and other improvised weapons . The 1st Rhodesia Regiment first engaged the Germans while Northern Force moved east across the desert , taking part in a number of minor skirmishes and suffering its first two fatalities in a German ambush . To overcome the natural difficulties of the desert terrain , Botha used fast @-@ moving mounted or mechanised troops rather than regular infantry , so the Southern Rhodesian contingent played little part in the main advance on Windhoek . The Rhodesians guarded the construction of a railway inland for much of the campaign , but participated in Northern Force 's victory over the Germans at Trekkopjes , losing Lieutenant Hollingsworth ( killed in action ) and five enlisted men ( wounded ) . Windhoek surrendered to Botha in July 1915 , effectively ending the South @-@ West African front of the war . The local German population did not embark on a guerrilla campaign after Windhoek 's fall .
+
+The 1st Rhodesia Regiment was soon posted back to Cape Town , where many of the troopers voiced their dissatisfaction at the lack of fighting in South @-@ West Africa , and requested discharge so they could join the war in Europe . Superiors assured the men that they would see action in East Africa if they stayed , but failed to convince most of them ; the 1st Rhodesia Regiment promptly disbanded due to a lack of personnel . The majority of the South @-@ West Africa veterans boarded ship for England to enlist in the British Army , while others mustered into South African units already billed for European service .
+
+= = East Africa = =
+
+German East Africa , acquired by Germany during the 1880s , covered roughly 900 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 350 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , and by 1914 was home to about 5 @,@ 000 white settlers , most of whom were of German origin . German East African soldiery at the outbreak of war comprised 216 German officers and enlisted men , and 2 @,@ 450 askaris ( native soldiers ) ; police numbered 45 whites and 2 @,@ 154 askaris . Because of the British Royal Navy 's domination of the Indian Ocean , German East Africa was largely isolated from outside help . It therefore fought a war of improvisation , judicious resource management and unorthodox strategy . During the conflict , its military strength grew to a peak of 3 @,@ 300 whites and anywhere between 15 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 askaris , all commanded by Generalmajor Paul von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck .
+
+= = = 2nd Rhodesia Regiment = = =
+
+Based around the overflow of volunteers for the 1st Rhodesia Regiment , a core of personnel for a second Southern Rhodesian expeditionary unit was in place by November 1914 . This was made into the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment ( 2RR ) during December 1914 and January 1915 . The 1st Rhodesia Regiment 's lack of combat experience thus far influenced those men in Southern Rhodesia who were yet to enlist ; many Rhodesian colonials were keen to fight on the front lines , and some resolved that they might have to travel to Europe to be sure of doing so . Aware of this competition with the Western Front for the colony 's manpower , recruiters for the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment took great care to assure potential inductees that they would definitely see combat , in Africa , if they signed up for the new unit . The 2nd Rhodesia Regiment ultimately had a paper strength of 500 men , the same as the 1st . Thirty black scouts , recruited in Southern Rhodesia , were also attached to the regiment .
+
+Because it was raised with less urgency , the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment received better training than the 1st . The course lasted eight weeks , a fortnight longer than the original regiment 's training period , and focused heavily on route marching , parade drill , and , in particular , marksmanship — recruits were trained to shoot accurately at ranges of up to 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) . The 2nd Rhodesia Regiment left Salisbury on 8 March 1915 , moving east to the port of Beira in Portuguese Mozambique , from where they sailed to Mombasa in British Kenya , on German East Africa 's north @-@ eastern flank . Travelling aboard the SS Umzumbi , the battalion disembarked in Kenya less than a week after leaving Salisbury . It was immediately sent inland to the operational area around Mount Kilimanjaro , within sight of which it set up camp . On 20 March , the regiment was inspected by General J M Stewart of the Indian Army . " I had expected to see a regiment that would require some training , " Stewart said ; " I will pay you the highest compliment by sending you to the front today . " So began the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment 's contribution to the East African Campaign .
+
+The 2nd Rhodesia Regiment operated with some success during its first year on the front . It usually defeated German units that it encountered , but the Germans , using proto @-@ guerrilla tactics , tended to retreat before they could be overrun . Though generally outnumbered and outgunned throughout the campaign , the Germans had the advantage early on of longer @-@ range artillery than the British ; from July to August 1916 , 2RR was prevented from moving out of the Kenyan town of Makindu for nearly a month by German bombardment . The huge marching distances , difficult terrain and uncertainty of surroundings meant that the regiment 's men were forced to develop enormous stamina and resilience if they were not to be invalided home .
+
+Tropical disease killed or rendered ineffective far more 2RR men than the Germans did ; at times the regiment was reduced to an effective strength of under 100 by the vast myriad of potential ailments , including trench fever , blackwater fever , dysentery , pneumonia , sleeping sickness and many others . The 1 @,@ 038 personnel who served with 2RR in East Africa collectively went into hospital 2 @,@ 272 times , and there were 10 @,@ 626 incidences of illness — in other words , the average 2RR soldier was hospitalised twice and reported sick 10 times . In January 1917 , only 91 of the regiment 's men were considered fit for duty ; it was no longer an effective fighting force , and the white Southern Rhodesian manpower did not exist to continue reinforcing it . It was therefore withdrawn from East Africa that month . Those men who were healthy enough to return home arrived back in Salisbury on 14 April 1917 , receiving a tumultuous welcome , but the majority of 2RR remained in medical care overseas for some time afterwards .
+
+The Company briefly considered sending a revived 2nd Rhodesia Regiment to the Western Front , but the British Army promptly rejected this idea , saying that the unit would be impractical for trench warfare because of its small size . The battalion was thereupon dissolved , but most of its remaining men went to war in Europe anyway , generally with South African units .
+
+= = = Rhodesia Native Regiment = = =
+
+By late 1915 , British forces in the border areas of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , on German East Africa 's south @-@ western flank , were severely stretched . Disease was a constant curse , decimating the ranks . Francis Drummond Chaplin , the British South Africa Company administrator in Southern Rhodesia , offered to provide the British with a column of between 500 and 1 @,@ 000 askaris , and Whitehall accepted this in March 1916 ; however , there was then disagreement regarding who would foot the bill for the organisation of this enterprise . After this was resolved in April 1916 — the Company agreed to pay , conditional on reimbursement by the British Colonial Office — recruitment began in May .
+
+Initial recruitment efforts principally targeted the Matabele , who made up about 20 % of the colony 's black population , because they enjoyed a popular reputation among whites for being great warriors ; the unit was therefore originally called the " Matabele Regiment " . This was changed to the more inclusive " Rhodesia Native Regiment " ( RNR ) on 15 May 1916 , as the ranks proved to be more diverse than expected , and included large numbers of Mashonas and other ethnicities . In particular , a disproportionately high number of volunteers came from the Kalanga tribe , a numerically diminutive community in the colony 's south @-@ west . The RNR was organised largely along linguistic and cultural lines , with companies and platoons of Matabele , Mashona , Wayao and others . White officers attached to the unit were often recruited because they knew an African language , or could give orders in Chilapalapa , a pidgin of English and several African tongues often referred to by whites of the time as " kitchen kaffir " . The ranks ' diversity sometimes led to confusion when messages or directives were not properly understood . It became common for black troopers accused of disobeying or ignoring commands to claim ignorance of the language in which they had been ordered .
+
+Commanded by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel A J Tomlinson , the RNR , comprising 426 askaris and about 30 white officers , left Salisbury in July 1916 for Beira . They continued on to Zomba , in Nyasaland , where they were to receive further training closer to the field of operations . When they arrived , the local situation had shifted significantly , so the RNR instead went to New Langenberg , in German East Africa , just north of Lake Nyasa . At New Langenberg the regiment went through a short training course , and was issued with six machine guns . When the unit 's training period ended in October 1916 it was divided ; one company of RNR men went to Buhora , about 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) north @-@ east , while the rest went 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) south to Weidhaven , on the north banks of Lake Nyasa , from where they moved 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) east to Songea , which they were ordered to " hold ... until reinforced " . Apart from a company of men sent to patrol the road back to Weidhaven , the RNR proceeded to garrison Songea .
+
+The Germans , who had left Songea only a few weeks before , sent two columns to retake it during early November 1916 — 250 askaris marched from Likuyu , and 180 more ( with two machine guns ) set off from Kitanda . The latter German column spotted the RNR company that was patrolling the road , and at Mabogoro attacked the advance guard , which was commanded by Sergeant ( later Lieutenant ) Frederick Charles Booth . The Rhodesians were caught by surprise , and many panicked , running about and firing randomly . Booth restored discipline and led the defence until reinforcements arrived . The Germans then retreated and continued towards Songea . During this contact , Booth advanced towards enemy fire to rescue a wounded scout who was lying in the open , and brought him back alive ; for this and subsequent actions , Booth received the Victoria Cross in June 1917 .
+
+The German column from Kitanda reached Songea early in the morning on 12 November 1916 , and unsuccessfully attempted a frontal assault on the well @-@ entrenched Rhodesian positions . After the German column from Likuyu arrived in the afternoon , the Germans laid siege to Songea for 12 days before retreating towards Likuyu on the 24th . The Rhodesians were relieved the following day by a South African unit . The RNR then moved back to Litruchi , on the other side of Lake Nyasa , from where they sailed to the German East African town of Mwaya , where they were reunited with the RNR contingent that had gone to Buhora . This second column had ambushed a group of Germans , who were moving towards Northern Rhodesia with a naval gun salvaged from SMS Königsberg ( which had been sunk at Rufiji Delta about a year before ) ; after pocketing the Germans , the Rhodesians captured both them and the naval gun .
+
+In Southern Rhodesia , Company officials judged the RNR to have been a success so far , and so decided in January 1917 to raise a second battalion . The unit already in the field was at this time designated 1st Battalion , abbreviated to " 1RNR " , while the new formation was called 2nd Battalion , or " 2RNR " . Recruitment was soon under way . Conscious of the difficulty that had been found in persuading rural Mashonas and Matabele to join the 1st Battalion in 1916 , organisers for 2RNR principally targeted black men from other countries , in particular migrant workers from Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia ; Nyasalanders eventually made up nearly half of the regiment . By the start of March , about 1 @,@ 000 recruits were training in Salisbury . Meanwhile , 1RNR was instructed to guard the Igali Pass , near the border with Northern Rhodesia , to prevent a column of Germans from threatening the settlements of Abercorn and Fife . When the Germans slipped through , the Rhodesians were pulled back to a position between the two towns and instructed to defend either one as circumstances dictated . The Germans did not launch an attack , however , instead setting up camp in their own territory at Galula .
+
+The Southern Rhodesian commanders planned to destroy the German column by taking advantage of the regional geography ; the Germans had Lake Rukwa to their back , and the rivers Songwe and Saisi on their respective left ( eastern ) and right flanks , effectively hemming them in if they were attacked . The plan was that elements of 1RNR would hold the Saisi while a battalion of the King 's African Rifles ( KAR ) manned the Songwe ; the rest of 1RNR would then push the Germans back towards the lake . But Tomlinson interpreted his orders as requiring immediate action , and attacked before the two flanking lines were in place on the rivers . The offensive had some successes at first , even though Tomlinson was outnumbered , but the 450 Germans , armed with three Königsberg field guns and 14 machine guns , soon withdrew to the higher ground at St Moritz Mission . The Germans counterattacked over the following week . Colonel R E Murray , who commanded a column of BSAP men about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) away , did not assist Tomlinson , and 1RNR took great losses while repulsing the attack : 58 RNR men were killed , and the Germans captured three Rhodesian machine guns . Tomlinson was blamed by most for the debacle , but he insisted for years afterwards that he had only been following orders from Murray to hold his ground . He expressed incredulity at Murray 's failure to reinforce him . An enquiry into the matter was avoided when Tomlinson was wounded and invalided home soon after the battle .
+
+On 5 April 1917 , 1RNR crossed the Songwe River into German East Africa and advanced south @-@ east towards Kitanda . It moved up the winding Lupa River , crossing it at each turn , for 53 days , and by mid @-@ June was 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of its target . When it was then ordered to backtrack north to Rungwe , it covered the 420 kilometres ( 260 mi ) in 16 days . Several scholars highlight the distances marched by the RNR , and comment that their physical endurance must have been remarkable , particularly given the speed at which they moved . " One can only marvel at the hardiness and fortitude of these men who matter @-@ of @-@ factly marched distances unthinkable to modern Western soldiers , " the historian Alexandre Binda writes . McLaughlin contrasts the RNR 's black troopers with the white soldiers of the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment , commenting that the former proved far more resilient to tropical diseases ( though not immune ) , and amazed white observers by not just adapting to the difficult East African conditions , but often marching 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) in a day . In June 1917 , Sergeant Rita ( or Lita ) , a black non @-@ commissioned officer later described by Tomlinson as " a splendid soldier " , received the highest award ever given to an RNR askari , the Distinguished Conduct Medal , " for conspicuous gallantry in action on many occasions . His example and influence with his men is incalculable " .
+
+The 1st Battalion harassed the constantly moving German flying column during August and September 1917 . Two Military Medals were won by RNR soldiers during this time : Sergeant Northcote rescued a wounded askari under German fire in late August , and a few days later Corporal Suga , himself lightly injured , dragged his wounded commanding officer Lieutenant Booth out of the open and into cover . The 2nd Battalion , comprising Major Jackson at the head of 585 askaris and 75 whites , left Salisbury on 16 September 1917 , and joined the front on 16 October , when it arrived at Mbewa on the north @-@ eastern shore of Lake Nyasa , intending to ultimately merge with 1RNR . After 1RNR spent two months garrisoning Wiedhaven and 2RNR underwent further training , the two forces joined on 28 January 1918 ( becoming known as the 2nd Rhodesia Native Regiment ) , and immediately made their way south in pursuit of Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's Germans , who were by now down to an effective strength of less than 2 @,@ 000 , and moving through Portuguese Mozambique .
+
+In late May 1918 , the two @-@ year service contracts signed by the original 500 RNR volunteers expired , and the majority of those who had not already been discharged — just under 400 men — went home . While passing through Umtali on their way to Salisbury , the soldiers encountered the RNR 's original commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Tomlinson , whom they promptly mobbed , excitedly chanting nkosi , nkosi ( which roughly means " chief " in Sindebele ) . In the capital , the RNR men were met at the railway station by thousands of people , including a number of prominent government , military and religious figures . Chaplin , the territorial administrator , gave a speech in which he applauded the troops for " upholding the good name of Rhodesia " and for having played " no insignificant part in depriving the Germans of their power in Africa " .
+
+In Mozambique , the RNR encountered Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's supply column near Mtarika on 22 May 1918 . It wiped it out ( capturing two German officers , two German askaris , 34 Portuguese askaris and 252 carriers ) , but as the supply column had been marching between the main German column and its rearguard , Lettow @-@ Vorbeck was then able to attack the RNR from both sides . The contact lasted until darkness fell , and the RNR held its position . Lettow @-@ Vorbeck then moved further south , with the RNR following . This pursuit continued for the rest of the war , with Lettow @-@ Vorbeck avoiding contacts so far as was possible and constantly resupplying his men by briefly occupying isolated towns . The RNR chased the German column for over 3 @,@ 600 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 200 mi ) around Mozambique and the eastern districts of Northern Rhodesia , but never caught up with him . After Lettow @-@ Vorbeck formally surrendered at Abercorn on 25 November 1918 , the RNR returned to Salisbury , where the men were discharged during 1919 . The regiment existed on paper for two more years before it was formally disbanded in February 1921 .
+
+= = Home front = =
+
+= = = Home service and conscription debate = = =
+
+Southern Rhodesian troops during World War I were all volunteers . Particularly during the war 's early stages , not all male settlers of fighting age were expected to abandon their civilian lives for service abroad . Many of them were in vital industries like mining , and the Company administration did not grant financial allowances to support the families of married soldiers , so at least at first , only bachelors in non @-@ essential positions were generally considered to have any moral obligation to sign up . The 2nd Rhodesia Regiment , raised in early 1915 , explicitly barred married men from its ranks to preempt the tribulations that might befall their families while they were gone . Men of service age who remained at home were pressured by the national and local press to contribute to local security by joining the Southern Rhodesia Volunteers or the Rhodesian Reserves ; editorials told readers that men who failed to do so were not fulfilling their patriotic duty , and warned that conscription might be required if not enough joined up .
+
+The idea of conscription ran contrary to British political tradition , but the sheer scale of the Western Front led to its institution in Britain in January 1916 . The Rhodesia Herald and Bulawayo Chronicle newspapers broadcast the news in special editions . While some settlers supported the extension of the same system to white Southern Rhodesians , it was also opposed in many quarters . The British South Africa Company feared that the loss of skilled white workers might jeopardise its mining operations , crucial to the colonial economy , while the Rhodesian Agricultural Union contended that white farmers had to stay on the land for similar reasons . Some , mindful of John Chilembwe 's anticolonial uprising in Nyasaland in early 1915 , felt that it was necessary to keep a core of male settlers in the colony to guard against a repeat of the Mashona and Matabele rebellions of the 1890s .
+
+By late 1916 , most settlers in the colony who were inclined to volunteer had already done so . To free up white manpower , some suggested the recruitment of older men for local service so more of the younger volunteers could go overseas . In 1917 , the Chartered Company set up a committee to consider the question of national defence both during the war and thereafter ; its report , released in February 1918 , described reliance on volunteers as inefficient , and recommended the institution of compulsory service for whites , even after the war ( no mention was made of using black troops in the future ) . The Company published proposals the following month to register all white males aged between 18 and 65 with a view to some form of conscription , but this provoked widespread and vocal dissent , particularly from farmers . In the face of this opposition the administration vacillated until it quietly dropped the idea after the armistice .
+
+= = = Economic impact = = =
+
+The British South Africa Company had reservations about devoting all of Southern Rhodesia 's resources to the war effort , in part because of its desire to keep the colonial economy operating . There was indeed tightening of belts in the Rhodesias during the war , but not on the same scale as in Britain . The retail sector suffered , prices for many basic day @-@ to @-@ day items rose sharply , and exports plummeted as much of the white male citizenry went overseas to war , but mining , the industry on which Rhodesia 's economic viability hinged , continued to operate successfully , despite occasional difficulties in obtaining manpower . The Company administration posted record outputs of gold and coal during 1916 , and began to supply the Empire with the strategic metal ferrochrome . A flurry of new prospecting ventures led to the discovery of another strategic metal , tungsten , near Essexvale in southern Matabeleland in May 1917 .
+
+Southern Rhodesia 's other main economic arm , farming , performed less strongly during the war , partly because the Chartered Company prioritised the strategically important mines at the behest of British officials . Southern Rhodesian farmers were optimistic at the outbreak of war , surmising that the Empire would become desperate for food and that they would be essentially immune to inflation because they grew their own crops . While these conclusions were on the whole accurate , logistical complications made it difficult for Rhodesian food to be exported , and as in mining there was often a shortage of labour . There were a number of drives to increase agricultural yield with the hope of feeding more people in Britain , but because Southern Rhodesia was so far away it was difficult for the colony to make much of an impact . One of the main culinary contributions the territory made to the British wartime marketplace was Rhodesian butter , which first reached England in February 1917 .
+
+The war began to adversely affect the economy in late 1917 . The Company threatened petrol rationing in November 1917 , and in early 1918 it raised the colonial income tax to help balance the books . By the end of the hostilities the Company had spent £ 2 million on the war effort , most of which was covered by the Rhodesian taxpayers ; the Company covered some of the expenditure itself , and also received a small amount of financial aid from the UK government .
+
+= = = Propaganda and public opinion = = =
+
+Mass media on both sides in the conflict tried to motivate their respective populations and justify the war 's continuation by creating an image of the enemy so grotesque and savage that surrender became unthinkable . Like the major newspapers in Britain , the Rhodesia Herald and the Bulawayo Chronicle became key propaganda tools , regularly printing stories of German atrocities , massacres and other war crimes alongside articles simply entitled " War Stories " that told of British Army soldiers carrying out deeds of Herculean bravery . Anti @-@ German sentiment abounded in the territory throughout the conflict , and periodically intensified , often concurrently with the reporting of particularly unsavoury incidents .
+
+During the initial peak of Germanophobia , which lasted the first few months of the conflict , many German and Austrian men of military age who lived in Rhodesia were arrested ( officially as " prisoners of war " ) and sent to internment camps in South Africa . Gertrude Page , one of the colony 's most famous novelists , wrote an open letter in response , vouching for the loyalty of a young German in her employ , and received a number of replies accusing her of being unpatriotic . The second period of intensification began following the sinking of the British passenger liner RMS Lusitania by a German U @-@ boat on 7 May 1915 . The Rhodesia Herald ran an editorial soon after calling on the Company administration to intern all remaining German and Austrian residents and to close their businesses . A town assembly in Umtali sent the administrator a resolution asking him to confiscate all property in the colony owned by subjects of Germany and Austria within 48 hours " in view of German barbarity " . Most of Southern Rhodesia 's remaining German and Austrian residents were soon sent to the camps in South Africa .
+
+Further periods of intensified anti @-@ German feeling in the Rhodesias followed the execution by the Germans of the British nurse Edith Cavell in Belgium in October 1915 ( " the Crowning Crime " , the Bulawayo Chronicle called it ) , the escalation of bombing raids by German Zeppelins on British cities during 1917 , and the British reportage the same year of the Kadaververwertungsanstalt atrocity story — that the Germans supposedly rendered down battlefield corpses from both sides to make products such as nitroglycerine and lubricants .
+
+A small elite of black urbanites , mostly raised and educated at Christian missions , existed in Southern Rhodesia by the time of the war , and these generally identified themselves strongly with settler society and , by extension , the war effort . But the vast majority of black people in the colony retained their traditional tribal lifestyles of rural subsistence farming , and for most of them , as McLaughlin comments , the war " could have been fought between aliens from different planets for all their connection with events in Europe " . Some felt obliged to " fight for their country " , seeing the travails of Rhodesia and the Empire as their own also , but the great bulk of tribal public opinion was detached , seeing the conflict as a " white man 's war " that did not concern them . Those who favoured the latter line of thinking cared not so much about the conflict itself but more about how its course might affect them specifically . For example , widespread interest was aroused soon after the outbreak of war when rumours began to fly between the rural black communities that the Company planned to conscript them . News of the Maritz Rebellion prompted a fresh rumour among the Matabele that Company officials might confiscate tribal livestock to feed the white troops going south . None of this actually occurred .
+
+The Chartered Company 's native commissioners began to fear a possible tribal rebellion during early 1915 . Herbert Taylor , the chief native commissioner , believed that foreign missionaries were secretly encouraging rural black people to emulate the Chilembwe revolt in Nyasaland , and telling them ( falsely ) that the British were exterminating the natives there . There were few actual attempts to topple the administration in Southern Rhodesia , but the Company still took precautions . Aware that Mashona svikiro ( spirit mediums ) had been instrumental in inciting and leading insurgencies against Company rule during the late 1890s , the native commissioners enacted new legislation designed to imprison any svikiro who gained significant popularity .
+
+The only real threat of a black rebellion in Southern Rhodesia during the war occurred in May 1916 , immediately after the Company instructed native commissioners in Matabeleland to start recruiting for the Rhodesia Native Regiment . Company officials attempted to make clear that the RNR comprised volunteers only , and most Matabele chiefs were not unreceptive to the idea — some , including Chief Ndiweni , attempted to encourage enlistment by sending their own sons off to war — but rumours spread in some quarters that black men were going to be involuntarily conscripted wholesale into the unit . Chief Maduna , in Insiza district , briefly threatened insurrection , issuing rifles to 100 men , but he backed down after a few weeks after it became self @-@ evident that conscription was not happening . Some attempted to dissuade potential RNR recruits from signing up , including a black man in Bulawayo who was fined £ 4 in July 1915 for spreading a false rumour around the city that the British East Africa Transport Corps ' black Southern Rhodesian drivers had had their throats cut by the Germans . Matthew Zwimba , founder of the syncretist Church of the White Bird in Mashonaland , received six months ' hard labour the following year for advising black men not to join the RNR on the grounds that the British had , he said , committed crimes against God in 1913 .
+
+The colony 's small Afrikaner community was split on the issue of war . Some supported the United Kingdom out of loyalty to Rhodesia , but others were still bitter about the Anglo @-@ Boer War and showed little interest in fighting the Germans . In the rural areas , where Afrikaner nationalism was strongest , the Germans were perceived by some Boer farmers as potential liberators from British domination . Southern Rhodesian Afrikaners were often accused of undermining the British war effort . While some leaders of the community publicly came out in support of the war and offered to provide troops , others put pressure on Afrikaans @-@ speakers not to volunteer . When recruitment for the Rhodesia Native Regiment began in 1916 , there were reports of potential black recruits being urged not to join up by their Afrikaans @-@ speaking employers .
+
+= = = Women = = =
+
+As is common in frontier societies , the Southern Rhodesian settler community was mostly male : at the time of the First World War , white females were outnumbered by males almost two to one . Because white women were so marriageable and cheap black labour was easily available to handle domestic duties , most female settlers did not work and spent most of their days supervising the household and family . The average white woman in the colony continued to live this kind of life during the war , in marked contrast to her British counterpart , who in many cases went to replace the male factory workers and farm labourers who went to war . In Rhodesia little of this sort occurred : there were no munitions factories , and the idea of women working down the country 's mines was not considered practical . Some white farmers ' wives took over management of the land in their husbands ' absence , but this was quite unusual .
+
+The contribution to the war made by Southern Rhodesia 's white female population generally comprised organising and running donation drives , comforts committees and other similar enterprises . They sent the troops " comforts parcels " , which contained balaclavas , mittens and scarves that they had knitted , as well as newspapers , soap , food ( including cakes and sweets ) , and minor luxuries . These packages did much to raise the morale of the men , particularly those who were in German captivity . Women were also largely responsible for handling mail between Rhodesian soldiers and their relatives and friends back home . After the armistice , they organised financial assistance for those discharged Southern Rhodesian men in England who could not afford to come home , and arranged visits for those convalescing in English hospitals .
+
+As in Britain , some Southern Rhodesian women during the war presented men not wearing military uniform with white feathers ( symbolising cowardice ) . This campaign often went awry , as many of the men presented with the feathers were not in fact shirking from service . In 1916 , hoping to save them further harassment , the Rhodesia Herald and other newspapers began publishing lists of men who had volunteered only to be deemed medically unfit by the army doctors .
+
+Black women played a minor role in units such as the Rhodesia Native Regiment , accompanying the black soldiers into the operational area and performing domestic tasks like washing and cooking . Many of these were local East African women who had formed attachments with RNR soldiers . Officers tolerated the presence of these women in the interest of morale , aware that attempting to take them away from the men would probably lead to mutiny .
+
+= = = Donations and funds = = =
+
+Southern Rhodesian settlers set up a number of wartime funds , including funds to aid war victims , funds to provide the troops with tobacco and other supplies , funds to assist orphans and widows , funds to buy aeroplanes , and others . These raised about £ 200 @,@ 000 in all . Much of this went to the Prince of Wales National Relief Fund in Britain , which was founded when the war started ; Southern Rhodesian branches of the fund were promptly organised in several towns and ultimately consolidated into the Rhodesian War Relief Fund . This body donated 25 % of its receipts to the Prince of Wales Fund and 75 % to local concerns .
+
+The Tobacco Fund , set up in September 1914 , was particularly successful . Public donors bought Southern Rhodesian tobacco , cigarettes and pipe tobacco to send to the British forces . This was intended not only to comfort the troops , but also to advertise the prospect of post @-@ war emigration to Rhodesia . The labels on the tobacco tins depicted a map of Africa with the sun shining on Rhodesia , accompanied by the slogan " The World 's Great Sunspot " . In a similar vein , " Sunspot " was the name given to the Rhodesian cigarettes that British soldiers received . During the war , British and colonial soldiery collectively chewed and smoked 59 @,@ 955 two @-@ ounce ( 57 g ) tins of donated Southern Rhodesian tobacco , 80 @,@ 584 two @-@ ounce tins of equivalent pipe tobacco , and 4 @,@ 004 @,@ 000 Sunspot cigarettes ( in packs of 10 ) . Another similar undertaking saw six tons ( roughly 6 @,@ 100 kg ) of local citrus fruits sent to wounded British Army personnel in South Africa and England .
+
+Starting in July 1915 , Southern Rhodesians raised funds to buy aeroplanes for the Royal Flying Corps . The colony ultimately bought three aircraft , each of which cost £ 1 @,@ 500 — they were named Rhodesia Nos. 1 , 2 and 3 . Residents of the town of Gatooma also set up their own drive , which funded the purchase of two more planes , Gatooma Nos. 1 and 2 .
+
+The black elite in the towns donated to the settlers ' patriotic funds and organisations , and also set up their own . A war fundraising tea organised by black Salisburians in early March 1915 boasted entertainment in the form of a black choir , as well as the presence of Taylor and a junior native commissioner , each of whom gave speeches in English , Sindebele and Shona . Rural black people , by contrast , did not generally understand the concept of donating money to war funds , and misinterpreted encouragement to do so as being threatened with a new tax . When the Matabele chief Gambo began collecting war donations from his people in early 1915 , also urging other chiefs to do the same , he took care to thoroughly explain the war fund 's purpose and the voluntary nature of contributing , but some villagers still misunderstood and came to believe they would have livestock confiscated if they did not give money . The Company ultimately sent officials around the countryside to clarify the matter .
+
+The Kalanga , a small community in the south @-@ west that provided a disproportionately large number of volunteers for the Rhodesia Native Regiment , also proved conspicuous for their extremely generous financial donations ; in June 1915 , they collectively donated £ 183 , " a staggering sum " , the historian Timothy Stapleton comments , to the Prince of Wales Fund .
+
+= = = Flu pandemic = = =
+
+The 1918 flu pandemic , often referred to at the time as " Spanish flu " , spread quickly into Southern Rhodesia from South Africa in October 1918 . A week after the first case was reported in Salisbury , over 1 @,@ 000 people were infected . Public buildings in the towns were converted into makeshift hospital wards , appeals were put out for trained nurses to attend the sick , and soup kitchens were set up to feed children whose parents were too ill to look after them . Newspapers in the colony published basic instructions on how to deal with the disease . The mine compounds , where hundreds of black labourers lived and worked together in close proximity , were worst affected . The whole country was ultimately infected , with even the most remote villages reporting deaths . Many members of the Rhodesia Native Regiment were infected , and 76 of them died from the disease having survived the war . By the time the pandemic had ended in Southern Rhodesia around mid @-@ November 1918 , thousands had been killed .
+
+= = End of the war , aftermath and statistics = =
+
+News of the armistice on 11 November 1918 reached Southern Rhodesia the same day , and was announced to the town of Salisbury by the repeated blowing of the klaxon at the Castle Brewery . Hysterical street parties started almost immediately , and in the evening the people let off fireworks and lit a huge bonfire on Salisbury kopje . Bulawayo celebrated with a street party that continued uninterrupted for over 48 hours . Smaller towns marked the armistice with their own celebratory functions and events .
+
+Once the frivolities had ended , minds turned to post @-@ war policy , and particularly how soldiers returning from Europe would be reintegrated into society . The Company had already , in 1916 , set aside 250 @,@ 000 acres ( 100 @,@ 000 ha ) of farmland to be given free of charge to white war veterans . In early 1919 it set up a government department to help returning men find work . Many former soldiers failed to find jobs , and some remained unemployed for years after they returned home . Some of the more seriously wounded from the European theatre never came back at all , instead remaining in England because of the better medical facilities and public benefits . Demobilised Western Front veterans began to arrive back in Rhodesia in January 1919 , and continued to do so for nearly a year afterwards . On 30 May 1919 , the Southern Rhodesian Legislative Council passed a resolution thanking the territory 's veterans .
+
+The Southern Rhodesian tribal chiefs collectively sent their own statement to King George V.
+
+Proportional to white population , Southern Rhodesia had contributed more personnel to the British armed forces in World War I than any of the Empire 's dominions or colonies , and more than Britain itself . About 40 % of white males in the colony , 5 @,@ 716 men , put on uniform , with 1 @,@ 720 doing so as commissioned officers . Black Southern Rhodesians were represented by the 2 @,@ 507 soldiers who made up the Rhodesia Native Regiment , the roughly 350 who joined the British East Africa Transport Corps , British South Africa Police Mobile Column and South African Native Labour Corps , and the few dozen black scouts who served with the 1st and 2nd Rhodesia Regiments in South @-@ West and East Africa . Southern Rhodesians killed in action or on operational duty numbered over 800 , counting all races together — more than 700 of the colony 's white servicemen died , while the Rhodesia Native Regiment 's black soldiers suffered 146 fatalities .
+
+= = Legacy = =
+
+Accounts of white Southern Rhodesian soldiers ' wartime experiences started to be published in the 1920s . The conflict became a key entry in many national histories , though the role played by black troops was often minimised in these accounts . The colony 's wartime contributions became a source of great pride for much of the Southern Rhodesian white community , as well as for some black Africans ; whites were particularly proud that they had had the highest enlistment rate in the British Empire during the war . A national war memorial , a stone obelisk , 50 feet ( 15 m ) high , was funded by public donations and built in Salisbury in 1919 . Soldiers , one black and one white , were depicted in relief on plaques on each side ; the inscriptions below read " 1914 – 1918 — We fought and died for our King . " Five years later , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel J A Methuen organised the erection on a kopje near Umtali of a stone cross , 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) tall , to memorialise the country 's fallen black soldiers . This monument remains to this day , as does the bronze plaque at its foot , which reads " To the Glory of God and in Memory of Africans Who Fell . 1914 – 1918 . "
+
+Southern Rhodesia 's contributions to the Imperial war effort helped it to become regarded by Britain as more mature and deserving of responsible government , which Whitehall granted in 1923 . The territory was made a self @-@ governing colony , just short of full dominion status . Charged with its own defence , Salisbury introduced the selective conscription of white males in 1926 , and reformed the Rhodesia Regiment the following year . The territory 's association with the King 's Royal Rifle Corps endured in the form of affiliation between the KRRC and the Rhodesia Regiment 's new incarnation , which adopted aspects of the KRRC uniform and a similar regimental insignia . The new Rhodesia Regiment was granted the original 's World War I battle honours and colours by George V in 1929 .
+
+In World War II , Southern Rhodesia again enthusiastically stood behind the UK , symbolically declaring war on Germany in support of Britain before any other colony or dominion . Over 26 @,@ 000 Southern Rhodesians served in the Second World War , making the colony once more the largest contributor of manpower , proportional to white population , in all of the British Empire and Commonwealth . As in World War I , Southern Rhodesians were distributed in small groups throughout the British Army , Royal Navy and Royal Air Force . Dedicated Rhodesian platoons again served in the KRRC , and the Rhodesian African Rifles , raised in 1940 , were in many ways a resurrection of the Rhodesia Native Regiment . Military aviation , already associated with the colony following the First World War , became a great Southern Rhodesian tradition during the Second , with the colony providing No. 44 , No. 237 and No. 266 Squadrons and other personnel to the Royal Air Force , as well as training in Southern Rhodesia for 8 @,@ 235 Allied airmen .
+
+By the 1960s , Southern Rhodesians ' service on Britain 's behalf in the World Wars , particularly the Second , was an integral part of the colony 's national psyche . The territory had also latterly contributed to British counter @-@ insurgency operations in Malaya , Aden and Cyprus , as well as Operation Vantage in Kuwait . The colonial government 's Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965 was deliberately made on 11 November , Armistice Day , in an attempt to emphasise the territory 's prior war record on Britain 's behalf . The proclamation was signed at 11 : 00 local time , during the customary two @-@ minute silence to remember the fallen .
+
+Since the country 's reconstitution and recognised independence as Zimbabwe in 1980 , Robert Mugabe 's administration has pulled down many monuments and plaques making reference to the fallen of the First and Second World Wars , perceiving them as reminders of white minority rule and colonialism that go against what the modern state stands for . This view is partly rooted in the association of these memorials with those commemorating the British South Africa Company 's dead of the Matabele Wars , as well as those memorialising members of the Rhodesian Security Forces killed during the Bush War of the 1970s . Many Zimbabweans today see their nation 's involvement in the World Wars as a consequence of colonial rule that had more to do with the white community than the indigenous black majority , and most have little interest in its contributions to those conflicts .
+
+The country 's fallen of the two World Wars today have no official commemoration , either in Zimbabwe or overseas . The national war memorial obelisk still stands , but the relief sculptures and inscriptions have been removed . The stone cross monument near Mutare ( as Umtali is now called ) is one of the few memorials that remains intact and in its place , atop what is now called Cross Kopje ; its meaning has been largely forgotten .
+
+= Road to Europe =
+
+" Road to Europe " is the 20th episode of the third season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on February 7 , 2002 . The episode follows baby Stewie , who becomes obsessed with the fictional British children 's television series " Jolly Farm Revue " . He decides to run away from home to become part of the cast and his anthropomorphic dog Brian decides to chase him down in an attempt to bring him back home . Meanwhile , Peter and Lois go to a Kiss concert , where Lois reveals she knows nothing about the band , much to Peter 's embarrassment .
+
+" Road to Europe " was written by Daniel Palladino and directed by Dan Povenmire . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and its many cultural references . The episode featured Kiss members Gene Simmons , Paul Stanley , Ace Frehley , and Peter Criss . It also featured guest voices by comedian Andy Dick , actor and director Jon Favreau , actor Sean Flynn , actress and singer Lauren Graham , actress Michelle Horn , and voice actor Wally Wingert .
+
+= = Plot summary = =
+
+Stewie is entranced by a British television program entitled Jolly Farm Revue , a colorful children 's show featuring several imaginary characters . Lamenting his future in Quahog , Stewie decides to travel to " Jolly Farm " and live there forever . Desperate , he goes to the local airport and sneaks aboard a transatlantic flight , intending to travel to London , and to find the BBC studios where Jolly Farm Revue is filmed . Brian tries to stop Stewie from leaving Rhode Island , and follows him on board the plane . When he finally finds Stewie , the flight takes off and lands in the Middle East . Brian begins to search for a way to get back to the United States , but Stewie refuses to leave with him and insists they travel to London . Brian and Stewie search for a camel to use as transportation , and they perform a musical number as a diversion in order to steal one . They begin their journey , but the camel dies in the middle of the desert . They soon find a nearby Comfort Inn , however , in which to stay . They steal a hot air balloon from the hotel premises and make their way to the Vatican City , then traveling by train from Switzerland to Munich , and end up in Amsterdam . Upon finally arriving at the BBC Television Centre , Stewie is horrified to learn that the farm is a set , and his beloved characters are merely jaded actors . Disillusioned , Stewie decides to travel back home with Brian to Quahog after getting back the Mother Maggie actress for kicking him by defecating in her shoes . This ordeal also caused Stewie to lose interest in the show .
+
+Meanwhile , Peter is overjoyed to hear about Kiss @-@ stock , a five @-@ night set of concerts in New England by his favorite band , Kiss . He and his wife , Lois , dress in face paint and leather to look like Kiss band members , as does the rest of the crowd , and they manage to stand only a few feet from the stage . When Gene Simmons points the microphone at Lois , encouraging her to sing the next line in the chorus of " Rock and Roll All Nite " , Peter is ashamed to discover that she does not know the lyrics . Deeply saddened by this , Gene and Paul Stanley leave the stage , leaving Ace Frehley and Peter Criss to perform " Chattanooga Choo Choo " to cheer the audience . After the concert , Peter accuses Lois of only pretending to be a Kiss enthusiast , and they leave the concert venue in disgrace . Later that night , Peter and Lois stop at a Denny 's on the way home from the concert . The members of Kiss are seated at another table , and Lois recognizes Gene without his makeup as Chaim Witz ( Gene 's birth name ) , an old classmate . Peter is amazed to discover that Lois had dated Gene when they were in school . Peter 's faith in Lois is then restored , and he proudly shares the news on public @-@ access television that his wife " did " Kiss .
+
+= = Production = =
+
+The episode was written by Daniel Palladino , his first official episode for the series , an executive producer for the show . In addition , the episode was directed by series regular Dan Povenmire , in his fourth episode directing for the season ; the first three being " One If by Clam , Two If by Sea " , " To Love and Die in Dixie " , and " Brian Wallows and Peter 's Swallows " .
+
+" Road to Europe " is the second episode of the " Road to ... " hallmarks of the series , which have aired throughout various seasons of the show , and is the second " Road to ... " episode to be directed by Povenmire . The episodes are a parody of the seven Road to ... comedy films starring Bing Crosby , Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour . The episode was inspired by the 1941 film Road to Morocco , including its musical number " ( We 're off on the ) Road to Morocco " , which was previously parodied by the two characters , then with alternate lyrics , in the Family Guy episode " Road to Rhode Island " . Fans originally believed that the original title of this episode was " Road to Baghdad " , but in an interview with IGN MacFarlane stated that it was not the case .
+
+In addition to the regular cast , the episode featured guest appearances by comedian Andy Dick , actor and director Jon Favreau , actor Sean Flynn , actress and singer Lauren Graham , actress Michelle Horn and voice actor Wally Wingert . It also guest starred Kiss members Gene Simmons , Paul Stanley , Ace Frehley , and Peter Criss as themselves .
+
+= = Cultural references = =
+
+Every member in the rock band Kiss guest starred in the episode as themselves . " Road to Europe " features several cultural references . Brian compares Stewie 's look with Charlie Brown ; Stewie responds by comparing him with Charlie Brown 's dog Snoopy ; both these characters are from the comic strip Peanuts . At the Kiss concert , the song that the band plays , and the one that Lois does not know the lyrics to , is the single " Rock and Roll All Nite " . In the song Stewie and Brian sing , the Marquis de Sade , singer Ricky Martin and actress Phylicia Rashad are mentioned . Brian also uses Triumph , the Insult Comic Dog 's catch phrase , " For me to poop on " to insult Stewie .
+
+While riding a tour bus in Germany , Brian looks at a history book that has no information regarding German history from 1939 – 1945 ; the years on which World War II started and ended . Brian questions the tour guide about the dates when Germany invaded Poland , but the guide denies that it happened . Brian keeps insisting until the guide yells " Sie werden sich hinsetzen ! Sie werden ruhig sein ! Sie werden nicht beleidigen Deutschland ! " , literally meaning " You will sit down ! You will be quiet ! You will not insult Germany ! " while making the Nazi salute with his left hand . The last sentence is grammatically incorrect , as the proper German statement would be , " Sie werden Deutschland nicht beleidigen ! " At the beginning of the episode , the credits are presented with title cards containing images of Brian and Stewie passing by various iconic places in Europe . These include France 's Eiffel Tower , Italy 's Leaning Tower of Pisa and a venetian gondola , the United Kingdom 's Stonehenge and Greece 's Parthenon . Other iconic items shown include the Union Flag and the Pope .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+Reviews of the episode by television critics were mostly positive . Critic Ahsan Haque of IGN placed " Road to Europe " in the top ten of Stewie and Brian 's Greatest Adventures , ranking it fifth . Haque noted that the episode is not as entertaining as many of the other Stewie and Brian adventures , but the song included in the episode , " You and I Are So Awfully Different " made it worthy of an appearance on the list . " Road to Europe " is the lowest ranked Road to ... episode on the list with " Road to Germany " at number four , " Road to Rupert " at number three , " Road to the Multiverse " at number two and " Road to Rhode Island " ranked as the best . Television critic Ramsey Isler , also of IGN , commented positively about the episode in his review of the eighth season episode " Go Stewie , Go " , which contained an American version of " Jolly Farm Revue " . Isler went on to note , " for the most part the Jolly Farm concept is much less interesting than it was in the much more amusing and classic Family Guy episode , " Road to Europe " . "
+
+= Three Horses Beer =
+
+Three Horses Beer ( better known locally as THB ) is a pale lager that has been brewed by Star Breweries of Madagascar since 1958 . It is the highest selling beer in Madagascar and has been described as emblematic of the country . THB is sold nationwide and since 2005 has been exported to such markets as France , Reunion Island , Comoros and Mayotte . The Malagasy beer is produced at two breweries in Madagascar , the first centrally located in Antsirabe and the other in the northern city of Antsiranana . THB Pilsener , the most common variant of THB , has a light taste and is produced from mostly local barley , corn and hops . Star Breweries also produces THB Fresh ( a shandy with less than 1 % alcohol ) , THB Special ( 6 @.@ 2 % alcohol ) , and THB Lite ( 1 % alcohol ) . Recent investments in Star Brewery infrastructure have allowed a 20 % increase in production since 2011 .
+
+After advertising alcohol in the media was banned under President Marc Ravalomanana , Star Breweries has increasingly promoted THB through unconventional means . These have included sponsoring the THB Champions League , Madagascar 's national football championship , and holding annual beer festivals . In addition , THB is a regular sponsor of local musicians through major annual festivals and tours . Star Breweries has also hired musicians to perform in music videos specifically created to promote the beer . In 2014 the THB label was significantly redesigned , and in 2015 a new slogan , " THB eo foana e ! " ( " THB always ! " ) was promoted alongside the beer 's longstanding trademark Soa Ny Fiarahantsika ( " The Pleasure of Being Together " ) . The beer is regularly promoted by Malagasy musical stars and other public figures .
+
+= = History = =
+
+In 1953 the French company Rochefortaise launched Société Tananarivienne d ’ Articles Réfrigérés ( STAR ) ( Antananarivo Company of Refrigerated Products ) and its associated factory in Antananarivo , Madagascar , for the exclusive production and distribution of Coca @-@ Cola in Madagascar . In 1957 , a brewer was recruited to develop a local beer . After developing 17 different recipes , he travelled throughout the island to test each one using primarily local ingredient ; the best of these was a pilsener chosen as the recipe to be produced at a Star brewery to be established in Antsirabe . The company first began producing Three Horses Beer ( THB ) in 1958 .
+
+In 1968 Star Breweries opened a factory in Antsiranana for the production and distribution of THB as well as Coca @-@ Cola and other carbonated beverages throughout the island 's northern region . In 1980 , Star Breweries became partly state owned ; in 1989 Rochefortaise sold Star Breweries to Groupe Fraise , and the company obtained fully privatized status one year later . In 2005 , the production of THB in cans began at the Star brewery in Antsirabe . In 2011 Groupe Fraise sold Star Breweries to French brewer Castel .
+
+= = Production = =
+
+THB Pilsener , the oldest and most popular THB beer , is a 5 @.@ 4 % abv pale lager light in color with a medium body , thin head and balanced , mildly bitter flavor . THB Pilsener is sold in two sizes of returnable brown bottles : 33 centilitres ( 12 imp fl oz ; 11 US fl oz ) and 65 centilitres ( 23 imp fl oz ; 22 US fl oz ) . The pilsener is also sold in 33 centilitres ( 12 imp fl oz ; 11 US fl oz ) and 50 centilitres ( 18 imp fl oz ; 17 US fl oz ) aluminum cans , and has been available on tap at commercial establishments in Madagascar since 2006 . Star Breweries also produces THB Fresh , a shandy ( locally called panaché ) , with less than 1 % alcohol . It is only sold in 65 centilitres ( 23 imp fl oz ; 22 US fl oz ) glass bottles . The original Fresh shandy , which has a lemon taste , has also temporarily been offered in several other flavors , including mint , raspberry and apple . Other variants include THB Special , with 6 @.@ 2 % alcohol , and THB Lite , a low alcohol beer ( 1 % ) .
+
+THB is produced in two breweries in Madagascar : the original brewery , located in Antsirabe , and a second in Antsiranana . Since its inception , THB has been sold in glass bottles tinted brown to protect the contents from the ultraviolet rays of the sun . The Antsirabe factory produces 100 million bottles and 100 @,@ 000 cans of THB per year . Antsirabe was selected for the original brewery because the water there is low in calcium and other minerals , lending itself well to beer production . Ingredients for the production of THB are sourced throughout the island . Barley grown in nearby Betafo and Fianarantsoa is blended with corn and hops from Toliara to produce the beer . Over 2 @,@ 500 tonnes of malt and 3 @,@ 500 tonnes of corn are grown annually in the surrounding Vakinankaratra region for the production of THB . The MALTO collective of 7 @,@ 000 farmers was formed around 1980 in Antsirabe to grow barley and transform it into malt for Star Breweries beer production . Certain special malts are used to produce variants on the original THB recipe , such as THB Special .
+
+Fermentation of THB beer requires approximately eight hours for each mash of 130 hectoliters . The mash is a blend of malt ( sprouted barley ) and corn in an 80 / 20 ratio to which water and hops are added . The mash is heated in a vat for around two hours to support fermentation . The product is filtered and then heated to 100 degrees Celsius to concentrate and sterilize it . The beer is then decanted and cooled for an hour at 10 degrees Celsius . Finally , a type of mushroom is added as a leavening and fermenting agent ; the beer is allowed to ferment for a full week , and excess carbon dioxide produced by the process is collected for the production of soft drinks and other carbonated beverages at the factory . The beer is allowed to rest in vats for several more days before being filtered once more and then bottled and pasteurized at 62 degrees Celsius for three minutes . The automated bottling process yields crates of THB that are ready for shipment to regional wholesale distribution points .
+
+Star Breweries invested over four million euros into improving its factories in the 2009 @-@ 11 period , resulting in a 20 % increase in production capacity . These improvements included refurbishing the production line equipment , including higher performing mixers and belts and a new bottle conveyor system . The Coca @-@ Cola Company issued international HACCP certification to Star Breweries in 2010 , confirming its adherence to international quality standards in beverage production . In 2011 , Coca @-@ Cola also awarded Star Breweries the Gold Medal among 27 competing African countries for the company 's standards of quality and environmental protection in the production of its beer and other beverages . Frequent brownouts resulting from the overtaxed national power grid produce power cuts to the THB breweries that have negatively affected the volume and cost effectiveness of production since the early 2000s .
+
+= = Distribution = =
+
+Star Breweries distributes THB through a network of regional wholesalers , who provide the product to local vendors . Orders are typically sent to the factories on a weekly basis and are filled within two weeks . In 2005 Star Breweries shifted manufacturing of THB in aluminum cans from Mauritius to Antsirabe in order to export the beer to international markets with high Malagasy expatriate populations , including France , Reunion Island , Comoros and Mayotte . All exported THB beer was packaged in aluminum cans manufactured at the Antsirabe brewery ; canned THB was also made available alongside the traditional glass bottles in markets in Madagascar that same year . In 2006 the Star Brewery , which employs 1 @,@ 500 staff , was producing 700 @,@ 000 hectoliters of beer annually out of the total market share of 800 @,@ 000 ; 550 @,@ 000 hectoliters were produced at the Antsirabe Star Brewery alone . The Antsiranana factory employs 140 staff and produced 180 @,@ 000 hectoliters of beer ( 24 million bottles ) in 2010 .
+
+= = Marketing = =
+
+To create the original label for THB , Star Breweries opted to copy an existing label for a Dutch beer brand called The Holland Beer , which featured the image of three horses . This was done in part because of the association between Antsirabe and its history of horse breeding ; the brand took the name Three Horses Beer based on this design . The label also features the brand 's slogan , Soa Ny Fiarahantsika ( " The Pleasure of Being Together " ) . The labels were originally printed in the Netherlands and shipped to Madagascar before eventually being produced on the local market ; THB coasters continue to be produced in Europe . The bottle color and shape and its label have undergone adjustments over time . In 2005 , the label was enlarged and the colors brightened . The band around the neck of the bottle was also broadened with the addition of the image of a medal , in honor of the beer 's first international award in 2004 . A new logo was adopted for the canned THB before being expanded in 2014 to the 33 cl bottled THB . The new logo features three stylized , outlined white horses , now facing right to represent a focus on the future . Red remains the predominant color .
+
+Advertising alcohol on television and in the press was outlawed under president Marc Ravalomanana . In order to maximize brand recognition of THB , the company altered the label for its Fresh shandy , which was exempt from this ban due to its low alcohol content , to match the THB Pilsener design but using a green background instead of the pilsener 's red . The pilsener is advertised in a variety of non @-@ traditional ways , such as through celebrity promotion in music videos and music and sporting event sponsorship . THB is considered by the public as a promoter of Malagasy culture and identity , particularly through its sponsorship of its annual THB Tour traveling music festival and the THB fête de la bière ( beer festival ) . Three Horses Beer sponsors the THB Champions League , the national football championship . Many popular musical artists have advertised THB , including superstars Jerry Marcoss , AmbondronA , Samoëla , Tsiliva , Tence Mena and Jaojoby .
+
+THB launched its first website in 2008 . In 2015 , in honor of the 55th anniversary of national independence , Star Breweries launched a new campaign to promote the beer . The company announced a new slogan , " THB eo foana e ! " ( THB always ! ) to be promoted alongside its historic slogan . A song by the same name , written and performed by BIG MJ and the group Tambour Gasy , and an accompanying music video , will promote the beer and the new slogan .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+In the Malagasy market , THB Pilsener remains the most popular Malagasy brand of beer , and the most popular of any brand of beer sold in Madagascar . It is estimated that four liters per person are sold each year in Madagascar . THB has been described as an " emblem " of the country and a " national symbol " . One Malagasy journalist described THB as symbolic of Fihavanana Malagasy , a cultural value that emphasizes the importance of brotherhood and friendship .
+
+THB won its first ever international award in 2004 at the Monde Sélection de Bruxelles international beverage competition in Brussels , Belgium . In 2010 , THB Pilsener was again recognized at this event , receiving the silver medal . THB Pilsener won a gold medal at the same competition in 2012 , and the silver medal in 2015 . THB Fresh also won a gold medal at the Monde Sélection de Bruxelles in 2012 .
+
+= George Headley =
+
+George Alphonso Headley OD ( 30 May 1909 – 30 November 1983 ) was a West Indian cricketer who played 22 Test matches , mostly before the Second World War . Considered one of the best batsmen to play for West Indies and one of the greatest cricketers of all time , Headley also represented Jamaica and played professional club cricket in England . West Indies had a weak cricket team through most of Headley 's playing career ; as their one world @-@ class player , he carried a heavy responsibility and the side depended on his batting . He batted at number three , scoring 2 @,@ 190 runs in Tests at an average of 60 @.@ 83 , and 9 @,@ 921 runs in all first @-@ class matches at an average of 69 @.@ 86 . He was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1934 .
+
+Headley was born in Panama but raised in Jamaica where he quickly established a cricketing reputation as a batsman . He soon gained his place in the Jamaican cricket team , and narrowly missed selection for the West Indies tour of England in 1928 . He made his Test debut in 1930 , against England in Barbados , and was instantly successful . Further successes followed in series against Australia and in three more against England , as Headley dominated the West Indian batting of the period . Following his tour of England in 1933 , Headley signed as a professional at Haslingden in the Lancashire League , where he played until the outbreak of war in 1939 .
+
+The war interrupted Headley 's career ; although he returned to Tests in 1948 he was hampered by injuries and did not achieve his previous levels of success . Even so , he was chosen as West Indies captain in 1948 against England , the first black player to be appointed to the position , although a combination of injuries and politics meant he only led his team for one Test match . He did not play Tests between 1949 and 1953 , but resumed his career in English league cricket , first in Lancashire and later in the Birmingham League . His playing career ended in 1954 on his return to Jamaica , after a public subscription paid his fare from England . After retiring as a player , Headley was employed as a cricket coach by the Jamaican government until 1962 . He lived until 1983 ; his son Ron and his grandson Dean each played Test match cricket , for West Indies and England respectively .
+
+= = Early life = =
+
+Headley was born in Colón , Panama on 30 May 1909 , the son of DeCourcy Headley and Irene Roberts . Neither of Headley 's parents was from Panama ; his father was from Barbados and his mother from Jamaica , but they had moved to Panama while DeCourcey worked on the construction of the Panama Canal . By the time Headley was five years old the Canal was complete , and the family moved to Cuba in search of further employment . In 1919 , concerned by the amount of Spanish being spoken by her son , Headley 's mother took him to Jamaica so he could be educated in an English @-@ speaking school .
+
+Headley moved in with his mother 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Mrs Clarence Smith , in Rae Town , Kingston , and remained with her until her death in 1933 . His mother returned to Cuba , but regularly exchanged letters with her son . He attended Calabar Elementary School , where he played for the school cricket team as a wicket @-@ keeper , although a meagre sporting budget meant he had to do so without gloves . Later , he continued his education at Kingston High School . Taking part in all @-@ day cricket matches at the local Crabhole Park , Headley began to attract local attention , and aged 16 , he joined Raetown Cricket Club . In 1925 he scored his first century , batting at number three in the batting order in a match for Raetown against Clovelly .
+
+On leaving school , Headley was appointed as a temporary clerk in a magistrate 's court ; this enabled him to play competitive cricket for the St Andrew 's Police side in 1926 , in a cup competition . Some impressive performances for the club earned him an invitation to practice with the Jamaica Colts team . However , his job made it impossible to attend , and he was not considered for the Jamaican side against Lord Tennyson 's English touring side in 1927 . That year , Headley began working for Keeling – Lindo Estates , in St Catherine . The firm were enthusiastic cricket patrons , allowing employees time off to play in matches , so that Headley was able to attend practice with the Jamaica team on a regular basis . He also moved to the St Catherine Cricket Club , captained by his immediate superior in Keeling – Lindo . To generate more income , Headley took a second job , working for the Jamaica Fruit and Shipping Company , but he wanted a secure profession . To this end , he planned to move to America to pursue a career in dentistry . However , he was now on the verge of the Jamaica team and a delay in the arrival of the application forms for his American work permit allowed him to make his first @-@ class debut for Jamaica against another touring team led by Lord Tennyson .
+
+= = Early career = =
+
+Headley made his Jamaica debut against Lord Tennyson 's XI at Sabina Park on 9 February 1928 , in a match won easily by the home team . Batting at number three , his first innings yielded 16 runs , but in the second innings , he scored 71 , reaching fifty runs in as many minutes . In the second game against Lord Tennyson 's XI which began in Kingston on 18 February , Headley scored his maiden first @-@ class century . Having scored 22 not out after the first day 's play , he reached 50 runs by playing very carefully but subsequently played more adventurous shots . He hit the bowling of Alan Hilder for four consecutive fours and twice hit Lord Tennyson for three fours in a row . At one point , thirteen of his scoring shots in a row went for four . He was finally out for 211 , the highest score at the time by a West Indian batsman against an English team . After the innings , Tennyson compared Headley to Victor Trumper and Charlie Macartney , batsmen considered among the best who ever played . Headley concluded the series against Tennyson 's team with innings of 40 and 71 , to give him an aggregate of 409 runs at an average of 81 @.@ 80 . He also took his maiden first class wicket .
+
+Following his success , Headley abandoned his prospective career in dentistry . Although some critics expected his selection for the West Indies tour of England in 1928 , Headley was not chosen . While West Indies played their inaugural Test series during that tour , Headley continued to play for St Catherine 's . He had another opportunity against English opposition in 1929 , when a team led by Julien Cahn arrived to play two first @-@ class games . Jamaica 's distance from other Caribbean islands made it difficult for their cricketers to gain good @-@ quality playing experience , so the frequent visits by English sides were important to the development of Jamaican cricket . These tours also served to build Headley 's reputation . In the first match , Headley played a slow , defensive innings of 57 , but he did not reach fifty in his other three innings . Even so , he was chosen by the Jamaican selectors for a West Indies XI , which included players from other islands , to play Cahn 's team in their final tour match . The home side lost the toss and had to bat in very difficult conditions following rain . Headley found the fast bowlers difficult , but survived the period when the pitch was most difficult to bat on before he was out for 44 . In the second innings , he attacked from the start and used a wide range of shots to reach 143 before he was run out . In three matches against the tourists , Headley scored 326 runs , averaging 54 @.@ 33 .
+
+A change in the location of his job meant that Headley moved to the Lucas Cricket Club in 1929 . He visited America and played some exhibition matches for the Jamaican Athletic Club in New York , scoring a century against a touring team from Bermuda ; his parents had moved to America by then , which enabled Headley to combine the cricket with his first visit to his parents in ten years .
+
+= = Test match career = =
+
+= = = Debut and first Test series = = =
+
+In 1930 the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) undertook a tour of the West Indies which included four Test matches — the first Tests to be played in the West Indies . The MCC side was not at full international strength ; it included players who were either just beginning or just ending their international careers , and several star English bowlers were missing . The first Test was played in Barbados and Headley was selected , making his debut for the West Indies on 11 February 1930 — to the disapproval of some Barbadians who thought his place should have gone to a local player . Batting at number three , he played aggressively in the first innings but the crowd barracked him and he was bowled for 21 . However , in the second innings he scored 176 , becoming the first West Indian to score a century on his Test debut and only their second centurion overall . He shared century partnerships with both Clifford Roach and Frank de Caires , but these were insufficient to force victory , and the match was drawn . Headley remained in the Test side for the rest of the series , the only home player other than Roach to appear in all four Tests . In Trinidad , during the second Test , Headley found the unfamiliar conditions difficult — Trinidad was the only Test match ground in the Caribbean which was played on a pitch made from matting instead of grass . Headley scored eight and 39 as West Indies lost the match . The home side levelled the series with their first ever Test victory in the third match of the series , played in British Guiana . In this match Headley became the first West Indian , and only the fifth cricketer of any nation , to score two separate hundreds in a Test match . His first innings of 114 was played mainly in support of Roach , who scored a double century . In the second innings , Headley scored 112 as West Indies batted with a big first innings lead , attacking defensive English bowling .
+
+While en route to the final Test in Jamaica , the West Indies team stopped in Panama and Costa Rica where official functions were held in Headley 's honour . In Jamaica , where there was widespread jubilation , Headley attended several receptions and celebrations . When the cricket resumed , Headley scored 64 , 72 and 55 in three innings against MCC for Jamaica . With the Test series level , it was agreed that the final match of the series would be played until one team won , regardless of how long it took — the other Tests had been limited to four days each . On the first three days , England scored 849 . In reply West Indies could only manage 286 , with Headley out for ten runs . England batted again , to set West Indies an eventual victory target of 836 . This time , Headley batted for 390 minutes , faced 385 balls and hit 28 fours while scoring 223 . He and Karl Nunes added 227 for the second wicket . Headley played the hook very effectively and hit many short deliveries for runs . When Headley was stumped , he had made what was at the time the fourth highest individual score in all Test cricket and the highest in a second innings . When West Indies still needed 428 runs , rain fell for two days and the match had to be abandoned after its ninth scheduled day . Headley ended the series with 703 runs at an average of 87 @.@ 87 .
+
+= = = Australian tour = = =
+
+Headley was selected for the West Indian tour of Australia in the 1930 – 31 season , under the captaincy of Jackie Grant . After a brief visit to New Zealand where they played a non @-@ first @-@ class match against Wellington , the tourists arrived in Sydney . Headley made a good start to the tour and attracted praise from the press in Australia and West Indies . The first match of the Australian leg was against New South Wales , where the West Indians were bowled out for 188 and Headley was stumped for 25 . However , his runs came in less than two overs and Learie Constantine later rated this as one of Headley 's best innings . In the second innings , Headley made 82 , the top score , but could not prevent the tourists losing . The next match was also lost , as Bert Ironmonger took thirteen wickets in the match for Victoria . In the first innings , Headley scored 131 out of 212 , regarded by one critic as one of the best centuries scored on the ground , and top @-@ scored again with 34 in the second innings . By this stage the Australian bowlers had realised that Headley excelled when hitting the ball through the off side , and they began to alter their tactics accordingly . In the final match before the Test series began , against South Australia , Headley had problems playing the Australian bowlers , particularly the leg spin of Clarrie Grimmett . The Australians bowled at Headley 's leg stump with fielders concentrated on the leg side , making it difficult for him to score runs . Headley scored 27 and 16 as his team were heavily defeated . These bowling tactics were used in subsequent matches , and Headley found difficulty in countering them .
+
+At the beginning of the first Test , West Indies were bowled out 296 as Grimmett took seven wickets , including Headley first ball . In the second innings , with West Indies 80 behind , Grimmett again attacked Headley 's leg stump . After having his scoring restricted , Headley lost patience and after scoring 11 was stumped , trying to hit Grimmett . Bowled out for 249 , West Indies lost by ten wickets . After scoring only three in the following tour match against Tasmania , Headley contributed 14 and two in an innings defeat in the second Test . After two heavy Test defeats for the tourists , some critics believed that the series was too one @-@ sided and that some of the five Tests should be cancelled . Headley 's poor run of form continued in the West Indian victory over Queensland and , having put on weight , he was also struggling with his fitness . In an effort to overcome Australia 's leg stump attack Headley had altered his batting stance ; instead of standing at right angles to the bowler , he turned his body more front @-@ on , to enable him to improve his placement of the ball on the leg side . His quick footwork enabled him to alter his position if necessary to play the ball on the off side . He also eliminated from his strokes a risky cover drive he had developed on Caribbean pitches . During the third Test at Brisbane , Headley made his first substantial contribution to the series , after Australia scored 558 batting first . Facing Grimmett 's leg side tactics , Headley managed to score freely , and forced Grimmett to alter to an off stump attack . With ten fours in total , Headley became the first West Indian to score a century against Australia , and was left 102 not out when West Indies were bowled out for 193 . Forced to follow @-@ on , West Indies were dismissed for 148 of which Headley made 28 , the highest score of the innings . Ironmonger tricked him into playing the leg glance and he was caught by the wicket @-@ keeper who had moved across in anticipation of the shot .
+
+Headley maintained his good form in matches against Victoria and South Australia after the third Test , scoring 77 and 113 in the first match and 75 and 39 in the second . Although neither match was won , the West Indians needed to take only one more wicket to win the first match when it ended drawn , and lost the second by a single wicket . However , the fourth Test was lost by an innings as Ironmonger again caused difficulties for the West Indies batsmen . Headley top @-@ scored with 33 out of the first innings total of 99 but made only 11 on his second attempt , being dismissed both times by Ironmonger . By now the tour was making a financial loss , forcing the tourists to take economy measures such as travelling by tram . In conversation with a member of the Australian Board of Control , Headley , Constantine and fellow tourist Tommy Scott suggested the authorities should produce faster pitches to enable the public to see more attacking cricket . It seems this advice may have been heeded ; the pitch was faster in a match against New South Wales , won by the West Indians , in which Headley scored 70 and two . In the fifth Test , West Indies won the toss and batted first , which proved an advantage in a match plagued by uncertain weather . Headley and fellow Jamaican Frank Martin scored centuries on the first day despite bowling from the Australians which the Jamaican newspaper Daily Gleaner described as good . Headley , playing Grimmett comfortably by now , batted for 146 minutes , and hit 13 fours . In the course of the innings he achieved the rare feat in Australia of reaching 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs on the tour . Grant , the West Indies captain , declared the innings closed after rain had fallen to make the pitch more difficult for batting . Australia were then bowled out for 224 , 126 runs behind West Indies . The tourists scored 124 more runs in their second innings , of which Headley made 30 , before more rain fell and Grant declared for the second time in the match . Subsequently , the bowlers dismissed Australia for 220 to give West Indies their first win over Australia , although the series ended 4 – 1 to the home side . Headley scored 336 runs in the Test matches at an average of 37 @.@ 33 , and 1 @,@ 066 runs at 44 @.@ 41 in all first @-@ class games .
+
+On their return home , the West Indian players were well received by the public and officials ; Headley received praise and once again attended functions arranged in his honour . In Australia Donald Bradman , the star Australian batsman , praised Headley , particularly for the way in which he had overcome his problems against Grimmett . C. L. R. James , the writer and historian , later wrote that Headley 's success demonstrated his mastery of batting . Headley arrived in Australia as a primarily off @-@ side player which accounted for his difficulty against the Australian bowlers ' tactics . However , James notes : " What he did , under fire , so to speak , was to reorganise his batting to meet the new attack . " So successful was Headley that he was described by Grimmett as the best on @-@ side batsman against whom the bowler had played .
+
+= = = Tour by Lord Tennyson 's team = = =
+
+Headley resumed playing for Lucas on his return to Jamaica , attracting great crowds and high expectations . Once the cricket season ended , he embarked on another trip to America to play exhibition matches , visiting his parents on the journey . On his return for the 1931 – 32 season , he was appointed captain of Lucas and began preparing for the forthcoming tour of Jamaica by another team led by Lord Tennyson . In addition to his regular practice , Headley began a programme of running and swimming to improve his overall fitness . After performing well in the trial matches for Jamaica , he was selected in the first match against the tourists . Jamaica made an uncertain start , losing five wickets by the time their score reached 215 but Headley had scored 130 . He then shared a partnership of 487 for the sixth wicket with Clarence Passailaigue ; 236 not out after the first day 's play , Headley went on to score an unbeaten 344 , after batting for 407 minutes and hitting 39 fours . Jamaica totalled 702 , and won the match by an innings . During his innings , Headley passed the previous highest score by any West Indian batsman , 304 not out by Percy Tarilton in 1920 , and the highest score in the West Indies by any batsman , Andy Sandham 's 325 in 1930 . His partnership with Passailaigue took 248 minutes , and as of 2015 remains a world record for the highest sixth wicket partnership in a first @-@ class match . The success of two home batsmen led to celebrations in Jamaica and praise from the English bowlers for Headley 's batting . Headley continued his success in the second game , opening the batting and top @-@ scoring with 84 in the first innings . In the second innings , opening again , he made 155 not out to guide West Indies to their victory target of 363 . In the final match , Headley scored his third century of the series after returning to number three , accumulating 140 of Jamaica 's total of 561 . Jamaica won the match to win the series 3 – 0 ; Headley scored 723 runs at an average of 361 @.@ 50 . In the remainder of the season , Headley led Lucas to victory in the Senior Cup , scoring a century in the final .
+
+= = = 1933 tour of England = = =
+
+After playing in two trial matches , Headley was selected to tour England in 1933 under the continuing captaincy of Jackie Grant . The English press speculated on Headley 's ability to cope with English conditions , while expecting him to perform to a high standard . In the event , Wisden believed he justified the expectations and increased his reputation . In the first match of the tour he scored 52 out of a total of 129 against Northamptonshire , in difficult batting conditions on a wet pitch . He scored fifties in each of his next three matches before scoring a century against the MCC during his first appearance at Lord 's Cricket Ground . In the second innings of this match , a short ball from Bill Bowes struck Headley on the chest , and as a result of this injury he missed three games , but when he returned to the team he scored 129 against Glamorgan and 224 not out against Somerset . A quieter match followed against Middlesex , but Headley reached his second double century of the tour in the match against Derbyshire , which took him past 1 @,@ 000 runs for the season . Despite Headley 's contributions , the West Indians won only one of these matches and subsequently lost the first Test against England by an innings . Headley scored 13 in the West Indies first innings , and his 50 was the highest score when West Indies followed @-@ on . Critics were impressed by Headley 's second innings performance , in which he scored his runs out of 64 added while he was batting . Between the first and second Tests , in matches where conditions were difficult for batting and ideal for spin bowlers , Headley scored three fifties and achieved his side 's highest score in each of four innings .
+
+West Indies drew the second Test , avoiding defeat for the first time in a Test in England . Headley scored 169 in 375 minutes with 18 fours , sharing a partnership of 200 in 205 minutes with Ivan Barrow — who became the first West Indian to score a Test century in England , minutes before Headley became the second . When the innings ended , Headley was still not out and the crowd gave him an excellent reception . Wisden described Headley 's batting as magnificent , displaying " a ready adaptability and perfection of timing . " The West Indies bowlers used Bodyline tactics in the England innings ; England 's Nobby Clark used the tactic in the West Indian second innings , in which Headley scored 24 runs . He was one of the few of his side 's batsmen able to resist the bowling tactics .
+
+After scoring an unbeaten 257 in a minor match against Norfolk , Headley scored 89 in his team 's victory over Glamorgan and 182 against Warwickshire . However , he failed in the third and final Test , scoring nine and 12 as West Indies were defeated by an innings . The tourists thus lost the series 2 – 0 ; in the three Tests Headley 's aggregate was 277 runs at an average of 55 @.@ 40 , the best figures for the team . After the Test matches were over , Headley had an operation to remove a sebaceous cyst from his forehead and missed several games , before returning for an end @-@ of @-@ season festival match in which he scored 167 against an England XI . When the tour concluded , Headley had scored 2 @,@ 320 runs with seven hundreds , at an average of 66 @.@ 28 . This was over 1 @,@ 000 runs more than any other tourist and placed him third in the English first @-@ class batting averages for the season . Ivan Barrow believed Headley reached his batting peak during the tour . He recalled how many bowlers tried to hit his pads with the ball but Headley simply flicked the ball away . Headley 's performances earned him selection as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The accompanying article called his tour " almost a triumphant march " and described him as " the best batsman the West Indies have ever produced . " Wisden editor Sydney Southerton also described him as a giant in the team and wrote : " From what we had been told by English players who had been to the West Indies , we were fully prepared for Headley 's success , but even so , he astonished most of us . " Headley bowled more than he had previously : prior to the tour , he had taken three first class wickets , but took 21 wickets in England at an average of 34 @.@ 33 , bowling off spin .
+
+During the tour , Headley received news that his aunt had been killed by floods in Kingston which had also destroyed his home . Headley was greatly affected by the news , particularly the nature of her death . Although not able to attend the funeral , he wanted to leave England on an earlier ship than the rest of the team , but this could not be arranged in time .
+
+= = = Lancashire League = = =
+
+Following his success in England in 1933 , Headley was offered a two @-@ year contract to play professional cricket for Haslingden in the Lancashire League for £ 500 per season , the highest of several offers . The money was far more than he was earning from working as a fruit picker in Jamaica , and after consulting the Jamaican Cricket Board , who advised him to accept , he signed with the club on 8 September 1933 . There was a special provision which allowed Headley to be released to play for West Indies . Living in Haslingden where there were few , if any , other black people , Headley faced some prejudice from residents . However , he was generally welcomed and accepted . His first season was in 1934 and his first match was against Nelson , for whom Headley 's West Indian Test colleague Learie Constantine played . Headley had a difficult match . As the professional , he was expected to open the bowling although , as a spinner , he would normally have bowled later in an innings . When he batted he was run out for a duck by Constantine after facing one delivery , and Haslingden lost the match . After this poor start , Headley scored 1 @,@ 063 runs in the season at an average of 50 @.@ 62 , with three centuries . He changed his bowling style to medium pace and took 59 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 59 . In 1935 he scored over 900 runs at an average of 61 @.@ 13 , and took 34 wickets ; his contract was renewed for another two years . In 1936 he again scored over 900 runs , and took 54 wickets . In 1937 he broke the record for most runs scored by any player in a Lancashire League season , accumulating 1 @,@ 360 at an average of 97 @.@ 15 , with five centuries ; he also took 41 wickets . Headley 's final two @-@ year contract with the club covered the seasons 1938 and 1940 , since he was expected to tour England with the West Indies team in 1939 . The war prevented him playing in 1940 , so his last season with Haslingden was 1938 . Although in that year his overall batting performance declined , to 677 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 61 , he took 76 wickets at 9 @.@ 70 and had success in the Worsley Cup competition , including one innings of 189 not out in a match played over five evenings .
+
+= = = Career in mid @-@ 1930s = = =
+
+Headley did not play any first @-@ class cricket in the West Indies in 1933 – 34 , but returned to Jamaica in readiness for the 1934 – 35 MCC tour . The visiting team , under the captaincy of Bob Wyatt , was stronger than English teams that had previously toured the Caribbean ; despite some shortcomings , Wisden and other critics considered it strong enough for the task in hand .
+
+The first Test in Barbados was badly affected by rain which made the pitch almost impossible to bat on . West Indies batted first and were bowled out for 102 ; Headley 's 44 was the highest score of the match . In reply , England had scored 81 for seven when Wyatt declared in an attempt to make West Indies bat while the pitch was difficult . In the second innings , Headley was out for a duck and Jackie Grant declared when West Indies had scored 51 for six , so that England required 73 to win ; they did so after losing six wickets . In the second Test , Headley scored 25 in his first innings ; in the second , he adopted a cautious approach as his team led by 44 , hitting 93 in 225 minutes . West Indies subsequently bowled out England to win the match and level the series . The rain @-@ affected third Test was drawn , with Headley 's 53 his side 's top score .
+
+The MCC went to Jamaica for the final leg of their tour . Headley played two matches for Jamaica against the tourists ; he failed in the first game but scored 127 in the second . The teams went into the fourth and final Test with the series still level at one win apiece . West Indies batted first , facing accurate bowling . The local press criticised the West Indies batsmen for slow batting on the first day , but Headley scored 132 . The Daily Gleaner noted that Headley maintained the controlled approach he had established in the season . On the second day , he took his score to 270 not out , and the Gleaner described him as " the genius we all know , scoring with all his old freedom and audacity . " In total , he batted for 495 minutes and hit 30 fours , recording the highest score by a West Indian batsman . It remained a West Indian record until Garfield Sobers scored 365 not out in 1958 , and was the team 's highest against England until Lawrence Rowe scored 302 in 1974 . West Indies scored 535 for seven and bowled out England twice to record their first victory in a Test series . Headley contributed 485 runs at an average of 97 @.@ 00 .
+
+Headley returned to England to play for Haslingden in the 1935 English season , and played a single first @-@ class game , scoring a century for Sir L Parkinson 's XI against Leicestershire . In the 1935 – 36 season , the Yorkshire team toured Jamaica , playing three first @-@ class matches , winning one and drawing the others . The touring county considered Headley the key batsman , and targeted him by bowling defensively in an attempt to frustrate him . Headley lost his wicket through impatience in the first match , although he scored a pair of fifties , but scored a century in the third game . In total , he scored 266 runs at an average of 53 @.@ 20 , but Yorkshire won the series after winning the first game , Jamaica 's first defeat at home in a first @-@ class game for ten years . The matches were played in a very competitive atmosphere , but scoring was slow and Yorkshire played attritional cricket . During the series , Headley demanded expenses , which were not normally granted to the players . The Jamaican Board were reluctant to pay but Headley pointed out that , as a professional cricketer , he was entitled to the same treatment as the Yorkshire players , whose expenses were provided . The Board eventually relented before the series ended .
+
+= = = Second tour of England = = =
+
+In 1936 Headley returned to England , and played no more first @-@ class cricket until the two trial matches for the 1939 tour of England . These matches were played in Trinidad where it was believed the matting pitches would most closely replicate English conditions ; Jamaica played Trinidad and a combination team . When Jamaica 's captain , Crab Nethersole , withdrew from the tour due to political commitments , Headley led Jamaica in both matches and scored 160 and 103 . Subsequently , he was chosen for his second tour of England , under the captaincy of Rolph Grant . Headley opened his tour with fifties in his first two matches and by the time the Test series started , although the tourists had lost three matches , he had scored three centuries — 103 against Cambridge University , 116 not out in a victory over Essex and 227 as the tourists defeated Middlesex .
+
+In the first Test , West Indies suffered their only defeat of the series . However , Norman Preston , the editor of Wisden , wrote : " the match provided a personal triumph for Headley " , as he became only the second cricketer after Herbert Sutcliffe to make two hundreds in the same Test match on two separate occasions , having previously done so against England in 1930 . He became the first player to score two hundreds in a Lord 's Test , a feat not repeated until 1990 . In the first innings , Headley scored 106 with 13 fours . After sharing a big partnership with Jeff Stollmeyer , he received little help from the other batsmen . He played cautiously during his 250 @-@ minute innings , as he was aware that his team were relying on his success . By the time West Indies batted again , England had established a lead of 127 . Headley again batted defensively to score 107 , taking two hours to reach 50 , as West Indies needed to bat for a long time to secure a draw . However , he scored runs from any loose bowling and batted in all for 230 minutes , hitting eight fours . Preston , writing in Wisden , believed the West Indians relied too much on Headley 's batting . He also noted that Headley had to play cautiously for his team and although he hit powerful shots , " he was not the same dashing batsmen that England knew in 1933 . " Headley had scored three centuries in consecutive Test innings , but he could not prevent England winning this first Test by eight wickets . He continued to score heavily in the tour matches , making an unbeaten 234 in an innings win over Nottinghamshire , followed by 61 against Yorkshire on a sticky wicket , one of the best innings Neville Cardus had seen .
+
+The second Test was drawn , after being badly affected by rain . Headley , although troubled by the English bowling on a difficult pitch , top @-@ scored with 51 in West Indies ' first innings but the other batsmen contributed little . Headley scored just five in West Indies ' brief second innings , bringing to an end a sequence of six fifties in successive Test innings . After the Test , Headley scored 93 against Surrey but failed to reach fifty in his next three games , which included three single figure scores . West Indies needed to win the final Test to level the series and the team established a first @-@ innings lead of 146 . Headley played cautiously for 140 minutes , attempting to tire out the bowlers , but was run out for 65 in a misunderstanding with Vic Stollmeyer . The remaining batsmen played well , attacking the English bowling . Preston believed this match demonstrated West Indies ' ability to compete at the highest level . However , England were able to bat long enough to secure a draw . In the Test series , Headley scored 334 runs at an average of 66 @.@ 80 , but did not play again on the tour after the final Test , as the team were advised to abandon the last seven matches because of the deteriorating political situation in Europe . They arrived in Canada on the day that Britain declared war on Germany . In all first @-@ class matches during the tour , Headley scored 1 @,@ 745 runs at 72 @.@ 70 , placing him at the top of the season 's first @-@ class averages .
+
+Wisden judged Headley to be the best batsman of the 1939 season , while other critics rated him among the best batsmen in the world , with favourable comparisons to Bradman . C. B. Fry , a former England captain turned journalist , wrote that Headley 's " middle name should be Atlas " , suggesting that he carried the team on his shoulders .
+
+= = Later career = =
+
+= = = After the war = = =
+
+Following the outbreak of war , the Lancashire League clubs cancelled professionals ' contracts , meaning Headley did not complete his final year with Haslingden . Having returned to Jamaica , he worked in the Labour Department for the government and played cricket for Lucas , enjoying batting success and captaining his team to victory in the Senior Cup on three occasions . Headley continued to play for the team until 1947 , when he left to play for the Kensington Club . Unlike other Caribbean teams , Jamaica did not take part in inter @-@ island competition , and although Headley played some exhibition matches in America in 1945 , it was not until June 1946 that he took part in his next first @-@ class match . Trinidad played three matches in Jamaica and Headley scored 52 in the second game but only reached his best form when he scored 99 in the third . However , he was successful as a bowler , taking five for 33 in the first game , the only five wicket return of his career . This included a spell of three wickets without conceding a run in 14 deliveries , prompting a pitch invasion by the crowd . Headley also captained Jamaica in the final two matches of the series against Trinidad after the official captain was injured during the home team 's win in the first match — the other two were drawn .
+
+Prior to a visit by Barbados in March 1947 , Headley was officially appointed as Jamaican captain . Previous captains of island teams had been almost exclusively white . Around this time , Headley requested the Jamaican board provide support for low income players with their kit and transport costs . In the first game against Barbados , Headley scored 203 not out and 57 not out , took four for 40 in the tourists ' first innings and another wicket in the second . Although the game was drawn , he had recorded Jamaica 's highest score in a match between the Caribbean islands . The second match was also drawn ; Headley made 79 before he had to retire when he fell and injured his knee . Another American tour followed , in which Headley was accompanied by promising young players , before he led the Jamaican team to British Guiana in October 1947 . He played only two innings in the two matches , scoring 36 and 4 not out . A thumb injury in the first match meant he could not bat , although he bowled 44 overs in the game . Headley was verbally abused by a section of the crowd , who disapproved of a black captain ; he was also dissatisfied with the impartiality of the umpires . Crab Nethersole , the Jamaican manager for the tour , reported that injuries to key players and the poor attitude of the crowd made the tour difficult , although Headley 's captaincy was universally praised .
+
+= = = Resumption of Test career = = =
+
+For reasons related to class and race , it had been unthinkable before the war for the West Indies to appoint a black Test captain , but the postwar world saw social and political changes in the Caribbean . Although opinion was still divided over the merits of a black captain , Headley was appointed as one of the West Indian captains for the series against the England team which toured the Caribbean in 1948 . Crab Nethersole , the former Jamaican captain and member of the Board of Control for cricket , argued Headley should be outright captain but a compromise was reached . Headley was scheduled to captain the first and fourth Test matches , played in Barbados and Jamaica , and the white players Gerry Gomez and John Goddard were given the captaincy of the second and third matches . In the event , Headley only played in the first Test . In the first innings , he scored 29 but strained his back while fielding . Batting towards the end of West Indies ' second innings , he scored seven not out . Rain helped England to draw the match . Headley 's back caused him to miss the second and third Tests , but he was fit enough to play for Jamaica when the tourists arrived there to play two games against the island before the fourth and final Test . After the first island game , in which he scored 65 , Headley 's request to miss the second match to rest his back was refused by the Jamaican Board . He scored 36 not out , but aggravated his back pains and he withdrew from the final Test . West Indies won this game under the captaincy of Goddard , who had earlier led West Indies to victory in the third Test . He was subsequently chosen to captain West Indies in India in 1948 – 49 , despite Headley 's availability and apparently superior claims to the position .
+
+Selected for the Indian tour after a specific request by the Indian cricket authorities , Headley did not have much success in the early matches and in the drawn first Test he scored only two in a total of 631 . West Indies then moved to Pakistan ; in a non first @-@ class game Headley took six wickets as a bowler , but then in a match against a representative Pakistan XI he fell and injured his side while attempting to take a catch . He batted in discomfort , scoring 57 not out . This injury meant that he played no further part in the five @-@ match Test series against India . Although he continued to travel with the team , he was unable to play in any further matches until the final game of the tour , when he scored 100 against Ceylon Schools as the tourists travelled home via Ceylon .
+
+Headley played for the Kensington Club until 1950 , when he resumed league cricket in England ; he returned for a final season with Kensington in 1955 before retiring from Senior Cup cricket . Meanwhile , he took a new job as an insurance agent . This affected his availability for cricket as he was no longer able to take leave when playing for a team ; if he did not work , he received no wages . Consequently , he did not accept the captaincy of Jamaica during the Test trials for the 1950 tour of England and did not travel with the team . Press reaction was unfavourable towards Headley but the West Indies Board still wanted to select him for the tour . However , Headley accepted a contract with Bacup in the Lancashire League , to replace Everton Weekes who was in the touring party .
+
+For Bacup Headley scored 909 runs and took 20 wickets in 1950 , before signing to play for Dudley in the Birmingham League in 1951 . He and his family moved to Birmingham , and in each the next four seasons Headley averaged over 65 with the bat and under 17 with the ball . In his second season , the club topped the league . In total , he scored 2 @,@ 878 runs for Dudley and , resuming off spin bowling , took 102 wickets . While in England during this time , he played several first @-@ class matches for a Commonwealth XI against an England XI ; he scored 20 in 1951 and accumulated 98 and 61 in 1952 .
+
+= = = End of Test career = = =
+
+Headley 's success for Dudley was watched keenly in Jamaica and commentators began to discuss his availability for the 1954 series against England . A public subscription to finance his travel to Jamaica , opened by the Daily Gleaner , raised over £ 1 @,@ 000 , and despite his reservations , Headley returned to Jamaica . Playing in a fund @-@ raising match , he sustained a hand injury and playing for the Combined Parishes in a minor match against the MCC , a short ball from Fred Trueman struck Headley 's arm . The latter injury kept him out of the first @-@ class match between Jamaica and the MCC , but he played in the second where , although hampered by his injury , he scored 53 not out . The Test selectors had seen enough to include Headley in the team for the first Test . Reaction among critics was mixed , and Headley , nearing his 45th birthday , remains the oldest man as of 2015 to play a Test match for West Indies . Headley batted at number six , and it appeared that England , under the captaincy of Len Hutton , let Headley score an easy run to begin his innings , which Hutton later confirmed to be the case . However , Headley later argued that the run was given to ensure that he was batting at the beginning of the next over , so that England could try to get him out before he settled down .
+
+Headley scored 16 and 1 in the match , his final Test appearance . He used his experience to influence the captain , Jeff Stollmeyer , advising him not to enforce the follow on and to use leg theory bowling to slow down the tourists ' scoring . These tactics helped West Indies to a 140 @-@ run win in a match they might have lost ; Stollmeyer followed a similar approach in the following match . In 22 Tests , Headley scored 2 @,@ 190 runs at an average of 60 @.@ 83 .
+
+Headley finished his career at Dudley at the end of 1954 ; his son Ron played for the club from 1957 , having already played for its second team in 1952 as a 13 @-@ year @-@ old . After his final Test match appearance , Headley 's only other first @-@ class match was in the Commonwealth XI fixture in 1954 , when he scored 64 in his final first @-@ class innings . In a career total of 103 first @-@ class games he aggregated 9 @,@ 921 runs at 69 @.@ 86 , with 33 centuries , and took 51 wickets at 36 @.@ 11 .
+
+= = Style , technique and legacy = =
+
+Headley is regarded by critics as one of the best batsmen from the Caribbean and one of the greatest batsmen of all time . In his history of West Indies cricket , Michael Manley described Headley as " the yardstick against whom all other West Indian batsmen are measured " . In 1988 , The Cricketer magazine placed him in an all @-@ time West Indian team , as did a panel of judges for another such team in July 2010 , while in 2004 , another panel of experts named him among the top five West Indian players . He was given the nicknames " the Black Bradman " and " Atlas " by commentators , and was the first world @-@ class batsman from the West Indies who was black . According to historian Gideon Haigh , his role was made harder by the weakness of his colleagues , as few outstanding players find it easy to play in teams which lose frequently . Although he was a naturally attacking player , Headley felt the need to play cautiously owing to the way his team depended on him . C. L. R. James believed that no other great batsman had to carry such a burden for so long . In the years before the war , Headley scored 25 @.@ 61 % of the runs scored in Tests by West Indies , more than twice as many as the next best batsman , and two @-@ thirds of the team 's centuries , scoring ten of the team 's first fourteen centuries in Test cricket . Headley usually batted at number three and as the opening batsmen were often dismissed quickly , he frequently began his innings early .
+
+As of 2014 , Headley 's average in Test matches of 60 @.@ 83 is third highest among those with 2 @,@ 000 runs , behind Bradman and Graeme Pollock , and but for the Tests he played after the war , he would have been above Pollock . In all first @-@ class matches , he has the third highest average with 69 @.@ 86 , behind Bradman and Vijay Merchant among those who played 50 innings . He averaged a century every fourth innings in which he batted , second again to Bradman , and did not suffer a poor series in his career before the war .
+
+Manley describes Headley as just under medium height with sloping shoulders . His movements were precise and economical on the cricket field ; his cap was usually at a slight angle and his sleeves were buttoned down to the wrist . Wisden noted in 1933 that his timing and placement of the ball was perfect . Exceptionally quick on his feet , he watched the ball onto the bat more than any other batsman . According to Wisden , all his shots were equally good but most notable was his on drive played from the back foot . He hit the ball hard and was very difficult to get out . He faced criticism for playing off the back foot so often , but R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow believed his square cut , late cut , and hook were exceptionally good . Headley was particularly effective on bad batting wickets . C. L. R. James calculated that Headley averaged 39 @.@ 85 and passed fifty on seven occasions in thirteen innings on difficult wickets . According to James 's reckoning , Bradman in similar conditions passed fifty once , and averaged 16 @.@ 66 in fifteen innings . Headley himself preferred batting when the odds favoured the bowlers as he had to go for his shots and play his natural attacking game . He stated : " On a bad wicket , it was you and the bowler ... no nonsense . "
+
+Beyond cricket , Headley 's success was regarded as important . Of Headley 's meeting with the king of England in 1939 , the West Indian writer Frank Birbalsingh said : " That one of us — a black man — could shake the hand of a king introduced possibilities formerly undreamt of in our colonial backwater of racial inferiority , psychological subordination and political powerlessness . " Manley notes that Headley rose to success at a time of political awakening in Jamaica , when the black majority of the population were increasingly determined to end the minority rule of landowners and challenge the racism of the time . According to Manley , the middle classes saw in Headley " the reassurance which they needed . He demonstrated black capacity . " The white upper classes were proud of his achievements as a West Indian , but Manley writes " it was to the black masses that Headley had the deepest significance ... [ He ] became the focus for longing of an entire people for proof : proof of their own self @-@ worth , their own capacity . Furthermore , they wanted this proof to be laid at the door of the white man who owned the world which defined their circumstances . " Manley sees the title of " Atlas " not just in sporting terms , but in his carrying " the hopes of the black , English @-@ speaking Caribbean man ... He was black excellence personified in a white world and in a white sport . "
+
+= = Personal life = =
+
+= = = Coaching career = = =
+
+Following the 1955 cricket season , Headley was invited to become a national coach , a post created by the Jamaican government , which involved working mainly with young people . Headley and his second son travelled back to Jamaica , while the rest of the family remained in England . Headley had a heavy workload , particularly in rural areas ; together with his assistant Dickie Fuller his role involved encouraging school children to watch and play cricket , and trying to improve standards and facilities throughout the country . Headley became involved in the selection of teams , taking some of them overseas . At this time , he discovered the future West Indian Test player Roy Gilchrist and future Jamaican cricketer Henry Sewell . However , critics in the 1960s complained that there were not enough Jamaicans in the Test side and blamed Headley and Fuller , although the government remained supportive of their performance . In 1961 , Headley coached for six months in Nigeria and earned praise from the Nigerian Cricket Association . His official coaching role in Jamaica ended after a new government withdrew funding for coaching in 1962 .
+
+= = = Family and retirement = = =
+
+Headley married Rena Saunders in 1939 . He had nine children in total , including Ron Headley who was born two days after the end of the Lord 's Test of 1939 . Ron Headley went on to play professional cricket for the English counties Worcestershire and Derbyshire , and represented Jamaica before playing two Tests for West Indies in 1973 . Another son , Lyndie , reached the semi @-@ finals of the 100 metres and came fourth in the 100 metres relay at the 1964 Olympics ; he also won a gold medal with Jamaican sprint relay teams in the Central American and Caribbean Games of 1966 and silver with the relay team at the Commonwealth Games of the same year . Ron 's son Dean , Headley 's grandson , played Test cricket for England ; the family thus became the first to have three generations play Test cricket .
+
+After his retirement from coaching , Headley remained associated with cricket , presenting awards and playing in friendly matches . He was the official representative of the Jamaican Cricket Board at Constantine 's funeral in 1971 . Official recognition came Headley 's way when he was awarded the M.B.E. in 1956 and was made an honorary life member of the MCC in 1958 . In 1969 , a bronze sculpture of his head was unveiled in Jamaica 's National Stadium , and in 1973 the Norman Manley Foundation gave him the Award for Excellence in Sports . In the latter year , he also received the Order of Distinction . He died in Kingston on 30 November 1983 .
+
+= Interstate 81 in West Virginia =
+
+In the U.S. state of West Virginia , Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) crosses the Eastern Panhandle region , linking Virginia to Maryland . The Interstate Highway , completed in 1966 , spans 26 @.@ 00 miles ( 41 @.@ 84 km ) through Berkeley County , paralleling U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) for its entire length . I @-@ 81 enters the state near Ridgeway and travels northeast , bypassing the city of Martinsburg , and leaves the state at the Potomac River , which serves as the state line . The first solicitations for the construction of I @-@ 81 were published in 1959 , with the first 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of freeway being opened in 1963 , and the full length was completed by 1966 . On average between 45 and 60 thousand vehicles use the freeway though the panhandle per day .
+
+= = Route description = =
+
+I @-@ 81 enters the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia just west of Ridgeway , paralleling US 11 ( also known as the Valley Pike ) . The highway passes through some light farmland before entering a wooded area , north of Ridgeway . A welcome center for northbound travelers is passed before the woodlands give way to a light urban setting . As the highway approaches the community of Inwood , a diamond interchange with West Virginia Route 51 ( WV 51 ) provides access to the community , as well as Gerrardstown to the west of the freeway , and Charles Town to the east . A small business park is passed by before I @-@ 81 intersects County Route 32 , providing access to Arden , the Eastern WV Regional Airport and Tablers Station . The freeway turns more towards the north as it approaches Martinsburg , intersecting WV 45 , County Route 15 and Dry Run Road while in the city limits . I @-@ 81 bypasses downtown , running along the western border of town while US 11 continues through the town .
+
+Just northeast of Martinsburg the freeway passes over a CSX Transportation rail line while a cloverleaf interchange with WV 9 provides access back to Martinsburg and to Hedgesville . As the freeway curves back east , it intersects WV 901 between Hainesville and Falling Waters . WV 901 is a short connector route back to US 11 . North of Falling Waters and south of Marlowe , US 11 intersects the freeway and continues north while I @-@ 81 turns east towards the Maryland state line at the Potomac River . Just south of the river is a welcome center intended for southbound travelers from Maryland .
+
+Out of the six states that I @-@ 81 passes through , the segment in West Virginia is the second shortest , only longer than the Maryland segment . Every year the West Virginia Department of Transportation ( WVDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , WVDOT calculated that as few as 45 @,@ 000 vehicles traveled along the highway at the Virginia state line , and as many as 62 @,@ 500 vehicles used the freeway between County Routes 15 and 13 in Martinsburg . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire route is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
+
+= = History = =
+
+I @-@ 81 roughly parallels the Great Indian Warpath , an old Indian trail which connected New York to the Carolina Piedmont via Virginia and West Virginia . A series of roads linking Virginia to Maryland through Martinsburg were present on maps as early as 1873 .
+
+Bids for construction of I @-@ 81 by WVDOT were published in 1959 , with a budget of about $ 10 @.@ 6 million to complete the highway . Completion of I @-@ 81 in Virginia up to the West Virginia state line was completed by the Virginia Department of Transportation in November 1965 . The first 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of the highway through West Virginia were completed between 1959 and 1963 . The construction of the remaining 20 miles ( 32 km ) of Interstate Highway through the Eastern Panhandle was completed by 1966 . Since then , there have been no major realignments , and the highway continues on its original path .
+
+= = Future = =
+
+In 2014 , WVDOT officials announced in conjunction with the Maryland State Highway Administration that the bridges over the Potomac River would be rehabilitated to accommodate three lanes of highway in each direction . The widening of the highway is proposed to head south along I @-@ 81 to exit 23 for US 11 . Construction is expected to start in the summer of 2016 .
+
+= = Exit list = =
+
+The entire route is in Berkeley County .
+
+= Literature in early modern Scotland =
+
+Literature in early modern Scotland is literature written in Scotland or by Scottish writers between the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century and the beginnings of the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution in mid @-@ eighteenth century . By the beginning of this era Gaelic had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language , confined to the Highlands and Islands , but the tradition of Classic Gaelic Poetry survived . Middle Scots became the language of both the nobility and the majority population . The establishment of a printing press in 1507 made it easier to disseminate Scottish literature and was probably aimed at bolstering Scottish national identity .
+
+James IV 's creation of a Renaissance court included the patronage of poets , or makars , who were mainly clerics . These included Gavin Douglas , whose Eneados ( 1513 ) was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language . James V was also a major patron of poets . George Buchanan founded a tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry . In the reign of Mary , Queen of Scots and the minority of her son James VI , cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil . The Kirk discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature but secular poetry survived . In the 1580s and 1590s James VI promoted literature in Scots . He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish court poets and musicians , later called the Castalian Band . David Lyndsay 's The Thrie Estaitis ( 1540 ) is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation . Buchanan was major influence on Continental theatre , but his impact in Scotland was limited by his choice of Latin as a medium . There were isolated Scottish plays , but the system of professional companies of players and theatres that developed in England in this period was absent in Scotland .
+
+The accession of James VI to the English throne in 1603 meant a loss of the court as a centre of patronage and he increasingly favoured the language of southern England . A number of Scottish poets accompanied the king to London , where they began to anglicise their written language . As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined , a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge , often undertaken by women . The tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum ( 1637 ) . This period was marked by the work of the first named female Scottish poets , such as Elizabeth Melville , whose Ane Godlie Dream ( 1603 ) was the first book published by a woman in Scotland . This was the period when the ballad emerged as a significant written form in Scotland . From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors .
+
+After the Union in 1707 , the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education . Allan Ramsay led a " vernacular revival " that laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature . He also led the trend for pastoral poetry and his pastoral opera The Gentle Shepherd was one of the most influential works of the era . Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English . Tobias Smollett was a poet , essayist , satirist and playwright , but is best known for his picaresque novels , for which he is often seen as Scotland 's first novelist . The early eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry that mixed traditional forms with influences from the Lowlands . Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London . In Scotland drama was supplied by visiting English players and actors , but there were clashes with the Kirk . Ramsay was instrumental in establishing a small theatre in Edinburgh , but it closed soon after the passing of the 1737 Licensing Act . A new theatre was opened at Cannongate in 1747 and operated without a licence into the 1760s .
+
+= = Sixteenth century = =
+
+= = = Background = = =
+
+By the early modern era Gaelic had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language , confined to the Highlands and Islands . The tradition of classic Gaelic poetry survived longer in Scotland than in Ireland , with the last fully competent member of the MacMhuirich dynasty , who were hereditary poets to the Lords of the Isles and then the Donalds of Clanranald , still working in the early eighteenth century . Nevertheless , interest in the sponsorship of panegyric Gaelic poetry was declining among the clan leaders . Gaelic was gradually being overtaken by Middle Scots , which became the language of both the nobility and the majority population . Middle Scots was derived substantially from Old English , with Gaelic and French influences . It was usually called Inglyshe and was very close to the language spoken in northern England , but by the sixteenth century it had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England . From the mid sixteenth century , written Scots was increasingly influenced by the developing Standard English of Southern England due to developments in royal and political interactions with England . With the increasing influence and availability of books printed in England , most writing in Scotland came to be done in the English fashion .
+
+The establishment of a printing press under royal patent in 1507 would begin to make it easier to disseminate Scottish literature and was probably aimed at bolstering Scottish national identity . The first Scottish press was established in Southgait in Edinburgh by the merchant Walter Chepman ( c . 1473 – c . 1528 ) and the bookseller Andrew Myllar ( fl . 1505 – 08 ) . Although the first press was relatively short lived , beside law codes and religious works , the press also produced editions of the work of Scottish makars before its demise , probably about 1510 . The next recorded press was that of Thomas Davidson ( f . 1532 – 42 ) , the first in a long line of " king 's printers " , who also produced editions of works of the makars .
+
+= = = Makars = = =
+
+James IV 's ( r . 1488 – 1513 ) creation of a Renaissance court included the patronage of poets . These court poets , or makars , who were mainly clerics included Robert Henryson ( c . 1450 @-@ c . 1505 ) , who re @-@ worked Medieval and Classical sources , such as Chaucer and Aesop in works such as his Testament of Cresseid and The Morall Fabillis . William Dunbar ( 1460 – 1513 ) produced satires , lyrics , invectives and dream visions that established the vernacular as a flexible medium for poetry of any kind . Gavin Douglas ( 1475 – 1522 ) , who became Bishop of Dunkeld , injected humanist concerns and classical sources into his poetry . The landmark work in the reign of James IV was Douglas 's version of Virgil 's Aeneid , the Eneados . It was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language , finished in 1513 , but overshadowed by the disaster at Flodden that brought the reign to an end .
+
+As a patron of poets and authors James V ( r . 1513 – 42 ) supported William Stewart and John Bellenden , who translated the Latin History of Scotland compiled in 1527 by Hector Boece , into verse and prose . David Lyndsay ( c . 1486 – 1555 ) , diplomat and the head of the Lyon Court , was a prolific poet . He wrote elegiac narratives , romances and satires . George Buchanan ( 1506 – 82 ) had a major influence as a Latin poet , founding a tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry that would continue in to the seventeenth century . Contributors to this tradition included royal secretary John Maitland ( 1537 – 95 ) , reformer Andrew Melville ( 1545 – 1622 ) , John Johnston ( 1570 ? – 1611 ) and David Hume of Godscroft ( 1558 – 1629 ) .
+
+From the 1550s , in the reign of Mary , Queen of Scots ( r . 1542 – 67 ) and the minority of her son James VI ( r . 1567 – 1625 ) , cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil . The Kirk , heavily influenced by Calvinism , also discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature . Nevertheless , poets from this period included Richard Maitland of Lethington ( 1496 – 1586 ) , who produced meditative and satirical verses in the style of Dunbar ; John Rolland ( fl . 1530 – 75 ) , who wrote allegorical satires in the tradition of Douglas and courtier and minister Alexander Hume ( c . 1556 – 1609 ) , whose corpus of work includes nature poetry and epistolary verse . Alexander Scott 's ( ? 1520 – 82 / 3 ) use of short verse designed to be sung to music , opened the way for the Castalian poets of James VI 's adult reign .
+
+Unlike many of his predecessors , James VI actively despised Gaelic culture . However , in the 1580s and 1590s he strongly promoted the literature of the country of his birth in Scots . His treatise , Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody , published in 1584 when he was aged 18 , was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue , to which he applied Renaissance principles . He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians , later called the Castalian Band , which included William Fowler ( c . 1560 – 1612 ) , John Stewart of Baldynneis ( c . 1545 – c . 1605 ) , and Alexander Montgomerie ( c . 1550 – 98 ) . They translated key Renaissance texts and produced poems using French forms , including sonnets and short sonnets , for narrative , nature description , satire and meditations on love . Later poets that followed in this vein included William Alexander ( c . 1567 – 1640 ) , Alexander Craig ( c . 1567 – 1627 ) and Robert Ayton ( 1570 – 1627 ) . By the late 1590s the king 's championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the prospect of inheriting of the English throne .
+
+= = = Dramatists = = =
+
+Lyndsay produced an interlude at Linlithgow Palace for the king and queen thought to be a version of his play The Thrie Estaitis in 1540 , which satirised the corruption of church and state , and which is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation . Buchanan was major influence on Continental theatre with plays such as Jepheths and Baptistes , which influenced Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine and through them the neo @-@ classical tradition in French drama , but his impact in Scotland was limited by his choice of Latin as a medium . The anonymous The Maner of the Cyring of ane Play ( before 1568 ) and Philotus ( published in London in 1603 ) , are isolated examples of surviving plays . The latter is a vernacular Scots comedy of errors , probably designed for court performance for Mary , Queen of Scots or James VI . The same system of professional companies of players and theatres that developed in England in this period was absent in Scotland , but James VI signalled his interest in drama by arranging for a company of English players to erect a playhouse and perform in 1599 .
+
+= = Seventeenth century = =
+
+= = = Poetry = = =
+
+Having extolled the virtues of Scots " poesie " , after his accession to the English throne , James VI increasingly favoured the language of southern England . In 1611 the Kirk adopted the English Authorised King James Version of the Bible . In 1617 interpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of London because Scots and Englishmen were now " not so far different bot ane understandeth ane uther " . Jenny Wormald described James as creating a " three @-@ tier system , with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the top " . The loss of the court as a centre of patronage in 1603 was a major blow to Scottish literature . A number of Scottish poets , including William Alexander , John Murray and Robert Aytoun , accompanied the king to London , where they continued to write , but they soon began to anglicise their written language . James 's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the English court made him a defining figure for English Renaissance poetry and drama , which would reach a pinnacle of achievement in his reign , but his patronage for the high style in his own Scottish tradition largely became sidelined . The only significant court poet to continue to work in Scotland after the king 's departure was William Drummond of Hawthornden ( 1585 – 1649 ) .
+
+As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined , a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge . While Classical poetry used a language largely fixed in the twelfth century , the vernacular continued to develop . In contrast to the Classical tradition , which used syllabic metre , vernacular poets tended to use stressed metre . However , they shared with the Classic poets a set of complex metaphors and role , as the verse was still often panegyric . A number of these vernacular poets were women , such as Mary MacLeod of Harris ( c . 1615 – 1707 ) .
+
+The tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum ( 1637 ) , published in Amsterdam by Arthur Johnston ( c.1579 – 1641 ) and Sir John Scott of Scotstarvet ( 1585 – 1670 ) and containing work by the major Scottish practitioners since Buchanan . This period was marked by the work of the first named female Scottish poets . Elizabeth Melville 's ( f . 1585 – 1630 ) Ane Godlie Dream ( 1603 ) was a popular religious allegory and the first book published by a woman in Scotland . Anna Hume , daughter of David Hume of Godscroft , adapted Petrarch as Triumphs of Love : Chastitie : Death ( 1644 ) .
+
+This was the period when the ballad emerged as a significant written form in Scotland . Some ballads may date back to the late medieval era and deal with events and people that can be traced back as far as the thirteenth century , including " Sir Patrick Spens " and " Thomas the Rhymer " , but which are not known to have existed until the eighteenth century . They were probably composed and transmitted orally and only began to be written down and printed , often as broadsides and as part of chapbooks , later being recorded and noted in books by collectors including Robert Burns and Walter Scott . From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors including Robert Sempill ( c . 1595 @-@ c . 1665 ) , Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw ( 1627 – 1727 ) and Lady Grizel Baillie ( 1645 – 1746 ) .
+
+= = = Theatre = = =
+
+The loss of a royal court also meant there was no force to counter the Kirk 's dislike of theatre , which struggled to survive in Scotland . However , it was not entirely extinguished . The Kirk used theatre for its own purposes in schools and was slow to suppress popular folk dramas . Surviving plays for the period include William Alexander 's Monarchicke Tragedies , written just before his departure with the king for England in 1603 . They were closet dramas , designed to be read rather than performed , and already indicate Alexander 's preference for southern English over the Scots language . There were some attempts to revive Scottish drama . In 1663 Edinburgh lawyer William Clerke wrote Marciano or the Discovery , a play about the restoration of a legitimate dynasty in Florence after many years of civil war . It was performed at the Tennis @-@ Court Theatre at Holyrood Palace before the parliamentary high commissioner John Leslie , Earl of Rothes . Thomas Sydsurf 's Tarugo 's Wiles or the Coffee House , was first performed in London in 1667 and then in Edinburgh the year after and drew on Spanish comedy . A relative of Sydsurf , physician Archibald Pitcairne ( 1652 – 1713 ) wrote The Assembly or Scotch Reformation ( 1692 ) , a ribald satire on the morals of the Presbyterian Kirk , circulating in manuscript , but not published until 1722 , helping to secure the association between Jacobitism and professional drama that discouraged the creation of professional theatre .
+
+= = Early eighteenth century = =
+
+= = = Vernacular revival = = =
+
+After the Union in 1707 and the shift of political power to England , the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education . Nevertheless , Scots remained the vernacular of many rural communities and the growing number of urban working @-@ class Scots . Literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation . Allan Ramsay ( 1686 – 1758 ) was considered the most important literary figure of the era , often described as leading a " vernacular revival " . He laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature , publishing The Ever Green ( 1724 ) , a collection that included many major poetic works of the Stewart period . He led the trend for pastoral poetry , helping to develop the Habbie stanza , which would be later be used by Robert Burns as a poetic form . His Tea @-@ Table Miscellany ( 1724 – 37 ) contained poems old Scots folk material , his own poems in the folk style and " gentilizings " of Scots poems in the English neo @-@ classical style . His pastoral opera The Gentle Shepherd was one of the most influential works of the era . He would also play a leading role in supporting drama in Scotland and the attempt to found a permanent theatre in the capital .
+
+= = = Verse and prose = = =
+
+Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English . These included William Hamilton of Gilbertfield ( c . 1665 – 1751 ) , Robert Crawford ( 1695 – 1733 ) , Alexander Ross ( 1699 – 1784 ) , the Jacobite William Hamilton of Bangour ( 1704 – 54 ) , socialite Alison Rutherford Cockburn ( 1712 – 94 ) , and poet and playwright James Thompson 's ( 1700 – 48 ) , most famous for the nature poetry of his Seasons . Tobias Smollett ( 1721 – 71 ) was a poet , essayist , satirist and playwright , but is best known for his picaresque novels , such as The Adventures of Roderick Random ( 1748 ) and The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle ( 1751 ) for which he is often seen as Scotland 's first novelist . His work would be a major influence on later novelists such as Thackeray and Dickens .
+
+The early eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry . Major figures included Rob Donn Mackay ( 1714 – 78 ) and Donnchadh Bàn Mac an t @-@ Saoir ( Duncan Ban MacIntyre ) ( 1724 – 1812 ) . The most significant figure in the tradition was Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair ( Alasdair MacDonald ) ( c . 1698 – 1770 ) . His interest in traditional forms can be seen in his most significant poem Clanranald 's Gallery . He also mixed these traditions with influences from the Lowlands , including Thompson 's Seasons , which helped inspire a new form of nature poetry in Gaelic , which was not focused on their relations to human concerns .
+
+= = = Drama = = =
+
+Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London such as Catherine Trotter ( 1679 – 1749 ) , born in London to Scottish parents and later moving to Aberdeen . Her plays and included the verse @-@ tragedy Fatal Friendship ( 1698 ) , the comedy Love at a Loss ( 1700 ) and the history The Revolution in Sweden ( 1706 ) . David Crawford 's ( 1665 – 1726 ) plays included the Restoration comedies Courtship A @-@ la @-@ Mode ( 1700 ) and Love at First Sight ( 1704 ) . These developed the character of the stage Scot , often a clown , but cunning and loyal . Newburgh Hamilton ( 1691 – 1761 ) , born in Ireland of Scottish descent , produced the comedies The Petticoat @-@ Ploter ( 1712 ) and The Doating Lovers or The Libertine ( 1715 ) . He later wrote the libretto for Handel 's Samson ( 1743 ) , closely based on John Milton 's Samson Agonistes . James Thompson 's plays often dealt with the contest between public duty and private feelings , included Sophonisba ( 1730 ) , Agamemnon ( 1738 ) and Tancrid and Sigismuda ( 1745 ) , the last of which was an international success . David Mallet 's ( c . 1705 – 65 ) Eurydice ( 1731 ) was accused of being a coded Jacobite play and his later work indicates opposition to the Walpole administration . The opera Masque of Alfred ( 1740 ) was a collaboration between Thompson , Mallet and composer Thomas Arne , with Thompson supplying the lyrics for the his most famous work , the patriotic song Rule , Britannia !
+
+In Scotland a troop of English players came to Edinburgh in 1715 where they performed Macbeth and a series of Restoration comedies , but they soon left , perhaps because of objections from local kirk presbyteries . By 1725 English actor Anthony Aston , a friend of Ramsay , was performing in Edinburgh , but seems to have fallen foul of the Scottish Master of the Revels , who licensed plays , companies and playhouses , and soon left . In 1727 the Kirk attacked theatres as immoral in the Admonition and Exhortation . The Edinburgh Company of Players were able to perform in Dundee , Montrose , Aberdeen and regular performances at the Taylor 's Hall in Edinburgh under the protection of a Royal Patent . Ramsay was instrumental in establishing them in a small theatre in Carruber 's Close in Edinburgh , but the passing of the 1737 Licensing Act made their activities illegal and the theatre soon closed . A new theatre was opened at Cannongate in 1747 and operated without a licence into the 1760s .
+
+= Ridge Racer Revolution =
+
+Ridge Racer Revolution is an arcade racing game developed and published by Namco for the PlayStation in 1995 . It is the PlayStation sequel of Ridge Racer ( the arcade sequel is Ridge Racer 2 ) . Like the original Ridge Racer , the player races computer @-@ controlled cars with the objective of winning a series of races , and supports Namco 's NeGcon controller . Ridge Racer Revolution adds two hidden cars , and two @-@ player support via the PlayStation Link cable , and took roughly the same time to develop as the first . The intention was to increase the depth and add features .
+
+The game borrows most of its soundtrack from Ridge Racer 2 . Ridge Racer Revolution was re @-@ released in Japan for the PlayStation The Best range in June 1997 , and for the Platinum Range in PAL regions the following year . The game received generally positive reviews , although some criticised its similarity to the original . Ridge Racer Revolution was followed by a sequel , Rage Racer , in 1996 .
+
+= = Gameplay = =
+
+The gameplay system remains unchanged from Ridge Racer , with its checkpoint and time @-@ limit system remaining the same ; running out of time ends the game and passing through checkpoints grants additional time , although the car drifting is more like Ridge Racer 2 . The player drives using automatic transmission or manual transmission . Ridge Racer Revolution supports Namco 's NeGcon controller , and adds a rear @-@ view mirror when using the in @-@ car view . The game consists of three courses : ' Novice ' , ' Intermediate ' ( also called ' Advanced ' ) , and ' Expert ' , each having different sections opened , and incorporates modes from the original game ; Race , against eleven opponents , and Time Trial , against one . Ridge Racer Revolution adds a mode : Free Run , in which there are no other cars and the player practises driving . There is no lap limit . How fast the cars run depends on which of the four speed grades is used . The grade is selectable in Free Run , and can be unlocked for Race . It is not available in Time Trial . A new feature of the game is the option to select the time of day in which the race takes place . This is not available at the start of the game . Ridge Racer Revolution features a two @-@ player link @-@ up mode which allows the players access to the original Ridge Racer 's courses known as ' Special 1 ' and ' Special 2 ' . There are two modes in two @-@ player link @-@ up : Race , which is identical to its single @-@ player counterpart , and Versus , where only the players race against each other . Versus features a handicap option , which increases the speed of the trailing car .
+
+Like the first Ridge Racer , the player normally starts with four cars . The remaining eight are selectable upon winning the mini game before the title screen ( the mini game is Galaga ' 88 instead of the original game 's Galaxian ) . They are mostly unchanged ; their names ( certain cars are named after other Namco titles ) and specifications are similar to the first game . After the player wins the first three circuits , reversed versions are unlocked , and Time Trial features an additional opponent driving a secret car . There are three secret cars ; the ' 13th Racing ' ( from the first Ridge Racer ) of the Novice course , and the new ' 13th Racing Kid ' ( of the Intermediate course ) and ' White Angel ' ( of the Expert course ) . These cars are unlocked upon winning the respective course 's Time Trial race .
+
+Ridge Racer Revolution features two hidden modes ; ' Drift Contest ' , where the player earns points according to how well spins are performed on certain corners , and ' Pretty Racer ' ( also known as ' Buggy mode ' ) , in which the cars become buggies . Pocket Racer was inspired by this . Mirrored tracks that function identically to the original are accessible . As with the first game , the player can insert a music CD which can be listened to instead of the soundtrack . Unlike the first game , only the last course played is loaded into the PlayStation 's memory ; to switch , the player would need to reinsert the game disc before loading .
+
+= = Development = =
+
+Ridge Racer Revolution was developed over eight months by a team of more than twenty people , most of whom joined just for Ridge Racer Revolution . The biggest difficulties were the link @-@ up mode , rear @-@ view mirror , and running the game at high speeds . Each member had worked on other console games , and they commented that the graphics detail showed the improvements in skill and technique . The team wanted players to enjoy a more in @-@ depth game than the original , so rather than develop a port of Ridge Racer 2 , as many features as possible were added . The early designs for the new courses were made in a ' free run ' programme , and used to see how fast the cars went . The rear @-@ view mirror was added primarily with the two player link @-@ up mode in mind . The music was mostly taken from Ridge Racer 2 , and as a result , the sound was finished more quickly than the game . Soundtrack composition involved four musicians , who composed for Ridge Racer , Ridge Racer 2 , and Rave Racer . The team kept exploring the PlayStation 's capabilities to solve the high speed problem , although were confident it was possible . The designer , Hiroyuki Onada , commented that designing an original course was a challenge , and director Kazumi Mizuno believed that graphics quality would be degraded with a split @-@ screen multiplayer mode , so the team decided to focus on the PlayStation 's link @-@ up instead .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+The game was a bestseller in the UK . The additional features and improvements over the original in particular were given high praise . Coming Soon Magazine praised its multiplayer mode , saying it " will furnish many hours of competitive fun ! " , and in their conclusion remarked that the game " is an excellent racing game that will yield much excitement and challenges " . Absolute PlayStation praised its playability , its ' greatly ' improved artificial Intelligence , and the two @-@ player link @-@ up feature . Electronic Gaming Monthly remarked that it is even better than the original due to the cleaner graphics and improved handling on the cars , which makes them easier to control . Maximum acknowledged the similarity to the original Ridge Racer but gave it a strong recommendation , arguing that removal of the slowdown and track updating of the original , the unlockables , and the two @-@ player mode make it worth buying . They concluded by remarking that the game is " an instantly playable arcade racer that oozes options and playability " .
+
+The Electric Playground complimented the additions and improvements , including the " much improved " graphics and the scene changes , about which it was commented that it was a " serious improvement " . They commented that the colours are " sharp and pretty " , and the link @-@ up multiplayer mode , remarking that " Linked RR Revolution is worth the buy alone " , although the remixed music tracks were criticised because they " pale greatly in comparison to the original tracks " . Gamezilla commented that the new tracks are " always challenging and fun to race " and praised Free Run , saying it 's a " great way to learn the tracks " . GamePro praised the game , saying " Ridge Racer Revolution certainly upholds the Ridge Racer tradition by doing exactly what it should : It surpasses the original " , and Computer and Video Games Magazine commented that the game is " Everything Ridge Racer maniacs could have wanted from a sequel " .
+
+Hugh Sterbakov of GameSpot was more critical . He called it " a clone of the original " , and criticised the lack of split @-@ screen multiplayer .
+
+= Soul Sound =
+
+" Soul Sound " is a song by British girl group Sugababes from their debut studio album One Touch ( 2000 ) . It was written by Charlotte Gordon Cumming during a trip to Kenya , Africa , where she was inspired to compose it based on her experiences there . Produced by Ron Tom , " Soul Sound " is a pop song featuring guitar and bass instrumentation . It was released in the United Kingdom on 16 July 2001 as the album 's fourth and final single . Critics praised the song for the group 's demeanour although some regarded it as inferior in comparison to the album 's other tracks .
+
+To promote the song , a music video was directed by Max & Dania ; it features the Sugababes in an apartment where their souls are released by the music . The trio performed " Soul Sound " at Manchester Ampersand and at the London Notre Dame Hall . The song became the group 's lowest @-@ charting single at the time , peaking at number thirty on the UK Singles Chart , and remains one of their lowest @-@ selling singles to date . It was the final single that they released through London Records , and their last single to feature original member Siobhán Donaghy , who left the group in 2001 .
+
+= = Background and composition = =
+
+" Soul Sound " was written by the Scottish musician Charlotte Gordon Cumming during her trip to Kenya . Her inspiration to write the song stemmed from Africa , a continent which she visited frequently with her family as a child . According to Cumming , " In Africa I feel extremely alive , but also very small . The song was the essence of how I felt : seeing the beauty and horror of a place , and going into a heightened state . " She elaborated , " My songs are all about who I am and what I am feeling , which is why they can take so much out of me to perform – and I always feel a lot when I go to Africa " .
+
+Cumming had spent a year with the Sugababes while they recorded their debut studio album One Touch ( 2000 ) ; according to the Daily Record , the trio 's management were desperate for them to sing " Soul Sound " . The song was produced by Ron Tom , who mixed and programmed it in collaboration with Mark Frank . Individuals who provide backing vocals on the song include Xavier Barnet and the Kenyan @-@ born British singer Lamya . " Soul Sound " was recorded at the Matrix Recording Studios in London , England .
+
+" Soul Sound " is a pop record that experiments with pop @-@ rock balladry . The song features guitar and bass instrumentation , and according to the Daily Mail , evokes the music of harmony groups from the 1960s . John Mulvey of NME characteristed the song as having " tasteful slippery beats , tasteful acoustic guitars , [ and ] the usual indolent harmonies " . The song 's lyrics immediately begin with a sense of decision through the line " I Touch the sky " , and largely focus on the enjoyment of life .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+= = = Critical = = =
+
+" Soul Sound " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . The Sunday Mirror 's Ian Hyland rated the song nine out of ten stars and described it as " [ p ] ure class from the ever @-@ smiling teens " . According to AllMusic 's Dean Carlson , " Soul Sound " is a representation that " the jitters of youth are [ on One Touch ] though tempered by shrewd ambition and a clever and unpredictable production aesthetic " . John Mulvey of NME stated that while the song lacked the quality of the trio 's debut single " Overload " , it " is pretty good nevertheless " . He elaborated , " the best thing about Sugababes is how they sound like they really can 't be arsed with anything , let alone any of this pop star business [ ... ] Enough with the dance routines and shit @-@ eating grins – does this mean total lack of enthusiasm 's the way forward for teen pop ? " Stylus Magazine writer Scott Plagenhoef described the single as " marvelous lilting [ and ] hopeful " , while Stephen Robinson from Hot Press was less favourable and criticised the song 's pop @-@ rock experimentation , which according to him " doesn 't work quite so well " . Neil Western of the South China Morning Post felt that " Soul Sound " , along with the album 's title track , " lack sparkle " .
+
+= = = Commercial = = =
+
+The song was released in the United Kingdom on 16 July 2001 as the fourth and final single from One Touch . Upon release , it debuted and peaked at number thirty on the UK Singles Chart , the group 's lowest @-@ charting single in the United Kingdom at the time . In the UK , " Soul Sound " is one of the group 's lowest @-@ selling singles to date . Unlike the previous singles from One Touch , " Soul Sound " failed to make an impact on the Irish Singles Chart . The song earned the Sugababes a 2001 MTV Awards nomination for Best European Single .
+
+= = Promotion = =
+
+= = = Music video = = =
+
+The accompanying music video for " Soul Sound " was directed by Max & Dania and filmed in London . Band member Siobhán Donaghy stated that around the time of the video 's filming , her and the other group members were not performing as a group frequently : " It 's been fairly quiet recently , but it usually is between singles . The other two have been doing their exams , and I have been doing some interviews for newspapers and magazines abroad . Apart from the video for ' Soul Sound ' we have not been doing too much together . " During the video , the group 's members are featured in an apartment and are seated on couches and chairs . The plot involves their inner souls being released by the music , while outside in the neighbourhood the music takes control of other people 's lives and causes their souls to be lifted too . The video was included on the CD release of " Soul Sound " .
+
+= = = Live performances = = =
+
+The Sugababes played " Soul Sound " on 27 March 2001 at Manchester Ampersand , in conjunction with many of the album 's tracks such as " Overload " and " Run for Cover " . This was their second @-@ ever live performance , which was sponsored by NME . Donaghy commented ,
+
+We were very lucky that the tour was done in conjunction with NME , and it meant that we were playing to an older audience . We never set out to appeal to under @-@ 10s , because of the kind of stuff we listened to ourselves . If we manage to incorporate even a hint of that in our own music , we should appeal to quite an adult audience . We were all very nervous at all the gigs , but that was just because we were so worried about it going well .
+
+According to Kitty Empire of NME , during the performance , " ' Soul Sound ' [ grew ] lovelier with every croon of its chorus " . Later that month , the trio performed the song at London 's Notre Dame Hall as part of a set list . The Guardian 's John Aizlewood commented that during its performance , the group " [ created ] a tidal wave of melody " .
+
+= = Impact = =
+
+The group 's members were dissatisfied with the release of " Soul Sound " as a single , because they wanted to venture into an R & B sound whereas their record label London Records pushed them into a more pop direction . Soon after the song 's release , Donaghy left the group and was replaced by former Atomic Kitten member Heidi Range , making it the last Sugababes single to feature her vocals . Further , the sales of One Touch and its last three singles , " New Year " , " Run for Cover " and " Soul Sound " , failed to meet the expectations of London Records and the group was subsequently dropped . Band member Keisha Buchanan has stated that the song 's release and subsequent commercial underperformance was a positive experience because , saying : " Everything happens for a reason and it looks like it has all worked out " . " Soul Sound " was featured in the 2001 film Summer Catch , which stars such actors as Freddie Prinze , Jr. and Jessica Biel .
+
+= = Track listings and formats = =
+
+= = Credits and personnel = =
+
+Recording
+
+Recorded at Matrix Recording Studios , London , England
+
+Personnel
+
+Songwriting – Charlotte Edwards
+
+Production – Ron Tom
+
+Mixing – Mark Frank , Ron Tom
+
+Guitar – Andrew Smith
+
+Lead guitar – Ron Tom
+
+Bass – Pino Palladino
+
+Backing vocals – Lamya , Xavier Barnet
+
+Programming – Ron Tom
+
+Additional programming – Mark Frank
+
+Credits are taken from the liner notes of One Touch , courtesy of London Records .
+
+= = Charts = =
+
+= Miguel Treviño Morales =
+
+Miguel Ángel Treviño Morales ( born 18 November 1970 ) , commonly referred to by his alias Z @-@ 40 , is a former Mexican drug lord and leader of the criminal organization known as Los Zetas . Considered a violent and dangerous criminal , he was one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords until his arrest in July 2013 .
+
+Born into a family with six brothers and six sisters , Treviño Morales began his criminal career as a teenager , working for Los Tejas — a local gang from his hometown of Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas . His fluent English and experience of moving contraband along the U.S. – Mexico border enabled him to be recruited in the late 1990s by the drug lord Osiel Cárdenas Guillén , who headed the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas . Around 2005 , he was appointed as the regional boss of Los Zetas in Nuevo Laredo and was given the task to fight off the forces of the Sinaloa Cartel , which was attempting to take over the lucrative drug trafficking routes to the United States . After successfully securing these routes in Nuevo Laredo in 2006 , Treviño Morales was moved to Veracruz and appointed as the Zetas leader in the state after the death of the drug lord Efraín Teodoro Torres . Two years later , his boss Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano sent him to Guatemala to wipe out his competitors ; after completing the task successfully , he appointed Treviño Morales as the national commander of Los Zetas in 2008 . In 2010 , Los Zetas gained their independence from the Gulf Cartel , their former allies , and both organizations went to war with each other .
+
+As the national commander of Los Zetas , Treviño Morales earned a notorious reputation for intimidating officials and citizens throughout Mexico . The Mexican authorities believe that he is responsible for a significant part of the violence in Mexico , including the murder of 72 migrants in 2010 and the massacre of 193 people in 2011 . A common torture method of his was known as guiso ( stew ) , in which victims would be dumped into oil barrels , doused with gasoline and burned alive . Following the death of his boss Lazcano Lazcano in October 2012 , Treviño Morales became his successor and the top leader of Los Zetas drug cartel amid an internal power struggle within the organization .
+
+Mexican Marines arrested Treviño Morales on 15 July 2013 in the state of Nuevo León without a single bullet being fired . At the time of his capture , the Mexican government was offering up to a 30 million pesos ( US $ 2 @.@ 3 million ) reward for information leading to his arrest . The United States Department of Statewas offering up to US $ 5 million for information leading to his arrest and conviction . Authorities on both sides of the border believe that he was succeeded by his younger brother Omar Treviño Morales , a man who was also on the most @-@ wanted list .
+
+= = Early life = =
+
+Miguel Ángel Treviño Morales was born on 18 November 1970 in Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas , Mexico . His parents , Rodolfo Treviño and María Arcelia Morales , created a large family with six daughters and seven sons , including Miguel . Like many families along the U.S.-Mexico border , the Treviño family travelled from Mexico to the United States and vice versa , where they bought properties and opened several businesses . His father abandoned his family at a very young age , forcing Treviño Morales to single @-@ handedly raise the whole family . Treviño Morales grew up in a lower @-@ class neighborhood in Nuevo Laredo , but as a teenager , he worked for the wealthy by fixing their yards and washing their cars . He also did chores for the local drug lord Héctor Manuel Sauceda Gamboa ( alias El Karis ) , who later became his mentor ; Treviño Morales eventually replaced him as a Zetas leader in Nuevo Laredo . Treviño Morales grew up disliking Mexico 's class disparity and developed so much resentment as to partially explain his violent behavior as an adult . Treviño Morales frequented Dallas , Texas with his family . In 1993 , he was apprehended in Dallas County and charged with avoiding police arrest , after he had tried to lose the cops in a police car chase that ended in a street dead end . He paid a $ 672 @-@ dollar fine and was subsequently released from the county prison . Few details are known of Treviño Morales 's life in Dallas ; the U.S. authorities believe he learned about " power , money , weapons and the vast consumer market for illegal drugs " while living in Texas . They also believe that he perceived an anti @-@ Mexican bias among Americans , and especially towards Mexican immigrants like him . However , Treviño Morales considered Dallas his home because of his large family network that lives in the surrounding areas . According to U.S. investigators , he was last seen in the Dallas area in 2005 after entering the United States illegally , where visited his family and was said to have been at a strip club .
+
+= = Criminal origins and ascension = =
+
+As a teenager , he began to work for Los Tejas , a gang that ran the criminal activities in his hometown of Nuevo Laredo . From washing cars , running errands , and stealing car parts in Nuevo Laredo , Treviño Morales turned to the drug trade , starting with small @-@ scale drug retail sales and smuggling . Unlike the first members of Los Zetas , he was never in the military . He was hired by them and the Gulf Cartel in the late 1990s for his experience moving contraband across the border . His fluent English and his criminal contacts on both sides of the U.S.-Mexico border allowed him to gain the trust of the then @-@ leader of the Gulf Cartel , Osiel Cárdenas Guillén . When he joined the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas , Los Tejas , the local gang he once worked for , was absorbed by the former groups . Around 2005 , Treviño Morales became the regional boss of Nuevo Laredo ; he was in charge of fighting off the incursions of the Sinaloa Cartel , which was attempting to take control of the smuggling routes in the area . The Laredo – Nuevo Laredo area is a lucrative smuggling route for narcotics because of the Interstate 35 highway , which serves as a strategic pathway to San Antonio , Austin , and Dallas for future drug distribution . While in power , he orchestrated a number of assassinations in American cities and in Mexico by young U.S. citizens whom he put on his payroll . Treviño Morales was good at identifying and grooming young teenagers who he believed had the potential to become professional assassins for Los Zetas . These recruits , sometimes called Zetitas ( " Little Zetas " ) , usually joined organized crime as young as twelve @-@ years old to work first as smugglers and later as paid assassins .
+
+By 2006 , the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas managed to defeat the forces of the Sinaloa Cartel in Nuevo Laredo . The latter cartel concentrated its efforts in northeastern Mexico , becoming dominant there . Los Zetas started to expand into other criminal activities beyond drug trafficking . Under Treviño Morales , the organization smuggled immigrants to the United States , carried out extortions and kidnappings , sold bootlegged CDs and DVDs , and intimidated and / or killed residents who failed to cooperate with them . Treviño Morales remained in charge of Los Zetas in the state of Nuevo León and in Piedras Negras , Coahuila , until March 2007 . He was reassigned to the coastal state of Veracruz , shortly after high @-@ ranking Zetas leader Efraín Teodoro Torres ( alias Z @-@ 14 ) was killed in a gun battle at a local horse race . Though Cárdenas Guillén was imprisoned in 2003 , he reportedly directed the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas behind bars ; when he was extradited to the United States in 2007 , Treviño Morales and Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano pushed for Los Zetas ' independence from the Gulf Cartel .
+
+In November 2007 , the city of Laredo , Texas , issued an arrest warrant for Treviño in connection with a 2006 double homicide in Texas . In 2008 , Treviño Morales and Lazcano Lazcano , the two leaders of Los Zetas , forged an alliance with the Beltrán Leyva Cartel . It had just gone to war with the Sinaloa Cartel , believing that El Chapo Guzmán , their leader , had betrayed them . Treviño Morales subsequently joined them to kill the leader of the Sinaloa Cartel . Government sources said Los Zetas were fighting for control against La Federación ( The Federation ) , an alliance of several drug trafficking groups led by Joaquín El Chapo Guzmán and Ismael El Mayo Zambada , two drug lords who used to work for the Beltrán Leyva Cartel .
+
+In February 2008 , Lazcano Lazcano sent Treviño Morales to kill rival drug traffickers and take control of the drug trafficking routes in Guatemala . Reportedly , he carried out a military @-@ like ambush that resulted in the death of the Guatemalan drug lord Juan José León Ardón ( alias Juancho ) in March . An unnamed U.S. official said that Treviño Morales may have been the man who fired the bullet that killed the drug kingpin . Having succeeded outside of Mexico , Treviño Morales was appointed by Lazcano Lazcano as the national commander of Los Zetas , a position traditionally reserved to Zetas members with military background . In this position , Treviño Morales had a say in nearly all the decisions Los Zetas made at a national level , creating some resentment among the old @-@ generation commanders of Los Zetas who , unlike him , had been in the Mexican Armed Forces before turning to the drug trade .
+
+= = Leadership position = =
+
+Treviño Morales acted as a cartel ' gate @-@ keeper , ' and his people collected a piso ( tariff ) at all drug territories controlled by Los Zetas . He controlled the highly lucrative Nuevo Laredo plaza ( turf ) , across the border from Laredo , Texas . He bribed and intimidated officials to help maintain control , and responded to any challenges to his authority or control with brutal violence . Treviño was feared and very few local journalists dared to write about him . He was alleged to favored a torture method known as the guiso ( stew ) , in which people are stuffed into an oil barrel , doused with gasoline , and set on fire to burn alive . His violent behavior gained him " the notoriety of a cult figure . " He reportedly survived gun battles unharmed , avoided making alliances with anyone , dismembered dozens of victims while they were still alive and dumped them , and " seemed unafraid to die . " Organization members claimed that Treviño Morales enjoyed driving around the city in a car , pointing at people randomly and saying , " kill this one and kill that one . " A former hitman who worked for him told the press in 2013 that Treviño Morales could not sleep at night if he did not kill someone . He also said that the drug lord would ask his victims how they wanted to be killed . Journalist Alfredo Corchado , head of The Dallas Morning News in Mexico , wrote in one of his books that Treviño Morales enjoyed eating out the hearts of his victims — even when they were still alive — because he believed that doing that would make him invincible among his enemies and authorities .
+
+Treviño Morales reportedly coordinated several violent attacks throughout Mexico , including the murder of 72 migrants in 2010 and the massacre of 193 people a year later in San Fernando , Tamaulipas . He is also believed to have threatened to shoot down the plane of the former President Felipe Calderón in August 2012 while on a trip to the state of Tamaulipas . Although it was not the first time Calderón received death threats from organized crime , the authorities deemed the drug lord 's threat as credible , and urged the President to cancel his trip ( though he ultimately went anyway ) . Under Treviño Morales ' leadership , Los Zetas were considered by the Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) to be highly sophisticated , advanced , and one of the most dangerous criminal organizations operating in Mexico and the hemisphere . He was widely regarded as one of the most violent drug lords operating in Mexico .
+
+Treviño Morales reportedly moved around through Mexico and Central America , and often met with Colombian drug lords in Mexico City , the nation 's capital , to do business . To escape law enforcement notice , he used " caravans " of purported businessmen and religious persons . In the northern part of the country , he reportedly maintained a close tie with a number of politicians . His brother Omar Treviño Morales ( Z @-@ 42 ) leads Los Zetas in the Gulf of Mexico .
+
+= = Split between Los Zetas and the Gulf Cartel = =
+
+Cárdenas Guillén was arrested in Matamoros , Tamaulipas , in 2003 and extradited to the United States in 2007 . While in prison in Mexico , he reportedly coordinated the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas from his prison cell . But with his extradition , Treviño Morales 's organization experienced a leadership crisis . La Compañía ( The Company ) , a name used to describe the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas as a conglomerate , remained in a loose cooperation until early 2010 , when violence erupted between both groups . On 18 January 2010 , several members of the Gulf Cartel kidnapped Víctor Peña Mendoza ( alias Concord 3 ) , a leader of Los Zetas and close associate and friend of Treviño Morales . When he was held captive , Peña Mendoza was asked to switch alliances and join the Gulf Cartel , but he refused , earning a beating followed by execution , presumably carried out by Samuel Flores Borrego .
+
+Treviño Morales heard about the incident and issued an ultimatum to Flores Borrego and Gulf Cartel leader Jorge Eduardo Costilla Sánchez :
+
+Hand over the assassin of my friend , you son of a bitch ... You have until the 25th , if you don 't comply , there will be war .
+
+Both of the Gulf Cartel leaders ignored the command , and Treviño Morales moved swiftly to avenge the death of his former comrade . On 30 January 2010 , Treviño Morales kidnapped and slaughtered 16 Gulf Cartel members in Reynosa , Tamaulipas , marking the start of the cartel war between the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas in the Mexican states of Tamaulipas , Nuevo León , and Veracruz that has led to thousands of deaths . Los Zetas used violent and intimidatory tactics to expand , forging a reputation as Mexico 's most violent drug trafficking organization . It managed to take control of most of the territories owned by the Gulf Cartel when they had essentially served as a single organization . With Treviño Morales as the second @-@ in @-@ command of the criminal organization , Los Zetas began killing Gulf Cartel members and other rival drug traffickers en masse and winning their territories .
+
+= = Infighting in Los Zetas = =
+
+In 2011 , however , Treviño Morales 's criminal organization entered a new internal strife after Jesús Enrique Rejón Aguilar ( alias El Mamito ) , one of their highest @-@ ranking leaders , was arrested in July . Though he did not call out any names , he stated that someone within Los Zetas had betrayed him . Shortly thereafter , alleged organized crime members uploaded a narcocorrido music video on YouTube portraying Treviño Morales " as the New Judas " and accusing him of setting up the arrests and deaths of other commanders within the criminal organization and being disloyal to Lazcano Lazcano , his boss . In several articles published in August 2012 , a U.S. law enforcement official told the press that Treviño Morales had successfully taken the leadership of the cartel and displaced Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano , the long @-@ time leader . Treviño Morales began to take over the assets of Los Zetas and was working to remove Lazcano Lazcano as the head since early 2010 . Amidst the Zetas civil war , many high @-@ ranking members in Los Zetas began to fall . High @-@ ranking Zetas leader Iván Velázquez Caballero ( alias El Talibán ) was arrested in September 2012 , presumably set up either by rival gang members or gangsters aligned with a group related to Treviño Morales . On 6 October 2012 , drug lord Salvador Alfonso Martínez Escobedo ( alias La Ardilla ) was arrested in Nuevo Laredo by the Mexican Navy . After Velázquez 's fall , a split off group known as Los Legionarios ( The Legionaries ) was born in Nuevo Laredo and vowed to bring down Treviño Morales for allegedly betraying him . A second faction from Los Zetas , known as Sangre Zeta ( Zetas Blood ) , also broke up from the organization to join forces against him .
+
+The active role of Treviño Morales got him the loyalty and respect of many in Los Zetas , and eventually many stopped paying to Lazcano Lazcano . In order to avoid his arrest or death from betrayal , Lazcano Lazcano reportedly fled the country and lived in Germany and Costa Rica for an unknown time with surrounding rumors that he had terminal cancer . Back in Mexico , Treviño Morales had become the stronger of the two in Los Zetas . Lazcano Lazcano was then killed by the Mexican Navy in the state of Coahuila on 7 October 2012 , and Treviño Morales succeeded him as the top leader of Los Zetas .
+
+= = Bounty and indictments = =
+
+In 2009 in New York and in 2010 in Washington , the U.S. Department of Justice released an indictment against Treviño Morales for conspiracy to manufacture and distribute cocaine into the United States from Mexico and Guatemala . There was a bounty for him in Mexico set at $ 30 million MXN ( US $ 2 @.@ 3 million ) and another one in the U.S. at US $ 5 million ( $ 62 @.@ 4 million MXN ) . Los Zetas are responsible for the smuggling of multiple tons of cocaine , marijuana , and heroin into the United States from Mexico annually . He was also considered one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords .
+
+Treviño Morales is known by various aliases : L @-@ 40 ( 40 , Z @-@ 40 , Zeta 40 ) , Comandante Cuarenta , El Cuarenta , David Estrada @-@ Corado , and La Mona .
+
+= = = Kingpin Act sanction = = =
+
+On 20 July 2009 , the United States Department of the Treasury sanctioned Treviño Morales under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act ( sometimes referred to simply as the " Kingpin Act " ) , for his involvement in drug trafficking along with three other international criminals . The act prohibited U.S. citizens and companies from doing any kind of business activity with him , and virtually froze all his assets in the U.S.
+
+= = Arrest = =
+
+A month before his capture , U.S. authorities had been passing down information to their counterparts in Mexico that Treviño Morales was making frequent visits to the Nuevo Laredo border area to see his newborn baby . They traded this intelligence information from wiretaps conversations and informants ' tips . Treviño Morales was apprehended by the Mexican Marines in Anáhuac , Nuevo León , near the border of Tamaulipas state , at around 3 : 45 a.m. on 15 July 2013 without a single shot fired . The truck he was traveling in was intercepted on the road by a Black Hawk helicopter from the Navy ; when the Marines got off the helicopter and tried to apprehend him , the capo attempted to escape by running through some bushes but was later caught . He was in possession of US $ 2 million ( $ 25 @,@ 316 @,@ 100 MXN ) in cash , eight weapons and hundreds of rounds of ammunition ; two other men were arrested with him and taken into custody . Rumors of Treviño Morales 's arrest and a mugshot of him in custody began to circulate through Twitter and other social media outlets around noon that day , but the Mexican government did not confirm the arrest , nor did the U.S. authorities receive a formal confirmation until hours later .
+
+At the time of his arrest , Treviño Morales had pending charges for organized crime involvement , drug trafficking , torture , money laundering , and the illegal use of firearms under Mexican law , among other charges . However , he only declared the money and firearms that were confiscated during his arrest . Following his arrest , the drug lord was flown to Mexico City and kept at the SEIDO installations , Mexico 's organized crime investigatory agency . On 19 July 2013 , he was transferred to the Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1 maximum security prison in Almoloya de Juárez , State of Mexico , via helicopter . On January 2014 , a New York federal district court issued other criminal charges against the drug lord . The investigation alleged that Treviño Morales conspired to order killings against rival gangsters of Los Zetas , members of his own criminal organization , and Mexican policemen and personnel of the Mexican Army from September 2004 to July 2013 . The court , which sought his extradition , also stated that the drug lord conspired to traffic drugs to the U.S.
+
+= = Family = =
+
+Miguel 's brother José Treviño Morales was arrested on 12 June 2012 by a combined U.S. federal task force . He has been indicted as one of the money launderers for the Zetas through an Oklahoma @-@ based American Quarter Horse racing operation . His son Alejandro Treviño Chávez was killed during a shootout in the state of Coahuila on 5 October 2012 by a law enforcement group ; in response , Miguel ordered the murder of José Eduardo Moreira , nephew of governor of Coahuila Rubén Moreira , and son of Humberto Moreira ( Governor of the State of Coahuila from 2005 to 2011 ) .
+
+Omar Treviño Morales , his younger brother , is a high @-@ level leader in Los Zetas and one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords . The U.S government is offering up to US $ 5 million ( $ 62 @.@ 4 million MXN ) for information that leads to his arrest and conviction . He is responsible for several murders and kidnappings carried out in Nuevo Laredo between 2005 and 2006 . The authorities consider him the successor and " heir " of Los Zetas following Miguel 's arrest .
+
+Miguel 's older brother , Juan Francisco Treviño Morales , is currently imprisoned in the United States ; his son ( and nephew of Miguel ) , Juan Francisco Treviño Chávez , alias El Quico , was arrested in Monterrey on 15 June 2012 . Eduardo Treviño Treviño , another nephew of Miguel , was arrested in Nuevo Laredo in May 2013 and awaits an extradition to the United States for kidnapping and drug trafficking charges that date back to 2010 . Miguel 's wife Juanita del Carmen Ríos Hernández was included in the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act on February 2014 , banning U.S. citizens from doing any kind of business activities with companies under her name .
+
+= R & B Junkie =
+
+" R & B Junkie " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Janet Jackson from her eighth studio album , Damita Jo ( 2004 ) . Written by Jackson , James Harris III , Terry Lewis , Tony " Prof T " Tolbert , Michael Jones and Nicholas Trevisick , the track was released as a promotional single in December 2004 by Virgin Records . " R & B Junkie " is an upbeat song which has a " retro " feel consisting of eighties soul , R & B funk , dance @-@ pop and synths , while it samples Evelyn King 's 1981 song " I 'm in Love " ; it has " oh @-@ oh @-@ ohs " throughout the verses .
+
+" R & B Junkie " received positive reviews from music critics , who described it as " infectious " and one of the best tracks on Damita Jo . The song peaked at number one on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles , as it received a limited release . " R & B Junkie " was performed by Jackson during the 2004 BET Awards .
+
+= = Recording and composition = =
+
+" R & B Junkie " was recorded in 2003 , at Flyte Tyme Studios West at The Village , in Los Angeles , California . It was written by Janet Jackson , James Harris III , Terry Lewis , Tony " Prof T " Tolbert , Michael Jones and Nicholas Trevisick , while it was produced by Jackson , Jam and Lewis . The latter one also played the keyboards . The song had its drums and percussion played by IZ . Serban Ghenea did the mixing of " R & B Junkie " at MixStar Studios , Virginia Beach , with Tim Roberts being his assistant . Ian Cross engineered the song while Ghian Wright was an assistant . Additionally , the Pro @-@ Tools engineer was John Hanes .
+
+" R & B Junkie " is an upbeat song which has a " retro " feel consisting of eighties funk , dance @-@ pop , and synths . It transforms a brief sample from Evelyn King 's 1981 song " I 'm in Love " into a new composition . According to LA Weekly , it worked in the context of a song that is " an ode to old @-@ school soul music and the dances those sounds inspired " . The magazine also considered the song a likely candidate for a summer club hit . " R & B Junkie " ' s positive vibe was described as a sonic " ambrosia " by Baltimore City Paper . Additionally , the song has " oh @-@ oh @-@ ohs " throughout the verses and on the chorus .
+
+= = Critical reception = =
+
+The song received positive reviews from music critics . Angus Batey from Yahoo ! Music described " R & B Junkie " as one of the high points from Damita Jo , describing it as a delicious throwback . BBC Music 's Ian Warde asserted that the song " is a nice Evelyn Champagne King infused number that parties like it 's 1982 " . Similarly , Michael Paoletta from Billboard called the song a " winner " from Damita Jo and noted that it " fabulously " referenced the sampled song . Mikael Wood from Baltimore City Paper commented that " R & B Junkie " had an enough positive vibe to shame American musician Michael J. Powell into early retirement . Ernest Hardy from LA Weekly described the song as the second best song from Damita Jo , after " Like You Don 't Love Me " . Spence D. from IGN called it as ultimately non @-@ descript , despite considering it infectious .
+
+= = Live performance = =
+
+Jackson performed a medley of " All Nite ( Don 't Stop ) " and " R & B Junkie " at the 2004 BET Awards . Following Jackson 's Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy , various performances on TV were aired with a time delay per the U.S. Federal Communications Commission 's guidelines , but the awards show was televised without a delay .
+
+= = Track listing = =
+
+US promo CD single
+
+" R & B Junkie " – 3 : 10
+
+= = Credits and personnel = =
+
+Credits and personnel adapted from Damita Jo album liner notes .
+
+= = Chart performance = =
+
+" R & B Junkie " was only released as promo single and was sent to Urban AC radio stations . It failed to chart on any main Billboard charts , but peaked at number one on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles .
+
+= Todo a Su Tiempo ( Marc Anthony album ) =
+
+Todo a Su Tiempo ( English : All in Due Time ) is the second studio album by American recording artist Marc Anthony , released by RMM Records on May 30 , 1995 . The album was produced by Sergio George , who was also involved with production of Anthony 's debut studio album , Otra Nota . The album comprises five new compositions , three of which were written by Omar Alfanno , and four cover versions . Eight singles were released from the album , all of which topped the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .
+
+Todo a Su Tiempo peaked at number six on the Billboard Latin Albums chart and debuted at number one on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart . The album garnered critical praise as a major improvement over his first album and for revolutionizing the salsa music genre . It received a Grammy nomination , a Billboard Latin Music award , and a Lo Nuestro award . Two years later , the album made history as the first salsa disc to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Since the album 's release , it has sold over 800 @,@ 000 copies .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+Following the release of his debut album , Otra Nota , in 1993 , Anthony continued to work with producer Sergio George for the recording of Todo a Su Tiempo . Recording for the album took place at the Sound on Sound Studios and the Quad Recording Studios in New York City . According to George , Otra Nota was an experimental album and was on a low budget . George allowed Anthony to choose his own material and described the recording as more " mixed and aggressive " . Anthony described naming the album :
+
+The album took awhile , but I learned that you can 't be afraid of time , waiting . I also learned there is a right time for everything which is why I named the album " Todo a Su Tiempo "
+
+= = Composition and covers = =
+
+The album comprises nine tracks , four of which are covers of songs previously recorded by several performers . Panamanian songwriter Omar Alfanno composed three tracks from the album : " Te Conozco Bien " ( " I Know You Well " ) , " Nadie Como Ella " ( " Nobody Like Her " ) , and " Llegaste a Mi " ( " You Came to Me " ) . The ballad " Y Sigues Siendo Tu " ( " And You Still Being You " ) was composed by Puerto Rican composers Eduardo Reyes , Laura Reyes , and Guadalupe Garcia . " Vieja Mesa " ( " Old Table " ) was composed by Dominican musician Víctor Víctor . The song incorporates the sound of bachata @-@ influenced bolero . " Se Me Sigue Olvidando " ( " I 'm Still Forgetting " ) was first performed by José Feliciano on his 1986 album , Te Amaré . " Por Amar Se da Todo " ( " To Love Gives Everything " ) was performed by Danny Rivera on the 1993 album of the same name . Manny Delgado wrote the song " Hasta Ayer " ( " Until Yesterday " ) for the Venezuelan pop band Los Terrícolas in 1979 . In the album , Anthony recorded the song as a bolero . " Te Amaré " ( " I Will Love You " ) was written by The Barrio Boyzz member Angel Ramirez Jr. for their 1993 album , Donde Quiera Donde Estes .
+
+= = Commercial reception = =
+
+= = = Album = = =
+
+Todo a Su Tiempo was released on May 30 , 1995 , in the United States and was distributed by Sony Music until 1996 , when it was distributed by Universal Music Group . The album debuted at number six on the Billboard Latin Albums chart for the week of June 17 , 1995 . The same week , the album debuted at number one on the Billboard Tropical Albums and remained in that position for five consecutive weeks . A year later , the album returned to number one on the chart , and held the position for a total of six non @-@ consecutive weeks . It was third @-@ best @-@ selling tropical album of 1996 in the United States . During the week of April 12 , 1997 , the album once again reached number one the chart and held the position for four weeks . Two years after the album was released , it became the first salsa disc to receive a gold certification by the RIAA for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units . The album has sold over 800 @,@ 000 copies as of 2001 .
+
+= = = Singles = = =
+
+" Te Conozco Bien " was the lead single from the album . It peaked at number seven on the Billboard Latin Song chart and became his first number @-@ one single on the Billboard Tropical Song chart . The song spent eight weeks on top of the chart and was named the best @-@ performing tropical song of the year . The second single , " Se Me Sigue Olvidando " , reached number six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart . It became his second number @-@ one single on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart ; it spent six weeks on top of the chart . The third single , " Nadie Como Ella " , peaked at number thirteen on the Billboard Latin songs and became his third number @-@ one on the Tropical Songs chart . The fourth single , " Te Amaré " , reached number six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and became his fourth single to reach number one on the Tropical Songs chart . The fifth single , " Llegaste a Mi " , reached number eleven on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and spent two weeks number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . " Hasta Ayer " was the sixth single to be released from the album . It peaked at number six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and was number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs for three weeks . As the song was a bolero , RMM executive Ralph Mercado responded to the success of the song by stating that Anthony was no longer just a salsa musician . The seventh single , " Por Amar Se da Todo " , peaked at number seventeen on the Billboard Latin Songs and at number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . The last single , " Vieja Mesa " , peaked at number seven on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .
+
+= = Critical reception = =
+
+Todo a Su Tiempo received praise from music critics . Evan Gutierrez of Allmusic gave the album a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , praising the album as a step forward over Otra nota . He described Anthony 's voice as " soaring " and " luminescent " . He cited the album as setting the bar for salsa music and closed the review by it calling the album " without question one of the finest salsa records of the ' 90s " . David Wilson of Wilson and Alroy 's Record Review felt the album was an improvement from his last album , and commended the George 's arrangements as " varied and interesting " . He referred " Por Amar Se da Todo " as a song that " doesn 't let up " and " Nadie Como Ella " as " obvious , but catchy " . Of the song " Y Sigues Siendo Tu " , Wilson said that Anthony is " one of the few current male singers who can really make you believe in a sappy ballad " . Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune gave the album a four @-@ star rating and enjoyed how Anthony put a variety of sounds , including hip @-@ hop and R & B , to " good use " . She referred to " Hasta Ayer " as " an oldie but goodie totally transformed by soulful crooning " . Billboard 's mentioned Anthony as " grafting his muy soulful baritone onto vivid romantic narratives " and acknowledged " Nadie Como Ella " and " Se Me Sigue Olvidando " as " upbeat " . A writer for the Village Voice penned that the tracks were " nine swirling , complex dance tunes " . In 2015 , Billboard listed Todo a Su Tiempo as one of the Essential Latin Albums of Past 50 Year stating that the album " launched Anthony to fame as an instant salsa superstar and it wasn ’ t long before he was a household name " .
+
+At the 38th Grammy Awards , the album received a nomination for " Best Tropical Latin Performance " , which was awarded to Gloria Estefan 's Abriendo Puertas . Anthony received two Billboard Latin Music Awards , including " Tropical / Salsa Album of the Year " and " Tropical / Salsa Hot Latin Track of the Year " for the song " Te Conozco Bien " . In 1996 , the album received a Lo Nuestro Award nomination for " Tropical Album of the Year " which it won the following year .
+
+= = Track listing = =
+
+= = Credits and personnel = =
+
+The following credits are from Allmusic and from Todo a Su Tiempo liner notes .
+
+= = = Performance credits = = =
+
+= = = Technical credits = = =
+
+= = Chart performance = =
+
+= = = Weekly charts = = =
+
+= = = Certification = = =
+
+= = Release history = =
+
+= Hurricane Kristy ( 2006 ) =
+
+Hurricane Kristy in 2006 was a relatively long @-@ lived tropical cyclone in the 2006 Pacific hurricane season . It developed on August 30 from a tropical wave off the southwest coast of Mexico , and quickly intensified to attain hurricane status , reaching peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Subsequently , Kristy weakened from cooler waters and increased wind shear from Hurricane John to its northeast . Steering currents weakened , and turning to a southerly drift , it weakened to a tropical depression by September 2 . The next day it briefly regained tropical storm status , only to again deteriorate to depression status . After turning to the west , Kristy encountered marginally favorable conditions and attained tropical storm status for a third time , though unfavorable conditions caused it to dissipate on September 9 . The storm never affected land , although initially there was a slight threat to Clarion Island . Within the National Hurricane Center area of warning responsibility east of 140 ° W , Hurricane Kristy was the longest @-@ lasting tropical cyclone of the season .
+
+= = Genesis = =
+
+A tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa on August 13 . With a large swirl of low clouds and little convection , the system tracked westward for two weeks across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea , before crossing Central America on August 22 . On August 29 , the system became better organized , consisting of a broad low pressure area and thunderstorm activity . The convection persisted and organized further , and at 0000 UTC on August 30 it developed into Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E about 600 mi ( 970 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula .
+
+Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was experiencing slight easterly wind shear , which distorted the convection to the west of the circulation . However , favorable conditions for strengthening were expected , and the depression was forecast to reach peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before weakening . It tracked slowly northwestward along the southern periphery of a ridge , and quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Kristy after convection increased over its circulation center . By that time , wind shear had decreased to very low levels , and with very warm waters , the storm was expected to quickly intensify to reach hurricane status . By late on August 30 , the convection was wrapping into the center while an eye feature became intermittent . Organization continued , and Kristy attained hurricane status early on August 31 , about 30 hours after forming . Six hours after attaining hurricane status , an eye @-@ like featured was evident on satellite imagery , and it is estimated Kristy attained peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) about 550 mi ( 880 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California . However , satellite @-@ derived intensity estimates suggested the hurricane could have been as strong as 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) , or as weak as a tropical storm .
+
+= = Weakening and demise = =
+
+Subsequently , wind shear increased , caused by the outflow of powerful Hurricane John to its east . Additionally , the hurricane moved into an area of cooler water temperatures , and as a result its appearance became ragged and amorphous . At the same time , steering currents weakened , and the future of Kristy was uncertain ; the NHC forecast the hurricane to continue slowly westward , dissipating within four days . However , other hurricane models suggested a motion to the southwest , and two models predicted a Fujiwhara effect , or an orbiting of two tropical cyclones , which would eventually result in Kristy being absorbed by Hurricane John . On September 1 , Kristy weakened to tropical storm status , and it weakened faster as dry air encroached the storm . It turned southeastward as the ridge to its north strengthened . On September 2 , the circulation became exposed from the convection , and it was forecast to degenerate into a remnant low within 24 hours . Later that day , Kristy weakened to tropical depression status .
+
+By September 3 , Tropical Depression Kristy was without persistent deep convection for about 18 hours . However , thunderstorms increased around the center later that day , developing a shallow eye @-@ like feature . The convection persisted along the western periphery of the circulation , and it is estimated Kristy re @-@ attained tropical storm status about 24 hours after it was first downgraded to depression status . Around the same time , the cyclone began a steady motion to the southwest . Its re @-@ intensification was short @-@ lived , as continued wind shear weakened the convection and left the center devoid of any thunderstorms . On September 4 , Kristy weakened to tropical depression status , and though quick dissipation was predicted , officials noted that intermittent convection flares could develop . One such convection flare occurred on September 5 , which persisted around the center and warranted Kristy being upgraded to tropical storm status . By that time , wind shear had decreased somewhat and the storm had turned westward , and with a track through warm water temperatures , Kristy was forecast to maintain tropical storm status for five days .
+
+At one point as a tropical storm , the thunderstorm activity around Kristy appeared to be organizing into hooking bands , and further intensification was considered likely , potentially as strong as 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . However , the thunderstorm activity decreased markedly on September 6 , primarily from dry air entrainment , and it weakened to tropical depression status for the last time . In one forecast , Kristy was predicted to move into the area of warning responsibility of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center , or west of 140 ° W. However , the depression was unable to maintain organized convection around its center for a few days , and Kristy degenerated into a remnant low on September 8 . The low turned to the southwest , degenerating into a tropical wave on September 9 about 1500 miles ( 2400 km ) southeast of the island of Hawaii , or about 1600 miles ( 2600 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula . The remnant disturbance continued westward , and initially Kristy was believed to have developed into Tropical Depression Two @-@ C in the central Pacific Ocean ; however , post @-@ season analysis concluded the systems were separate .
+
+= Baden @-@ Powell House =
+
+Baden @-@ Powell House , colloquially known as B @-@ P House , is a Scouting hostel and conference centre in South Kensington , London , which was built as a tribute to Lord Baden @-@ Powell , the founder of Scouting . The house , owned by The Scout Association , hosts a small exhibition relating to Scouting in its current form and a granite statue by Don Potter .
+
+The building committee , chaired by Sir Harold Gillett , Lord Mayor of London , purchased the site in 1956 , and assigned Ralph Tubbs to design the house in the modern architectural style . The foundation stone was laid in 1959 by World Chief Guide Olave , Lady Baden @-@ Powell , and it was opened in 1961 by Queen Elizabeth II . The largest part of the £ 400 @,@ 000 cost was provided by the Scout Movement itself . Over the years , the house has been refurbished several times , so that it now provides modern and affordable lodging for Scouts , Guides , their families and the general public staying in London . The building also hosts conference and event space for hire .
+
+= = History = =
+
+Acting on a 1942 initiative by Chief Scout Lord Somers , a formal Baden @-@ Powell House Committee was established by The Scout Association in 1953 under the direction of Sir Harold Gillett , later Lord Mayor of London . The committee 's directive was to build a hostel to provide Scouts a place to stay at reasonable cost while visiting London . For this purpose , in 1956 the committee purchased a bombed @-@ out property at the intersection of Cromwell Road and Queen 's Gate at a cost of £ 39 @,@ 000 .
+
+The Scout Movement raised the major part of the funding of £ 400 @,@ 000 for building and furnishing the building between 1957 and 1959 . Scouts throughout the Country collected ' ship ' halfpennies , and this raised the bulk of the money for the building . Money was also raised through public appeals supported by publication in Scout Movement magazines , a collection of donations in 15 @,@ 000 brick @-@ shaped boxes , and 5 @,@ 000 appeal letters signed personally by then Chief Scout Lord Rowallan . Scouts representing every county were present at the opening .
+
+In a celebration on 17 October 1959 the foundation stone was laid by the World Chief Guide ( Olave Baden @-@ Powell ) , in the presence of Lord Mayor Sir Harold Gillett , the new Chief Scout Sir Charles Maclean , and 400 other guests . A casket was buried under the foundation stone which held 1959 Scout mementoes , stamps , coins , photographs , etc . , and a programme of the ceremony .
+
+With 142 Queen 's Scouts as Guard of Honour , and live broadcast by the BBC ( commentator Richard Dimbleby ) , Baden @-@ Powell House was opened on 12 July 1961 by Queen Elizabeth II . Afterwards , she toured the house with the Chief Scout and the president of The Scout Association , her uncle Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester . A black marble panel with gold lettering was put on the balcony in the hall to commemorate the event .
+
+= = Modern architecture = =
+
+The house was designed by the architect Ralph Tubbs in 1956 , whose works included the Dome of Discovery , the highlight of the 1951 Festival of Britain . Tubbs ' floor plans and a model of his design were displayed during a fundraising campaign and exhibition on 21 February 1957 in the Egyptian Hall of the Mansion House .
+
+The six storied Baden @-@ Powell House is designed in the modern architectural style , as pioneered by the Swiss architect Le Corbusier from the late 1920s onwards , and predominating in the 1950s . At Baden @-@ Powell House , Tubbs made the first floor overhang the ground floor , a Le Corbusier architectural design choice to free the building from the ground , such as seen in his Pavillon Suisse at the Cité Internationale Universitaire in Paris . Additionally , Le Corbusier 's Sainte Marie de La Tourette priory in Lyon shows two floors of monk 's cells with small windows , cantilevered over the more open floors below , another design choice used by Tubbs in the facade of Baden @-@ Powell House . While Tubbs created Baden @-@ Powell House in the modern architectural style of Le Corbusier , he used more architectural restraint in his own design choices . For example , he made the main visible building component brick rather than concrete . This heavier evolution of Le Corbusier 's style was popular in England throughout the post @-@ war years until replaced by the Brutalist style in the later 1960s .
+
+Baden @-@ Powell House was built to Tubbs ' design by Harry Neal Ltd , for which they received the 1961 Gold Medal of the Worshipful Company of Tylers and Bricklayers . At the opening , the house received the building design award for ' The building of most merit in London.'
+
+Thirty @-@ five years after its opening , Baden @-@ Powell House was refurbished in a six @-@ month £ 2 million programme , providing all modern amenities such as private facilities for all rooms , double glazing , and air conditioning , as well as enhancing conference facilities for large and small events . Upon completion of the programme , the house was opened by the president of The Scout Association , Prince Edward , Duke of Kent on 5 June 1997 . In 2002 a Starbucks coffee ( discontinued before 2015 ) and sandwich bar was opened , as well as an outdoor roof garden adjacent to the meeting conference rooms on the second floor .
+
+= = Baden @-@ Powell collection = =
+
+Although it has since been replaced with a number of smaller displays available to the public in the reception area showing some traditional Scouting skills , a notable collection of Baden @-@ Powell memorabilia has been on display in the past for visitors in ' The story of B @-@ P ' exhibition . This included many drawings and letters by Baden @-@ Powell himself , such as the original of his Last Message to Scouts , Laws for me when I am old and several first editions of his books . The former exhibition also displayed the original painting by David Jagger , as presented to Baden @-@ Powell on 29 August 1929 at the ' Coming of Age ' 3rd World Scout Jamboree . This painting , a personal favourite of Baden @-@ Powell , is often used in publications throughout the Scout movement . The Baden @-@ Powell memorabilia has since been moved to the headquarters for Scouting in the UK , Gilwell Park .
+
+As an introductory part of the collection , a nearly 3 meter high statue of Baden @-@ Powell has been erected in front of Baden @-@ Powell House , the only granite statue in London . The sculptor was Baden @-@ Powell 's personal friend Don Potter . It was unveiled on 12 July 1961 by the Duke of Gloucester , as part of the official opening of the house .
+
+= = 21st century : Hostel and Conference centre = =
+
+From 1974 to 2001 , Baden @-@ Powell House was the headquarters of The Scout Association , for which a dedicated extension to the house was completed in 1976 . In April 2001 , the headquarters formally moved to new accommodation at Gilwell Park . As the owner of Baden @-@ Powell House , The Scout Association receives a net income out of the revenues of approximately £ 1 @.@ 5 million .
+
+Baden @-@ Powell House provides a hostel for people visiting London . In the period 2004 – 2006 the hostel participated in the Youth Hostel Association , after which the Scout Association entered into an agreement with German company Meininger City Hostels . The building is still owned by The Scout Association , but it is run by Meininger . As part of the arrangement with this company Scout members from the UK and abroad are able to stay at a reduced rate . It is also a conference and event space . Baden @-@ Powell House is rated Four Star by the Visit Britain Quality Assurance , and Mobility Level 1 ; also recent visitors rate it on average 4 out of 5 .
+
+The hostel and conference centre is entered through a wide glazed atrium which serves as a large foyer containing the cafe and some Scouting displays . From the atrium the large hall is reached which can serve as an auditorium with seating for up to 300 people . The first floor has a restaurant seating 100 guests ; the second floor has meeting rooms , and conference facilities for groups up to 80 delegates per room . The upper floors contain 180 hostel bedrooms . In an average year , 30 thousand people spend the night , and 100 thousand meals are served in the restaurant .
+
+= Botany =
+
+Botany , also called plant science ( s ) , plant biology or phytology , is the science of plant life and a branch of biology . A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specializes in this field . The term " botany " comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη ( botanē ) meaning " pasture " , " grass " , or " fodder " ; βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν ( boskein ) , " to feed " or " to graze " . Traditionally , botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively , with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress . Nowadays , botanists study approximately 400 @,@ 000 species of living organisms of which some 260 @,@ 000 species are vascular plants and about 248 @,@ 000 are flowering plants .
+
+Botany originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts of early humans to identify – and later cultivate – edible , medicinal and poisonous plants , making it one of the oldest branches of science . Medieval physic gardens , often attached to monasteries , contained plants of medical importance . They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities , founded from the 1540s onwards . One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden . These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants . Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy , and led in 1753 to the binomial system of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day .
+
+In the 19th and 20th centuries , new techniques were developed for the study of plants , including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging , electron microscopy , analysis of chromosome number , plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins . In the last two decades of the 20th century , botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis , including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately .
+
+Modern botany is a broad , multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science and technology . Research topics include the study of plant structure , growth and differentiation , reproduction , biochemistry and primary metabolism , chemical products , development , diseases , evolutionary relationships , systematics , and plant taxonomy . Dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics , which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues . Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods , materials such as timber , oil , rubber , fibre and drugs , in modern horticulture , agriculture and forestry , plant propagation , breeding and genetic modification , in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production , in environmental management , and the maintenance of biodiversity .
+
+= = History = =
+
+= = = Early botany = = =
+
+Botany originated as herbalism , the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties . Many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10 @,@ 000 years ago . This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee , which make up much of the Cherokee land today . The early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications . Examples of early botanical works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC , in archaic Avestan writings , and in works from China before it was unified in 221 BC .
+
+Modern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece , specifically to Theophrastus ( c . 371 – 287 BC ) , a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the " Father of Botany " . His major works , Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants , constitute the most important contributions to botanical science until the Middle Ages , almost seventeen centuries later .
+
+Another work from Ancient Greece that made an early impact on botany is De Materia Medica , a five @-@ volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine written in the middle of the first century by Greek physician and pharmacologist Pedanius Dioscorides . De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1 @,@ 500 years . Important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyya 's Nabatean Agriculture , Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī 's ( 828 – 896 ) the Book of Plants , and Ibn Bassal 's The Classification of Soils . In the early 13th century , Abu al @-@ Abbas al @-@ Nabati , and Ibn al @-@ Baitar ( d . 1248 ) wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner .
+
+In the mid @-@ 16th century , " botanical gardens " were founded in a number of Italian universities – the Padua botanical garden in 1545 is usually considered to be the first which is still in its original location . These gardens continued the practical value of earlier " physic gardens " , often associated with monasteries , in which plants were cultivated for medical use . They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject . Lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated . Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe ; the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621 . Throughout this period , botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine .
+
+German physician Leonhart Fuchs ( 1501 – 1566 ) was one of " the three German fathers of botany " , along with theologian Otto Brunfels ( 1489 – 1534 ) and physician Hieronymus Bock ( 1498 – 1554 ) ( also called Hieronymus Tragus ) . Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own . Bock created his own system of plant classification .
+
+Physician Valerius Cordus ( 1515 – 1544 ) authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance , the Dispensatorium in 1546 . Naturalist Conrad von Gesner ( 1516 – 1565 ) and herbalist John Gerard ( 1545 – c . 1611 ) published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants . Naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi ( 1522 – 1605 ) was considered the father of natural history , which included the study of plants . In 1665 , using an early microscope , Polymath Robert Hooke discovered cells , a term he coined , in cork , and a short time later in living plant tissue .
+
+= = = Early modern botany = = =
+
+During the 18th century , systems of plant identification were developed comparable to dichotomous keys , where unidentified plants are placed into taxonomic groups ( e.g. family , genus and species ) by making a series of choices between pairs of characters . The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification ( diagnostic keys ) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys . By the 18th century , new plants for study were arriving in Europe in increasing numbers from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide . In 1753 Carl von Linné ( Carl Linnaeus ) published his Species Plantarum , a hierarchical classification of plant species that remains the reference point for modern botanical nomenclature . This established a standardised binomial or two @-@ part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus . For the purposes of identification , Linnaeus 's Systema Sexuale classified plants into 24 groups according to the number of their male sexual organs . The 24th group , Cryptogamia , included all plants with concealed reproductive parts , mosses , liverworts , ferns , algae and fungi .
+
+Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy , morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus had indicated . Adanson ( 1763 ) , de Jussieu ( 1789 ) , and Candolle ( 1819 ) all proposed various alternative natural systems of classification that grouped plants using a wider range of shared characters and were widely followed . The Candollean system reflected his ideas of the progression of morphological complexity and the later classification by Bentham and Hooker , which was influential until the mid @-@ 19th century , was influenced by Candolle 's approach . Darwin 's publication of the Origin of Species in 1859 and his concept of common descent required modifications to the Candollean system to reflect evolutionary relationships as distinct from mere morphological similarity .
+
+Botany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first " modern " textbook , Matthias Schleiden 's Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik , published in English in 1849 as Principles of Scientific Botany . Schleiden was a microscopist and an early plant anatomist who co @-@ founded the cell theory with Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow and was among the first to grasp the significance of the cell nucleus that had been described by Robert Brown in 1831 . In 1855 , Adolf Fick formulated Fick 's laws that enabled the calculation of the rates of molecular diffusion in biological systems .
+
+= = = Modern botany = = =
+
+Building upon the gene @-@ chromosome theory of heredity that originated with Gregor Mendel ( 1822 – 1884 ) , August Weismann ( 1834 – 1914 ) proved that inheritance only takes place through gametes . No other cells can pass on inherited characters . The work of Katherine Esau ( 1898 – 1997 ) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany . Her books Plant Anatomy and Anatomy of Seed Plants have been key plant structural biology texts for more than half a century .
+
+The discipline of plant ecology was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as Eugenius Warming , who produced the hypothesis that plants form communities , and his mentor and successor Christen C. Raunkiær whose system for describing plant life forms is still in use today . The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles , Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements . Clements is credited with the idea of climax vegetation as the most complex vegetation that an environment can support and Tansley introduced the concept of ecosystems to biology . Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle , Nikolai Vavilov ( 1887 – 1943 ) produced accounts of the biogeography , centres of origin , and evolutionary history of economic plants .
+
+Particularly since the mid @-@ 1960s there have been advances in understanding of the physics of plant physiological processes such as transpiration ( the transport of water within plant tissues ) , the temperature dependence of rates of water evaporation from the leaf surface and the molecular diffusion of water vapour and carbon dioxide through stomatal apertures . These developments , coupled with new methods for measuring the size of stomatal apertures , and the rate of photosynthesis have enabled precise description of the rates of gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere . Innovations in statistical analysis by Ronald Fisher , Frank Yates and others at Rothamsted Experimental Station facilitated rational experimental design and data analysis in botanical research . The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals . Frederick Campion Steward pioneered techniques of micropropagation and plant tissue culture controlled by plant hormones . The synthetic auxin 2 @,@ 4 @-@ Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or 2 @,@ 4 @-@ D was one of the first commercial synthetic herbicides .
+
+20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis , such as spectroscopy , chromatography and electrophoresis . With the rise of the related molecular @-@ scale biological approaches of molecular biology , genomics , proteomics and metabolomics , the relationship between the plant genome and most aspects of the biochemistry , physiology , morphology and behaviour of plants can be subjected to detailed experimental analysis . The concept originally stated by Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1902 that all plant cells are totipotent and can be grown in vitro ultimately enabled the use of genetic engineering experimentally to knock out a gene or genes responsible for a specific trait , or to add genes such as GFP that report when a gene of interest is being expressed . These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides , antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals , as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield .
+
+Modern morphology recognizes a continuum between the major morphological categories of root , stem ( caulome ) , leaf ( phyllome ) and trichome . Furthermore , it emphasizes structural dynamics . Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants . Modern Molecular phylogenetics largely ignores morphological characters , relying on DNA sequences as data . Molecular analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants enabled the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group to publish in 1998 a phylogeny of flowering plants , answering many of the questions about relationships among angiosperm families and species . The theoretical possibility of a practical method for identification of plant species and commercial varieties by DNA barcoding is the subject of active current research .
+
+= = Scope and importance = =
+
+The study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis , a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells . As a by @-@ product of photosynthesis , plants release oxygen into the atmosphere , a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration . In addition , they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils , preventing soil erosion . Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food , oxygen , medicine , and products for people , as well as creating and preserving soil .
+
+Historically , all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals . Botanists examine both the internal functions and processes within plant organelles , cells , tissues , whole plants , plant populations and plant communities . At each of these levels , a botanist may be concerned with the classification ( taxonomy ) , phylogeny and evolution , structure ( anatomy and morphology ) , or function ( physiology ) of plant life .
+
+The strictest definition of " plant " includes only the " land plants " or embryophytes , which include seed plants ( gymnosperms , including the pines , and flowering plants ) and the free @-@ sporing cryptogams including ferns , clubmosses , liverworts , hornworts and mosses . Embryophytes are multicellular eukaryotes descended from an ancestor that obtained its energy from sunlight by photosynthesis . They have life cycles with alternating haploid and diploid phases . The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes , known as the gametophyte , nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life , even in the seed plants , where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte . Other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria ( now studied in bacteriology ) , fungi ( mycology ) – including lichen @-@ forming fungi ( lichenology ) , non @-@ chlorophyte algae ( phycology ) , and viruses ( virology ) . However , attention is still given to these groups by botanists , and fungi ( including lichens ) and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses .
+
+Paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants . Cyanobacteria , the first oxygen @-@ releasing photosynthetic organisms on Earth , are thought to have given rise to the ancestor of plants by entering into an endosymbiotic relationship with an early eukaryote , ultimately becoming the chloroplasts in plant cells . The new photosynthetic plants ( along with their algal relatives ) accelerated the rise in atmospheric oxygen started by the cyanobacteria , changing the ancient oxygen @-@ free , reducing , atmosphere to one in which free oxygen has been abundant for more than 2 billion years .
+
+Among the important botanical questions of the 21st century are the role of plants as primary producers in the global cycling of life 's basic ingredients : energy , carbon , oxygen , nitrogen and water , and ways that our plant stewardship can help address the global environmental issues of resource management , conservation , human food security , biologically invasive organisms , carbon sequestration , climate change , and sustainability .
+
+= = = Human nutrition = = =
+
+Virtually all staple foods come either directly from primary production by plants , or indirectly from animals that eat them . Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are at the base of most food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere , converting them into a form that can be used by animals . This is what ecologists call the first trophic level . The modern forms of the major staple foods , such as maize , rice , wheat and other cereal grasses , pulses , bananas and plantains , as well as flax and cotton grown for their fibres , are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among wild ancestral plants with the most desirable characteristics . Botanists study how plants produce food and how to increase yields , for example through plant breeding , making their work important to mankind 's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations . Botanists also study weeds , which are a considerable problem in agriculture , and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems . Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people . When applied to the investigation of historical plant – people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or palaeoethnobotany . Some of the earliest plant @-@ people relationships arose between the indigenous people of Canada in identifying edible plants from inedible plants . This relationship the indigenous people had with plants was recorded by ethnobotanists .
+
+= = Plant biochemistry = =
+
+Plant biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes used by plants . Some of these processes are used in their primary metabolism like the photosynthetic Calvin cycle and crassulacean acid metabolism . Others make specialized materials like the cellulose and lignin used to build their bodies , and secondary products like resins and aroma compounds .
+
+Plants and various other groups of photosynthetic eukaryotes collectively known as " algae " have unique organelles known as chloroplasts . Chloroplasts are thought to be descended from cyanobacteria that formed endosymbiotic relationships with ancient plant and algal ancestors . Chloroplasts and cyanobacteria contain the blue @-@ green pigment chlorophyll a . Chlorophyll a ( as well as its plant and green algal @-@ specific cousin chlorophyll b ) absorbs light in the blue @-@ violet and orange / red parts of the spectrum while reflecting and transmitting the green light that we see as the characteristic colour of these organisms . The energy in the red and blue light that these pigments absorb is used by chloroplasts to make energy @-@ rich carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and water by oxygenic photosynthesis , a process that generates molecular oxygen ( O2 ) as a by @-@ product .
+
+The light energy captured by chlorophyll a is initially in the form of electrons ( and later a proton gradient ) that 's used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy . Their energy is used in the light @-@ independent reactions of the Calvin cycle by the enzyme rubisco to produce molecules of the 3 @-@ carbon sugar glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate ( G3P ) . Glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate is the first product of photosynthesis and the raw material from which glucose and almost all other organic molecules of biological origin are synthesized . Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast . Starch is the characteristic energy store of most land plants and algae , while inulin , a polymer of fructose is used for the same purpose in the sunflower family Asteraceae . Some of the glucose is converted to sucrose ( common table sugar ) for export to the rest of the plant .
+
+Unlike in animals ( which lack chloroplasts ) , plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their chloroplasts , including synthesizing all their fatty acids , and most amino acids . The fatty acids that chloroplasts make are used for many things , such as providing material to build cell membranes out of and making the polymer cutin which is found in the plant cuticle that protects land plants from drying out .
+
+Plants synthesize a number of unique polymers like the polysaccharide molecules cellulose , pectin and xyloglucan from which the land plant cell wall is constructed . Vascular land plants make lignin , a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress . Lignin is also used in other cell types like sclerenchyma fibers that provide structural support for a plant and is a major constituent of wood . Sporopollenin is a chemically resistant polymer found in the outer cell walls of spores and pollen of land plants responsible for the survival of early land plant spores and the pollen of seed plants in the fossil record . It is widely regarded as a marker for the start of land plant evolution during the Ordovician period . The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is much lower than it was when plants emerged onto land during the Ordovician and Silurian periods . Many monocots like maize and the pineapple and some dicots like the Asteraceae have since independently evolved pathways like Crassulacean acid metabolism and the C4 carbon fixation pathway for photosynthesis which avoid the losses resulting from photorespiration in the more common C3 carbon fixation pathway . These biochemical strategies are unique to land plants .
+
+= = = Medicine and materials = = =
+
+Phytochemistry is a branch of plant biochemistry primarily concerned with the chemical substances produced by plants during secondary metabolism . Some of these compounds are toxins such as the alkaloid coniine from hemlock . Others , such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma , as flavourings and spices ( e.g. , capsaicin ) , and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies . Many medicinal and recreational drugs , such as tetrahydrocannabinol ( active ingredient in cannabis ) , caffeine , morphine and nicotine come directly from plants . Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products . For example , the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid , originally isolated from the bark of willow trees , and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy . Popular stimulants come from plants , such as caffeine from coffee , tea and chocolate , and nicotine from tobacco . Most alcoholic beverages come from fermentation of carbohydrate @-@ rich plant products such as barley ( beer ) , rice ( sake ) and grapes ( wine ) . Native Americans have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years . This knowledge Native Americans have on plants has been recorded by enthnobotanists and then in turn has been used by pharmaceutical companies as a way of drug discovery .
+
+Plants can synthesise useful coloured dyes and pigments such as the anthocyanins responsible for the red colour of red wine , yellow weld and blue woad used together to produce Lincoln green , indoxyl , source of the blue dye indigo traditionally used to dye denim and the artist 's pigments gamboge and rose madder .
+
+Sugar , starch , cotton , linen , hemp , some types of rope , wood and particle boards , papyrus and paper , vegetable oils , wax , and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products . Charcoal , a pure form of carbon made by pyrolysis of wood , has a long history as a metal @-@ smelting fuel , as a filter material and adsorbent and as an artist 's material and is one of the three ingredients of gunpowder . Cellulose , the world 's most abundant organic polymer , can be converted into energy , fuels , materials and chemical feedstock . Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane , wallpaper paste , biobutanol and gun cotton . Sugarcane , rapeseed and soy are some of the plants with a highly fermentable sugar or oil content that are used as sources of biofuels , important alternatives to fossil fuels , such as biodiesel . Sweetgrass was used by NativeAmericanse to ward of bugs like mosquitoes . These bug repelling properties of sweetgrass were later found by the American Chemical Society in the molecules phytol and coumarin .
+
+= = Plant ecology = =
+
+Plant ecology is the science of the functional relationships between plants and their habitats — the environments where they complete their life cycles . Plant ecologists study the composition of local and regional floras , their biodiversity , genetic diversity and fitness , the adaptation of plants to their environment , and their competitive or mutualistic interactions with other species . Some ecologists even rely on empirical data from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists . This information can relay a great deal of information on how the land once was thousands of years ago and how it has changed over that time . The goals of plant ecology are to understand the causes of their distribution patterns , productivity , environmental impact , evolution , and responses to environmental change .
+
+Plants depend on certain edaphic ( soil ) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too . For example , they can change their environment 's albedo , increase runoff interception , stabilize mineral soils and develop their organic content , and affect local temperature . Plants compete with other organisms in their ecosystem for resources . They interact with their neighbours at a variety of spatial scales in groups , populations and communities that collectively constitute vegetation . Regions with characteristic vegetation types and dominant plants as well as similar abiotic and biotic factors , climate , and geography make up biomes like tundra or tropical rainforest .
+
+Herbivores eat plants , but plants can defend themselves and some species are parasitic or even carnivorous . Other organisms form mutually beneficial relationships with plants . For example , mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobia provide plants with nutrients in exchange for food , ants are recruited by ant plants to provide protection , honey bees , bats and other animals pollinate flowers and humans and other animals act as dispersal vectors to spread spores and seeds .
+
+= = = Plants , climate and environmental change = = =
+
+Plant responses to climate and other environmental changes can inform our understanding of how these changes affect ecosystem function and productivity . For example , plant phenology can be a useful proxy for temperature in historical climatology , and the biological impact of climate change and global warming . Palynology , the analysis of fossil pollen deposits in sediments from thousands or millions of years ago allows the reconstruction of past climates . Estimates of atmospheric CO2 concentrations since the Palaeozoic have been obtained from stomatal densities and the leaf shapes and sizes of ancient land plants . Ozone depletion can expose plants to higher levels of ultraviolet radiation @-@ B ( UV @-@ B ) , resulting in lower growth rates . Moreover , information from studies of community ecology , plant systematics , and taxonomy is essential to understanding vegetation change , habitat destruction and species extinction .
+
+= = Genetics = =
+
+Inheritance in plants follows the same fundamental principles of genetics as in other multicellular organisms . Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in Pisum sativum ( peas ) . What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany . Similarly , " jumping genes " were discovered by Barbara McClintock while she was studying maize . Nevertheless , there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms .
+
+Species boundaries in plants may be weaker than in animals , and cross species hybrids are often possible . A familiar example is peppermint , Mentha × piperita , a sterile hybrid between Mentha aquatica and spearmint , Mentha spicata . The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra @-@ specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids . Angiosperms with monoecious flowers often have self @-@ incompatibility mechanisms that operate between the pollen and stigma so that the pollen either fails to reach the stigma or fails to germinate and produce male gametes . This is one of several methods used by plants to promote outcrossing . In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals . These species are said to be dioecious when referring to vascular plant sporophytes and dioicous when referring to bryophyte gametophytes .
+
+Unlike in higher animals , where parthenogenesis is rare , asexual reproduction may occur in plants by several different mechanisms . The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example . Particularly in arctic or alpine habitats , where opportunities for fertilisation of flowers by animals are rare , plantlets or bulbs , may develop instead of flowers , replacing sexual reproduction with asexual reproduction and giving rise to clonal populations genetically identical to the parent . This is one of several types of apomixis that occur in plants . Apomixis can also happen in a seed , producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent .
+
+Most sexually reproducing organisms are diploid , with paired chromosomes , but doubling of their chromosome number may occur due to errors in cytokinesis . This can occur early in development to produce an autopolyploid or partly autopolyploid organism , or during normal processes of cellular differentiation to produce some cell types that are polyploid ( endopolyploidy ) , or during gamete formation . An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species . Both autopolyploid and allopolyploid plants can often reproduce normally , but may be unable to cross @-@ breed successfully with the parent population because there is a mismatch in chromosome numbers . These plants that are reproductively isolated from the parent species but live within the same geographical area , may be sufficiently successful to form a new species . Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis , forming clonal populations of identical individuals . Durum wheat is a fertile tetraploid allopolyploid , while bread wheat is a fertile hexaploid . The commercial banana is an example of a sterile , seedless triploid hybrid . Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed .
+
+As in other eukaryotes , the inheritance of endosymbiotic organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts in plants is non @-@ Mendelian . Chloroplasts are inherited through the male parent in gymnosperms but often through the female parent in flowering plants .
+
+= = = Molecular genetics = = =
+
+A considerable amount of new knowledge about plant function comes from studies of the molecular genetics of model plants such as the Thale cress , Arabidopsis thaliana , a weedy species in the mustard family ( Brassicaceae ) . The genome or hereditary information contained in the genes of this species is encoded by about 135 million base pairs of DNA , forming one of the smallest genomes among flowering plants . Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced , in 2000 . The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes , of rice ( Oryza sativa ) and Brachypodium distachyon , has made them important model species for understanding the genetics , cellular and molecular biology of cereals , grasses and monocots generally .
+
+Model plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana are used for studying the molecular biology of plant cells and the chloroplast . Ideally , these organisms have small genomes that are well known or completely sequenced , small stature and short generation times . Corn has been used to study mechanisms of photosynthesis and phloem loading of sugar in C4 plants . The single celled green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii , while not an embryophyte itself , contains a green @-@ pigmented chloroplast related to that of land plants , making it useful for study . A red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae has also been used to study some basic chloroplast functions . Spinach , peas , soybeans and a moss Physcomitrella patens are commonly used to study plant cell biology .
+
+Agrobacterium tumefaciens , a soil rhizosphere bacterium , can attach to plant cells and infect them with a callus @-@ inducing Ti plasmid by horizontal gene transfer , causing a callus infection called crown gall disease . Schell and Van Montagu ( 1977 ) hypothesised that the Ti plasmid could be a natural vector for introducing the Nif gene responsible for nitrogen fixation in the root nodules of legumes and other plant species . Today , genetic modification of the Ti plasmid is one of the main techniques for introduction of transgenes to plants and the creation of genetically modified crops .
+
+= = = Epigenetics = = =
+
+Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene function that cannot be explained by changes in the underlying DNA sequence but cause the organism 's genes to behave ( or " express themselves " ) differently . One example of epigenetic change is the marking of the genes by DNA methylation which determines whether they will be expressed or not . Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed . Epigenetic marks may be added or removed from the DNA during programmed stages of development of the plant , and are responsible , for example , for the differences between anthers , petals and normal leaves , despite the fact that they all have the same underlying genetic code . Epigenetic changes may be temporary or may remain through successive cell divisions for the remainder of the cell 's life . Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable , while others are reset in the germ cells .
+
+Epigenetic changes in eukaryotic biology serve to regulate the process of cellular differentiation . During morphogenesis , totipotent stem cells become the various pluripotent cell lines of the embryo , which in turn become fully differentiated cells . A single fertilized egg cell , the zygote , gives rise to the many different plant cell types including parenchyma , xylem vessel elements , phloem sieve tubes , guard cells of the epidermis , etc. as it continues to divide . The process results from the epigenetic activation of some genes and inhibition of others .
+
+Unlike animals , many plant cells , particularly those of the parenchyma , do not terminally differentiate , remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant . Exceptions include highly lignified cells , the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity , and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei . While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals , such as chromatin remodeling , an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate .
+
+= = Plant Evolution = =
+
+The chloroplasts of plants have a number of biochemical , structural and genetic similarities to cyanobacteria , ( commonly but incorrectly known as " blue @-@ green algae " ) and are thought to be derived from an ancient endosymbiotic relationship between an ancestral eukaryotic cell and a cyanobacterial resident .
+
+The algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions , some more closely related to plants than others . There are many differences between them in features such as cell wall composition , biochemistry , pigmentation , chloroplast structure and nutrient reserves . The algal division Charophyta , sister to the green algal division Chlorophyta , is considered to contain the ancestor of true plants . The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub @-@ kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina .
+
+Nonvascular land plants are embryophytes that lack the vascular tissues xylem and phloem . They include mosses , liverworts and hornworts . Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free @-@ living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian . Representatives of the lycopods have survived to the present day . By the end of the Devonian period , several groups , including the lycopods , sphenophylls and progymnosperms , had independently evolved " megaspory " – their spores were of two distinct sizes , larger megaspores and smaller microspores . Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore @-@ producing organs ( megasporangia ) of the sporophyte , a condition known as endospory . Seeds consist of an endosporic megasporangium surrounded by one or two sheathing layers ( integuments ) . The young sporophyte develops within the seed , which on germination splits to release it . The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage . Following the evolution of the seed habit , seed plants diversified , giving rise to a number of now @-@ extinct groups , including seed ferns , as well as the modern gymnosperms and angiosperms . Gymnosperms produce " naked seeds " not fully enclosed in an ovary ; modern representatives include conifers , cycads , Ginkgo , and Gnetales . Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed in a structure such as a carpel or an ovary . Ongoing research on the molecular phylogenetics of living plants appears to show that the angiosperms are a sister clade to the gymnosperms .
+
+= = Plant physiology = =
+
+Plant physiology encompasses all the internal chemical and physical activities of plants associated with life . Chemicals obtained from the air , soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism . The energy of sunlight , captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration , is the basis of almost all life . Photoautotrophs , including all green plants , algae and cyanobacteria gather energy directly from sunlight by photosynthesis . Heterotrophs including all animals , all fungi , all completely parasitic plants , and non @-@ photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues . Respiration is the oxidation of carbon compounds by breaking them down into simpler structures to release the energy they contain , essentially the opposite of photosynthesis .
+
+Molecules are moved within plants by transport processes that operate at a variety of spatial scales . Subcellular transport of ions , electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes . Minerals and water are transported from roots to other parts of the plant in the transpiration stream . Diffusion , osmosis , and active transport and mass flow are all different ways transport can occur . Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen , phosphorus , potassium , calcium , magnesium , and sulphur . In vascular plants , these elements are extracted from the soil as soluble ions by the roots and transported throughout the plant in the xylem . Most of the elements required for plant nutrition come from the chemical breakdown of soil minerals . Sucrose produced by photosynthesis is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant in the phloem and plant hormones are transported by a variety of processes .
+
+= = = Plant hormones = = =
+
+Plants are not passive , but respond to external signals such as light , touch , and injury by moving or growing towards or away from the stimulus , as appropriate . Tangible evidence of touch sensitivity is the almost instantaneous collapse of leaflets of Mimosa pudica , the insect traps of Venus flytrap and bladderworts , and the pollinia of orchids .
+
+The hypothesis that plant growth and development is coordinated by plant hormones or plant growth regulators first emerged in the late 19th century . Darwin experimented on the movements of plant shoots and roots towards light and gravity , and concluded " It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle . . acts like the brain of one of the lower animals . . directing the several movements " . About the same time , the role of auxins ( from the Greek auxein , to grow ) in control of plant growth was first outlined by the Dutch scientist Frits Went . The first known auxin , indole @-@ 3 @-@ acetic acid ( IAA ) , which promotes cell growth , was only isolated from plants about 50 years later . This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity . The finding in 1939 that plant callus could be maintained in culture containing IAA , followed by the observation in 1947 that it could be induced to form roots and shoots by controlling the concentration of growth hormones were key steps in the development of plant biotechnology and genetic modification .
+
+Cytokinins are a class of plant hormones named for their control of cell division or cytokinesis . The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn , Zea mays , and is a derivative of the purine adenine . Zeatin is produced in roots and transported to shoots in the xylem where it promotes cell division , bud development , and the greening of chloroplasts . The gibberelins , such as Gibberelic acid are diterpenes synthesised from acetyl CoA via the mevalonate pathway . They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy @-@ breaking in seeds , in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering . Abscisic acid ( ABA ) occurs in all land plants except liverworts , and is synthesised from carotenoids in the chloroplasts and other plastids . It inhibits cell division , promotes seed maturation , and dormancy , and promotes stomatal closure . It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission . Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that is produced in all higher plant tissues from methionine . It is now known to be the hormone that stimulates or regulates fruit ripening and abscission , and it , or the synthetic growth regulator ethephon which is rapidly metabolised to produce ethylene , are used on industrial scale to promote ripening of cotton , pineapples and other climacteric crops .
+
+Another class of phytohormones is the jasmonates , first isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the systemic acquired resistance response to pathogen attack .
+
+In addition to being the primary energy source for plants , light functions as a signalling device , providing information to the plant , such as how much sunlight the plant receives each day . This can result in adaptive changes in a process known as photomorphogenesis . Phytochromes are the photoreceptors in a plant that are sensitive to light .
+
+= = Plant anatomy and morphology = =
+
+Plant anatomy is the study of the structure of plant cells and tissues , whereas plant morphology is the study of their external form . All plants are multicellular eukaryotes , their DNA stored in nuclei . The characteristic features of plant cells that distinguish them from those of animals and fungi include a primary cell wall composed of the polysaccharides cellulose , hemicellulose and pectin , larger vacuoles than in animal cells and the presence of plastids with unique photosynthetic and biosynthetic functions as in the chloroplasts . Other plastids contain storage products such as starch ( amyloplasts ) or lipids ( elaioplasts ) . Uniquely , streptophyte cells and those of the green algal order Trentepohliales divide by construction of a phragmoplast as a template for building a cell plate late in cell division .
+
+The bodies of vascular plants including clubmosses , ferns and seed plants ( gymnosperms and angiosperms ) generally have aerial and subterranean subsystems . The shoots consist of stems bearing green photosynthesising leaves and reproductive structures . The underground vascularised roots bear root hairs at their tips and generally lack chlorophyll . Non @-@ vascular plants , the liverworts , hornworts and mosses do not produce ground @-@ penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis . The sporophyte generation is nonphotosynthetic in liverworts but may be able to contribute part of its energy needs by photosynthesis in mosses and hornworts .
+
+The root system and the shoot system are interdependent – the usually nonphotosynthetic root system depends on the shoot system for food , and the usually photosynthetic shoot system depends on water and minerals from the root system . Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots . Stolons and tubers are examples of shoots that can grow roots . Roots that spread out close to the surface , such as those of willows , can produce shoots and ultimately new plants . In the event that one of the systems is lost , the other can often regrow it . In fact it is possible to grow an entire plant from a single leaf , as is the case with Saintpaulia , or even a single cell – which can dedifferentiate into a callus ( a mass of unspecialised cells ) that can grow into a new plant . In vascular plants , the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots . Roots are often adapted to store food such as sugars or starch , as in sugar beets and carrots .
+
+Stems mainly provide support to the leaves and reproductive structures , but can store water in succulent plants such as cacti , food as in potato tubers , or reproduce vegetatively as in the stolons of strawberry plants or in the process of layering . Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis . Large , flat , flexible , green leaves are called foliage leaves . Gymnosperms , such as conifers , cycads , Ginkgo , and gnetophytes are seed @-@ producing plants with open seeds . Angiosperms are seed @-@ producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds . Woody plants , such as azaleas and oaks , undergo a secondary growth phase resulting in two additional types of tissues : wood ( secondary xylem ) and bark ( secondary phloem and cork ) . All gymnosperms and many angiosperms are woody plants . Some plants reproduce sexually , some asexually , and some via both means .
+
+Although reference to major morphological categories such as root , stem , leaf , and trichome are useful , one has to keep in mind that these categories are linked through intermediate forms so that a continuum between the categories results . Furthermore , structures can be seen as processes , that is , process combinations .
+
+= = Systematic botany = =
+
+Systematic botany is part of systematic biology , which is concerned with the range and diversity of organisms and their relationships , particularly as determined by their evolutionary history . It involves , or is related to , biological classification , scientific taxonomy and phylogenetics . Biological classification is the method by which botanists group organisms into categories such as genera or species . Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy . Modern taxonomy is rooted in the work of Carl Linnaeus , who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics . These groupings have since been revised to align better with the Darwinian principle of common descent – grouping organisms by ancestry rather than superficial characteristics . While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms , molecular phylogenetics , which uses DNA sequences as data , has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so . The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy . It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature . The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( ICN ) and administered by the International Botanical Congress .
+
+Kingdom Plantae belongs to Domain Eukarya and is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified . The order is : Kingdom ; Phylum ( or Division ) ; Class ; Order ; Family ; Genus ( plural genera ) ; Species . The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus , resulting in a single world @-@ wide name for each organism . For example , the tiger lily is Lilium columbianum . Lilium is the genus , and columbianum the specific epithet . The combination is the name of the species . When writing the scientific name of an organism , it is proper to capitalise the first letter in the genus and put all of the specific epithet in lowercase . Additionally , the entire term is ordinarily italicised ( or underlined when italics are not available ) .
+
+The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny . Phylogenetic studies attempt to discover phylogenies . The basic approach is to use similarities based on shared inheritance to determine relationships . As an example , species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves . They do not obviously resemble a typical leafless cactus such as an Echinocactus . However , both Pereskia and Echinocactus have spines produced from areoles ( highly specialised pad @-@ like structures ) suggesting that the two genera are indeed related .
+
+Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care , since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently . Some euphorbias have leafless , rounded bodies adapted to water conservation similar to those of globular cacti , but characters such as the structure of their flowers make it clear that the two groups are not closely related . The cladistic method takes a systematic approach to characters , distinguishing between those that carry no information about shared evolutionary history – such as those evolved separately in different groups ( homoplasies ) or those left over from ancestors ( plesiomorphies ) – and derived characters , which have been passed down from innovations in a shared ancestor ( apomorphies ) . Only derived characters , such as the spine @-@ producing areoles of cacti , provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor . The results of cladistic analyses are expressed as cladograms : tree @-@ like diagrams showing the pattern of evolutionary branching and descent .
+
+From the 1990s onwards , the predominant approach to constructing phylogenies for living plants has been molecular phylogenetics , which uses molecular characters , particularly DNA sequences , rather than morphological characters like the presence or absence of spines and areoles . The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships , instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to . Clive Stace describes this as having " direct access to the genetic basis of evolution . " As a simple example , prior to the use of genetic evidence , fungi were thought either to be plants or to be more closely related to plants than animals . Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants .
+
+In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny for flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants . As a result of this work , many questions , such as which families represent the earliest branches of angiosperms , have now been answered . Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants . Despite the study of model plants and increasing use of DNA evidence , there is ongoing work and discussion among taxonomists about how best to classify plants into various taxa . Technological developments such as computers and electron microscopes have greatly increased the level of detail studied and speed at which data can be analysed .
+
+= Odin @-@ class coastal defense ship =
+
+The Odin class was a pair of coastal defense ships built for the German Kaiserliche Marine in the late 19th century . The class comprised two ships : Odin , named after the Norse god Odin , and Ägir , named after the Norse god of the same name . The ships were very similar to the preceding Siegfried @-@ class coastal defense ships , and are sometimes considered to be one class of ships .
+
+Like the preceding Siegfried @-@ class ships , Odin and Ägir were obsolete by the time World War I had started . Regardless , they were still used in their primary role until 1915 , at which point they were withdrawn from active service . The ships performed a variety of secondary duties until the end of the war . On 17 June 1919 , both ships were struck from the naval register and sold to the A. Bernstein Company in Hamburg . The shipping company had the ships rebuilt as freighters ; Odin served in this capacity until she was scrapped in 1935 , however Ägir accidentally grounded near the Karlsö lighthouse on the island of Gotland in 1929 and proved to be a total loss .
+
+= = Design = =
+
+= = = General characteristics = = =
+
+The Odin @-@ class ships were 76 @.@ 40 meters ( 250 @.@ 7 ft ) long at the waterline and 79 m ( 259 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 15 @.@ 20 m ( 49 @.@ 9 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 61 m ( 18 @.@ 4 ft ) forward and 5 @.@ 47 m ( 17 @.@ 9 ft ) aft . Like the preceding Siegfried class , Odin and Ägir were substantially rebuilt between 1901 – 03 and 1903 – 04 , respectively . The hulls were lengthened somewhat , to 84 @.@ 80 m ( 278 @.@ 2 ft ) at the waterline and 86 @.@ 15 m ( 282 @.@ 6 ft ) overall . The beam was also slightly increased , to 15 @.@ 40 m ( 50 @.@ 5 ft ) . Forward draft decreased slightly , to 5 @.@ 59 m ( 18 @.@ 3 ft ) , while the aft draft increased slightly , to 5 @.@ 49 m ( 18 @.@ 0 ft ) . The two ships had a designed displacement of 3 @,@ 550 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 490 long tons ; 3 @,@ 910 short tons ) and a maximum weight of 2 @,@ 754 t ( 2 @,@ 711 long tons ; 3 @,@ 036 short tons ) . After the reconstruction , displacement was increased to 4 @,@ 100 t ( 4 @,@ 000 long tons ; 4 @,@ 500 short tons ) designed , and a maximum of 4 @,@ 376 t ( 4 @,@ 307 long tons ; 4 @,@ 824 short tons ) for Odin and 4 @,@ 292 t ( 4 @,@ 224 long tons ; 4 @,@ 731 short tons ) for Ägir .
+
+Odin and Ägir used the same transverse and longitudinal steel frame construction as the Siegfried @-@ class ships . The ships had eight watertight compartments and a double bottom for about 60 % of the length of the hull . As in the Siegfrieds , a ninth watertight compartment was added when the ships were lengthened . The ships were described as good sea boats ; they had gentle motion and were very responsive to commands from the helm . The ships lost significant speed in heavy seas , however . The ships had a crew of 20 officers and 256 enlisted men , with an additional 6 officers and 22 men when serving as a flagship . The refit increased crew requirements , to an additional 31 sailors normally , and the extra flagship crew increased to 9 officers and 34 men . The ships carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one pinnace , two cutters , one yawl , and one dinghy .
+
+= = = Propulsion = = =
+
+Odin and Ägir were equipped with the same propulsion system that was in Siegfried : two sets of 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines , each in its own engine room . These engines drove a pair of three @-@ bladed screws that were 3 @.@ 50 m ( 11 @.@ 5 ft ) in diameter . Odin had eight marine type boilers , while Ägir 's engines were powered by eight Thornycroft boilers . The ships had similar maximum speeds , with Odin , at 14 @.@ 4 knots ( 26 @.@ 7 km / h ; 16 @.@ 6 mph ) , somewhat slower than her design speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) and Ägir slightly faster at 15 @.@ 1 knots ( 28 @.@ 0 km / h ; 17 @.@ 4 mph ) . Their engines were rated at 4 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 600 kW ) , though on trials Odin managed only 4 @,@ 650 ihp ( 3 @,@ 470 kW ) while Ägir reached 5 @,@ 129 ihp ( 3 @,@ 825 kW ) .
+
+Odin had three electric generators that provided between 29 – 26 kilowatts at 67 volts , while Ägir was equipped with six generators that provided between 243 – 250 kW at 120 V. Because of her increased number of electrical generators , Ägir was nicknamed " Electrische Anna " ( " Electric Anna " ) . The ships stored up to 270 t ( 270 long tons ; 300 short tons ) of coal which enabled a range of 2 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 100 km ; 2 @,@ 500 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . After the refit , fuel bunkerage was increased , to 370 t ( 360 long tons ; 410 short tons ) of coal . This increased the sailing range to 3 @,@ 000 nmi ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots . After 1909 , capacity to store 100 t ( 98 long tons ; 110 short tons ) of fuel oil was added .
+
+= = = Armament = = =
+
+The ships ' primary armament consisted of three 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 35 guns . In an arrangement that was very unusual for such large guns , two of the guns were mounted in a pair of MPL C / 88 turrets forward side @-@ by @-@ side , while the third was mounted in a single turret aft . The guns could train 150 degrees to either side of the centerline , and depress to -4 degrees and elevate to 25 degrees . This enabled a maximum range of 13 @,@ 000 m ( 43 @,@ 000 ft ) . The guns had an ammunition storage of 174 rounds , or 58 shells per gun . The guns had a rate of fire of around 2 shells per minute . The 1895 design for the armor @-@ piercing shell weighed 140 kg ( 310 lb ) .
+
+The ships also had a secondary battery of ten 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 guns with 2 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition . The 8 @.@ 8 cm gun fired a 10 kg ( 22 lb ) projectile at a muzzle velocity of 590 m / s ( 1 @,@ 900 ft / s ) . The guns could sustain a rate of fire of approximately 15 rounds per minute . The ships were also equipped with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Two were placed laterally in above water swivel mounts and the third was submerged in the bow . The torpedo tubes were supplied with a total of 8 torpedoes .
+
+= = = Armor = = =
+
+The ships used a similar Krupp compound steel and teak armor protection scheme as in the preceding Siegfried class . The upper section of the main armored belt was 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick in the central portion of the ships , where the ships ' vitals were located . Behind this was 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) of teak , which gave a total thickness of 400 mm ( 16 in ) . The bow and stern were unprotected . The lower section followed a similar pattern of steel armor distribution , although the thickness of the central portion of the belt was decreased to 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The main armored deck was between 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) and 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick ; more important areas of the ships were covered by the thicker armor . The conning tower roof was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick and the sides were 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The barbettes for the main battery and cupolas for the secondary guns ranged in thickness between 30 to 200 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) , backed by 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) of teak .
+
+= = Service history = =
+
+Odin and Ägir saw only limited service in their intended roles . The revolutions in capital ship building in the first decade of the 20th century rapidly made these ships obsolete . The Second Naval Law , passed on 27 March 1908 , reduced the service life of all capital ships from 25 years to 20 years . This meant that the Odin @-@ class ships , along with a number of other vessels , were to be replaced as soon as possible . Odin and Ägir were replaced by the Kaiser @-@ class battleships König Albert and Prinzregent Luitpold respectively .
+
+As the new battleships were intended for offensive operations , the Odin class was still retained for coast defense duties . The ships served in this capacity through the start of World War I , until they were withdrawn from active service in 1915 , along with their half @-@ sisters of the Siegfried class . After she was pulled from combat duties , Odin served as a tender in Wilhelmshaven . She was struck from the naval register on 6 December 1919 and sold to A. Bernstein Co . , a shipping company based in Hamburg . By 1922 , the ship had been rebuilt as a freighter , and she served in this capacity until she was scrapped in 1935 .
+
+Ägir was also stationed in Wilhelmshaven after she was withdrawn from her coast defense duties , though she served as a barracks ship there . She was stricken from the navy list on 17 June 1919 , and also sold to A. Bernstein Co. for use as a freighter . On 8 December 1929 , the ship grounded off the Karlsö lighthouse on the Swedish island of Gotland . The situation proved to be unsalvageable . Her bow ornament is now on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial .
+
+= Siege of Damascus ( 1148 ) =
+
+The Siege of Damascus took place between 24 July and 29 July 1148 , during the Second Crusade . It ended in a decisive crusader defeat and led to the disintegration of the crusade . The two main Christian forces that marched to the Holy Land in response to Pope Eugene III and Bernard of Clairvaux 's call for the Second Crusade were led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany . Both faced disastrous marches across Anatolia in the months that followed , with most of their armies being destroyed . The original focus of the crusade was Edessa ( Urfa ) , but in Jerusalem , the preferred target of King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar was Damascus . At the Council of Acre , magnates from France , Germany , and the Kingdom of Jerusalem decided to divert the crusade to Damascus .
+
+The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west , where orchards would provide them with a constant food supply . Having arrived outside the walls of the city , they immediately put it to siege , using wood from the orchards . On 27 July , the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city , which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water . Nur ad @-@ Din Zangi arrived with Muslim reinforcements and cut off the crusader 's route to their previous position . The local crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege , and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city . The entire crusader army retreated back to Jerusalem by 28 July .
+
+= = Second Crusade = =
+
+The two main Christian forces that marched to the Holy Land in response to Pope Eugene III and Bernard of Clairvaux 's call for the Second Crusade were led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany . Conrad 's force included Bolesław IV the Curly and Vladislaus II of Bohemia , as well as Frederick of Swabia , his nephew who would become Emperor Frederick I. The crusade had been called after the fall of the County of Edessa on 24 December 1144 . The crusaders marched across Europe and arrived at Constantinople in September and October 1147 .
+
+Both faced disastrous marches across Anatolia in the months that followed , and most of their armies were destroyed . Louis abandoned his troops and travelled by ship to the Principality of Antioch , where his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine 's uncle , Raymond , was prince . Raymond expected him to offer military assistance against the Seljuk Turks threatening the principality , but Louis refused and went to Jerusalem to fulfil his crusader vow . Conrad , stricken by illness , had earlier returned to Constantinople , but arrived in Jerusalem a few weeks later in early April 1148 . The original focus of the crusade was Edessa , but in Jerusalem , the preferred target of King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar was Damascus .
+
+= = = Council of Acre = = =
+
+The Council of Acre was called with the Haute Cour of Jerusalem at Acre on 24 June . This was the most spectacular meeting of the Cour in its existence : Conrad , Otto , Henry II , Duke of Austria , future emperor Frederick , and William V , Marquess of Montferrat represented the Holy Roman Empire . Louis , Thierry of Alsace , and various other ecclesiastical and secular lords represented the French . From Jerusalem King Baldwin , Queen Melisende , Patriarch Fulk , Robert de Craon ( master of the Knights Templar ) , Raymond du Puy de Provence ( master of the Knights Hospitaller ) , Manasses of Hierges ( constable of Jerusalem ) , Humphrey II of Toron , Philip of Milly , Walter I Grenier , and Barisan of Ibelin were among those present . Notably , no one from Antioch , Tripoli , or the former County of Edessa attended . Both Louis and Conrad were persuaded to attack Damascus .
+
+Some of the barons native to Jerusalem pointed out that it would be unwise to attack Damascus , as the Burid dynasty , though Muslim , were their allies against the Zengid dynasty . Imad ad @-@ Din Zengi had besieged the city in 1140 , and Mu 'in ad @-@ Din Unur , a Mamluk acting as vizier for the young Mujir ad @-@ Din Abaq , negotiated an alliance with Jerusalem through the chronicler Usama ibn Munqidh . Conrad , Louis , and Baldwin insisted , Damascus was a holy city for Christianity . Like Jerusalem and Antioch , it would be a noteworthy prize in the eyes of European Christians . In July their armies assembled at Tiberias and marched to Damascus , around the Sea of Galilee by way of Baniyas . There were perhaps 50 @,@ 000 troops in total .
+
+The general view now appears to be that the decision to attack Damascus was somewhat inevitable . Historians , such as Martin Hoch , regard the decision as the logical outcome of Damascene foreign policy shifting into alignment with the Zengid dynasty . King Baldwin III had previously launched a campaign with the sole objective of capturing the city . This damaged the Burid dynasty 's relations with the Kingdom of Jerusalem .
+
+= = = Fiasco at Damascus = = =
+
+The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west , where orchards would provide them with a constant food supply . They arrived at Daraiya on 23 July , with the army of Jerusalem in the vanguard , followed by Louis and then Conrad in the rearguard . The densely cultivated gardens and orchards would prove to be a serious obstacle for the Crusaders . According to William of Tyre , the crusader army was prepared itself for battle :
+
+At Daria [ Darayya ] , since the city was now so near , the sovereigns drew up their forces in battle formation and assigned the legions to their proper places in the order of march ... Because of its supposed familiarity with the country , the division led by the King of Jerusalem was , by common decision of the princes , directed to lead the way and open a path for the legions following . To the King of the Franks [ Louis VII ] and his army was assigned the second place or centre that they might aid those ahead if the need arose . By the same authority , the Emperor [ Konrad III ] was to hold the third or rear position , in readiness to resist the enemy if , perchance an attack should be made from behind .
+
+The Muslims were well prepared and constantly attacked the army advancing through the orchards outside Damascus on 24 July . These orchards were defended by towers and walls and the crusaders were constantly pelted with arrows and lances along the narrow paths .
+
+On Saturday 24 July the Crusaders began with an attack in the morning along the banks of the Barada river . There was ferocious combat in the orchards and narrow roads between the Christian force and a mixture of professional troops of Damascus , the ahdath militia and Turkoman mercenaries . William of Tyre reported :
+
+The cavalry forces of the townsmen and those who had come to their assistance realized that our army was coming through the orchards in order to besiege the city and they accordingly approached the stream which flowed into the town . This they did with their bows and their balistas [ crossbows ] so that they could fight off the Latin army ... The emperor [ Konrad ] , in command of the forces following , demanded to know why the army did not advance . He was told the enemy was in possession of the river and would not allow our forces to pass . Enraged at this news , Konrad and his knights galloped swiftly forward through the king 's lines and reached the fighters who were tying to win the river . Here all leaped down from their horses and become foot soldiers , as is the custom of the Teutons when a desperate crisis occurs .
+
+The historian David Nicolle wrote that William of Tyre did not explain how Conrad was able to bring his forces up from the rear to the front without totally disorganizing the Christian army " . According to Syrian chronicler Abu Shama :
+
+Despite the multitude of ahdath [ militia ] , Turks , and common people of the town , volunteers and soldiers who had come from the provinces and had joined with them , the Muslims were overwhelmed by the enemy 's numbers and were defeated by the infidels . The latter crossed the river , found themselves in the gardens and made camp there ... The Franks ... cut down trees to make palisades . They destroyed the orchards and passed the night in these tasks .
+
+Thanks to a charge by Conrad , the crusaders managed to fight their way through and chase the defenders back across the Barada river and into Damascus .
+
+Having arrived outside the walls of the city , they immediately put it to siege , using wood from the orchards . The Crusaders began to build their siege position opposite the Bab al @-@ Jabiya gate where the Barada did not run past Damascus . Inside the city the inhabitants barricaded the major streets , preparing for what they believed to be an inevitable assault . Unur had sought help from Saif ad @-@ Din Ghazi I of Mosul and Nur ad @-@ Din Zangi of Aleppo , and personally led an attack on the crusader camp ; the crusaders were pushed back from the walls into the orchards , where they were prone to ambushes and guerrilla attacks . During the counter @-@ attack on Sunday , July 25 the Damascus forces took heavy losses which included the 71 @-@ year @-@ old lawyer and well known scholar named Yusuf al @-@ Findalawi , the Sufi mystic Al @-@ Halhli and the soldier Nur al @-@ Dawlah Shahinshah . According to William of Tyre , on 27 July the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city , which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water . During a raid on the Crusader camp on 26 July , according to Abu Shama :
+
+A large group of inhabitants and villagers ... put to flight all the sentries , killed them , without fear of danger , taking the heads of all the enemy they killed and wanting to touch these trophies . The numbers of heads they gathered was considerable .
+
+There were conflicts in both camps : Unur could not trust Saif ad @-@ Din or Nur ad @-@ Din from conquering the city entirely if they offered help ; and the crusaders could not agree about who would receive the city if they captured it . Guy Brisebarre , lord of Beirut , was the suggestion of the local barons , but Thierry of Alsace , Count of Flanders , wanted it for himself and was supported by Baldwin , Louis , and Conrad . It was recorded by some that Unur had bribed the leaders to move to a less defensible position , and that Unur had promised to break off his alliance with Nur ad @-@ Din if the crusaders went home . Meanwhile Nur ad @-@ Din and Saif ad @-@ Din had by now arrived at Homs and were negotiating with Unur for possession of Damascus , something that neither Unur nor the crusaders wanted . Saif ad @-@ Din apparently also wrote to the crusaders , urging them to return home . With Nur ad @-@ Din in the field it was impossible to return to their better position . The local crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege , and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city . First Conrad , then the rest of the army , decided to retreat back to Jerusalem on 28 July , though for their entire retreat they were followed by Turkish archers who constantly harassed them .
+
+= = Aftermath = =
+
+Each of the Christian forces felt betrayed by the other . A new plan was made to attack Ascalon but this was abandoned due to the lack of trust that had resulted from the failed siege . This mutual distrust would linger for a generation due to the defeat , to the ruin of the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land . Following the battle , Conrad returned to Constantinople to further his alliance with Manuel . As a result of the attack , Damascus no longer trusted the crusaders , and the city was formally handed over to Nur ad @-@ Din in 1154 . Bernard of Clairvaux was also humiliated , and when his attempt to call a new crusade failed , he tried to disassociate himself from the fiasco of the Second Crusade altogether .
+
+= Tropical Storm Josephine ( 1996 ) =
+
+Tropical Storm Josephine was an unusual Atlantic tropical storm that moved from west to east across the Gulf of Mexico in October 1996 . It formed on October 4 as a tropical depression from the remnants of a cold front . Early in its duration , the system interacted with a ridge over the central United States , which produced strong winds and high tides along the Texas coast . The outer rainbands caused flooding rainfall in southern Texas , and in Louisiana , high tides flooded roads and stranded residents on Grand Isle . Moving generally to the east due to a trough , the depression intensified into a tropical storm on October 6 , and the next day reached peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) while approaching the west coast of Florida . Josephine made landfall in Taylor County near peak intensity early on October 8 , and soon after became extratropical . While moving ashore , the storm produced a high storm surge reaching 9 @.@ 3 ft ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) in Suwannee . High tides flooded about 3 @,@ 600 houses along the west coast . Josephine also produced heavy rainfall , which flooded hundreds of winds , and high winds , which left 400 @,@ 000 people without power . The storm also spawned at least 16 tornadoes , one of which damaged 130 homes .
+
+The extratropical remnants of Josephine moved along the eastern coast of the United States , producing wind gusts as strong as 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) in St. Mary 's County and in Ocean City , Maryland . The winds caused widespread power outages , including 26 @,@ 000 in Virginia and 31 @,@ 000 in New Jersey . Heavy rainfall flooded low @-@ lying areas and rivers along the storm 's path , including in North Carolina which had previously been affected by hurricanes Bertha and Fran earlier in the year . In the southeastern United States , the storm contributed to dozens of traffic accidents , which killed a person each in Georgia , North Carolina , and Virginia . Damage throughout the United States totaled about $ 130 million ( 1996 USD ) . Josephine later moved offshore , and after passing southeast of Cape Cod , moved through Atlantic Canada with moderate rainfall and gusty winds . The storm later restrengthened in the northern Atlantic Ocean before merging with another extratropical storm near Iceland on October 16 .
+
+= = Meteorological history = =
+
+In late September 1996 , a cold front stalled over the southwestern Gulf of Mexico , producing an area of convection . The thunderstorms were possibly related to the same tropical wave that spawned Hurricane Hernan in the eastern Pacific Ocean . A low pressure area formed in the Bay of Campeche by October 2 , although initially upper @-@ level conditions did not favor tropical cyclogenesis . The convection became more persistent on October 3 and gradually became better organized . On October 4 , classifications based on the Dvorak technique began , and later that day the Hurricane Hunters flew into the system . Based on the data from the flight , it is estimated that Tropical Depression Ten formed at 1800 UTC that day off the northeast coast of Mexico . During its formative stages , the depression interacted with a ridge near the Great Lakes to produce strong winds across the Gulf Coast of the United States . With weak steering currents , the depression moved slowly to the northeast , and initially , wind shear prevented further organization . On October 6 , a strong trough caused the system to accelerate to the east @-@ northeast . The storm 's west to east motion across the Gulf of Mexico was unusual although not unprecedented .
+
+On October 6 , the banding features became better defined , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Josephine . Further intensification followed , and Josephine attained peak winds of about 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on October 7 . This was based on flight @-@ level winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) , and while near peak intensity , the storm developed a partial eyewall . Josephine accelerated to the northeast while maintaining peak winds , and it made landfall in Taylor County , Florida at 0330 UTC on October 8 . By that time , Josephine was losing tropical characteristics , and shortly thereafter the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it moved over Georgia . The remnants continued to accelerate to the northeast , having weakened quickly to winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . It moved along the East Coast of the United States , emerging from North Carolina into the western Atlantic , and later crossed Atlantic Canada . On October 12 , the remnants of Josephine turned to the north and later to the northwest within the general flow of the north Atlantic Ocean . The next day , the storm strengthened to again reach its peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . On October 16 , the storm merged with another extratropical storm near Iceland .
+
+= = Preparations and impact = =
+
+About 19 hours before landfall , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) issued a tropical storm warning from Apalachicola to Venice , Florida , which was preceded by a tropical storm watch six hours prior . As the storm intensified further , the NHC issued a hurricane warning from Apalachicola to Anclote Key , and extended the tropical storm warning westward to Fort Walton Beach . The agency later issued a tropical storm warning for the Atlantic coast from Cape Canaveral to Little River Inlet in South Carolina . Officials ordered evacuations for barrier islands in nine Florida counties along the gulf coast , and about 3 @,@ 000 people stayed in shelters . Government offices closed along the storm 's projected path in the state . Later , the storm forced the cancellation of part of Bob Dole 's bus tour through New York , and postponed a search for the wreck of TWA Flight 800 . Game one of the 1996 World Series was postponed by one day due to the storm .
+
+While Josephine was forming , it produced high tides of 3 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal that flooded coastal regions and eroded beaches along the Texas coast . Coastal flooding covered portions of Texas State Highway 316 and John F. Kennedy Memorial Causeway . The storm 's outer periphery dropped locally heavy rainfall that reached 10 @.@ 81 in ( 275 mm ) at Brownsville International Airport , which flooded homes in Brownsville and streets near San Benito . Light rainfall also occurred elsewhere along the gulf coast . In Louisiana , tides were 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal , which flooded portions of Louisiana Highway 1 and several houses . The floods damaged two houses in Mandeville , and damage statewide was estimated at $ 5 @.@ 5 million . After residents refused to evacuate Grand Isle , over 200 people were stranded when floodwaters rose .
+
+Josephine made landfall in northwestern Florida along Apalachee Bay and produced a high storm surge of around 9 @.@ 3 ft ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) in Suwannee , causing minor to moderate beach erosion . The storm produced widespread tropical storm force wind gusts in the state , and the highest sustained winds were 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) along the Sunshine Skyway Bridge ; the same location reported a peak gust of 72 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Josephine dropped heavy rainfall in the state , peaking at 11 @.@ 39 in ( 289 mm ) in Fernandina Beach . The storm also spawned at least 16 tornadoes in northern Florida , most of which caused minor tree damage . One 400 yd ( 370 m ) wide tornado , rated an F2 , remained on the ground for 7 mi ( 11 km ) in Edgewater , which damaged 130 houses , 30 of them severely . The tornado caused a woman to have a heart attack in Edgewater , and its damage was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 4 million . In western Florida , the high tides flooded roads and buildings along the coast . Between Levy to Lee county along the gulf coast , Josephine flooded about 3 @,@ 600 homes , mostly west of U.S. Route 19 . The heaviest storm surge damage was in Pinellas County , where about 1 @,@ 400 homes were affected , causing $ 25 million in damage . One person was injured in the county when a man was surfing in rough seas . The high tides damaged three fishing piers along the west coast . In Clay County , flooding rains forced about a dozen families to seek shelter elsewhere , and a few roads were washed out . In Jacksonville , high rains flooded hundreds of roads and caused schools countywide to close . Street flooding occurred as far south as the Florida Keys . High winds caused sporadic wind damage across northern Florida , and about 400 @,@ 000 people lost power statewide . Following the storm , President Bill Clinton declared 16 counties as disaster areas , which made them eligible for federal assistance in reconstructing .
+
+When the remnants of Josephine moved into Georgia , rainfall of over 7 in ( 180 mm ) flooded portions of Georgia State Route 40 and destroyed six houses along the St. Marys River . A woman died after driving into a downed tree in the state . In South Carolina , the storm caused flash flooding that covered roads and cars , after 6 in ( 150 mm ) of precipitation fell . Wind gusts in the state reached 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) along the coast , while high tides caused minor beach erosion . The remnants of Josephine spawned a weak tornado in Horry County that downed trees and power lines . Heavy rainfall , including reports of 4 in ( 100 mm ) in three and a half hours , also affected North Carolina , which flooded low @-@ lying areas , rivers , and portions of several roads including U.S. Route 70 . A woman and her child required rescue from a flooded road in Chadbourn . In some areas of eastern North Carolina , the storm raised river levels only weeks after they receded following Hurricane Fran . High winds of up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) downed trees and power lines , causing power outages and dozens of traffic accidents ; one man died while driving amid heavy rainfall . High tides flooded barrier islands and caused erosion in beaches , previously affected by hurricanes Bertha and Fran earlier in the year . In conjunction with a cold front , Josephine spawned three tornadoes in the state along the state 's central coastline . The tornadoes destroyed several mobile homes , uprooted trees , and brought down power lines .
+
+After having tracked across the southeastern United States , Josephine emerged into the western Atlantic Ocean as a strong extratropical cyclone and remained near the coast . It continued to bring strong winds and heavy rainfall . In southeastern Virginia , where wind gusts reached 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at the Chesapeake Bay Bridge – Tunnel , the storm left about 26 @,@ 000 people without power , while flooding contributed to over 70 traffic accidents . A three car accident killed a man in the state . In neighboring Maryland , the storm produced a peak wind gust of 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) in St. Mary 's County and in Ocean City , which knocked down trees onto houses and left about 7 @,@ 000 people without power . In the Chesapeake Bay , waves of 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in height caused minor coastal damage and flooded portions of the coastline , including along Maryland Route 238 . In Ocean City , a 160 ft ( 49 m ) barge broke from its moorings during the storm , which later washed ashore . About 4 @,@ 000 people lost power in Delaware , where winds reached 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) and high tides , peaking at 7 @.@ 6 ft ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) at Lewes , flooded oceanfront homes and portion of Delaware Route 1 . High rainfall caused the Christina River to crest at 10 @.@ 6 ft ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) , causing some people to require rescue from their cars . About 1 @,@ 500 people lost power in southeastern Pennsylvania , when high winds knocked down some tree limbs onto power lines . In neighboring New Jersey , high winds of around 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) left about 31 @,@ 000 homes without power , and 12 houses lost their roofs during the storm . In both New Jersey and New York , rainfall was around 1 to 3 in ( 25 to 76 mm ) , causing minor street flooding . While passing offshore New England , the remnants of Josephine produced gusts as high as 68 mph ( 109 km / h ) at Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Massachusetts . Minor street flooding occurred in the state after the storm dropped up to 4 @.@ 50 in ( 114 mm ) of rainfall on Cape Cod . Throughout New England , the high winds downed trees and branches , causing scattered power outages in Rhode Island , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , and Maine . Nationwide , damage was estimated at $ 130 million ( 1996 USD ) .
+
+Later , the remnants of Josephine moved across Atlantic Canada , where rainfall peaked at 2 @.@ 76 in ( 70 mm ) in northern Newfoundland . The strongest winds in the region were 52 mph ( 83 km / h ) , strong enough to cause ferry service to be canceled or delayed . In Amherst and Fort Lawrence , the storm caused power outages and school closings .
+
+= Marry You =
+
+" Marry You " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Bruno Mars for his debut studio album , Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans ( 2010 ) . Written and produced by The Smeezingtons , the track serves as the record 's sixth track and was released as Mars 's fourth single outside of the United States . " Marry You " is a pop song featuring strong influences of doo @-@ wop . The recording focuses on spontaneous marriage and therefore , since its release , has frequently been used as a proposal song .
+
+" Marry You " received generally positive reviews from music critics , with some complimenting its production and its reminiscence of 60 's pop style . Some criticized a perceived lack of creativity . Despite not being released as a single in the US , the song charted at number 85 on the Billboard Hot 100 and has since sold 2 @.@ 2 million copies there . It charted on most international markets within the top fifteen , reaching number 10 on the Canadian Hot 100 , number 8 in Australia , the top five in New Zealand , and charting at number 11 in the United Kingdom . The single was certified three times platinum by Music Canada and two times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association . Mars performed " Marry You " on both of his worldwide tours , The Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 – 12 ) and the Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 – 14 ) . The song has been covered a number of times , most notably by the cast of Glee ; their cover outperformed the original song by reaching number 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
+
+= = Development and conception = =
+
+" Marry You " is one of the eleven songs composed and produced by The Smeezingtons , the collaboration of Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence , and Ari Levine , for Mars 's debut studio album , Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans . Lawrence explained the inspiration behind the song in an interview with American Songwriter stating , " [ w ] e had this image of a slow @-@ mo video in Vegas of a couple running , and she ’ s in her gown and he ’ s in his tux , the wedding party is behind them and everyone ’ s raging . This sort of crazy , daring , wedding feeling " . Lawrence was surprised at the impact of the song after watching some YouTube videos . He stated that " [ w ] e always thought it was a good song and catchy , but we didn ’ t think it would affect pop culture the way that it has . The first time we saw one of those YouTube videos , it changed everything for us . We were almost in tears , just the power of music ... the power of what it is we can create . These ideas , words , and lyrics and how they can get into the fabric of society and affect people ’ s lives in such an amazing way . "
+
+" Marry You " was recorded at Larrabee Recording Studios in Hollywood and Levcon Studios in Los Angeles . The song was mixed by Manny Marroquin and assistants Christian Plata and Erik Madrid . Levine and Mars played and recorded all of the instruments on the track . Levine was also responsible for engineering the song at Levcon Studios . Stephen Marcussen mastered the song at Marcussen Mastering in Los Angeles .
+
+= = Composition = =
+
+" Marry You " was written by The Smeezingtons ( Mars , Lawrence , and Levine ) . It combines elements of pop and doo @-@ wop and lasts three minutes and fifty seconds . According to the digital sheet music published by Alfred Music Publishing , it was composed in time signature of common time and in the key of F major with a tempo of 145 beats per minute . The track includes drums , double hand @-@ claps , piano , echoing church wedding bells and a sing @-@ songy chorus . Mars 's vocal range spans from C4 to D5 . His vocals in the song have been described as " plaintive " and " ach [ ing ] so gently " , while wooing throughout the track .
+
+The song has been characterized as possessing " forceful velocity " and an " instantly hummable melody " with it being " buoyant " , " bubbly " and " Motown marriage track " . A love song , it lyrically tells about a couple that go to Las Vegas , give up their " capricious impulses " and spontaneously decide to get married . Although the song has since become a " classic marriage tune " , Lawrence has stated that the writers instead meant to imply a " racy kind of idea " . Critics have compared the song to 60 's girl groups and to the " surf pop of The Beach Boys " , and Coldplay .
+
+= = Critical reception = =
+
+" Marry You " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner gave it a strong review , rating it four out of five stars , with him labeling it as a song that " would not only impress the Elvis impersonator in any Vegas chapel , but is enough to make him a shoo @-@ in for ultimate seducer of 2011 " and a " 60s @-@ inspired jive @-@ starter " . NPR 's Ken Tucker and Emily Yang of The Signal said that the recording 's sound was reminiscent of 60 's pop . Nina Baniamer of Contactmusic.com found the track 's production " epic and ambitious " and called the " anthemic " song " sure fire hit " . The Boston Globe critic Ken Capobianco praised the song for its " artfully arranged throwback " and exalted Mars 's vocals on his love songs , such as " Marry You " . Leah Greenblatt , writing for Entertainment Weekly , stated that " Marry You " has " a malt @-@ shop heart " beating beneath its " digital skin " , which shows innovation and creativity . The Independent music critic , Andy Gill , flattered the single by calling it " overly ingratiating " . In a mixed review , Tim Sendra of Allmusic praised the song 's " dynamic and nuanced production " , yet founding the track " pleasantly silly " . In a negative review , Mike Diver of BBC Music thought confessed that the recording was a " too @-@ clingy and very creepy love song " and noted its lack of inspiration . Similarly , Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson suggested that the song was spun off of Cee Lo Green 's " Fuck You " , where the word " fuck " was changed to " marry " . He further added that the single was a " bizarrely syncopated piledriver " .
+
+= = Chart performance = =
+
+In the United States , " Marry You " debuted at number 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 on December 11 , 2010 . It reached a peak of number 85 on January 15 , 2011 and remained on the chart for a total of 5 weeks . The song was never released as a single in the United States , despite its strong airplay on mainstream and adult top 40 radio stations . As of January 2015 , the track has sold 2 @.@ 2 million copies there and has yet to be certified by the Recording Industry Association of America .
+
+The song 's reception was stronger outside of the United States , thus debuting at number 89 in Canada on December 11 , 2010 , after the Glee performance of the track . It reached its peak position of number 10 on the Canadian Hot 100 in early November 2011 . It was certified three times platinum by Music Canada . In the United Kingdom , " Marry You " debuted and peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart and remained on the chart for 39 weeks . The single performed well across the rest of Europe , reaching the top 10 in Austria , Czech Republic , Ireland , Luxembourg , and Slovakia and the top 20 in Belgium , Germany , Netherlands , and Switzerland . In 2014 , the song re @-@ entered the Spanish Charts two years after its first appearance and reached a new peak of 26 . It also made its debut on the Danish Charts at number 34 .
+
+In Australia , " Marry You " debuted at number 50 on the ARIA Singles Chart on December 12 , 2010 and remained on the chart for three weeks . It reappeared on the chart on June 19 , 2011 , reaching a peak position at number 8 for two non @-@ consecutive weeks ; it dropped off the chart after 19 weeks . The single was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association in 2011 . The single reached number 5 on New Zealand 's RIANZ Singles Chart and spent five months on the chart . In Asia , the song peaked at number 3 on the Japan Hot 100 , and the track was awarded Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan . The single reached number 12 in South Korea and sold 2 @,@ 152 @,@ 783 copies there as of 2015 .
+
+= = Live performances and covers = =
+
+Mars has performed the song at several shows , first at the Bowery Ballroom in New York City on August 25 , 2010 . On November 6 , 2011 , Mars and his band performed it live at the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . He also sang it on December 8 , 2012 for the 2012 edition of Jingle Bell Ball , an event annually held and promoted by Capital FM at the O2 Arena in London . It was the eight song of his debut worldwide tour , The Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 ) , and was eight ( 2013 set list ) or sixth ( 2014 set list ) on his second worldwide tour , The Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 ) .
+
+The song has been covered several times , first on the " Furt " episode of the television show Glee , which aired on November 23 , 2010 . The show 's cover version achieved moderate success by peaking at number 27 in Australia , number 19 in Canada , number 31 in Ireland and number 32 in the United States . On January 1 , 2013 , the song was covered by Sunny , Sooyoung , and Yoona of South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation for their comeback special , Girls ' Generation 's Romantic Fantasy . Rapper and actor Donald Glover sang a cover of the song in the film Magic Mike XXL . The cover appeared on the movie 's soundtrack album , which was released on June 30 , 2015 .
+
+= = Track listing = =
+
+Promo CD Single
+
+" Marry You " - 3 : 50
+
+= = Credits and personnel = =
+
+Recording and mixing
+
+Recorded at Larrabee Recording Studios and Levcon Studios in Los Angeles , California ;
+
+Mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , California .
+
+Personnel
+
+Credits adapted from the liner notes of Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans , Elektra Records :
+
+= = Charts = =
+
+= = Certifications = =
+
+= = Release = =
+
+= = = Process = = =
+
+On August 15 , 2011 , a promo CD single containing the album version of " Marry You " became available for purchase through Elektra Records and Warner Music Group . A week later , the song was released in the United Kingdom . It was announced on September 13 , 2011 that " Marry You " would be released in Germany .
+
+= = = History = = =
+
+= Erie , Pennsylvania =
+
+Erie / ˈɪəri / is a city located in northwestern Pennsylvania , United States . Named for the lake and the Native American tribe that resided along its southern shore , Erie is the state 's fourth @-@ largest city ( after Philadelphia , Pittsburgh and Allentown ) , with a population of 101 @,@ 786 at the 2010 census , and an estimated population of 99 @,@ 452 in 2014 . It was the third @-@ largest city in the state until 1999 . It is the second largest city in Western Pennsylvania ( after Pittsburgh ) . Erie 's metropolitan area , equivalent to all of Erie County , consists of approximately 280 @,@ 000 residents . The city is the seat of government for Erie County and the principal city of the Erie , PA Metropolitan Statistical Area .
+
+Erie is between Buffalo , New York , Cleveland , Ohio , and Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Once teeming with heavy industry , Erie 's manufacturing sector remains prominent in the local economy , though service industries , healthcare , higher education , and tourism are emerging as greater economic drivers . Millions visit Erie for recreation at Presque Isle State Park , as well as attractions like the casino and horse racetrack named for the state park .
+
+Erie is known as the " Flagship City " because of its status as the home port of Oliver Hazard Perry 's flagship Niagara . The city has also been called the " Gem City " because of the sparkling lake . Erie won the All @-@ America City Award in 1972 .
+
+= = History = =
+
+Cultures of indigenous peoples occupied the shoreline and bluffs in this area for thousands of years , taking advantage of the rich resources . The Sommerheim Park Archaeological District located in Millcreek Township , Pennsylvania west of the city , includes artifacts from the Archaic period in the Americas , as well as from the Early and Middle Woodland Period , roughly a span from 8,000BCE to 500CE .
+
+The historic Iroquoian @-@ speaking Erie Nation occupied this area before being defeated by the five nations of the Iroquois Confederacy in the 17th century during the Beaver Wars . The Iroquois tribes had developed and five nations formed a political league in the 1500s , adding their sixth nation in the early 18th century . The Erie area became controlled by the Seneca , " keeper of the western door " of the Iroquois , who were largely based in present @-@ day New York .
+
+Europeans first arrived as settlers in the region when the French constructed Fort Presque Isle near present @-@ day Erie in 1753 , as part of their effort to defend New France against the encroaching British colonists . The name of the fort refers to the peninsula that juts into Lake Erie , now protected as Presque Isle State Park . The French term " presque @-@ isle " means peninsula ( literally , " almost an island " ) . When the fort was abandoned by the French in 1760 during the French and Indian War ( Seven Years ' War ) , it was the last post they held west of Niagara . The British established a garrison at the fort at Presque Isle that same year , three years before the end of the French and Indian War .
+
+Present @-@ day Erie is situated in what was the disputed Erie Triangle , a triangle of land that was claimed after the American Revolutionary War by the states of New York , Pennsylvania , Connecticut ( as part of its Western Reserve ) , and Massachusetts . It officially became part of Pennsylvania on March 3 , 1792 , after Connecticut , Massachusetts and New York relinquished their claims to the federal government , which in turn sold the land to Pennsylvania for 75 cents per acre or a total of $ 151 @,@ 640 @.@ 25 in Continental currency . The Iroquois released the land to Pennsylvania in January 1789 for payments of $ 2 @,@ 000 from Pennsylvania and $ 1 @,@ 200 from the federal government . The Seneca Nation separately settled land claims against Pennsylvania in February 1791 for the sum of $ 800 .
+
+The General Assembly of Pennsylvania commissioned the surveying of land near Presque Isle through an act passed on April 18 , 1795 . Andrew Ellicott , who completed Pierre Charles L 'Enfant 's survey of Washington , D.C. and helped resolve the boundary between Pennsylvania and New York , arrived to begin the survey and lay out the plan for the city in June 1795 . Initial settlement of the area began that year . Lt. Colonel Seth Reed and his family moved to the Erie area from Geneva , New York ; they were Yankees from Uxbridge , Massachusetts . They became the first European @-@ American settlers of Erie , settling at what became known as " Presque Isle " .
+
+President James Madison initiated the construction of a naval fleet during the War of 1812 in order to gain control of the Great Lakes from the British . Daniel Dobbins of Erie and Noah Brown of Boston were notable shipbuilders who led construction of four schooner − rigged gunboats and two brigs . Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry arrived from Rhode Island and led the squadron to success in the historic Battle of Lake Erie .
+
+Erie was an important shipbuilding , fishing , and railroad hub during the mid @-@ 19th century . The city was the site where three sets of track gauges met . While the delays required cargo troubles for commerce and travel , they provided much needed local jobs in Erie . When a national standardized gauge was proposed , those jobs , and the importance of the rail hub itself , were put in jeopardy . In an event known as the Erie Gauge War , the citizens of Erie , led by the mayor , set fire to bridges , ripped up track and rioted to try to stop the standardization .
+
+On August 3 , 1915 , the Mill Creek ( Lake Erie ) flooded downtown Erie . A culvert , or a tunnel , was blocked by debris , and collapsed . A four @-@ block reservoir , caused by torrential downpours , had formed behind it . The resulting deluge destroyed 225 houses and killed 36 people . After the flood , Mayor Miles Brown Kitts had the Mill Creek directed into another larger culvert , constructed for more than 2 miles under the city , before emptying into Presque Isle Bay on the city 's lower east side .
+
+Downtown Erie continued to grow for most of the 20th century , based on its manufacturing base . It attracted numerous new waves of European immigrants for industrial jobs . Erie 's economy began to suffer in the later part of the 20th century as industrial restructuring took place and jobs moved out of the area ; it was considered part of the Rust Belt . The importance of American manufacturing , US steel and coal production , and commercial fishing began to gradually decline. before taking a major population downturn in the 1970s .
+
+With the advent of the automobile age after World War II and government subsidies for highway construction , thousands of residents left Erie for suburbs such as Millcreek Township , which now has over 50 @,@ 000 people . This caused a decline in retail businesses , some of which followed to the suburbs .
+
+Erie won the All @-@ America City Award in 1972 , and was a finalist in 1961 , 1994 , 1995 and 2009 .
+
+= = Geography = =
+
+Erie is situated in northwestern Pennsylvania at 42 ° 6 ′ 52 ″ N 80 ° 4 ′ 34 ″ W ( 42 @.@ 114507 , -80.076213 ) , on the southern shore of Lake Erie across from the Canadian province of Ontario . It is 100 miles ( 160 km ) northeast of Cleveland , Ohio , 90 miles ( 140 km ) southwest of Buffalo , New York , and 128 miles ( 206 km ) north of Pittsburgh . Erie 's bedrock is Devonian shale and siltstone , overlain by glacial tills and stratified drift . Stream drainage in the city flows northward into Lake Erie , then through Lake Ontario into the St. Lawrence River , and out to the Atlantic Ocean . South of Erie is a drainage divide , beyond which most of the streams in western Pennsylvania flow south into the Allegheny or Ohio rivers .
+
+According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 19 @.@ 3 square miles ( 49 @.@ 9 km2 ) , with 19 @.@ 1 square miles ( 49 @.@ 4 km2 ) being land and the remaining 0 @.@ 2 square miles ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) , or 1 @.@ 03 % , being water . Presque Isle State Park ( known to the locals as " The Peninsula " ) , juts into Lake Erie just north of the city limits and has 7 miles ( 11 km ) of public beaches , wetlands , and fishing sites .
+
+Erie is laid out in a grid surrounding Perry Square in the downtown area . The downtown buildings are separated from the waterfront by the Bayfront Parkway . The tallest structure in Erie is St. Peter Cathedral at 265 feet ( 81 m ) , and the tallest building is Renaissance Centre at 198 feet ( 60 m ) . Erie has generally small ethnic neighborhoods including a Little Italy . South of 38th Street , the grid gives way to curvilinear roads of post @-@ 1970 suburban development . Millcreek Township and upper Peach Street in Summit Township include the Erie metropolitan area 's newer developments .
+
+Most of the cityscape includes renovated and refurbished factory buildings , mid − rise housing , single family homes , and office buildings . Erie 's waterfront includes the Burger King Amphitheater and surrounding parkland , which hosts numerous festivals . The Bayfront Convention Center is on Sassafras Pier next to Dobbins Landing . The Bicentennial Tower is centrally located in the skyline when viewed from Presque Isle State Park , with the high @-@ rise and mid @-@ rise buildings flanking the higher ground behind and to the east and west sides . On the east end of the waterfront , the Erie Maritime Museum and the city 's main library , and third largest in Pennsylvania , host the USS Niagara . Docks and marinas fill the freshwater shoreline in between .
+
+= = = Climate = = =
+
+The climate of Erie is typical of the Great Lakes . Erie is located in the snow belt that stretches from Cleveland to Syracuse and Watertown ; accordingly , its winters are typically cold , with heavy lake effect snow , but also with occasional stretches of mild weather that cause accumulated snow to melt . Erie lies on the typical humid continental zone ( Köppen Dfa ) . The city experiences a full range of weather events , including snow , ice , rain , thunderstorms and fog . The city 's lakeside location helps to temper summer heat , with an average of only 3 @.@ 8 days of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) + highs annually , and the highest temperature ever recorded was 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) on June 25 , 1988 ; there is an average of 2 @.@ 5 days with lows of 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) or colder annually , and the lowest temperature ever recorded was − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) on January 19 , 1994 and February 16 , 2015 .
+
+Erie is 6th on The Daily Beast list of snowiest places in the United States , averaging 78 @.@ 7 inches ( 200 cm ) ; however , the 1981 – 2010 normal seasonal snowfall is 100 @.@ 8 in ( 256 cm ) . The adverse winter conditions caused USAir Flight 499 to overrun the runway at Erie International Airport in 1986 , as well as causing whiteouts that were responsible for a 50 car pile @-@ up on Interstate 90 .
+
+Erie was determined to be the snowiest city in the US in the 2013 @-@ 2014 snow season . Erie received 138 @.@ 4 inches of snow that season . According to the National Weather service , Erie was just ahead of Syracuse , NY by 6 inches of snow .
+
+= = Demographics and religion = =
+
+As of the 2010 United States Census , there were 101 @,@ 786 people , 40 @,@ 913 households , and 22 @,@ 915 families residing in the city . There were 44 @,@ 790 housing units at an average vacancy rate of 8 percent . Erie has long been declining in population due to the departure of factories and dependent businesses . The city has lost approximately 40 @,@ 000 people since the early 1960s , allowing Allentown to claim the position as Pennsylvania 's third @-@ largest city behind Philadelphia and Pittsburgh .
+
+Erie 's population was spread evenly among all age groups , with the median being 34 . About 13 % of families and 19 % of the population were below the poverty line . Most of the people who reside in Erie are of European descent .
+
+Since the mid @-@ 1990s , the International Institute of Erie ( IIE ) , founded in 1919 , has helped with the resettlement of refugees from Bosnia , Eritrea , Ghana , Iraq , Kosovo , Liberia , Nepal , Somalia , Sudan , the former Soviet Union , and Vietnam . The inclusion of refugees in Erie 's community augments religious diversity and prompts community events such as cultural festivals .
+
+In the early 20th century , Erie had a significant Russian immigrant community , many of whom worked in the shipbuilding plants along the bayfront . Unusual for a Great Lakes city , a substantial number of these Russian immigrants were priestless ( Bespopovtsy ) Old Believers . In 1983 , most of this community united with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia and became an Old Ritualist priest within the canonical Orthodox Church . Even today , the gold @-@ domed Church of the Nativity , on the bayfront near the former heart of the Russian community , is an Old Ritualist church and home parish to the famed iconographer Fr . Theodore Jurewicz .
+
+Erie has a Jewish community that is over 150 years old . Temple Anshe Hesed , a member of the Union for Reform Judaism , is served by its spiritual leader , Rabbi John L. Bush . Congregation Brith Sholom ( The Jewish Center ) is affiliated with the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism , and Rabbi Leonard Lifshen has been its spiritual leader since 1989 .
+
+Erie is home to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Erie , covering 13 counties — at 9 @,@ 936 square miles ( 25 @,@ 734 km2 ) , it is the largest in the state . Its diocesan seat is the Saint Peter Cathedral in Erie , which has a 265 feet ( 81 m ) central tower flanked by two 150 feet ( 46 m ) towers . Lawrence Thomas Persico is Bishop of Erie , since October 1 , 2012 ; Donald Trautman is Bishop Emeritus of the diocese .
+
+According to the Association of Religion Date Archives , Erie County had a total population of 280 @,@ 843 people in 2000 , of which 103 @,@ 333 claimed affiliation with the Catholic Church , 40 @,@ 301 with mainline Protestant houses of worship , and 12 @,@ 980 with evangelical Protestant churches .
+
+= = Economy = =
+
+Erie is the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 's primary access point to Lake Erie , the Great Lakes , and the Saint Lawrence Seaway . The city emerged as a maritime center after the American Revolution , then as a railroad hub during the great American westward expansion . Erie became an important city for iron and steel manufacturing during the Industrial Revolution and thrived well into the 20th century with big industry .
+
+While only General Electric diesel @-@ electric locomotive building remains from the ranks of the large manufacturers in the early 21st century , a more diverse mix of mid @-@ sized industries has emerged . This broader economic base includes not only smaller and more agile steel and plastic plants , but also a vigorous service sector : health , insurance and tourism . As of December 2010 , Erie 's unemployment rate was 8 @.@ 9 percent , as compared to rates for Pennsylvania and the United States at 8 @.@ 5 and 9 @.@ 4 percent , respectively .
+
+Erie is the corporate headquarters of the Erie Insurance Group , and Marquette Savings Bank . Lord Corporation was founded and has major operations in Erie . Along with GE and Erie Insurance , major employers in the county , and consequently , the city include the County , State and Federal governments , as well as the Erie City School District .
+
+Over 10 percent of the USA 's plastics are manufactured or finished in Erie @-@ based plastics plants . Erie is an emerging center for biofuels and environmental research , producing over 45 million U.S. gallons of biofuel a year . Tourism plays an increasingly important role in the local economy with over 4 million people visiting Presque Isle State Park and other attractions . Shoppers from Ohio , New York , and the Canadian province of Ontario frequent the Millcreek Mall and Peach Street stores and attractions as a result of Pennsylvania 's tax exemption on clothing .
+
+Both UPMC Hamot and Saint Vincent Health System are also major employers in Erie . Although both of these hospitals had been stand @-@ alone Erie entities , Hamot merged with the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center in 2011 , and St. Vincent joined became affiliated with the Cleveland Clinic in 2012 . , followed by Highmark 's Allegheny Health Network in 2013 . The United States Department of Veterans Affairs operates the Erie Veterans Affairs Medical Center on East 38th Street . The Shriners International operates Shriners Hospital for Children in Erie since 1927 .
+
+= = Utilities = =
+
+The Erie Water Works , which was incorporated in 1865 as the Erie Water and Gas Company , includes a reservoir , two water treatment plants , and an elaborate water works and pipe network that provides water for most of the city and suburbs . Penelec , a subsidiary of FirstEnergy , supplies electricity to the region , as well as the Northwestern Pennsylvania Rural Electric Cooperative . Time Warner Cable became the region 's cable television provider , after taking over Adelphia , and also provides digital phone and high @-@ speed internet to the region . Local telephone and high speed internet service is also provided by Verizon .
+
+Sewage service in Erie is provided by the Erie Sewer Authority , and many outlying townships have partnerships with the Sewer Authority for service . The Authority cleans about 30 − 40 million US gallons ( 150 @,@ 000 m3 ) of wastewater every day .
+
+The time and temperature number in Erie is 452 @-@ 6311 and was originally discontinued by Verizon in October 2008 before being restarted by a private individual two years later . The city of Erie and northwest Pennsylvania is located in area code 814 . On December 16 , 2010 , the Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission ( PUC ) voted to split the area code , which was to take effect February 1 , 2012 . The North American Numbering Plan decided that northwest Pennsylvania would receive the new code of 582 . A local grassroots coalition began organizing an opposition to the plan , and generated numerous petitions for reconsideration . The PUC immediately voted to review their decision and ordered additional public input hearings and technical conferences as a response to the strong public outcry . In January 2011 , the PUC announced that it was placing the entire area code split plan on hold as NEUSTAR pushed the projected exhaustion date back two years to 2015 .
+
+= = Arts and culture = =
+
+Erie is home to several professional and amateur performing @-@ arts groups . The most significant is the Erie Philharmonic , in continuous existence since 1913 ( with the exception of an interregnum during World War II ) . This group of professional musicians also has a full chorus and a Junior Philharmonic division that tours the area . The Lake Erie Ballet is a professional company that performs well @-@ known programs throughout the year . The Erie Civic Music Association attracts , sponsors , and books performances by professional musicians , singers , entertainers , and ensembles from around the world .
+
+The Erie Art Museum is the city 's main art gallery , located in the Old Customshouse on State Street . Its collection has an emphasis on folk art and modern art and it hosts a popular blues and jazz concert series . The Erie Art Museum also works on public art projects in an effort to revitalize and improve the city . In 2000 , the Erie Art Museum created a project entitled GoFish , similar to CowParade . 95 fiberglass fish were decorated by Erie artists and placed throughout the city . Patrons paid $ 3 @,@ 000 for a fish and the proceeds went to Gannon University 's Scholarship Fund and the Erie Public Art Endowment Fund . The Erie Art Museum created a similar public art project in 2004 that involved frogs rather than fish . In 2012 , the Erie Art Museum began a project to create forty artistic and functional bike racks , designed and created by local artists . The Museum 's intentions are to add color and interest to downtown Erie and to promote bicycling , encouraging healthy lifestyles and environmental awareness .
+
+Downtown Erie 's historic and ornate Warner Theatre hosts a range of performances . Renovated in the 1980s and again in 2007 , the Warner is the hub of Erie 's Civic Center . The downtown area is the home of the Erie Playhouse , one of the leading community theaters in the country , and the third oldest community theater in the U.S. . Since 2007 , the annual Roar on the Shore motorcycle rally has taken place in Erie .
+
+Along West 6th Street is Millionaires Row , a collection of 19th century Victorian mansions . The John Hill House is one of the notable residences . The Erie Land Light stands at the foot of Lighthouse Street . The lighthouse was built in 1818 and replaced in 1867 .
+
+The Bicentennial Tower , on Dobbins Landing at the foot of State Street , was built in 1995 − 96 to celebrate the city 's bicentennial . It is 187 feet ( 57 m ) tall and gives a panoramic view of Lake Erie and downtown . The Blasco Library and Erie Maritime Museum are its neighbors to the east . Presque Isle Downs opened on February 28 , 2007 , and was the fourth slots parlor in the state and the first in Western Pennsylvania . Table games opened at the casino on July 8 , 2010 .
+
+Erie has also been the location for many movies , including the hometown for fictional band " The Wonders " in That Thing You Do ! featuring Tom Hanks . It is also mentioned in the film Wall Street as the location of the fictional company Anacott Steel . Erie is the hometown of Train lead singer , Patrick Monahan . Erie is also the hometown of Marc Brown , the author and illustrator of Arthur books and TV series .
+
+= = Media = =
+
+Erie is served by Erie Times @-@ News , the city 's only daily newspaper . The Nielsen Company ranks Erie as 144 out of the 210 largest television market in the United States , as of the 2010 − 2011 report . The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including WICU @-@ TV ( NBC ) , WJET @-@ TV ( ABC ) , WFXP ( FOX ) , WSEE @-@ TV ( CBS ) , and WSEE @-@ DT2 ( CW ) . WQLN is a member of Public Broadcasting Service and also broadcasts in London , Ontario . Cable companies available for Erie include Time Warner Cable , DirecTV , and Dish Network . Erie is also served by several AM and FM radio stations based in the city , and dozens of other stations are received from elsewhere .
+
+= = Sports = =
+
+Erie plays host to a number of semi @-@ pro and professional sports teams . The Erie SeaWolves play AA baseball in the Eastern League as an affiliate of the Detroit Tigers . The Erie Otters play hockey in the Ontario Hockey League . The Erie BayHawks are a member of the NBA Development League . The Erie Illusion is a member of the United States Women 's Football League . Hockey and basketball games are played at Erie Insurance Arena , while Minor League Baseball games are held at Jerry Uht Park .
+
+Gannon University , Mercyhurst University , Edinboro University , and Penn State Behrend have active NCAA collegiate sports programs . The local high schools compete in PIAA District 10 sporting events . Additionally , Cathedral Preparatory School hosts the annual high school basketball tournament featuring top national teams ; called the Burger King Classic since 2010 . Scholastic and intramural sports are held at school and park facilities around the city . The Mercyhurst Ice Center , the JMC Ice Arena , Family First Sports Park , and Erie Veterans Memorial Stadium are many sports arenas and stadiums available in and around the city .
+
+The Lake Erie Speedway , a 3 ⁄ 8 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 6 km ) NASCAR sanctioned race track is located in Greenfield Township . Horse racing is found at the Presque Isle Downs and Casino located near Summit Township .
+
+= = Recreation = =
+
+Erie 's location along the shores of Lake Erie provides a plethora of outdoor activities throughout the year . The region 's largest attraction is Presque Isle State Park , drawing over four million visitors a year . The region grows grapes and produces the third largest amount of wine in the United States .
+
+Downtown Erie is surrounded by Presque Isle State Park , a National Natural Landmark . The Seaway Trail runs through downtown Erie along the lakefront . The Tom Ridge Environmental Center , at the foot of Presque Isle , features 7 @,@ 000 square feet ( 650 m2 ) of exhibit space .
+
+Other tourist destinations include the Bayfront Convention Center ; the Bicentennial Tower that overlooks Lake Erie ; Dobbins Landing , a pier in downtown Erie ; the Erie Land Light , and the Erie Maritime Museum , the home port of the Niagara . The 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 240 @,@ 000 m2 ) Millcreek Mall , one of the largest shopping malls in the United States , is located on Peach Street in nearby Millcreek Township . The indoor waterpark Splash Lagoon , in Summit Township , is the largest indoor waterpark on the East Coast and third largest in the United States . Waldameer Park , located at the base of Presque Isle , is the fourth oldest amusement park in Pennsylvania , and the tenth oldest in the United States .
+
+= = Government = =
+
+The city of Erie is incorporated as a 3rd class city under Pennsylvania law . Incorporated under an " optional charter " , the city is governed by a mayor – council government . The government consists of a mayor , treasurer , controller and a seven @-@ member city council . All of whom are elected to four @-@ year terms , with the terms of the council designed to be overlapping . The mayor is chief executive ; the city council prepares legislation and conducts oversight . The city council meets in Mario S. Bagnoni Council Chambers at City Hall . Joseph E. Sinnott ( D ) is the mayor of the city of Erie and was first elected in 2005 . As of July 2016 , the Erie City Council consists of :
+
+Robert Merski Council President
+
+Sonya M. Arrington
+
+David Brennan
+
+Curtis Jones , Jr .
+
+Casimir Kwitowski
+
+James Winarski
+
+Melvin Witherspoon
+
+In exchange for tax revenue , the city of Erie provides its residents with police and fire protection . For separate quarterly payments , the city provides garbage , recycling , water and sewer services . The Erie Police Department provides law enforcement in the city and currently has a complement of 173 sworn personnel under the direct supervision of Chief of Police Randy Bowers . The City of Erie Fire Department is a full @-@ time career fire department and employs around 150 uniformed personnel . These employee 's are under the direct supervision of Chief Tony Pol . The City currently operates out of six fire houses and protects approximately 20 square miles ( 52 km2 ) . The city has six engines , two towers and one water rescue unit . The city provides mutual aid to fire departments of Millcreek Township , Summit Township and East County .
+
+Erie is the largest city in Pennsylvania 's 3rd congressional district and is currently represented in Congress by Republican Mike Kelly , who was elected in 2010 . Republican Jane M. Earll of the 49th District has represented Erie in the Pennsylvania State Senate since 1997 . Senator Earll declined to run for a fifth term in 2012 and was succeeded by Democrat Sean D. Wiley . The city of Erie is split by the 1st and 2nd Districts of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives and is represented by Democrats Patrick Harkins and Florindo Fabrizio , respectively .
+
+= = Education = =
+
+Erie Public Schools enroll 12 @,@ 527 students in primary and secondary grades . The district has 23 public schools including elementary , middle , high , and one charter school . Other than public schools , the city is home to more than 40 private schools and academies . Bethel Christian School is in Erie .
+
+The City of Erie is served by four city high schools , Central Tech High School , East High School , Northwest Pennsylvania Collegiate Academy , Strong Vincent High School , three Catholic high schools Cathedral Preparatory School , Mercyhurst Preparatory School , Villa Maria Academy , and nearby McDowell High School and Iroquois High School in adjacent Millcreek Township and Lawrence Park Township , respectively .
+
+Erie is home to several colleges and universities . Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine ( LECOM ) , a large medical school , with branch campuses in Bradenton , Florida and Greensburg , Pennsylvania , has the largest enrollments of medical students in the country , with over 3 @,@ 000 .
+
+Penn State Behrend offers more than 40 degrees at the associate , bachelor 's and master 's levels . It has an enrollment of 4400 , with housing for 1800 on campus .
+
+Other notable colleges in the Erie area include Gannon University , a Catholic university , situated in downtown Erie . Another Catholic institution , Mercyhurst University , is in the southeast part of the city .
+
+Ranking Erie city and county officials , as well as officials of the Erie School District , began looking into the need for a community college in the Erie area in 2006 . As of January 2008 , county officials and representatives of Penn State @-@ Behrend , Mercyhurst and Gannon were in serious discussions expected to lead to the creation of Northwest Pennsylvania Community College by September 2009 . Besides accreditation issues , officials must resolve whether to use local four @-@ year educational institutions or to build a separate site in Summit Township for community college classes .
+
+Erie is also home of the Barber National Institute and its Elizabeth Lee Black School , which provides services and education for children and adults with mental disabilities . Erie is home to its main campus , and it provides services in Philadelphia and Pittsburgh . The Achievement Center also serves the needs of children from birth to age 21 with physical and mental health disabilities.The public libraries in Erie are part of the Erie County library system . The Raymond M. Blasco , M. D. Memorial Library , named for its benefactor , opened in 1996 . It is the third largest library in Pennsylvania . It is connected to the Erie Maritime Museum , both of which are part of a bayfront improvement project that includes the Bayfront Convention Center and the Bicentennial Tower on Dobbins Landing .
+
+= = Transportation = =
+
+Erie is well connected to the Interstate Highway System . There are six " Erie exits " along Interstate 90 , a major cross @-@ country thoroughfare running from Boston to Seattle . Erie is the northern terminus of Interstate 79 , which travels south to Pittsburgh and , ultimately , West Virginia . The western terminus for Interstate 86 , also called the " Southern Tier Expressway , " is at Interstate 90 between Erie and North East , Pennsylvania . Interstate 86 continues east through New York to Binghamton . The Bayfront Connector runs from Interstate 90 in Harborcreek to the Bayfront Parkway and downtown Erie , along the east side of the city , then connects to Interstate 79 on the west side of the city . Major thoroughfares in the city include 12th Street , 26th Street , 38th Street and Peach Street . Peach is also a part of U.S. Route 19 , whose northern terminus is in Erie and continues south eventually reaching the Gulf of Mexico . Other major routes running through Erie are Pennsylvania Route 5 , known as the Seaway Trail and is made up of parts of 6th Street , 8th Street , 12th Street , and East Lake Road in the city , U.S. Route 20 , which is 26th Street in the city . The city is divided between east and west by State Street .
+
+The Erie Metropolitan Transit Authority ( EMTA ) operates the city 's transit bus system , known as the ' e ' . Buses run seven days a week in the city , with trips out to other parts of the county occurring a couple times a week . Intercity buses providing transportation between Buffalo , Cleveland and Pittsburgh are operated by Greyhound Lines . Service between Buffalo and Cleveland is also provided by Lakefront Lines . Both companies operate out of the Intermodal Transportation Center , which opened in 2002 at the foot of Holland Street .
+
+The former " Water Level Route " of the New York Central Railroad travels directly through Erie . It is now the mainline for CSX freight trains . The mainline of the Norfolk Southern Railway , originally built by the Nickel Plate Railroad , also travels through Erie . At one time Norfolk Southern trains ran down the middle of 19th Street , but were removed in 2002 . Passenger rail service is provided by Amtrak 's Lake Shore Limited out of Union Station at 14th and State Streets . The Lake Shore Limited stops twice daily — one eastbound towards New York City , and one westbound towards Chicago .
+
+Erie International Airport / Tom Ridge Field ( IATA code : ERI ; IACO code : KERI ) is located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of the city and hosts general aviation , charter , and airline service . Destinations with non @-@ stop flights out of Erie include Chicago O 'Hare International Airport via United Airlines , Philadelphia International Airport via US Airways and Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport via Delta Air Lines . Erie International is in the midst of a $ 80 @.@ 5 million runway extension . The extension is slated to increase the runway 's length by 1 @,@ 920 feet ( 590 m ) , for a total runway length of 8 @,@ 420 feet ( 2 @,@ 600 m ) , " to meet safety requirements " as well as allowing the airport to accommodate larger aircraft .
+
+The Port of Erie is located on Presque Isle Bay , a natural harbor formed by Presque Isle . It offers some of the finest port facilities for cargo shipping on the Great Lakes , with direct rail access . The Erie − Western Pennsylvania Port Authority provides water taxi service in the summer months between Dobbins Landing and Liberty Park in downtown Erie , and the Waterworks ferry landing on Presque Isle .
+
+= = Sister cities = =
+
+Erie has four official sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International :
+
+Dungarvan , Ireland ( 2007 )
+
+Lublin , Poland ( 1999 )
+
+Mérida , Yucatán , Mexico ( 1973 )
+
+Zibo , Shandong , China ( 1985 )
+
+= Sid Luckman =
+
+Sidney Luckman ( November 21 , 1916 – July 5 , 1998 ) was an American football quarterback for the Chicago Bears of the National Football League ( NFL ) from 1939 through 1950 . During his twelve seasons with the Bears he led them to four NFL championships .
+
+Luckman was the first modern T @-@ formation quarterback and is considered the greatest long range passer of his time . He was named the NFL 's Most Valuable Player in 1943 , and Pulitzer prize winning sports writer Ira Berkow wrote that Luckman was " the first great T @-@ formation quarterback " . Following his retirement from playing , Luckman continued his association with football by tutoring college coaches , focusing on the passing aspect of the game .
+
+Luckman was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 , and in 1988 he was declared a joint winner of the Walter Camp Distinguished American Award .
+
+= = Early life = =
+
+Luckman was born in Brooklyn , New York , to Jewish immigrants from Germany . His father sparked his interest in football at age eight , by giving him a football to play with . He and his parents lived in a residence near Prospect Park and it was here as a youngster that Sid first started throwing the football around .
+
+He played both baseball and football for Erasmus Hall High School , with his football skills impressing recruiters from about 40 colleges . Luckman chose Columbia University after meeting Lions coach Lou Little during a Columbia / Navy game at the university 's Baker Field athletic facility . Luckman was not admitted to Columbia College ; instead , he attended the New College for the Education of Teachers , an undergraduate school , which was within Teachers College at Columbia . He competed on the football team from 1936 until the New College closed in 1939 , when he transferred to Columbia College . Coach Little had a problem of getting good high school athletes because of the entrance requirements at Columbia , and Columbia didn ’ t have any physical education undergraduate program , and so , when New College was started Lou Little was happy because they had a P. E. Department . In fact , the 1936 varsity football squad had five other New College students , Hubert Schulze , Edward Stanzyk , Oscar Bonom , Harry Ream , and Antoni Mareski .
+
+At Columbia Luckman was a member of the Zeta Beta Tau fraternity . Keen to remain in Columbia to stay close to his family , he took on jobs such as dish @-@ washing , baby @-@ sitting , and messenger delivery around the campus . At Columbia , as a part of the football team , he completed 180 of 376 passes for 2 @,@ 413 yards and 20 touchdowns and finished third in the 1938 Heisman Trophy voting , behind Davey O 'Brien and Marshall Goldberg .
+
+= = Chicago Bears = =
+
+= = = Draft = = =
+
+Hearing of Sid Luckman 's exploits as a single @-@ wing tailback at Columbia University , Chicago Bears owner and coach George Halas believed Luckman had the ability to become an effective T @-@ formation quarterback , and traveled to New York to watch him play . Halas then convinced the Pittsburgh Pirates ( later the Steelers ) to draft Luckman second overall and then trade him to the Bears because he was interested in using Luckman 's skills to help him restructure the offensive side of the game . However , despite his successes at Columbia University , Luckman initially declined any further interest in pro football , instead preferring to work for his father @-@ in @-@ law ’ s trucking company . Halas went to work on convincing him otherwise . After gaining an invitation to Luckman 's tiny apartment for a dinner which Luckman 's wife Estelle prepared , Halas produced a contract for $ 5 @,@ 500 ( $ 92 @,@ 500 today ) which Luckman immediately signed . At that time both at the college and pro levels , offenses were a drab scrum of running the ball with only occasional passes . In what was then the predominant single @-@ wing formation , the quarterback was primarily a blocking back and rarely touched the ball . Most passing was done by the tailback , and then usually only on third down with long yardage to go . Halas and his coaches , primarily Clark Shaughnessy , invented a rather complex scheme building on the traditional T @-@ formation , but needed the right quarterback to run it properly .
+
+Upon starting with Halas , Luckman mastered an offense that revolutionized football , and became the basis of most modern professional offenses . Eventually , Luckman tutored college coaches across the Big Ten , Notre Dame and West Point in the intricacies of the passing game .
+
+= = = T @-@ formation = = =
+
+In 1940 , during his second season with the Bears , Luckman took over the offense and led the Bears to the title game against Sammy Baugh and the Washington Redskins . The Redskins had beaten the Bears , 7 – 3 , during the regular season . Using the " man @-@ in @-@ motion " innovation to great advantage , the Bears destroyed the Redskins , 73 – 0 , stated to be " the most one @-@ sided game in the history of the sport " . Luckman passed only six times , with four completions and 102 yards in the rout .
+
+From 1940 to 1946 the Bears displayed their dominance in the game , playing in five NFL championship games , winning four , and posted a 54 – 17 – 3 regular season record . In 1942 , the Bears posted a perfect 11 – 0 record and outscored their opponents , 376 – 84 , however they lost the championship game to the Redskins . Although the T @-@ formation had been used many years before Luckman joined the Chicago Bears , he was central to Chicago 's successful use of this style of play because of his game @-@ sense and versatility . Perfecting Halas ' complex offensive scheme of fakes , men in motion , and quick hitting runs , Luckman added the dimension of accurate downfield throwing . He was instrumental in his team 's record @-@ setting 73 – 0 win over the Washington Redskins in the 1940 NFL championship game . Sportscaster Jimmy Cannon once said in reference to Luckman 's years at Columbia , " You had to be there to realize how great Sid was . " Luckman later became a sought @-@ after tutor and instructor for universities wishing to install the T @-@ formation as an offense .
+
+= = = Service with the Merchant Marine = = =
+
+In 1943 , as soon as the season had ended , Luckman volunteered as an ensign with the U. S. Merchant Marine . He was stationed stateside and while he could not practice with the team , he did receive permission to play for the Bears on game days during the following seasons . He returned again to the Bears , as a full @-@ time occupation , in 1946 and led them to a fifth NFL championship .
+
+= = = Numbers and accomplishments = = =
+
+During his career , Luckman completed 51 @.@ 8 % of his passes for 14 @,@ 686 yards and 137 touchdowns with 132 interceptions . He averaged 8 @.@ 4 yards per attempt , second all @-@ time only to Otto Graham ( 8 @.@ 6 ) , and also has a career touchdown rate ( percentage of pass attempts that result in touchdowns ) of 7 @.@ 9 percent .
+
+In 1943 , Luckman completed 110 of 202 passes for 2194 yards and 28 touchdowns . His 13 @.@ 9 % touchdown rate that year is the best ever in a single @-@ season , while his 10 @.@ 9 yards per attempt is second all @-@ time . During one game that year , Luckman threw for 443 yards and seven touchdowns , still tied for the most passing touchdowns in one game ; it was also the first 400 @-@ yard passing game in NFL history . His 28 touchdown passes in 1943 ( in only 10 games ) was a record that lasted for many years .
+
+Luckman led the NFL in yards per attempt an NFL record seven times , including a record five consecutive years from 1939 to 1943 , and led the NFL in passing yards three times . Luckman was a five @-@ time All @-@ NFL selection , was named the National Football League 's Most Valuable Player Award in 1943 , and led the " Monsters of the Midway " to championships in 1940 , 1941 , 1943 , and 1946 . Despite the fact that his career ended in 1950 , Luckman still owns several Bears ' passing records .
+
+= = Career statistics = =
+
+Bold text indicates career best
+
+= = Later years = =
+
+After retiring from the NFL , Luckman went to work for Cel @-@ U @-@ Craft , a Chicago @-@ based manufacturer of cellophane products , eventually becoming its president . The company was a part of the Rapid American Corporation of which he also obtained shares . In 1969 , RAC was the subject of an IRS investigation over the payment of these shares and dividends , a case that Luckman and his wife appealed .
+
+Luckman 's wife Estelle Morgolin died of cancer in 1981 , and he underwent a triple heart bypass operation the following year . Luckman eventually retired to Aventura , Florida where he died on July 5 , 1998 at the age of 81 . He is survived by a son , Bob , and two daughters , Gale and Ellen .
+
+= = List of honors = =
+
+Joe F. Carr Trophy – National Football League Most Valuable Player in 1943 .
+
+College Football Hall of Fame in 1960
+
+Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 .
+
+Walter Camp Distinguished American of the Year Award in 1988 .
+
+Columbia University Athletics Hall of Fame in 2006 .
+
+= Battle of Gospić =
+
+Battle of Gospić ( Croatian : Bitka za Gospić ) was fought in the environs of Gospić , Croatia , from 29 August until 22 September 1991 during the Croatian War of Independence . The battle pitted the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) , stationed in five barracks in the town , and paramilitary elements of the Serbian Guard against the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) , police forces based in Gospić and police reinforcements from elsewhere in Croatia . Fighting in the eastern districts of Gospić , controlled by JNA forces with supporting artillery , was largely static but the balance shifted in favor of the Croatian forces following the capture of several JNA depots and barracks on 14 September . The remaining barracks were captured by 20 September leading to the expulsion of the JNA and Serbian Guard forces from the town .
+
+The battle followed escalating ethnic tensions in the Lika region , including attacks on Croatian civilians in Lovinac , an attack on a Croatian police checkpoint in Žuta Lokva , and skirmishes at the Plitvice Lakes and the Ljubovo Pass on the Gospić – Plitvička Jezera road . The remainder of 1991 saw further deterioration of the situation in the region , resulting in war crimes against Serbs and Croats in the Gospić and Široka Kula massacres . Fighting in the region remained deadlocked , with little to no territorial gains to either side , until a lasting ceasefire was called with the signing of the Sarajevo Agreement of 2 January 1992 .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+In August 1990 , an insurrection took place in Croatia centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around the city of Knin , as well as in parts of the Lika , Kordun , and Banovina regions , and settlements in eastern Croatia with significant Serb populations . These regions became the newly formed SAO Krajina ( Serb Autonomous Oblast ) . The announcement of SAO Krajina 's intent to integrate with Serbia resulted in the Croatian Government declaring the insurrection a rebellion .
+
+By March 1991 , the conflict had escalated into the Croatian War of Independence and in June 1991 , with the Breakup of Yugoslavia , Croatia declared its independence . The declaration came into effect on 8 October after a three @-@ month moratorium . The SAO Krajina , renamed Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) on 19 December , then initiated a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Croatian civilians .
+
+Control of the growing tensions became hampered by increasing support of SAO Krajina being provided by the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) . The inability of the Croatian Police to cope with the situation led to the establishment of the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) in May 1991 . However , the development of the ZNG into a military force was hampered by a UN arms embargo , introduced in September , while the military conflict in Croatia continued to escalate — the Battle of Vukovar started on 26 August .
+
+= = Prelude = =
+
+An already tense situation in the Lika region , following 1 April Plitvice Lakes incident when the first fatalities of the Croatian War of Independence occurred , deteriorated further in June when Croatia reaffirmed its sovereignty through a parliamentary declaration . This was reflected in the rise of violent incidents , setting up of unauthorized road checkpoints and occasional exchanges of small arms fire . On 22 June , three policemen were abducted on the road between Gospić and SAO Krajina @-@ controlled Gračac , and a series of attacks on the Croatian police occurred in various parts of Lika , including Gospić , on 27 – 28 June . In July 1991 , the JNA started to openly confront the Croatian police and the ZNG in Lika . On 1 July , Plitvice police station was surrounded by the JNA , and on 6 July , two ZNG troops were killed and another two wounded in a JNA ambush near Gospić . Further escalation of the fighting was seen at the Ljubovo pass on the Gospić – Korenica road , where the JNA and SAO Krajina troops fought and pushed the ZNG back on 28 – 29 July .
+
+Ethnic violence continued to escalate when Serb paramilitaries abducted and killed five Croatian civilians from Lovinac in southern Lika on 5 August , and a police checkpoint in Žuta Lokva was attacked . In early August , the JNA moved the 236th Proletarian Motorized Brigade ( a brigade in name only , the 236th was actually only a company @-@ sized unit ) and a portion of the motorised battalion of the 4th Armoured Brigade , previously deployed to the Ljubovo pass , to Gospić as reinforcements for its garrison in the town . Other movements in that month include the assault and capture of the Plitvice police station on the 30th by SAO Krajina forces .
+
+With the imminent capture of Plitvice and the withdrawal of the ZNG from Lički Osik on 31 August , 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 miles ) north of Gospić , the SAO Krajina and the JNA shifted their focus in Lika to Gospić itself , where Serbs comprised 38 @.@ 4 % of the total population of 12 @,@ 000 .
+
+= = Order of battle = =
+
+The JNA forces consisted of 70 officers and 200 soldiers garrisoned at the Stanko Opsenica barracks and four other smaller JNA facilities in Gospić . The garrison was supported by 128 Serbian Guard paramilitaries led by Đorđe Božović , which deployed to Gospić from Serbia using JNA transportation , according to an interview with the commanding officer of the southern Lika Territorial Defence in 1991 . Following a reorganization in 1991 , the JNA units based in Gospić were the 236th Motorized Brigade and the 1st Brigade of the 35th Partisan Division , both subordinated to the Rijeka Corps . Prior to this , the 10th Proletarian Infantry Regiment , a B @-@ class unit required to maintain only 15 % of wartime troop levels , was stationed in Gospić , but was amalgamated with the 9th Proletarian Infantry Regiment to form the 236th Motorized Brigade . The JNA garrison in Gospić was formally commanded by Colonel Petar Čavar , however effective command was taken over by his chief of staff , Yugoslav Counterintelligence Service Major Relja Tomić .
+
+In early September , Croatian forces in Gospić comprised 427 troops , largely drawn from police forces based in Gospić , Rijeka and Zabok , volunteers from Gospić , Zagreb and Senj as well as Croatian Defence Forces troops . The only ZNG unit in Gospić was the 118th Infantry Brigade , which started to form around the ZNG 58th Independent Battalion on 14 August , but would not be fully assembled until after October . By mid @-@ September , the brigade comprised two battalions — one with four companies and the other one three . The 118th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Mirko Norac , while the head of the Croatian police in Gospić was Ivan Dasović .
+
+= = Timeline = =
+
+The JNA and the Serb paramilitary force bombarded Gospić with artillery stationed in the village of Divoselo and JNA Jasikovac Barracks on 29 August 1991 . The intensity of these attacks increased significantly towards mid @-@ September causing significant damage to Gospić ; one SAO Krajina report of the attack estimated that more than 50 % of structures in the city were damaged .
+
+At the outset of the battle , the JNA and the paramilitaries pushed the Croatian force out of eastern Gospić . On 5 September , Croatian forces captured JNA Major General Trajče Krstevski , along with three armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and 32 soldiers , when he attempted to reach JNA barracks that were isolated in the centre of the town but released them the next day following the successful negotiation of a prisoner exchange ( POWs ) . The Croatian commanders in Gospić , however , declined a request that the APCs also be returned — contrary to the instructions of Croatian authorities in Zagreb . Following the capture of Krstevski , the JNA artillery bombardment intensified , averaging 1 @,@ 100 artillery shells per day . Despite the intense bombardment , the second week of the battle was a stalemate , without any changes in lines of control .
+
+The ZNG and Croatian police planned to cut power , water and communications to all JNA facilities in the government @-@ controlled part of Croatia on 14 September . In Gospić , this action was brought forward to 13 September , the same day that the ZNG captured a JNA storage facility . This provided the Croatian troops with 14 @,@ 000 rifles and a substantial quantity of antitank weapons , more than sufficient for the Croatian forces to match the JNA in the town . The JNA barracks in Perušić and Kaniža Barracks in Gospić were captured the following day . The bulk of the JNA garrison in Gospić surrendered on 18 September , following three days of fighting for the Stanko Opsenica Barracks . An infantry attack aiming to support the JNA garrison was successfully repelled by Croatian forces on 16 September in the Divoselo area , where Božović was killed . After the city centre became relatively secure , the Croatian forces extended their offensive , capturing the Jasikovac Barracks and relieving two Croatian @-@ held pockets in villages of Ribnik and Bilaj by 20 September . As the JNA surrendered , the Serb forces retreated from the eastern parts of Gospić to a line 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 miles ) in front of Medak , as the Croatian forces completed mopping up in Gospić by 22 September .
+
+= = Aftermath = =
+
+Croatia captured approximately 300 JNA officers and soldiers , who were taken to Rijeka after their capture . They were later exchanged for Croatian POWs captured by the JNA in the Battle of Vukovar and elsewhere in Croatia . A large quantity of small arms and ammunition was captured as well as seven tanks and twelve 120 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) mortars . After the battle , the artillery bombardment of Gospić continued from positions around Divoselo and Lički Čitluk , approximately 5 to 8 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 0 miles ) south of Gospić . Skirmishes in Lika continued until January 1992 as each side sought to improve their positions on the ground , especially around Gospić and Otočac . On 23 September , a Croatian advance to the south was stopped by JNA and SAO Krajina forces , consisting of an infantry battalion and the Krajina Express armored train , which were defending a JNA storage depot in Sveti Rok . The JNA secured the depot and captured Lovinac on 26 September . By the end of September , Croatian defensive positions around Otočac were sufficiently reinforced that only minor attacks were launched and primarily near the village of Drenov Klanac . In late October and early December , fighting intensified around Divoselo near Gospić , but no territory changed hands . The intensity of artillery bombardment of Gospić peaked on 1 November 1991 , when 3 @,@ 500 artillery shells struck the town . In December , the JNA Knin Corps proposed to the JNA General Staff to advance from Gračac in an attempt to capture Gospić and Otočac , but the signing of the Sarajevo Agreement and ceasefire of 2 January 1992 largely halted further fighting , until the commencement of Operation Medak Pocket in September 1993 .
+
+The continuing military confrontation in the region was accompanied by an escalation of ethnic violence , culminating in war crimes against civilians committed by military authorities in Gospić and the SAO Krajina military in the area around Lički Osik in October 1991 . In Gospić , approximately 50 Serb civilians were taken from the town and killed in the surrounding fields . The individuals responsible for the event , later known as the Gospić massacre , were prosecuted by the Croatian judiciary . This resulted in the conviction , in 2003 , of Norac and two other defendants to 12 years in prison . The killings in the Lički Osik area , known as the Široka Kula massacre , resulted in the deaths of 40 civilians , mostly Croats but also some Serbs suspected of supporting Croatia . In 2011 , a court in Belgrade , Serbia , convicted four former SAO Krajina militiamen of killing four Serbs and a Croat in Široka Kula .
+
+In 1993 , Croatian authorities charged Marcel Dusper , Tomo Čačić , Jovo Kuprešanin , Bogdan Odanović , Relja Tomić , Duško Bajić , Dane Drakula , Mićo Vasić , Goce Koneski , Slobodan Dotlić , Dragoljub Lazarević , Radovan Radenković , Bratislav Milojković , Stevo Milošević and Miloš Bogdanović , 15 former JNA officers , posted in Gospić garrison in 1991 with war crimes against a civilian population . All of the defendants , except Drakula were tried in absentia . Drakula was acquitted , while Dusper , Tomić and Bajić were convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison each while the remaining defendants were sentenced to 15 years . The rulings were upheld by the Supreme Court of Croatia in 1994 . Dotlić was arrested on 18 October 2013 after he visited his parents living in Croatia . Prior to his arrest , Dotlić had requested a new trial , but after his arrest the charges against him were changed to armed insurrection but this was later dropped following the General Amnesty Act .
+
+= Sidney Mashbir =
+
+Sidney Forrester Mashbir ( 12 September 1891 – 13 June 1973 ) was a senior officer in the United States Army who was primarily involved in military intelligence . Born in New York , he served in the Arizona Army National Guard during the Mexican @-@ American Border War . Mashbir then held several posts in intelligence positions , taking credit for catching the first German spy in the United States , before departing for on a four @-@ year assignment as a language officer to Japan in 1920 . He resigned from the army in 1923 in an attempt to execute his own master plan devised to extract intelligence from Japan in event of a war . His plan failed as a result of the Great Kantō earthquake in September 1923 and he was left bankrupt ; he consequently returned to the US as an engineering businessman .
+
+In 1937 , Mashbir returned to Japan in a second attempt to activate his plan on behalf of the Office of Naval Intelligence ; it again failed , and Mashbir was dis @-@ enrolled from the reserves in 1939 . However , following the attack on Pearl Harbor , Mashbir was re @-@ enrolled in January 1940 to lead the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section of Southwest Pacific Area , where he quickly rose to the rank of Colonel . He later served as the Executive Officer for the Army Adjutant General 's Office before retiring in 1951 .
+
+= = Early life = =
+
+Sidney Mashbir was born in Manhattan , New York , on 12 September 1891 , but moved to Safford , Arizona in 1899 . Sidney 's father was Professor Eliazar S. Mashbir , a Russian immigrant who was well @-@ educated and became the first Russian @-@ speaking attorney to practice Law in New York City . Sidney 's mother , Frieda Freudenthal was also well @-@ educated , and in 1906 became the postmistress of Safford , which included the area of Solomonville .
+
+Mashbir attended public schools in Safford and Tucson , later studying engineering at the University of Arizona for six months each year until 1911 , whilst simultaneously maintaining a career as an engineering draughtsman , primarily for the engineering department of Tucson , and railroad companies . He married his first wife Blanche Beckwith on 12 September 1913 , with whom he had his first son , Forrester Mashbir ; the couple separated during the mid / late @-@ 1920s .
+
+= = Military career = =
+
+= = = Early service = = =
+
+Mashbir joined the Arizona National Guard at a young age , and served as the bugler of Company B in 1904 . He later became the First Lieutenant and adjutant of the University Battalion whilst studying at the University of Arizona . In 1912 , he served as a Lieutenant in Company K of the National Guard encampment , which based at Fort Huachuca . The senior instructor at the time was Captain Louis Joseph Van Schaick .
+
+In early 1916 , Mashbir received his first official intelligence assignment , when he was assigned as the Assistant Intelligence Officer of the Ajo @-@ Yuma district of Arizona as a part of the first Arizona Infantry under General Frederick Funston . The unit was at the time was involved in the Mexican @-@ American Border War . Mashbir 's duties included mapping roads , trails and waterholes in northern Sonora . Additionally he would scout Mexican towns with Papago Indian scouts , reporting on the strength and equipment of Mexican garrisons and installing primitive wiretaps on Mexican communication lines . Mashbir was also responsible for investigating Japan 's physical presence in Mexico at the time .
+
+In late 1916 , Mashbir applied for a commission in the Regular Army and was accepted with General Funston 's support despite the Army ’ s policy that married men not be accepted . After attending the Army Service Schools at Fort Leavenworth , he joined the 22nd Infantry Regiment , which was stationed at Governors Island , New York , but was soon detailed for counter @-@ espionage duty and was recommended to join a new Counter Intelligence service that was being formed .
+
+On 10 September 1917 Mashbir was detailed as assistant to the Department Intelligence Officer at Governors Island . He enrolled in the Military Intelligence Division G @-@ 2 Reserves , where he was promoted to temporary Lieutenant Colonel . During this time he wrote the Provisional Rules for Counter Espionage , Eastern Department , which would become a model for future counterintelligence manuals until World War II , as well as a 52 @-@ page book titled Ten Lessons in Bayonet Fighting published by George Banta Publishing Company at the end of 1917 . Mashbir is also credited with investigations as a Coast Defense Intelligence Officer at Fort Hamilton , which uncovered the first German spy to be apprehended in the United States , Paul Otto Kuhn .
+
+= = = Between the wars = = =
+
+Following World War I , Mashbir held a position teaching military science and tactics at Syracuse University , where he first considered studying the Japanese language and culture . In August 1919 , he asked the War Department if he could embark on this course of study , stating that it was his intention to apply for a posting to Japan for the purpose of learning the language if the War Department saw fit . Ranked Captain , Mashbir was assigned as one of four US Army Language Officers in Japan on 7 July 1920 . He relocated to Tokyo the following month to begin his four @-@ year tour . When he arrived he reported for duty to Lieutenant Colonel Charles Burnett , the military attaché . Having few Army colleagues , while in Tokyo Mashbir sought the company of other intelligence professionals in the Navy , one of whom was an assistant naval attaché , Lieutenant @-@ Commander Ellis M. Zacharias , with whom Mashbir began a lifelong friendship and collaboration . In July 1922 , at Zacharias ' request , Mashbir secretly worked day and night to produce a secret plan to gather intelligence and get information out of Japan in case of war ; it become known as M @-@ Plan , named after Mashbir . His undisclosed activities working for the naval attaché did not sit well with his superiors , however .
+
+In order to establish a network of foreign businessmen in Japan who could be turned into an intelligence network in time of war , it was suggested by his commander , Colonel Burnett , that Mashbir resign his commission and become a businessman in Tokyo himself , in order to put the M @-@ Plan in effect . Consequently , Mashbir resigned in 1923 to pursue business interests and undercover secret intelligence operations , under the impression that he could be reinstated in the Army when his work was done . However the Great Kantō earthquake of September 1923 bankrupted him and , when he sought reinstatement in the military , discovered that it was not possible , because the reinstatement clause of the law under which he had resigned was no longer valid . Neither Mashbir nor Colonel Burnett , who had urged Mashbir to resign , was aware of this , and it become a sticking point for Mashbir in later life , noting that even in 1926 the law was still being reprinted without the correct clause . Consequently , the M @-@ Plan to establish an intelligence network in Japan was scrapped . Mashbir returned to the United States in 1926 under the impression that his military career was over , and sought employment selling refrigerators . He managed to rejoin the Military Intelligence Division G @-@ 2 Reserves , but only spent one year in active duty beginning in the summer of 1927 during which time he updated the Order of Battle documentation on Japan . For the next ten years he returned to his original profession of engineering , including some government work on technical standards .
+
+In 1937 , Mashbir returned to Japan after an 11 @-@ year absence in a second attempt to launch the M @-@ Plan on behalf of the Office of Naval Intelligence and his friend , naval attaché Zacharias . This mission aroused suspicions among ill @-@ informed military attachés in Tokyo and an investigation was started into Mashbir . In a misunderstanding that would come close to damaging his career irreparably once more , Mashbir was investigated in Hawaii and , influenced by the military attaché suspicions , a prejudicial report based upon erroneous assumptions was delivered on 24 June 1937 . Colonel Mashbir was advised on 25 February 1939 that he was disenrolled from the Military Intelligence Division G2 Reserves for failure to report on the specified day for physical examination . However , it appeared that the actual cause of the disenrollment was due to suspicions aroused by failure to communicate to uninformed individuals the nature and the extent of the work on which he was actually engaged . Mashbir ’ s dismissal and the failure to implement an intelligence network such as that suggested in Mashbir 's M @-@ Plan has been described as a key factor in the United States ' failure to have more information on Japan before the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 .
+
+= = = World War II and after = = =
+
+Despite Mashbir 's dismissal , the outbreak of hostilities in World War II between Japan and the US , led to him being immediately sought after by the Signal Corps due to his military experience , wide technical skill and knowledge of the Japanese language . He was sworn in for active duty on 24 January 1942 and sent to Brisbane , Australia , and later Manila , Philippines to co @-@ ordinate the inter @-@ service joint Australian / American Allied Translator and Interpreter Section ( ATIS ) , within the Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) . It was at this time that the suspicions which lingered about Mashbir ’ s 1937 mission to Japan on behalf of Naval Intelligence were cleared up with the assistance of Admiral Zacharias , now Assistant Director of Naval Intelligence , interceding with the Assistant Chief of Staff of G2 .
+
+The prompt accomplishments of the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section and Mashbir ’ s executive ability resulted in Mashbir being promoted to full Colonel by General Douglas MacArthur after only one month . Mashbir then joined the forefront of MacArthur ’ s intelligence activities and Japanese surrender negotiations , remaining the Commandant of ATIS until December 1945 . He was made famous at the time in the motion picture and still photograph of the preliminary surrender negotiations at Manila , as the man who pushed the ink @-@ well , indicating that General Richard K. Sutherland should correct the Japanese Instrument of Surrender ; and also as the man who thumbed the Japanese Lieutenant General Torashirō Kawabe along as he attempted to shake hands . The second incident provoked some mixed feelings , including sentiment that it could have damaged surrender talks . Mashbir also played a critical role retrieving and translating the Z Plan and in organizing the final surrender of Japan . In his autobiography , Mashbir explained that he was not permitted to shake hands , and that it would have been rude to point , which ultimately lead to the awkward thumbing motion that was photographed .
+
+Colonel Mashbir left Japan on 8 December 1945 to serve on the management staff of the Adjutant General ’ s office in Washington , later becoming the executive officer . He retired in October 1951 , having reached the statutory age of 60 . As a result of his military service , Mashbir received several medals including the Army Distinguished Service Medal , Army Commendation Medal ( Silver Oak Leaf Cluster ) , Army of Occupation Medal , World War II Victory Medal , American Defense Service Medal and American Campaign Medal . He was also recommended to become an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( Honorary ) in 1946 by the Australian Governor @-@ General , as was presented OBE insignia in 1948 .
+
+= = Later life = =
+
+Two years after retiring , Mashbir published a 374 @-@ page memoir describing his military and intelligence career in I Was an American Spy ( New York : Vantage , 1953 ) . In Chapter 13 , " The Nisei " ( whom Mashbir used as translators in ATIS ) he pays tribute to Military Intelligence Service ( MIS ) soldiers in these words : " The United States of America owes a debt to these men and to their families which it can never fully repay . "
+
+Because of the highly classified and secret nature of ATIS missions , and the work of many MIS soldiers , knowledge of Mashbir and his colleagues was largely missing during the war and even decades afterwards . The role and activities of the MIS was kept in secrecy for more than 30 years ; the few records about its activities were finally made available to the public in 1972 under the Freedom of Information Act , however much still remains unknown today . Consequently , many MIS soldiers did not receive recognition or decorations for their efforts . They became " unsung heroes " , unacknowledged for their contributions in wartime as well as postwar activities . An exception to this was the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame , of which Mashbir was inducted in 1988 .
+
+Sidney Mashbir died on 13 June 1973 and was buried at Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery , Point Loma , California . His second wife , Mary Irene ( Donahue ) Mashbir ( born 10 April 1896 ) , with whom he had his second son , Don , and with whom he was buried , died earlier on 3 May 1964 . He was survived by his third wife , Alice Moore Mashbir ( 1928 – 2003 ) , and his two sons , Forrester Mashbir ( 1921 – 2003 ) and Don Stuart Mashbir ( 1931 – 2008 ) .
+
+= Black Coffee ( All Saints song ) =
+
+" Black Coffee " is a song recorded by English @-@ Canadian girl group All Saints for their second studio album , Saints & Sinners ( 2000 ) . It was released by London Records on 2 October 2000 as the second single from the album . The track was initially written and recorded under the working title , " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " , by Swiss model and singer Kirsty Bertarelli , after she met Swiss entrepreneur Ernesto Bertarelli in 1997 . All Saints ' later recording was produced by William Orbit who , together with group members Shaznay Lewis and Melanie Blatt , gave it a new arrangement and renamed it " Black Coffee " . A moderately fast ambient , electropop and R & B song , " Black Coffee " has a distinctly production @-@ laden and hazy sound , with obscure and breathy keyboard instruments , guitar , synths , and glitching electronics throughout . It is a sad love song about Kirsty 's love at first sight feelings for Ernesto .
+
+The track has received universal acclaim from critics who have cited it as among the group 's best releases , commending Orbit 's obscure electronic production , and the group 's wistful harmonies . " Black Coffee " marked All Saints ' fifth number @-@ one single on the UK Singles Chart and , at the time , made them the girl group with the second most number @-@ one singles in the UK after the Spice Girls , surpassing B * Witched . It was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) and is the group 's fourth best @-@ selling single in the UK . " Black Coffee " also achieved success internationally , reaching the top 10 in Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , New Zealand and Sweden , and the top 20 in Australia , Finland and Norway .
+
+The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Bo Johan Renck . It made use of bullet time @-@ like effects and featured the group at a high rise apartment block , serenading an arguing couple . All Saints promoted " Black Coffee " with live performances on Top of the Pops , Children in Need , Later ... with Jools Holland and at the Smash Hits Poll Winners Party . Despite the single 's success , its release happened during a bitter rift within the group . This became visible publicly during tense live renditions of the song . As well , each member purposefully avoided the others filming their scenes separately during the making of the music video .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+Swiss model and singer Kirsty Bertarelli ( then Roper , stage name : Kirsty Elizabeth ) based " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " on her first experiences and feelings for Swiss entrepreneur Ernesto Bertarelli . The pair had met at a dinner on his yacht off the coast of Sardinia in 1997 , and fell in love . The track was later produced by Kirsty 's recording partner , and BBC Radio 1 DJ , Gary Davies who passed it on to songwriter Tom Nichols for input , in an attempt to establish " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " as a single for Kirsty . Nichols and Alexander Von Soos further modified the song and Kirsty later recorded the demo . Nichols developed it as a quirky pop song , something " slightly left of centre , not completely mainstream " and " slightly out of the ordinary " . While searching for a major label deal for Kirsty , Davies played the " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " demo to London Records executive Tracy Bennett who wanted the group All Saints to record it instead .
+
+= = New arrangement and recording = =
+
+Davies accepted Bennett 's offer , though much time had passed since their meeting leaving him and Nichols unsure if the song was going to be recorded at all . However , after the success of All Saints ' single " Pure Shores " in February 2000 , Bennett handed " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " over to musician William Orbit who was approached for the production of the group 's 2000 album Saints & Sinners . Orbit and All Saints members Shaznay Lewis and Melanie Blatt did a new arrangement for the song and renamed it " Black Coffee " .
+
+" Black Coffee " was recorded at Guerilla Beach and Larrabee West studios in Los Angeles , and at Sarm West and Olympic Studios in London . The recording sessions took place during a complex period for All Saints ; they had been developing Saints & Sinners for three years , having written over 40 songs for the album , and had to work around Orbit 's busy schedule for studio time with him . The " Black Coffee " sessions with Orbit were viewed by Blatt as beneficial for the group as he helped them to explore more experimental genres than those on their previous releases . Nichols found Orbit 's production " fantastic " and vastly different from that of the demo .
+
+For group member Natalie Appleton , the " Black Coffee " sessions were more frustrating . She was optimistic that the song could feature her own lead vocals as well as those of her sister and fellow group member Nicole Appleton as it was the group 's first original single not written by Lewis . According to Natalie , before the Appletons arrived at the session , Lewis was already present and " staking her claim " to sing lead vocals on " Black Coffee " because Blatt had the lead vocals on " Pure Shores " . Natalie then suggested that each member should have a chance at the song as they were all fond of it . Eventually , the group 's management let Natalie cut a lead vocal , but she was nervous during the session and believed they were placating her . In the Appletons ' autobiography Together , she recalled : " Without support , it is hard to do your best . " Lewis was ultimately chosen as the track 's lead vocalist ; Natalie found this unsurprising , but felt " used and slacked off " .
+
+= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
+
+" Black Coffee " is composed in 4 / 4 simple time with a moderately fast tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is an ambient , electropop , R & B song . The track has an unconventional sound ; it is complemented by being more production @-@ laden in comparison to other pop songs . The production is indebted to the genres of electronic and techno music with welding , clipped dance rhythms . It includes obscure and breathy keyboard instruments as well as guitar , synths , and glitching electronics throughout . The verses have a mellow , hazy , and sinister sound and are dislocated from one another with All Saints using eerie harmonies in the build @-@ up to the chorus . These segments generally follow a chord progression of Bm7 – E – Bm7 – E. In the chorus , the song becomes more wistful and changes to a sequence of E – Bm – D – A.
+
+" Black Coffee " is a sad love song about Kirsty 's love at first sight feelings for Ernesto . It recalls how they met , during a time where they were frequently sailing and did not want to be elsewhere . The hook , " I wouldn 't want to be anywhere else but here , anywhere at all " , explains how Ernesto made Kirsty feel . The song 's first verse and outro narrates their romance : " Night swimming / Beach walking / Always silent / Never talking / Then you call my name / And I know inside I love you ... " The second verse details more domestic scenarios during their relationship : " Brush your teeth / Pour yourself a cup of black coffee . " Mary Ann A. Bautista of the Philippine Daily Inquirer opined that the lyrics manifested a role reversal in a romantic relationship : " Not only does the girl make the first move , but she also reveals her true emotions by saying ' I love you ' first ; along the way , she hopes to be loved and nurtured . "
+
+= = Release and reception = =
+
+" Black Coffee " was released on 2 October 2000 as the second single from Saints & Sinners . London Records commissioned the single in CD , cassette , 7 " and 12 " formats . It was accompanied by a B @-@ side , " I Don 't Wanna Be Alone " , written by Lewis , Ali Tennant , Wayne Hector and Karl Gordon , and produced by Gordon . Remixes by ATFC , the Shadow Snipers and Wideboys were also made available , as well as a remix by The Neptunes which featured a rap by American duo Clipse . The single 's cover art was photographed by Ellen von Unwerth . A second version of the song accompanied the release of the group 's 2001 single " All Hooked Up " .
+
+= = = Critical response = = =
+
+" Black Coffee " has received universal acclaim from critics . Sean O 'Brien of The Sunday People gave the song a rating of eight out of ten , opining that it was poised for great commercial success . David Brinn of The Jerusalem Post called the track " wistful " and " radio @-@ friendly " . Tim de Lisle of The Mail on Sunday considered it a " wispy but beguiling piece " and wrote that Orbit 's " floaty atmospheres proved to be perfectly suited to the girls ' slender voices " . Simon Evans writing in the Birmingham Post described the song as a " beautiful slice of haunting , hypnotic pop " . John Mulvey of The Scotsman praised its " sleek , scrupulously mature sound " . Siobhan Grogan of the NME found the track " almost perfect " and complimented its " mellow , glossy haziness " , adding that it was if the group recorded the track lying down . Grogan concluded : " It 's wistful in all the right places and makes sadness sound rather alluring like only the bitterest love songs can . " John Walshe of the Hot Press deemed the group 's harmonies " so saccharine they could have been copyrighted by NutraSweet " .
+
+A Sunday Herald critic opined that the song was " impressively @-@ lacquered " and " undoubtedly [ helped ] tentpole the album proper " . Samuel McGuire of the same publication viewed the track as a " gem of a truly wondrous lustre " . Nigel Packer of the BBC News considered it to be a highlight of Saints & Sinners , complimenting its " pure pop " and " liquid techno sound " . Lindsay Baker of The Guardian cited " Black Coffee " as the album 's " particularly infectious " track . R.S. Murthi writing in the New Straits Times described it as " the most endearing " song on Saints & Sinners , deeming it " tasty " and " redolent of the Cocteau Twins " . Eva Simpson of the Daily Mirror regarded the track as " sassy " and a " curtain raiser " for Saints & Sinners , noting that Orbit 's production " brought the same high @-@ gloss sheen " as " Pure Shores " . Adrian Thrills of the Daily Mail named " Black Coffee " , together with " Pure Shores " , as the two best tracks on the album , deeming them " brilliantly produced " . Russell Baillie of The New Zealand Herald considered " Black Coffee " , along with " Pure Shores " and " Surrender " , to " put most [ of the album ] in the shade " . A Western Mail critic said " Black Coffee " was as " equally tremendous " as " Pure Shores " .
+
+Julie MacCaskill of the Daily Record believed that the song was a testament to the group 's " pop power " . Jon O 'Brien from AllMusic felt that " Black Coffee " was among All Saints ' most accomplished and mature work , praising its " lush electronic landscapes " . " Black Coffee " placed among 2000 year @-@ end lists compiled by Dotmusic ( number three ) , and the NME ( number 26 ) . In 2016 , Lewis Corner from Digital Spy placed the song at number three in his ranking of All Saints ' singles , commending its " euphoric " chorus and concluding : " It quite literally is pop @-@ form caffeine . "
+
+= = = Chart performance = = =
+
+" Black Coffee " debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart for the week @-@ ending 14 October 2000 with first @-@ week sales of 60 @,@ 000 copies . At the time , this was the second lowest first @-@ week sales tally for a number @-@ one single in 2000 , beating only Westlife 's " I Have a Dream " / " Seasons in the Sun " . In spite of low sales , " Black Coffee " sold nearly 25 % more copies than the number @-@ two single that week - Mariah Carey and Westlife 's " Against All Odds " . It marked All Saints ' fifth number @-@ one single and , at the time , made them the girl group with the second @-@ most number one singles after the Spice Girls , surpassing B * Witched . The song was also Orbit 's third UK number @-@ one single as a producer in 2000 , following " Pure Shores " and Madonna 's " American Pie " . " Black Coffee " dropped to number three in its second week and went on to spend a total of 21 weeks on the chart . On 20 October 2000 , the single was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting UK shipments in excess of 200 @,@ 000 copies . By 2008 , " Black Coffee " had sold 230 @,@ 000 copies . It is the group 's fourth best @-@ selling single in the UK according to the Official Charts Company .
+
+The song also had success across Europe , peaking at number five on the European Hot 100 Singles chart for two consecutive weeks . It reached the top 10 in Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands and Sweden , and the top 20 in Finland and Norway . In Australia , the track entered the ARIA Singles Chart issued for 15 October 2000 at number 29 and went on to peak at number 20 for two consecutive weeks . " Black Coffee " debuted at number 40 on the New Zealand Singles Chart dated 29 October 2000 and reached number seven in its seventh week , becoming All Saints ' fifth top 10 single there . The success of " Black Coffee " launched both Nichols and Kirsty 's musical careers . In an interview for HitQuarters , Nichols explained : " I owe a lot to the All Saints and to Tracy Bennett at London [ ... ] they are a large further reason why I have a career because suddenly when that song was released , the opportunities that [ I got ] certainly in the UK , but also Europe @-@ wide , [ were ] absolutely huge . " Kirsty received royalties of over £ 12 @,@ 000 .
+
+= = Music video = =
+
+The accompanying music video for " Black Coffee " was directed by Bo Johan Renck . It was filmed at Ealing Studios in London on 17 August 2000 . Special effects , similar to the bullet time from the 1999 film The Matrix , were used as they were considered state of the art at the time . The video was specially edited as each All Saints member filmed their scenes separately . The members requested that they not be put in the same room as each other because they were not on speaking terms during this period . The Daily Mirror reported : " The girls have formed camps with sisters Nicole and Natalie sticking together while Mel and Shaznay are the other duo . There are definitely tensions . " The video aired on 4 September 2000 .
+
+The video opens with a view of a high rise apartment block at night and All Saints , in individual scenes , dancing and singing from its rooftop . An interracial couple is shown arguing in various rooms in their apartment as different members of the group appear invisible beside them at various points . Each time the pair engages in aggressive behaviour , their actions are frozen while All Saints serenade them . These actions include : throwing pillows , leaves , a suitcase full of clothes , splashing bathwater , and breaking a mirror . The girlfriend later sits in a corner and cries during her boyfriend 's rage . The video ends with frozen , individual visuals of each group member throughout the now empty apartment .
+
+The music video received heavy rotation from MTV Europe . Corner noted that it signified when " cracks were initially starting to show " within All Saints , explaining : " There 's a reason they don 't appear alongside each other in the music video : by then , they couldn 't physically stand each other . " CBC Television placed " Black Coffee " at number five in its ranking of the group 's music videos , praising its special effects and the combination of " an angelic serenade during an argument " . Jon Stewart , author of Oh Blessed Holy Caffeine Tree : Coffee in Popular Music , felt that the music video 's " opulent location " identified " strongly with the culture industry 's image of coffee as a luxurious beverage whose consumption signifies prominent social status " . Stewart further opined that the visual put emphasis on the " romantic disharmony " of the song 's lyrics .
+
+= = Live performances = =
+
+To promote " Black Coffee " , All Saints first performed it at BBC 's People 's Awards on 6 October 2000 . The group also performed the song on Top of the Pops on 13 October 2000 , the Pepsi Chart Show on 15 October 2000 , and at G @-@ A @-@ Y on 11 November 2000 . The group also performed the song for BBC 's Children in Need telethon on 17 November 2000 . Prior to this performance , there was much backstage tension between the group 's members because Nicole had revealed her pregnancy to the other members the previous day . Spice Girls singer Melanie C described the atmosphere as " icy " , while Nicole 's then @-@ boyfriend Liam Gallagher recalled : " Nic and Nat are working really hard , but it doesn 't matter what they do – the other two have got it in for them . You don 't treat people like that , trying to control their lives . " All Saints performed " Black Coffee " along with " Pure Shores " and " Whoopin ' Over You " on Later ... with Jools Holland on 18 November 2000 .
+
+The group next performed the song at the Smash Hits Poll Winners Party on 10 December 2000 . By this time , tensions within the group had become visible on stage ; and the Appletons , along with their make @-@ up artists and hairdressers , were ignored by Lewis and Blatt . Natalie recalled : " It was as if Nic and I were not there . " The performance received a negative review from Betty Clarke of The Guardian who wrote : " Only All Saints let the side down , going through the motions ... " All Saints performed " Black Coffee " and " Pure Shores " at Capital Radio 's Christmas Party later that month . However , a rift between the members was now palpable on stage with Lewis and Blatt on one side of the stage and the Appletons on the other . The tension was prompted by a row which erupted backstage between Lewis and Natalie over who would wear a particular jacket for the performance and nearly led to the two coming to blows . The rift ultimately caused All Saints to split up the following year .
+
+In 2000 , Kirsty sang " Black Coffee " at her wedding to Ernesto . In an interview for The Daily Telegraph , she said : " Hearing my song on the radio brought mixed emotions , I have to be thankful to All Saints , they were so popular at the time they could make the song number one , but I knew the emotions behind that song . I wanted to sing it myself because there 'd have been real meaning behind it , which was my love for Ernesto . " In 2014 , All Saints reunited and performed " Black Coffee " as part of their set list for five dates as special guests on the Backstreet Boys ' In a World Like This Tour in Ireland and the UK ( 26 March – 5 April 2014 ) . The group dressed in tracksuit jackets , and casual leggings and trousers for their renditions . They also reprised the song at G @-@ A @-@ Y on 12 April 2014 , and performed it at the V Festival ( 16 @-@ 17 August 2014 ) . The group then performed " Black Coffee " at Manchester Pride on 25 August 2014 , dressed in matching military shirts , bomber jackets , leggings and trainers .
+
+= = Legacy = =
+
+According to Clem Bastow of The Sydney Morning Herald , " Black Coffee " , in particular , won All Saints " major critical points " over the Spice Girls and complemented the group 's " impeccable back catalogue " . Graeme Virtue of the Sunday Herald hailed it as one of " the best pop singles ever " . Kathy McCabe of the Herald Sun deemed the song " the benchmark of sassy , harmony @-@ laden pop " . Christie Leo of the New Straits Times wrote : " The aromatic shimmer of ' Black Coffee ' alone is all the evidence you 'll need to know that All Saints were truly heavenly . " Ian Sturgess of the Daily Mirror said the track : " boasts one of the most infectious pop choruses of all time " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian found " Black Coffee " superior to " Pure Shores " , praising its " beguiling treatment of a domestic scenario " and citing its lyrics as " easily the most alluring depiction of a bleary @-@ eyed morning routine ever recorded . " Q magazine placed " Black Coffee " in their list of 1010 Songs You Must Own .
+
+In 2007 , " Black Coffee " was included in the competitive music video game series SingStar . According to Fiona Shepherd of The Scotsman , the " smart @-@ pop attack " of the song " paved the way " for later girl groups Girls Aloud and the Sugababes . Neil Hannon of the Irish band The Divine Comedy expressed admiration for " Black Coffee " , commending its production @-@ heavy sound which " adds to the sound of it , rather than taking anything away " , and noted that its sound later became apparent in singles by Girls Aloud : " Girls Aloud do pop like that now : songs like ' Biology ' are a bit weird , and they flout the general rules , and I admire that . But ' Black Coffee ' is better . " Writing for Metro in 2013 , Seamus Duff stated that " Black Coffee " still sounded as " fresh and relevant " .
+
+= = Formats and track listings = =
+
+= = Credits and personnel = =
+
+Credits adapted from the liner notes of Saints & Sinners .
+
+= = Charts = =
+
+= = Certification = =
+
+= Juniata County , Pennsylvania =
+
+Juniata County is a county located in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . At the 2010 census , the population was 24 @,@ 636 . Its county seat is Mifflintown . The county was created on March 2 , 1831 , from part of Mifflin County and named for the Juniata River .
+
+Mountains in Juniata County include Tuscarora Mountain and Shade Mountain . Agricultural land and forested land make up most of the county 's area . Major rivers and creeks in the county include the Susquehanna River , the Juniata River , Tuscarora Creek , and West Branch Mahantango Creek . It borders six other counties . The county lies over 16 different rock formations ( which are from the Ordovician , Silurian , and Devonian ) and 51 different soils .
+
+Juniata County has a relatively low population density . The most population @-@ dense parts of the county are the boroughs of Mifflintown and Mifflin . The most common races in the county are white ( 96 @.@ 8 % of all residents ) and black ( 0 @.@ 6 % of all residents ) . Between 1940 and 2005 , Juniata County 's population grew faster than all but two other counties in Pennsylvania . Susquehanna Township had the fastest @-@ growing population of any borough or township in the county during this time period . Livestock farming is the largest industry in the county , although there are other industries as well , including crop farming and tourism . Manufacturing jobs are the most common jobs in the county . The county 's median household income is $ 34 @,@ 698 per year and its median family income is $ 39 @,@ 757 per year . The poverty rate is 9 @.@ 5 % and the unemployment rate is 5 @.@ 4 % . The median house value in the county was $ 87 @,@ 000 in 2000 . The main roads in Juniata County are Pennsylvania Route 235 , Pennsylvania Route 35 , Pennsylvania Route 104 , U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 , U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , Pennsylvania Route 74 , Pennsylvania Route 850 , and Pennsylvania Route 333 .
+
+There are four boroughs and thirteen townships in Juniata County . The county is served by two school districts : the Juniata County School District and the Greenwood School District . There are five areas in Juniata County that are protected by the Central Pennsylvania Conservancy and 59 natural heritage sites in the county .
+
+The first European settlers arrived in Juniata County in the 1750s . The county has historically been part of Mifflin County and before that , part of Cumberland County .
+
+= = History = =
+
+Juniata County was historically a part of Cumberland County and later Mifflin County . Juniata County was formed on March 2 , 1831 , from parts of Mifflin County . It is named after the Juniata River . The word " juniata " itself is a Seneca word that means either " people of the standing stone " or " blue waters " . The first boroughs in the county to be settled were Mifflintown and Thompsontown , which were settled in 1790 . Port Royal and Mifflin were settled in 1812 and 1848 , respectively . The first of these borough to be incorporated was Mifflintown , on March 6 , 1833 . The last one to be incorporated was Thompsontown , on February 7 , 1868 . However , squatters arrived in the county and were removed from it considerably earlier , by 1750 and one of the first warrants for land in the county was issued in 1755 . Many of the earliest landowners in Delaware Township were speculators as opposed to settlers . There was an Indian raid in the county in 1755 and 1756 , although Fort Bingham and Fort Peterson had been constructed . The Beale family was one of the earliest families to inhabit the county . More settlers arrived in the 1750s and 1760s and the first gristmill on the western side of the Juniata River was built in the county in 1767 . A public road was built in the county between Tuscarora Creek and a location near Shade Mountain in 1768 . John Hamilton constructed a sawmill and gristmill on Cocalamus Creek in Delaware Township in 1776 . The first known physician in the county , Dr. Ezra Doty , settled in Mifflintown in 1791 .
+
+The first four townships in what would become Juniata County were formed on October 23 , 1754 . They were Lack Township , Aire Township , Fannett Township , and Tyrone Township . These early townships had no formal boundaries . By 1913 , the original townships had been divided into a total of 13 townships .
+
+The Pennsylvania Canal began serving Juniata County in 1826 and closed in 1900 . The Pennsylvania Railroad reached the county in the late 1840s . The Tuscarora Valley Railroad was also in the county until it closed in 1934 .
+
+During Hurricane Agnes in 1972 , a total of 6374 acres of Juniata County were flooded . 57 families were displaced during this flooding .
+
+Juniata County was the last county in Pennsylvania to develop a modern comprehensive plan . It did , however , construct a comprehensive plan in 1974 .
+
+In a 1997 survey , 66 @.@ 8 % of respondents found Juniata County a " very desirable " living place . In a similar survey in 2007 , however , only 56 @.@ 9 % of respondents found the county a " very desirable " living place .
+
+= = = Historic places = = =
+
+Eight locations in Juniata County are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . They were listed between 1972 and 1986 . They include the Academia Pomeroy Covered Bridge , the Tuscarora Academy , and the Book Site in Beale Township ; the Dimmsville Covered Bridge in Greenwood Township ; the Lehmans @-@ Port Royal Bridge in Milford Township ; and the East Oriental and North Oriental covered bridges . Eight additional places are eligible for a listing on the National Register of Historic Places . There are five Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission historical markers in Juniata County . They commemorate the Tuscarora Path , the Tuscarora Academy , Patterson 's Fort , Fort Bingham , and Juniata County itself .
+
+The Academia Pomeroy Covered Bridge ( also known as the Pomeroy Academia Covered Bridge ) was built in 1901 . It is 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) wide and 278 feet ( 85 m ) long , making it one of the longest remaining covered bridges in Pennsylvania .
+
+= = Geography = =
+
+According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the county has a total area of 394 square miles ( 1 @,@ 020 km2 ) , of which 391 square miles ( 1 @,@ 010 km2 ) is land and 2 @.@ 2 square miles ( 5 @.@ 7 km2 ) ( 0 @.@ 6 % ) is water .
+
+Juniata County is located between two major metropolitan areas . One is State College , which is northwest of the county . The other is Harrisburg , which is to the southeast of the county . U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , which is a four @-@ lane highway , leads from the county to these metropolitan areas .
+
+Parts of Juniata County are fairly flat , but there are areas in the county with slopes of 25 % or greater . However , most development in the county is confined to areas with slopes of 15 % or less . Many of the county 's steepest slopes , with grades of 25 % of more , are located on the edges of the county . These slopes are generally found on mountainous ridges . However , there are some similarly steep slopes in the middle of the county . All four boroughs in the county have slopes with a grade of 25 % or more near them . Slopes of 15 % to 25 % can be found throughout the county .
+
+Much of Juniata County is hilly . Mountains occupy many of the county 's borders . Tuscarora Mountain forms the county 's border with Perry County . Shade Mountain runs from Snyder County through Juniata County and into Huntingdon County .
+
+There are two locations in Juniata County that the Juniata County Comprehensive Plan describes as " outstanding and unique scenic features " . These are Hawstone Overlook and the Concord Narrows . Hawstone Overlook is an overlook in Milford Township on Pennsylvania Route 333 , from which the Juniata River between Shade Mountain and Blue Mountain can be seen , as well as the Lewistown Narrows . The Concord Narrows are a narrow water gap where the Juniata River flows past Tuscarora Mountain . Quartizite from the Silurian Period can be found in this water gap .
+
+= = = Rivers and watersheds = = =
+
+There are several major streams and rivers in Juniata County . These include the Susquehanna River , the Juniata River , Tuscarora Creek , Cocolamus Creek , West Branch Mahantango Creek , Licking Creek , and Lost Creek .
+
+112 @,@ 000 acres , or 45 % of Juniata County 's area is in the Tuscarora Creek watershed , including the borough of Port Royal . 59 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 % of the county 's area ) is in the Juniata River watershed . This area includes parts of all four of the boroughs in the county . 26 @,@ 000 acres of Juniata County are in the Cocolamus Creek watershed and a similar amount of the county is in the watershed of Lost Creek . 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 % of the counties area ) are in the West Branch Mahantango Creek watershed .
+
+= = = Land use = = =
+
+Residential land makes up more than 50 @,@ 000 acres , or one fifth , of Juniata County 's area . The bulk of residential land is single @-@ family dwellings , but seasonal homes and mobile homes also make up significant portions of it . The county 's residential land is concentrated along in its boroughs , but occurs along roads and in villages throughout the county . Multi @-@ family residential land is comparatively rare . Less than 1 % of the county 's land ( 430 acres ) is used for manufacturing purposes . Only approximately 370 acres are used for transportation and utilities . Roughly 300 acres are used for transportation and communication and 70 acres are used for other utilities . Businesses make up 0 @.@ 21 % of the county 's land , or 525 acres . 490 acres are devoted to retail businesses , while 35 acres are devoted to wholesale businesses . Services occupy 0 @.@ 67 % of the county 's area .
+
+Land devoted to recreation in Juniata County makes up 0 @.@ 5 % , or 1000 acres , of its area . Agricultural land comprises 41 % ( 101 @,@ 000 acres ) of the county . A total of 167 @,@ 500 acres , or approximately two thirds of the county 's area , is forested land . Large portions of the southwestern part of the county are forested . 34 % of the county 's land is undeveloped , most of which ( 60 @,@ 000 acres ) is unused land .
+
+The vast majority of Juniata County is rural land . However , there are a few rural hamlets and villages ( which have one to four housing units per acre ) scattered throughout the county . There is also an area termed a " high growth area " by the Juniata County Comprehensive Plan near the boroughs of Mifflin and Mifflintown . It has between 8 and 17 housing units per acre . The Juniata County Comprehensive Plan also designates areas near Thompsontown and Port Royal as " rural growth area [ s ] " . These areas have three to six housing units per acre .
+
+= = = Adjacent counties = = =
+
+Juniata County borders Mifflin County , Pennsylvania to the northwest , Snyder County , Pennsylvania to the north , Northumberland County , Pennsylvania to the northeast , Dauphin County , Pennsylvania to the southeast , Perry County , Pennsylvania to the south , and Huntingdon County , Pennsylvania and Franklin County , Pennsylvania to the southwest .
+
+= = Geology = =
+
+Juniata County lies over 16 different rock formations , some of which contain limestone . These rock formations come from the Ordovician Period , the Silurian Period , and the Devonian Period . The northernmost part of the county contains rocks of the Juniata Formation , the Bald Eagle Formation , and undivided Juniata and Bald Eagle formations . All of these formations primarily consist of sandstone . South of these formations lie the Bloomsburg and Mifflintown Formation undivided , the Clinton Group , and the Tuscarora Formation . The first two of these consist mainly of shale , while the third is composed of quartzite . The rock formations in the southwestern part of the county include the Brallier and Harrell Formations undivided , the Hamilton Group , the Irish Valley member of the Catskill Formation , and others . The eastern part of the county lies almost entirely over the Hamilton Group , the Tuscarora Formation , and the Irish Valley member of the Cataskill Formation .
+
+Other rock formations found in Juniata County include the Keyser through Mifflintown Formation undivided , the Keyser and Tonoloway Formation undivided , the Onondaga and Old Port Formations undivided , the Reedsville Formation , the Trimmers Rock Formation , the Wills Creek Formation , and the Wills Creek Formation through Mifflintown Formation undivided .
+
+Four of the rock formations found in Juniata County come from def Ordovician Period , seven come from the Silurian Period , and seven come from the Devonian Period .
+
+There are seven soil associations in Juniata County . One of these is the Hazelton @-@ Laidig @-@ Buchanan Association . It is a deep and fairly well @-@ drained soil that is found in 24 % of the county . It is mostly found in the county 's forested areas . The Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Bedington Association is also found in the county . It is found in 33 % of the county 's area and is not as deep as the Hazelton @-@ Laidig @-@ Buchanan Association , but is well @-@ drained . The soil is mostly found in agricultural lands and some forested areas . Another soil association in the county is the Edon @-@ Opequon @-@ Weikert Association , which is a well @-@ drained soil that occupies 17 % of the county . The Elliber @-@ Kreamer @-@ Mertz Association is a deep and well @-@ drained soil that makes up 12 % of the county . The Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly Association and the Morrison @-@ Hazelton @-@ Clymer Association make up 7 % and 6 % of the county , respectively . They are both deep and occur on gentle slopes . However , the former is poorly drained , while the latter is well @-@ drained . The Hazelton @-@ Laidig @-@ Buchanan Association is well @-@ drained and makes up 1 % of the county 's area .
+
+There are 51 different soil types in Juniata County , of which 18 are considered prime farmland . There area few agricultural soils on the northern and southern edges of the county .
+
+The main rock formations in the boroughs of Mifflin and Mifflintown are the undivided Keyser and Tonoloway Formations and the Irish Valley Member of the Catskill Formation . The same rock formations are found in the borough of Port Royal , along with the Clinton Group and the Hamilton Group to the northwest and southeast of the borough , respectively . The Hamilton Group , the Keyser and Tonoloway Formations , and the Irish Valley Member of the Catskill Formation are found in or near the borough of Thompsontown .
+
+= = Climate = =
+
+Juniata County is in the Humid Continental climatic region . In the summer , highs are generally in between 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) and 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) , but on occasion exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) . The lows in the summer are typically slightly below 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) . High temperatures in the winter are usually between 30 ° F ( − 1 ° C ) and 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) .
+
+On average , Juniata County receives 38 inches ( 97 cm ) of precipitation per year . An average of 28 inches ( 71 cm ) of snow fall on the county each winter . The county rarely experiences long @-@ term droughts , but does experience short @-@ term droughts often .
+
+= = Demographics = =
+
+At the 2010 census , there were 24 @,@ 636 people , 9 @,@ 476 households , and 6 @,@ 839 families residing in Juniata County . The projected population of the county for 2020 is 26 @,@ 071 . The population density was 63 people per square mile ( 24 / km ² ) . There were 10 @,@ 978 housing units at an average density of 28 per square mile ( 10 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the county was 96 @.@ 8 % White , 0 @.@ 6 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 1 % Native American , 0 @.@ 3 % Asian ( 0 @.@ 1 % Indian , 0 @.@ 1 % Chinese , and 0 @.@ 1 % Korean ) , 1 @.@ 1 % from other races , and 1 % from two or more races .
+
+There are eight Filipino people , five Vietnamese people , and two Samoans in Juniata County .
+
+2 @.@ 5 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . These include 195 Puerto Ricans , 77 Mexicans , and 2 Cubans . The highest percentage of Hispanic people in any township or borough in the county is 8 @.@ 71 % , in Mifflintown . Between 1990 and 2000 , the Hispanic population in the county increased by 653 % . In 2000 , 45 @.@ 4 % of the population of Juniata County were of German , 20 @.@ 2 % American , 5 @.@ 7 % Irish and 5 @.@ 0 % English ancestry according to Census 2000 . 3 @.@ 95 % reported speaking Pennsylvania German , German , or Dutch at home ; 1 @.@ 63 % speak Spanish .
+
+The housing density and population density of Juniata County is considerably below average for a Pennsylvania county .
+
+The administrative subdivisions of Juniata County with the highest population density are Mifflintown ( with a density of 6 @,@ 184 @.@ 9 people per square mile ) , Mifflin ( with a density of 3506 @.@ 9 people per square mile ) , and Thompsontown ( with a density of 2193 @.@ 1 people per square mile ) . The township with the highest population density in the county is Monroe Township , with 104 @.@ 0 people per square mile . The highest density of housing units in the county is in Mifflintown ( 2 @,@ 837 @.@ 4 per square mile ) , followed by Mifflin ( 1 @,@ 454 @.@ 2 per square mile ) and Thompsontown ( 1 @,@ 144 @.@ 4 per square mile ) . Greenwood Township has the third lowest population density of any administrative division in Juniata County : 27 @.@ 9 people per square mile . The second lowest density is in Tuscarora Township ( 24 @.@ 5 people per square mile ) and the lowest density is in Lack Township ( 13 @.@ 2 people per square mile ) . The lowest density of housing units in the county is in Lack Township ( 10 @.@ 0 per square mile ) , the second @-@ lowest density is in Greenwood Township ( 11 @.@ 3 per square mile ) , and the third @-@ lowest density is in Tuscarora Township ( 13 @.@ 7 per square mile ) .
+
+Between 1940 and 2005 , the population of Juniata County was proportionally the third fastest @-@ growing population of any county in Pennsylvania , with only Snyder County 's and Perry County 's populations growing faster . In this time period , the county 's population has increased by 50 @.@ 69 % , or 7 @,@ 792 people . In the 1980s , the county 's rate of population growth was more than 50 times higher than the rate of population growth in Pennsylvania . The county 's rate of population growth in the 1970s was even higher .
+
+Susquehanna Township 's population was the fastest @-@ growing population of any administrative division in Juniata County between 1990 and 2005 , with an increase of 35 @.@ 42 % . Other fast @-@ growing populations in the county include those of Milford Township ( 22 @.@ 53 % ) and Thompsontown 20 @.@ 1 % ) . The populations of Mifflin and Mifflintown are the only administrative divisions in the county whose populations decreased in that time period ( at a rate of -7.42 % and -3.7 % , respectively ) . However , between 2000 and 2005 , eight administrative divisions experienced decreasing populations . Between 1990 and 2000 , every borough and township in the county experienced an increase in population .
+
+At the 2010 census , the average household size in Juniata County was 2 @.@ 57 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 01 . 23 @.@ 0 % of the county 's households were inhabited by a single individual .
+
+In 2000 , there were 11 @,@ 353 males and 11 @,@ 468 females in Juniata County , or 98 @.@ 99 males per 100 females . The highest percentage of males in any administrative division in the county was 52 @.@ 07 % , in Beale Township . The highest percentage of females in any township or borough in the county was 52 @.@ 95 % , in Fermanagh Township .
+
+At the 2010 census , the population in Juniata County was spread out with 6 @.@ 3 % under 5 years of age , 6 @.@ 8 % from 5 to 9 years of age , and the same percentage from 10 to 14 years of age . 6 @.@ 5 % of the county 's inhabitants were 15 to 19 years of age , 5 @.@ 4 % were 20 to 24 years old , 5 @.@ 3 % were 25 to 29 years old , and 5 @.@ 5 % were 30 to 34 years old . People of 35 to 39 years of age comprised 6 @.@ 1 % of the population , 40- to 44 @-@ year @-@ olds comprised 6 @.@ 6 % of the population , and 7 @.@ 6 % of the population consisted of 50- to 54 @-@ year @-@ olds . People of 55 to 59 years of age made up 7 @.@ 6 % of the population , people of 60 to 54 years of age comprised 6 @.@ 0 % of it , and 65- to 69 @-@ year @-@ olds made up 4 @.@ 9 % of the population . People of 70 to 74 years of age make up 3 @.@ 9 % of the county 's population , people of 75 to 79 years of age make up 3 @.@ 2 % of the population , people of 80 to 84 years old make up 2 @.@ 5 % of the population , and people older than 85 years make up 2 @.@ 3 % of the population .
+
+= = Infrastructure , industry , and economy = =
+
+In 2000 , the agricultural , hunting / fishing , forestry , and mining industries made up 5 @.@ 46 % of the industry in Juniata County . Livestock farming was more popular in the county than crop cultivation . In 2002 , the egg and poultry industry in the county generated $ 32 million in sales ( the 7th highest of the Pennsylvania counties ) and the dairy industry generated $ 17 million in sales ( the 23rd highest of the Pennsylvania counties ) . The hog and pig industry generated $ 7 million and the cattle industry generated $ 4 million in sales ( the 10th and 27th highest of Pennsylvania counties , respectively ) . The county 's grain industry generated $ 1 million ( the 35th highest of Pennsylvania counties ) . The county is the fourth most prolific poultry @-@ producing county in Pennsylvania . In addition to the aforementioned industries , there are also small @-@ scale clothing manufacturing businesses in the county .
+
+There were 801 farms in Juniata County in 1997 , occupying a total of 96 @,@ 312 acres of farmland . By 2002 , there were only 644 farms and 86 @,@ 203 acres of farmland .
+
+There is one public library in Juniata County : the Juniata County Library in Mifflintown . It has approximately 64 @,@ 000 materials and an annual circulation of 131 @,@ 940 materials . It will be celebrating its 50th anniversary in 2016 .
+
+There are no hospitals in Juniata County . The county is served by a hospital in Lewistown , which was established in 1905 . The county has six emergency medical services units and eight fire companies , all of which are volunteer fire departments . As the county does not have its own police force , it is served by the Pennsylvania State Police .
+
+There are more than 100 cemeteries in Juniata County .
+
+= = = Economic and employment statistics = = =
+
+In 2000 , the most common occupation in Juniata County was manufacturing . 23 @.@ 6 % of employed people over 16 years old in the county performed manufacturing jobs . 10 @.@ 5 % of employed people older than 16 worked in health services , 9 @.@ 5 % worked in other services , 9 @.@ 3 % each work in construction and retail , 6 @.@ 2 % worked in public administration , and 6 @.@ 1 % worked in transportation . 5 @.@ 6 % had an occupation in the field of education , and a similar number worked in finance , insurance , and real estate . 5 @.@ 5 % worked in agriculture , fishing , forestry , or mining , 3 @.@ 5 % worked in wholesale trade , 1 @.@ 7 % worked in communications , utilities , and related fields .
+
+In 2000 , a total of 1 @,@ 955 households in Juniata County made less than $ 20 @,@ 000 per year and 3036 households made $ 20 @,@ 000 to $ 39 @,@ 999 per year . 1 @,@ 940 households made $ 40 @,@ 000 to $ 59 @,@ 999 per year , 1 @,@ 308 households made $ 60 @,@ 000 to $ 99 @,@ 999 per year , and 216 households made $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 149 @,@ 999 per year . 125 households made more than $ 150 @,@ 000 per year . In 1999 , the median household income for the county was $ 34 @,@ 698 per year and the median family income was $ 39 @,@ 757 per year . Both of these figures are lower than the average for Pennsylvania . The per capita income in the county was $ 16 @,@ 142 per year in 1999 and $ 14 @,@ 539 in 1989 . The county 's poverty rate , 9 @.@ 5 % , is below the average poverty rate for Pennsylvania , which is 11 % . In 1999 , Mifflin had the highest poverty rate of any township or borough in the county , 17 @.@ 54 % . Greenwood Township had the lowest poverty rate , 6 @.@ 99 % . The county 's unemployment rate was 5 @.@ 3 % in 1999 and 5 @.@ 4 % in 2008 . According to the Juniata County Comprehensive Plan , the economic situation in the county " suggests a fairly healthy county economy " .
+
+Of the boroughs and townships in Juniata County , Beale Township had the highest household and family income in 1999 : $ 41 @,@ 458 and $ 43 @,@ 625 , respectively . The borough of Mifflin had the lowest household and family income in 1999 : $ 26 @,@ 438 and $ 28 @,@ 750 , respectively .
+
+94 @.@ 32 % of the houses in Juniata County have full plumbing facilities . This is below Pennsylvania 's average ( 98 @.@ 51 % ) , which may be due to the presence of cabins and other houses that are not permanently inhabited . Mifflin has the highest percentage of houses with full plumbing facilities of any township or borough in the county ( 100 % ) . Lack Township has the lowest percentage of houses with full plumbing facilities ( 72 @.@ 31 % ) . There are six public sewer companies in the county , the largest of which , the Twin Boroughs Sanitary Authority , is used at a rate of 450 @,@ 000 gallons per day . The county also has five public water companies , including the Port Royal Municipal Authority and the Mifflintown Municipal Authority . The Mifflintown Municipal Authority is the most @-@ used water company in the county , serving 465 @,@ 000 gallons of water per day .
+
+On average , Juniata County generates 32 tons of solid waste per day .
+
+Nine townships and all four boroughs in Juniata County receive electricity from Pennsylvania Power and Light . The remaining townships are given electricity by First Energy and Valley Rural Electric Cooperative , Inc .. Nittany Media Inc. and Dish and Direct TV provide cable services to the county .
+
+= = = Housing = = =
+
+In 2000 , 28 @.@ 70 % of the houses in Juniata County were built before 1939 , 6 @.@ 51 % were built in the 1940s , and 8 @.@ 26 % were built in the 1950s . 8 @.@ 53 % of the county 's houses were built in the 1960s , 17 @.@ 99 % were built in the 1970s , and 14 @.@ 18 % were built in the 1980s . 15 @.@ 82 % of the houses were built in the 1990s or in 2000 . The majority of the houses in Mifflin and Mifflintown were built before 1939 .
+
+In 2000 , 14 @.@ 43 % of the houses in Juniata County were vacant . 9 @.@ 42 % of the county 's houses were vacant for seasonal or recreational reasons . The county 's vacancy rate is higher than average for Pennsylvania . Mifflintown had the lowest vacancy rate of any township or borough in the county ( 5 @.@ 18 % ) . Lack Township had the highest vacancy rate ( 48 @.@ 77 % ) . 66 @.@ 49 % of the county 's houses are occupied by their owner and 19 @.@ 08 % are occupied by a renter . Many of the houses in the southwestern part of the county are seasonally occupied .
+
+13 @.@ 11 % of the houses in Juniata County cost less than $ 50 @,@ 000 and 51 @.@ 07 % cost $ 50 @,@ 000 to $ 99 @,@ 999 . 17 @.@ 51 % of the county 's houses cost $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 124 @,@ 999 and 9 @.@ 74 % cost from $ 125 @,@ 000 to $ 149 @,@ 999 . 4 @.@ 62 % of the houses cost between $ 150 @,@ 000 and $ 174 @,@ 999 and 1 @.@ 21 % cost between $ 175 @,@ 000 and $ 199 @,@ 999 . 1 @.@ 92 % of the houses in the county cost between $ 200 @,@ 000 and $ 249 @,@ 999 , 0 @.@ 39 % cost between $ 250 @,@ 000 and $ 299 @,@ 999 , and 0 @.@ 43 % cost more than $ 300 @,@ 000 . Of the administrative divisions in the county , Fermanagh Township has the highest percentage of houses costing over $ 300 @,@ 000 ( 1 @.@ 34 % ) and numerous townships and boroughs in the county do not have any houses costing over $ 300 @,@ 000 . Mifflin has the highest percentage of houses costing less than $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 56 @.@ 48 % ) and Delaware Township has the lowest percentage of such houses ( 4 @.@ 73 % ) .
+
+In 1990 , the median house value in Juniata County was $ 51 @,@ 500 . This rose to $ 87 @,@ 000 by 2000 .
+
+= = = Crime = = =
+
+The most common crimes committed in Juniata County between 2005 and November 2007 were property crimes , with 996 recorded offenses . Other common crimes in the county are assaults , with 383 offenses between 2005 and 2007 and alcohol @-@ related crimes , with 306 offenses between 2005 and 2007 . Rarer crimes in the county include drug violations ( 71 offenses between 2005 and 2007 ) , sex offenses ( 64 offenses between 2005 and 2007 ) and arson , with only 12 offenses between 2005 and 2007 . There were no homicides in the county in these years .
+
+= = = Recreation = = =
+
+There are municipal parks in all four boroughs of Juniata County . There are also five boat launches in the county , all of which are on or near the Juniata River . There are two golf courses in the central part of the county and one campground in the southern part of the county .
+
+= = Transportation = =
+
+= = = Roads = = =
+
+The main roads in the eastern part of Juniata County are Pennsylvania Route 235 , Pennsylvania Route 35 , Pennsylvania Route 104 , and U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 . The main roads in western Juniata County are U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , Pennsylvania Route 74 , Pennsylvania Route 850 , and Pennsylvania Route 333 . U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 experiences the most traffic . It and U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 are considered major arterial roads . Pennsylvania Route 75 and Pennsylvania Route 35 northeast of U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 are minor arterial roads . Major rural collector roads in the county include Pennsylvania Route 850 Pennsylvania Route 74 , Pennsylvania Route 235 , and Pennsylvania Route 35 southwest of U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 . Minor rural collector roads include Pennsylvania Route 333 and numerous less prominent roads . There are also many local roads throughout the county , most of which are in its northeastern and central parts .
+
+There are approximately 735 miles ( 1 @,@ 183 km ) of roads in Juniata County 's road system . 372 @.@ 6 miles ( 599 @.@ 6 km ) of the roads are locally owned , 354 @.@ 9 miles ( 571 @.@ 2 km ) are owned by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation , and 8 @.@ 0 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) are owned by Pennsylvania or the United States . 508 @.@ 3 miles ( 818 @.@ 0 km ) are local roads , 89 @.@ 7 miles ( 144 @.@ 4 km ) are minor collector roads , 68 @.@ 7 miles ( 110 @.@ 6 km ) are major collector roads , 46 @.@ 8 miles ( 75 @.@ 3 km ) are minor arterial roads , and 21 @.@ 4 miles ( 34 @.@ 4 km ) are major arterial roads .
+
+The daily traffic of Juniata County 's arterial roads ranges from several dozen to several thousand vehicles per day . Pennsylvania Route 75 carries 50 vehicles per day in the southwestern part of the county and 7 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in the northeastern part of the county . Pennsylvania Route 104 carries 2 @,@ 900 vehicles per day in the county . The most heavily traveled road there , however , is U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , which carries 11 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . The least @-@ trafficked major rural connector road is State Route 2026 , which is used by 350 vehicles per day and the most @-@ trafficked major rural connector road is Pennsylvania Route 35 , which gets up to 7100 vehicles per day . Traffic on minor rural collector roads ranges from 100 vehicles per day on Academia Road to over 1000 vehicles per day on several roads . The volume of vehicle traffic in the county has changed little since the late 1990s .
+
+U.S. Route 11 and U.S. Route 15 allow Juniata County residents to access numerous locations in New York , Pennsylvania , and Maryland . It receives approximately 12 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in the county . Pennsylvania Route 35 allows access to Mifflin and Mifflintown from other locations in the county . Pennsylvania Route 75 is used by trucks in the county to access the Pennsylvania Turnpike .
+
+There are 21 road intersections in Juniata County that were the site of five or more crashes between January 1 , 2002 , and December 31 , 2006 .
+
+= = = Bridges = = =
+
+There are 254 state @-@ owned bridges in Juniata County , of which 77 are considered structurally deficient by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation .
+
+The longest bridge in Juniata County is the First Street Bridge over the Juniata River in Port Royal . It is 1 @,@ 087 feet ( 331 m ) long and was built in 1937 . The second @-@ longest bridge in the county crosses the Juniata River at Thompsontown Station and is 808 @.@ 1 feet ( 246 @.@ 3 m ) long . It was built in 1994 . All other bridges in the county are less than 500 feet ( 150 m ) long .
+
+= = = Other transportation = = =
+
+For air travel , Juniata County is served by the privately owned Mifflintown Airport and the Stottle Memorial Heliport in Tuscarora Township .
+
+The BicyclePA Route J runs through Juniata County on U.S. Route 11 and U.S. Route 15 .
+
+= = Education = =
+
+= = = Schools and school districts = = =
+
+There are two public school districts in Juniata County : the Juniata County School District and the Greenwood School District . Both of these are K @-@ 12 schools . The Greenwood School District serves Greenwood Township and parts of Perry County and the Juniata County School District serves the rest of Juniata County .
+
+The Juniata County School District has nine elementary schools , one junior high school , and two high schools . In the 2006 – 2007 school year , there were 3 @,@ 123 students in the school district . The largest high school in the district is the Juniata High School , with 637 students . The largest elementary school in the district is the Fermanagh @-@ Mifflintown Elementary School , with 238 students and the smallest one is the Susquehanna Township Elementary School , with 63 students .
+
+The Greenwood School District has an elementary school , a middle school , and a high school . They have 449 , 137 , and 278 students , respectively .
+
+Additionally , there are 12 private schools in Juniata County , most of which are religious schools run by groups such as the Amish or other types of Mennonites . Nearly all are based in Mifflintown , McAlisterville , or Thompsontown , although one is based in Port Royal . In May 2014 , the largest private school in the county was the Juniata Mennonite School , which had 220 students , and the smallest private school was the Breezy Hollow Amish School , which had 18 students .
+
+There are no colleges in Juniata County , although there are twelve in the county 's general vicinity .
+
+= = = Statistics = = =
+
+In 1990 , 16 @.@ 91 % of Juniata County residents over 25 years of age had less than a ninth @-@ grade education . 17 @.@ 93 % of residents over 25 years of age had a ninth @-@ grade education to a twelfth @-@ grade education and 46 @.@ 35 % had graduated from high school . 7 @.@ 80 % of the residents had attended college , but did not have a degree and 3 @.@ 76 % had an associate degree . 4 @.@ 67 % of Juniata County residents aged 25 years or more had a bachelor 's degree and 2 @.@ 59 % had a graduate or professional degree .
+
+By 2000 , the percentage of people with less than a ninth @-@ grade education had decreased to 5 % and the percentage with a ninth @-@ grade to twelfth @-@ grade education had decreased to 13 % . The percentage of people who graduated high school decreased to 38 % , but the percentage of people who attended college but did not get a degree increased to 16 % . The percentage of people with an associate degree increased to 6 % , the percentage of people who had a bachelor 's degree increased to 14 % , and the percentage of people with a graduate or professional degree increased to 8 % .
+
+Of the townships and boroughs in Juniata County , Lack Township has the highest percentage of people without a high school diploma ( 42 @.@ 43 % ) . Spruce Hill Township has the lowest percentage of people without a high school diploma ( 18 @.@ 00 % ) . Mifflintown has the highest percentage of people with a higher education .
+
+= = Biology = =
+
+There are five areas in Juniata County that are protected by the Central Pennsylvania Conservancy : the Baker Easement , the Brady Bryner Preserve , the Gregory Alan Grening Preserve , the Grening Preserve Addition , the McLaughlin Easement , and the Port Royal Wetlands . The combined area of these lands is 415 acres . There are State Game Lands in the northwestern part of the county and state forests in the county 's northern and southern portions .
+
+Four streams in Juniata County are considered high @-@ quality coldwater fisheries . There are also some Class A Wild Trout Waters in the northern and western parts of the county .
+
+The Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory lists 59 natural heritage sites in Juniata County . 11 are considered " exceptional significance " , 19 are considered " high significance " , 12 are considered " notable significance " , and 17 are considered " local significance " . Sites on the inventory are found in every township in the county except for Greenwood Township .
+
+The largest remaining intact wetland in Juniata County may be the Cedar Spring Run Wetland , which is in Walker Township . The Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory considers it to be an " exceptional significance " site . Numerous wetland plants that are rare in the area inhabit this wetland , including Quercus shumardii . The wetland is a red maple @-@ black ash palustrine forest community . Another wetland on the Natural Heritage Inventory 's list of exceptional significance sites is the Locust Run Wetlands , which is in Walker Township and Delaware Township . These wetlands consist of two large groups of temporary pools and several permanent ones . The West Branch Mahantango Creek Vernal Pools are also in the county . This system consist of dozens of temporary pools that are inhabited by Leucothoe racemosa . The Slim Valley Wetlands are in Fayette Township and Fermanagh Township . They contain spotted pondweed and serve as a breeding ground for amphibians .
+
+There are four sites on Tuscarora Creek and its tributaries on the " exceptional significance " list in the Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory . The Doyle Run Floodplain is located on the creek in Beale Township . It contains a silver maple floodplain forest and is home to Ranunculus flabellaris and many species that are rare in Pennsylvania . Barton Hollow , a tributary of Tuscarora Creek in Lack Township , is home to plant species such as Carex careyana and Pinus echinata and animal species such as the Emperor Butterfly and a mussel species known as the Triangle Floater . Tuscarora Creek supports Carex shortiana downstream of Blair Hollow in Lack Township , as well as 350 plant species and 50 animal species . The creek 's valley downstream of Pennybaker Island in Lack Township is home to Samolus parviflorus and Quercus shumardii .
+
+A woodland known as the Kurtz Valley Woodland is located in Delaware Township , Juniata County . It is listed as an " exceptional significance " site on the Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory and contains a red cedar – redbud shrubland community , which is rare in Pennsylvania . The McAlister Limestone Glade is another " exceptional significance " site in the county . It is located in Fayette Township and contains a side @-@ oats grama calcareous grassland , which is described as a " very important " natural feature . The Westfall Prairie is also located in Fayette Township and is home to a number of rare species .
+
+Allegheny Woodrats live on the slopes of the Lewistown Narrows in Milford Township , Juniata County and Northern Myotis bats feed there . The Lewistown Narrows are an " exceptional significance " site according to the Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory .
+
+= = Communities = =
+
+Under Pennsylvania law , there are four types of incorporated municipalities : cities , boroughs , townships , and , in at most two cases , towns .
+
+= = = Boroughs = = =
+
+Boroughs in Juniata County include :
+
+Mifflin
+
+Mifflintown ( county seat )
+
+Port Royal
+
+Thompsontown
+
+= = = Townships = = =
+
+Townships in Juniata County include :
+
+= = = Census @-@ designated places = = =
+
+Census @-@ designated places are geographical areas designated by the U.S. Census Bureau for the purposes of compiling demographic data . They are not actual jurisdictions under Pennsylvania . CDPs in Juniata County include :
+
+East Salem
+
+East Waterford
+
+McAlisterville
+
+Mexico
+
+Richfield
+
+= = = Population ranking = = =
+
+The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2010 census of Juniata County .
+
+† county seat
+
+= Olivia Shakespear =
+
+Olivia Shakespear ( born Olivia Tucker ; 17 March 1863 – 3 October 1938 ) was a British novelist , playwright , and patron of the arts . She wrote six books that are described as " marriage problem " novels . Her works sold poorly , sometimes only a few hundred copies . Her last novel , Nurse Harry , is considered her best . She wrote two plays in collaboration with Florence Farr .
+
+Olivia was the daughter of a retired Adjutant General , and had little formal education . She was well @-@ read however , and developed a love of literature . In 1885 she married London barrister Henry Hope Shakespear , and in 1886 gave birth to their only child , Dorothy . In 1894 her literary interests led to a friendship with William Butler Yeats that became physically intimate in 1896 . He declared that they " had many days of happiness " to come , but the affair ended in 1897 . They nevertheless remained lifelong friends and corresponded frequently . Yeats went on to marry Georgie Hyde @-@ Lees , Olivia 's step @-@ niece and Dorothy 's best friend .
+
+Olivia began hosting weekly salon frequented by Ezra Pound and other modernist writers and artists in 1909 , and became influential in London literary society . Olivia 's daughter Dorothy Shakespear married Pound in 1914 , despite the less than enthusiastic blessing of her parents . After their marriage , Pound would use funds received from Olivia to support T. S. Eliot and James Joyce . When Dorothy gave birth to a son , Omar Pound , in France in 1926 , Olivia assumed guardianship of the boy . He lived with Olivia until her death on 3 October 1938 .
+
+= = Early life and marriage = =
+
+Olivia 's father , Henry Tod Tucker ( b . 1808 ) , was born in Edinburgh and joined the British Indian Army as an ensign at age 16 . He rose to the rank of Adjutant General in Bengal , but retired in 1856 at age 48 owing to ill health . Within a year of returning to Britain he married Harriet Johnson ( b . 1821 ) of Bath . The couple moved to the Isle of Wight where their two daughters were born : Florence in 1858 and Olivia on 17 March 1863 . Soon after they relocated to Sussex where their third child , Henry , was born in 1866 . In 1877 the family moved to London and raised their daughters in a social world that encouraged the pursuit of leisure . Olivia often visited her many Johnson relatives in the country , and became particularly fond of her cousin Lionel Johnson — the only one of many uncles and cousins not to join the military — who went on to become a poet and friend to W. B. Yeats . It is likely that Olivia received little formal education ; she may have been educated by tutors , and appears to have become well @-@ read as a young woman .
+
+In 1885 Olivia married Henry Hope Shakespear , a man described by Terence Brown in The Life of W.B. Yeats : A Critical Biography as " worthy " but " dull " . Born in India in 1849 , he was descended from 17th @-@ century East London ropemakers and , like Olivia , came from a military family , although of less prestige and wealth than the Tuckers and Johnsons . John Harwood , Olivia 's biographer and author of Olivia Shakespear and W. B. Yeats : After Long Silence believes Henry probably saw an opportunity to increase his social standing and annual income in wedding Olivia . He had attended Harrow , studied law , and joined a law practice in 1875 . The couple were married on 8 December 1885 , and honeymooned in Boulogne and Paris . Olivia 's father endowed them with a comfortable income in the form of a trust . Nine months after the wedding their only child , Dorothy , was born on 14 September 1886 ; they likely discontinued physical relations after the honeymoon , and Olivia realised quite soon that the marriage was devoid of passion . Yeats ' biographer Alexander Jeffares writes , " she was unselfcentered , unselfish , deeply imaginative and sympathetic and , until she met Yeats , she seems to have accepted the fact of her unhappy loveless marriage " .
+
+Shakespear dissolved his legal partnership in the late 1880s — his partner may have been embezzling from clients ' trusts — and formed his own practice . Harwood writes that Shakespear 's attitude to the situation showed a certain amount of " timidity " on his part and a definite " dislike of scenes " . During this period Olivia moved from socialising with military wives to literary women : Valentine Fox ( unhappily married to a Kent brewer ) and Pearl Craighie , a divorced American writer who published as John Oliver Hobbes .
+
+= = W. B. Yeats = =
+
+= = = Friendship = = =
+
+Accompanied by Pearl Craighie , on 16 April 1894 Olivia attended a literary lunch to launch The Yellow Book . Olivia was seated opposite W. B. Yeats . Recently returned from visiting Maud Gonne in Paris , Yeats was in London for the production of his play The Land of Heart 's Desire . The two were not introduced that evening but Yeats , probably through Lionel Johnson ( who became disruptively drunk at the dinner ) , enquired about the woman seated opposite . Yeats was deeply affected , later writing in his memoirs of the encounter : " I noticed opposite me .... a woman of great beauty ... She was exquisitely dressed ... and suggested to me an incomparable distinction . " Soon after Olivia attended a showing of The Land of Heart 's Desire , and found herself moved by the performance . She wanted to meet the " tall and black haired " poet and asked Johnson to invite Yeats to tea on 10 May 1894 , adding in her handwriting to the invitation , " I shall be so glad to see you " . In his Memoirs Yeats referred to her as " Diana Vernon " , writing , " In this book I cannot giver her real name — Diana Vernon sounds pleasantly in my ears and will suit as well as any other " .
+
+They quickly established a strong friendship , with Olivia listening sympathetically to his obsessive love for Maud . When Yeats later described their friendship , he wrote , " I told her of my love sorrow , indeed it was my obsession , never leaving by day or night " . Writing in The Last Courtly Lover , Gloria Kline suggests Olivia and Yeats began a friendship based on the discussion of literature and his willingness to review her work . John Unterecker , writing in " Faces and False Faces " , sees friendship as the most important aspect in the relationship , explaining , " she found in Yeats , as he in her , a person who could discuss literature and ideas ... she was one of the few persons with whom he could be completely relaxed " . Comparing the difference between Maud and Olivia he writes , " Maud Gonne offered Yeats subject matter for poetry , the ' interesting ' life he had hoped for , and Olivia Shakespear offered him repose " . According to Kline , Yeats compared Olivia to Diana and Maud to Helen ; he was attracted to dark coloured women , describing Olivia 's skin as " a little darker than a Greek 's would have been and her hair was very dark " . Literary scholar Humphrey Carpenter writes that Yeats ' impression of Olivia was one of a woman with " a profound culture , a knowledge of French , English , and Italian and seemed always at leisure . Her nature was gentle and contemplative , and she was content , it seems , to have no more of life than leisure and the talk of her friends " . Nevertheless she was working on her third novel , Beauty 's Hour , and it is likely that Yeats read the manuscript , suggested revisions , and may have contributed to the characterisations . Kline believes the two began a friendship based on the discussion of literature and his willingness to review her work ; Yeats biographer Foster adds they were drawn together by a mutual interest in the occult . For Yeats , then aged 30 , an important aspect of their friendship was the opportunity it presented for a sexual relationship with a woman , something he had not then experienced .
+
+In August Yeats returned to Ireland , continuing his correspondence with Olivia , writing to her about Maud who had recently given birth to a daughter , Iseult . In her letters Olivia may have been honest about her feelings toward him ; in April 1895 he wrote to her , " I no more complain of your writing of love , than I would complain of a portrait painter keeping to portraits " .
+
+= = = Love affair = = =
+
+Yeats delayed visiting Olivia in London a month later ; he instead tended to Johnson who was involved in the Wilde case and descending into the alcoholism that would kill him . Yeats appeared to have persuaded himself that Olivia and her cousin shared a flaw , writing , " here is the same weakness I thought ... Her beauty ... dark and still , had the nobility of defeated things , and how could it help but wring my heart . I took a fortnight to decide what I should do " . He constructed a plan to reconcile his desire with what he believed to be her wickedness : he would ask that she leave her husband to live with him . Until then their friendship would remain platonic .
+
+Yeats finally visited Olivia at her Porchester Circle home a few weeks later to present his well @-@ thought out intentions but , to his bewilderment , Olivia declared her love for him . Unsure of himself , he took another absence , during which he decided that if Maud was unattainable , or unavailable due to circumstances , he would have Olivia , writing " but after all if I could not get the woman I loved it would be a comfort for a little while to devote myself to another " . For Yeats , Olivia was willing to lose her daughter , financial security , social standing , and the goodwill of her family . Although her husband had grounds to sue Yeats and consequently destroy his reputation , her best hope against complete ruin was Shakespear 's strong dislike of public scenes . Then Yeats lost his nerve again , suggesting instead each seek advice from a friend ( a " sponsor " ) . He probably chose Florence Farr to be his sponsor while Olivia chose Valentine Fox — Harwood speculates that the sponsors advised the two to go ahead with the affair , perhaps to Yeats ' discomfort . On 15 July 1895 , Yeats and Olivia travelled to Kent to visit Valentine Fox ; the trip Harwood says " would have been , emotionally speaking a highly charged outing " . Of the railway trip , Yeats wrote in his memoirs , " when on our first railway journey together — we were to spend the day at Kent — she gave the long passionate kiss of love , I was startled & a little shocked " . They went on to share more passionate kisses in art galleries and at her home .
+
+Still distressed about Lionel , Yeats turned to Arthur Symons for companionship , moving into a room adjacent to his in October 1895 . One day while preoccupied and thinking about Maud he locked himself out for a visit just before Olivia and her sponsor arrived to visit ; as soon as she left he stayed up all night telling Symons about Maud . She arrived in London a few weeks later for a brief visit . Yeats was ambivalent about Olivia despite the advice of the sponsors ; with no money to support her , he suggested she seek a legal separation ( instead of a divorce ) , sparing her social ostracism and financial ruin . Ezra Pound biographer Jay Wilhelm suggests Shakespear knew that Olivia loved Yeats but seemed more concerned about the loss of social status in the event of divorce , causing Yeats and Olivia to decide that " it was kinder to simply deceive him than totally abandon him " . In January 1896 Yeats moved again , into a small flat in Woburn Place , so as to be nearer to her . Finally after a charged bed @-@ buying session , with Yeats describing " an embarrassed conversation upon the width " , and his nervousness preventing them at first from becoming lovers , he eventually wrote in January 1896 , " at last she came to me in my thirtieth year .... and we had many days of happiness " . Yeats ' happiness is apparent in the poems he wrote at that period , and for the duration of their affair , Olivia appears to have acted as a muse to the poet .
+
+Six months later he was in back in Ireland , and in August Olivia was visiting Valentine Fox with her husband where she received news of her father 's death . She left for an extended stay in Torquay where she stayed until September before leaving for a visit to Scotland with her husband . Yeats left Ireland for Paris to visit Maud in November , and did not return to London until January 1897 , with Maud following close behind and arriving in London in February . Yeats wrote of Maud 's visit : " Maud wrote to me ... she was in London & would I come to dine . I dined with her & my trouble increased — she certainly had no thought of the mischief she was doing – & at last one morning .... [ Olivia ] found my mood did not answer hers and & burst into tears — ' There is someone else in your heart ' she said . It was the breaking between us for many years " . The affair ended that spring when Yeats again returned to Ireland . Olivia did not visit him again at Woburn Place for many years , according to Yeats biographer Richard Ellmann .
+
+= = Pembroke Mansions = =
+
+Olivia 's life is not well documented between 1897 and 1908 . It is known that she visited her cousin Lionel for the last time in 1897 before he was isolated by his alcoholism . He died alone of a cerebral haemorrhage in 1902 . In 1899 the family suffered an unspecified financial setback that forced them to move into an apartment in Bayswater to Pembroke Mansions , which a friend described by as " an uninviting Bayswater slum " . A few months later Olivia 's mother died . Within a week Olivia received a letter of condolence from Yeats , which may have been the first letter she received from him in two years , since 1897 . Several scholars and biographers speculate that they resumed their love affair at some point between 1903 and 1910 ; Pound biographer Wilhelm believes they reconciled as early as 1903 , while Yeats biographers Jeffares and Ross suggest the affair likely reignited for a period in 1906 .
+
+For a short time in 1901 Olivia held a position as a book reviewer for The Kensington Review , a small literary magazine , until it succumbed to poor sales . After , she dabbled in the occult and became friendly with prominent London occultists . In 1902 she co @-@ wrote with Florence Farr — who for a time led the Order of Golden Dawn — two plays on the occult , The Beloved of Hathor and The Shrine of the Golden Hawk , which were subsequently published as a pair .
+
+Although the family received an inheritance from Olivia 's mother , they continued to live in Bayswater . For a period Dorothy was at boarding school , after which she was sent to a finishing school in Geneva . To save money , the family often left London during the summer , to take long visits to relatives in the country , in particular her brother Henry Tucker . Not until 1905 did the family lease a house in Brunswick Gardens , near Kensington Palace , when Dorothy returned home to live with her parents .
+
+= = Dorothy and Ezra Pound = =
+
+Records of Olivia 's life resume through Dorothy 's letters and diaries surrounding the arrival of the American poet Ezra Pound in London in 1909 . Following her friends in Kensington society , Olivia opened her home once a week for a salon , beginning an important period in her life . When Yeats returned to London that year , Olivia became the centre of a blossoming literary movement . Yeats held a Monday evening salon ; those who attended usually also visited Olivia 's . She hosted , and became a nexus for , much of the pre @-@ war literary activity in London . Notable attendees included Pound , H.D. ( Hilda Doolitle ) , Yeats , Wyndham Lewis , Henri Gaudier @-@ Brzeska , Walter Morse Rummel , Richard Aldington , William Carlos Williams , T. E. Hulme and John Cournos . The gatherings were held in her drawing room , a place Pound described in a letter as " full of white magic " . Olivia was by now a well @-@ known occultist and hosted séances in her drawing room . She became well @-@ versed in astrology and palmistry , passing on what she knew to Dorothy who shared her interest . Both read grimoires ; Olivia was an expert at " drawing occult symbols " and quite familiar with the symbology of the occult .
+
+Olivia met Pound in January 1909 at a Kensington salon hosted by a friend ; she invited him for tea on 16 February 1909 , and at his insistence introduced Pound to Yeats in May 1909 . Yeats had recently returned to London and began a thorough investigation of spiritualism and the occult , turning to Olivia for advice . She took the young American poet to Yeats ' rooms at Woburn Place , fostering their relationship .
+
+Dorothy soon fell in love with Pound . In late 1909 and early 1910 Olivia and Dorothy attended his lectures at the London Polytechnic Institution ; in June 1910 they joined him in Sirmione , Italy . For reasons unclear to biographers Olivia forbade the two from writing to each other during his extended visit to New York from 1910 to 1911 . Despite the restriction Dorothy seems to have considered herself engaged to Pound , although uncertain whether he intended to stay in New York or return to London .
+
+In 1910 Yeats thought his horoscope suggested a return to Olivia ; he distanced himself from Maud and in June began to see Olivia more frequently . Pound was fond of Olivia , which may have caused Yeats some jealousy as when , for example , Pound met the two at the theatre and took them afterward to tea — an occasion when Yeats was extremely rude to Pound . A year later , Olivia introduced Yeats to Georgie Hyde @-@ Lees , her 18 @-@ year @-@ old step @-@ niece and Dorothy 's best friend , whom Yeats eventually married .
+
+Pound returned from America in 1911 and resumed his visits to Olivia and Dorothy , adhering to Olivia 's restrictions . That October Pound formally asked to marry Dorothy ; her father refused on the basis of Pound 's meagre income . Neither Dorothy nor Pound gave up : he again asked for permission to marry her in March 1912 but was again rejected . In Dorothy 's mind they continued to be engaged , although they were only allowed short visits in the Family drawing room once a week or every two weeks .
+
+Olivia became concerned about her daughter after Hilda Doolittle , who also believed she was engaged to Pound , arrived in London in 1911 . Olivia welcomed H.D. to her home , but she witnessed the interactions between Dorothy , Pound , H.D. and Richard Aldington , whom H.D. married in 1913 . In September 1912 Olivia wrote a stern letter to Pound , in which she pointedly told him to break off his friendship with Dorothy :
+
+You told me you were prepared to see less of Dorothy this winter . I don 't know if you wd rather leave it to me to say I don 't think it advisable she should see so much of you etc. or whether you wd rather do it in your own way .... I don 't know if she still considers herself engaged to you — but she obviously can 't marry you — it 's hardly decent ! There 's another point too — which is the personal inconvenience & bother to myself — I had all last winter , practically to keep 2 days a week for you to come & see her ... She must marry — She & I can 't possibly go on living this feminine life practically à deux for ever , & we haven 't money enough to separate ... You ought to go away — Englishmen don 't understand yr American ways , & any man who wanted to marry her wd be put off by the fact of yr friendship ( or whatever you call it ) with her . If you had ₤ 500 a year I should be delighted for you to marry her !
+
+In 1913 , Olivia introduced Pound to vorticist sculptor Henri Gaudier @-@ Brzeska at an art exhibition at the Albert Hall . At the same exhibition the sculptor met Nina Hamnett , whom he subsequently used as a model for a series of nudes bronzes , one of which Olivia bought . In 1914 Olivia translated a grimoire for Yeats and Pound , who spent November 1913 to January 1914 in the countryside at Stone Cottage in Ashdown Forest — Pound acting as secretary to Yeats — researching the occult . They read several grimoires , and Olivia provided for them a translation of the Abbot of Villar 's 1670 grimoire Le Comte de Gabalis . Her translation was serialised in the literary magazine The Egoist later that year .
+
+By 1914 Olivia seems to have realised that Dorothy was determined to marry Pound , and finally consented ; ironically Pound was then earning less than he had in 1911 . Hope Shakespear relented when the couple agreed to a church wedding rather than a civil ceremony , which took place on 20 April 1914 . Olivia gave them two early circus drawings by Pablo Picasso .
+
+= = Later life and death = =
+
+After Dorothy 's wedding much of the documentation of Olivia 's life ceases . She moved out of Brunswick Gardens in 1924 , throwing away personal correspondence and giving away hundreds of books . Hope Shakespear died on 5 July 1923 ; within months Olivia moved to an apartment in West Kensington , taking with her two maids who had been with the family for decades . Her life continued unchanged , filled with social events . In September 1926 , Dorothy gave birth to a son , Omar Pound , who in 1927 was brought from France to be raised in England . Olivia became his guardian and Dorothy spent summers with her mother and son .
+
+In 1926 Yeats spent several weeks in London , likely visiting Olivia frequently . He showed regret for his behaviour in 1897 , writing to her , " I came across two early photographs of you yesterday ... Who ever had a like profile ? — a profile from a Sicilian coin . One looks back to one 's youth as to a cup that a mad man dying of thirst left half tasted . I wonder if you feel like that ? " The two maintained their correspondence , as they had for many years .
+
+Olivia continued to socialise and had many friends , one of whom , Wyndham Lewis , painted her portrait ; he enjoyed her company despite finding it difficult to relate to others . She stopped writing but remained an avid reader , turning to detective stories for light relief although she also kept up with literary authors . She became friendly with Thomas MacGreevy , whom she invited for tea , later writing to him , " WBY has given me the new edition of Reveries and the Veil , & I am re @-@ reading it all . It is very beautifully done . He was about 29 when I first knew him " . McGreevy told Yeats that Olivia was " always a symbol of elegance , a kind of gold and ivory image " . Harwood writes of her , " Olivia Shakespear was avant @-@ garde in literature , agnostic in religion , and conservative in politics , at least later in life " .
+
+Olivia 's correspondence with Pound continued throughout the 1920s and 1930s , when she acted in part as his agent in London . In 1924 , at Pound 's request , she welcomed George Antheil into her social circle , procured artwork and books that were sent on to Dorothy and Ezra in Rapallo , and mediated in a dispute between Pound and Lewis . She was uninterested in Pound 's politics and economic views and particularly disliked his later Cantos . After her husband 's death , Olivia 's income was sufficient to support a comfortable lifestyle . During the 1920s and 1930s she gradually increased Dorothy 's income ( which was also increased by various family bequests ) , and in the 1930s she made investments in Dorothy 's name , sending the proceeds to Dorothy and Pound . In a very real sense , according to Harwood , Olivia Shakespear is the " unsung heroine " of the modernist period , because much of the money Ezra Pound generously used to support struggling writers such as T.S. Eliot and James Joyce came from her .
+
+Olivia died of complications brought on by gall bladder disease on 3 October 1938 . The day before her death she wrote in a letter to Dorothy : " On Monday I was taken suddenly ill with gall bladder trouble — awful pain — sent for Doctor Barnes — he gave me dope & an injection and pain gradually went ... He says I am going on all right , but of course I feel rather a wreck " . She died the following day of a heart attack . John Unterecker believes Olivia 's death shattered Yeats , who died only months later , because she added warmth to his life . Yeats wrote of her death :
+
+Olivia Shakespear has died suddenly . For more than forty years she has been the centre of my life in London and during all that time we have never had a quarrel , sadness sometimes but never a difference . When I first met her she was in her late twenties but in looks a lovely young girl . When she died she was a lovely old woman ... She came of a long line of soldiers and during the last war thought it her duty to stay in London through all the air raids . She was not more lovely than distinguished — no matter what happened she never lost her solitude ... For the moment I cannot bear the thought of London . I will find her memory everywhere .
+
+Dorothy was ill when her mother died , unable to travel to London . She sent Pound to organise the funeral and to clear out the house . Ezra sorted through Olivia 's correspondence and returned to Yeats many of her letters . Unterecker writes that Yeats made an effort to keep the correspondence private : " Shortly before his death he methodically destroyed a large group of letters to Olivia Shakespear . These , returned to him after her death ... Yeats wanted no one to read " .
+
+= = Novels : description and reception = =
+
+Olivia had six novels published between 1894 and 1910 , which as described by Foster are about women unhappy in love , with insipid and uninspiring male characters . The heroines — frequently orphaned , educated by elderly tutors , and depicted in country house libraries — fall in love with much older men in the later novels .
+
+The first two novels were published in 1894 to mixed reviews . Love on a Mortal Lease ( title from George Meredith ) was released in June , followed in November by The Journey of High Honour , at 30 @,@ 000 words considerably shorter than the 355 pages of Love on a Mortal Lease . Each novel sold only a few hundred copies . Harwood describes the early work such as Love on a Mortal Lease as showing stylistic similarities to contemporary women novelists such as Craighie and Rhonda Broughton , with witty dialogue in Craighie 's style , although he thinks Olivia brought a more serious voice to her work . He describes Love on a Mortal Lease as a work in which the heroine is well @-@ characterised but the background is weak .
+
+She dedicated The False Laurel , published in 1896 , to Lionel Johnson . The plot features a poetess who falls in love with and marries an insipid young poet , giving up her own writing to attend to his needs . She becomes bored , writes a successful play , and then goes mad . The False Laurel was the least successful of her books , selling fewer than 200 copies . It received a poor review from The Bookman but a good one from The Athenaeneum .
+
+Rupert Armstrong was published in 1899 by Harper and Brothers , dedicated to Valentine Fox . In this , the fourth of her novels , Harwood believes her writing and voice became more original . The complicated plot — a mother and daughter struggle for " possession of the [ father 's ] artistic soul " — shows hints of incestuous love , a theme found in her later work . Written during the affair with Yeats , Harwood sees the characters presented " in a precise , bitter intensity unlike anything in the earlier work " .
+
+The Devotees was published by Heinemann in December 1900 . Like Rupert Armstrong , the plot of The Devotees depicts a mildly incestuous love : a young man and girl , raised together since childhood , devote themselves for decades to his drug @-@ addicted mother before they marry . The reviews were mostly unkind .
+
+Olivia 's final novel , Uncle Hilary , was published in 1910 and is considered her best work . Of Uncle Hilary Jane Eldridge Miller writes in Rebel Women : Feminism , Modernism , and the Edwardian Novel , " Shakespear demonstrates the ways in which that ideal leads to disillusionment and resentment " . In the complicated plot a young woman unwittingly marries her stepfather , leaves him , and accepts a marriage proposal from her guardian . Harwood believes her loveless marriage , the love affair with Yeats , the frustration with Dorothy , and Pound 's unfaithfulness to Dorothy , built in her a strength and acceptance of life that bordered on the spiritual and she no longer needed to write . Miller writes that in the novel Olivia explores " marriage laws , divorce , and bigamy " , with a focus on the nature of romantic love — rejected in favour of spiritual and intellectual pursuits . Leon Surette writes in The Birth of Modernism , Olivia 's Uncle Hilary highlights the ties between spiritualism , occultism and feminism , seeing Uncle Hilary as a feminist novel which he describes as " quite readable " .
+
+Jane Miller characterises the works as " marriage problem " novels in which the wife confronts the reality of marriage , its restrictions , and the need to achieve independence . By finding interests outside marriage the wife loses the overwhelming need for love within the marriage . Miller writes that in Uncle Hilary Olivia examines issues such as marriage laws , divorce , and bigamy , while focusing on the nature of romantic love . It was in Uncle Hilary that Olivia wrote of love : " Love is the worst slavery that exists ... it is the most persistent of illusions " .
+
+= = List of works = =
+
+Novels
+
+Love on a Mortal Lease ( 1894 )
+
+Beauty 's Hour ( 1894 )
+
+The Journey of High Honour ( 1894 )
+
+The False Laurel ( 1896 )
+
+Rupert Armstrong ( 1898 )
+
+The Devotees ( 1904 )
+
+Uncle Hilary ( 1909 )
+
+Plays
+
+The Beloved of Hathor ( 1902 )
+
+The Shrine of the Golden Hawk ( 1902 )
+
+= Coelurus =
+
+Coelurus ( / sᵻˈljʊərəs / si @-@ LEWR @-@ əs ) is a genus of coelurosaurian dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period ( mid @-@ late Kimmeridgian faunal stage , 153 – 150 million years ago ) . The name means " hollow tail " , referring to its hollow tail vertebrae ( Greek κοιλος , koilos
+
+= hollow + ουρα , oura =
+
+tail ) . Although its name is linked to one of the main divisions of theropods ( Coelurosauria ) , it has historically been poorly understood , and sometimes confused with its better @-@ known contemporary Ornitholestes . Like many dinosaurs studied in the early years of paleontology , it has had a confusing taxonomic history , with several species being named and later transferred to other genera or abandoned . Only one species is currently recognized as valid : the type species , C. fragilis , described by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1879 . It is known from one partial skeleton found in the Morrison Formation of Wyoming , United States . It was a small bipedal carnivore with elongate legs .
+
+= = Description = =
+
+Coelurus is known from most of the skeleton of a single individual , including numerous vertebrae , partial pelvic and shoulder girdles , and much of the arms and legs , stored at the Peabody Museum of Natural History ; however , the relative completeness of the skeleton was not known until 1980 . The fossils were recovered from Reed 's Quarry 13 at Como Bluff , Wyoming . Additionally , two arm bones possibly belonging to this genus are known from the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Utah . It was not a large dinosaur . Its weight has been estimated at around 13 to 20 kilograms ( 29 to 44 lb ) , with a length of about 2 @.@ 4 meters ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) and a hip height of 0 @.@ 7 meters ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) . From reconstructions of the skeleton , Coelurus had a relatively long neck and torso due to its long vertebrae , a long slender hindlimb due to its long metatarsus , and potentially a small slender skull .
+
+The skull is unknown except for possibly a portion of lower jaw found at the same site as the rest of the known Coelurus material . Although it has the same preservation and coloring as the fossils known to belong to the Coelurus skeleton , it is very slender , which may mean it does not belong to the skeleton ; this bone is 7 @.@ 9 centimeters long ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) but only 1 @.@ 1 centimeters tall ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) . In general , its vertebrae were long and low , with low neural spines and thin walls to the bodies of the vertebrae . Its neck vertebrae were very pneumatic , with numerous hollow spaces on their surfaces ( pleurocoels ) ; these hollows were not evenly distributed among the vertebrae and varied in size . The neck vertebrae were very elongate , with bodies four times longer than wide , and they articulated with concave faces on both ends ( amphicoely ) . The back vertebrae were not as elongate , lacked surface hollows , and had less developed concave faces and bodies that were hourglass @-@ shaped . The tail vertebrae also lacked surface hollows .
+
+The only bone known from the shoulder girdle is a fragment of scapula . The upper arm had a distinct S @-@ shaped curve in side view and was slightly longer than the forearm ( 11 @.@ 9 centimeters [ 4 @.@ 7 in ] versus 9 @.@ 6 centimeters [ 3 @.@ 8 in ] ) . The wrist had a semilunate carpal † similar to that of Deinonychus , and the fingers were long and slender . The only bone known from the pelvic girdle is paired and fused pubis bones , which had a prominent , long " foot " at the end . The thigh bones had an S @-@ shape when viewed from the front . The metatarsals were unusually long and slender , nearly the length of the thigh bones ( the best preserved thigh bone is about 21 centimeters long [ 8 @.@ 3 in ] ) .
+
+= = = Coelurus , Ornitholestes , and Tanycolagreus = = =
+
+The three best @-@ known small theropods of the Morrison Formation — Coelurus , Ornitholestes , and Tanycolagreus — were generalized coelurosaurs , and they have been mistaken for each other at various times . Now that Coelurus and Ornitholestes have been more fully described , it is possible to distinguish them by various characteristics of their anatomy . For example , they had visibly different proportions : Coelurus had a longer back and neck than Ornitholestes , and longer , more slender legs and feet . Coelurus and Tanycolagreus are more similar , but differ in a variety of details . Such details include the shape of the upper arm , forearm , and thigh bones ; the location of muscle attachments on the thigh bone , proportionally longer back vertebrae ; and , again , the very long metatarsus of Coelurus .
+
+= = Classification = =
+
+Since the growth of phylogenetic studies in the 1980s , Coelurus has usually been found to be a coelurosaurian of uncertain affinities , not fitting with the better @-@ known clades of the Cretaceous . Along with several other generalized coelurosaurians such as the compsognathids , Ornitholestes , and Proceratosaurus , it has had multiple placements around the base of Coelurosauria . The phylogenetic analysis conducted by Rauhut ( 2003 ) and Smith et al . ( 2007 ) found that Coelurus was more closely related to compsognathids than to other coelurosaurs . Oliver Rauhut ( 2003 ) proposed that Coeluridae was composed of Coelurus plus the compsognathids , but he and others have not since found the compsognathids to group with Coelurus . However , a work published by Phil Senter in 2007 following the description of Tanycolagreus found it and Coelurus to be closely related at the base of Tyrannosauroidea . Senter proposed that Coelurus and Tanycolagreus were the only coelurids and were actually tyrannosauroids , but the phylogenetic analysis of Turner et al . ( 2007b ) found that Coelurus was a basal coelurosaur , although more derived than the tyrannosaurids . Zanno in 2010 recovered Coelurus as a basal maniraptoran . Coelurus is sometimes put into its own family , Coeluridae , although the membership of the family has not been stable .
+
+Before the use of phylogenetic analyses , Coeluridae and Coelurosauria were taxonomic wastebaskets used for small theropods that did not belong to other groups ; thus , they accumulated many dubious genera . As late as the 1980s , popular books recognized over a dozen " coelurids " , including such disparate forms as the noasaurid Laevisuchus and the oviraptorosaurian Microvenator , and considered them descendants of the coelophysids . A wastebasket Coeluridae lingered into the early 1990s in some sources ( and appears in at least one 2006 source ) but since then it has only been recognized in a much reduced form . Coeluridae received a formal phylogenetic definition in 2015 , when it was defined as all species more closely related to Coelurus fragilis than to Proceratosaurus bradleyi , Tyrannosaurus rex , Allosaurus fragilis , Compsognathus longipes , Ornithomimus edmontonicus , or Deinonychus antirrhopus by Hendrickx , Hartman and Mateus . It remains unclear whether or not this group contains any species other than Coelurus itself , and while Tanycolagreus is often included , support for this relationship has been weak in most of the studies that recovered it .
+
+Below is a cladogram placing Coelurus in Coelurosauria by Cau et al. in 2015 .
+
+= = History = =
+
+Coelurus was described in 1879 by Othniel Charles Marsh , an American paleontologist and naturalist known for his " Bone Wars " with Edward Drinker Cope . At the time , he only described what he interpreted as vertebrae from the back and tail , found at the same location as the type specimen of his new genus and species Camptonotus dispar ( later renamed Camptosaurus because Camptonotus was already in use for a cricket ) . Marsh was impressed with the hollow interiors of the thin @-@ walled vertebrae , a characteristic that gave the type species its name : Coelurus fragilis . He thought of his new genus as an " animal about as large as a wolf , and probably carnivorous " . Coelurus would prove to be the first named small theropod from the Morrison Formation , although at the time Marsh was not certain that it was a dinosaur . He returned to it in 1881 and provided illustrations of some bones , along with putting it in a new order ( Coeluria ) and family ( Coeluridae ) .
+
+From there , the story becomes more complex . Apparently , the skeleton was scattered throughout the quarry , with the remains being recovered from September 1879 to September 1880 . Marsh elected to place some of the material in a new species , C. agilis , on the strength of a pair of fused pubic bones he thought belonged to an animal three times the size of C. fragilis . He returned to the genus in 1888 to add C " . gracilis , based on unknown remains only represented today by a single claw bone pertaining to a small theropod from the Early Cretaceous Arundel Formation of Maryland . This species is not currently accepted as representing Coelurus in reviews of the genus , but has not been given its own genus .
+
+Despite their professional animosity , Cope also assigned species to Coelurus ; in 1887 , he named fossils from the Late Triassic of New Mexico as C. bauri and C. longicollis . He later gave them their own genus , Coelophysis .
+
+In 1903 , Henry Fairfield Osborn named a second genus of small theropod from the Morrison Formation , Ornitholestes . This genus was based on a partial skeleton from Bone Cabin Quarry , north of Como Bluff . Ornitholestes became intertwined with Coelurus in 1920 , when Charles Gilmore , in his influential study of theropod dinosaurs , concluded that the two were synonyms . This was followed in the literature for decades . The two genera were not formally compared , however , nor was there a full accounting of what actually belonged to Coelurus , until John Ostrom 's study in 1980 .
+
+Gilmore had suspected that C. fragilis and C. agilis were the same , but Ostrom was able to demonstrate this synonymy . This greatly expanded the known material pertaining to C. fragilis , and Ostrom was able to demonstrate that Ornitholestes was quite different from Coelurus . At the time , Dale Russell had proposed that C. agilis was a species of Elaphrosaurus based on the incomplete information then published ; Ostrom was also able to demonstrate that this was not the case . Additionally , he showed that one of the three vertebrae Marsh had illustrated for C. fragilis was actually a composite of two vertebrae , one of which was later shown to come from another quarry and belonged not to Coelurus but to another , unnamed small theropod . This unnamed genus would not be the last small theropod from the Morrison Formation to be confused with Coelurus ; a later discovery ( 1995 ) of a partial skeleton in Wyoming was first thought to be a new larger specimen of Coelurus , but further study showed it belonged to a different but related genus , Tanycolagreus .
+
+= = = Species = = =
+
+Only one species of Coelurus , the type species C. fragilis , is still recognized as valid today , although six other species have been named over the years . C. agilis , as discussed , was named by Marsh in 1884 for what turned out to be additional parts of the skeleton of C. fragilis . Cope 's C. bauri and C. longicollis , named in 1887 from Late Triassic fossils from New Mexico , were transferred by Cope in 1889 to his new genus Coelophysis . C. daviesi was named by Richard Lydekker in 1888 for Harry Seeley 's Thecospondylus daviesi , a neck vertebra from the Early Cretaceous of England , but this species was later transferred to its own genus , Thecocoelurus . C. gracilis , another Early Cretaceous species , was also named in 1888 . It was coined by Marsh for what seems to be an assortment of limb remains , but Gilmore could only find a single claw when he reviewed the species in 1920 . This species has been proposed as outside Coelurus since the 1920s ( when Gilmore assigned it to Chirostenotes ) , and has been regarded as a dubious species outside of Coelurus in recent reviews . Finally , during the period when Ornitholestes was thought to be the same as Coelurus , its type species was recognized as distinct by Steel , as C. hermanni .
+
+= = Paleobiology and paleoecology = =
+
+= = = Provenance and occurrence = = =
+
+The type specimen of Coelurus agilis , YPM 2010 ( now considered a synonym of Coelurus fragilis ) was recovered in the Brushy Basin member of the Morrison Formation , in Albany County , Wyoming . The specimen was collected by Reed in gray sandstone and brown / green claystone that were deposited during the Kimmeridgian stage of the Jurassic period , approximately 157 to 152 million years ago . This specimen is housed in the collection of the Yale Peabody Museum in New Haven , Connecticut .
+
+= = = Fauna and habitat = = =
+
+The Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons , and flat floodplains . Vegetation varied from river @-@ lining forests of conifers , tree ferns , and ferns , to fern savannas with rare trees . It has been a rich fossil hunting ground , holding fossils of green algae , fungi , mosses , horsetails , ferns , cycads , ginkgoes , and several families of conifers . Other fossils discovered include bivalves , snails , ray @-@ finned fishes , frogs , salamanders , turtles such as Uluops , sphenodonts , lizards , terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans like Fruitachampsa , several species of pterosaur like Kepodactylus , numerous dinosaur species , and early mammals such as docodonts , multituberculates , symmetrodonts , and triconodonts . Such dinosaurs as the theropods Ceratosaurus , Allosaurus , Ornitholestes , and Torvosaurus , the sauropods Apatosaurus , Brachiosaurus , Camarasaurus , and Diplodocus , and the ornithischians Camptosaurus , Hesperosaurus , Drinker , Fruitadens , Dryosaurus , and Stegosaurus are known from the Morrison . Coelurus is regarded as a small terrestrial carnivore , feeding on small prey items like insects , mammals , and lizards . It is thought to have been a fast animal , certainly faster than the similar but shorter @-@ footed Ornitholestes . Coelurus is present in stratigraphic zones 2 and 5 of the Morrison Formation .
+
+= Adam Gilchrist =
+
+Adam Craig Gilchrist , AM ( / ˈɡɪlkrɪst / ; born 14 November 1971 ) , nicknamed " Gilly " or " Churchy " , is a former Australian cricketer and one of the most explosive batsmen in world cricket . He was the captain of Australia , and Middlesex . He is an attacking left @-@ handed batsman and record @-@ breaking wicket @-@ keeper , who redefined the role for the Australia national cricket team through his aggressive batting . He is widely regarded as the greatest wicket @-@ keeper – batsman in the history of the game . He held the world record for the most dismissals by a wicket @-@ keeper in One Day International ( ODI ) cricket until it was surpassed by Kumar Sangakkara in 2015 and the most by an Australian in Test cricket . His strike rate is amongst the highest in the history of both ODI and Test cricket ; his century against England at Perth in December 2006 is the fourth @-@ fastest century in all Test cricket . He is the first player to have hit 100 sixes in Test cricket . His 17 Test and 16 ODI centuries are the second most by a wicket @-@ keeper , only after Kumar Sangakkara . He holds the unique record of scoring at least 50 runs in successive World Cup finals ( in 1999 , 2003 and 2007 ) . His swashbuckling 149 off 104 balls against Sri Lanka in the 2007 World Cup final is rated one of the greatest World Cup innings of all time . He is one of only three players to have won three titles . Adam Gilchrist is also the first player to reach 1000 runs in the Indian Premier League . Gilchrist is renowned for walking when he considers himself to be out , sometimes contrary to the decision of the umpire . He made his first @-@ class debut in 1992 , his first One @-@ Day International appearance in 1996 in India and his Test debut in 1999 . During his career , he played for Australia in 96 Test matches and over 270 One @-@ day internationals . He was Australia 's vice @-@ captain in both forms of the game , captaining the team when regular captains Steve Waugh and Ricky Ponting were unavailable . He retired from international cricket in March 2008 .
+
+In March 2013 , he announced that he would join the Caribbean Premier League , a Twenty20 tournament in the West Indies in July along with teammate Ricky Ponting .
+
+= = Early and personal life = =
+
+Adam Gilchrist was born in 1971 at Bellingen Hospital , in Bellingen , New South Wales , the youngest of four children . He and his family lived in Dorrigo , Junee and then Deniliquin where , playing for his school , Deniliquin South Public School , he won the Brian Taber Shield ( named after New South Wales cricketer Brian Taber ) . At the age of 13 , his parents , Stan and June , moved the family to Lismore where Gilchrist captained the Kadina High School cricket team . Gilchrist was selected for the state under @-@ 17 team , and in 1989 he was offered a scholarship by London @-@ based Richmond Cricket Club , a scheme he now supports himself . During his year at Richmond , he also played junior cricket for Old Actonians Cricket Club 's under 17 team , with whom he won the Middlesex League and Cup double . He moved to Sydney and joined the Gordon Club in Sydney Grade Cricket , later moving to Northern Districts .
+
+Gilchrist is married to his high school sweetheart Melinda ( Mel ) Gilchrist ( née Sharpe ) , a dietitian , and they have three sons , Harrison , Archie and Ted , and a daughter , Annie Jean . His family came under the spotlight in the months leading up to the 2007 Cricket World Cup as Archie 's impending birth threatened his presence in the squad ; Archie was born in February and Gilchrist was able to take part in the tournament .
+
+= = Domestic career = =
+
+In 1991 , Gilchrist was selected for the Australia Young Cricketers , a national youth team that toured England and played in youth ODIs and Tests . Gilchrist scored a century and a fifty in the three Tests . Upon his return to Australia late in the year , Gilchrist was accepted into the Australian Cricket Academy . Over the next year , Gilchrist represented the ACA as they played matches against the Second XI of Australia 's state teams , and toured South Africa to play provincial youth teams .
+
+Upon returning to Australia , Gilchrist scored two centuries in four matches for the state Colts and Second XI teams , and was rewarded with selection to make his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales during the 1992 – 93 season , although he played purely as a batsman , due to the presence of incumbent wicketkeeper Phil Emery . In his first season , the side won the Sheffield Shield , Gilchrist scoring an unbeaten 20 in the second innings to secure an easy win over Queensland in the final . Gilchrist made 274 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 44 in his debut season , a score of 75 being his only effort beyond fifty . He also made his debut in Mercantile Mutual limited overs competition . He struggled to keep his place in the side , playing only three first @-@ class matches in the following season . He scored on 43 runs at 8 @.@ 60 ; New South Wales won both competitions , but Gilchrist was overlooked for both finals and did not play a single limited overs match .
+
+Due to a lack of opportunities in the dominant New South Wales outfit , Gilchrist joined Western Australia at the start of the 1994 – 95 , where he had to compete with former Test player Tim Zoehrer for the wicket @-@ keeper 's berth . Gilchrist had no guarantee of selection . However , he made a century in a pre @-@ season trial match and seized Zoehrer 's place . The local fans were initially hostile to the move , but Gilchrist won them over . He made 55 first @-@ class dismissals in his first season , the most by any wicketkeeper in Australian domestic cricket in 1994 – 95 . However , he struggled with the bat , scoring 398 runs at 26 @.@ 53 with seven single figure scores , although he recorded his maiden first @-@ class century in the latter stages of the season , with 126 against South Australia . Gilchrist was rewarded with selection in the Young Australia team that toured England in 1995 and played matches against the English counties . Gilchrist starred with bat , scoring 490 runs at 70 @.@ 00 with two centuries . His second season based in Perth saw him top of the dismissals again , with 58 catches and four stumpings , but , significantly , 835 runs at an impressive batting average of 50 @.@ 52 . The Warriors made it to the final of the Sheffield Shield , at the Adelaide Oval , where Gilchrist scored 189 not out in the first innings , from only 187 balls , including five sixes . The innings brought Gilchrist national prominence . The match ended in a thrilling draw as South Australia 's last @-@ wicket pair held on to fend off the visitors . The hosts thus took the title , having scored more points in the qualifying matches . Gilchrist also scored an unbeaten 76 to help Western Australia secure a narrow three @-@ wicket victory over New South Wales in the penultimate limited overs match of the season , which saw them into the final against Queensland , which was lost . Gilchrist 's form saw him selected for Australia A , a team comprising players close to national selection . At the start of the 1996 – 97 season , sections of the media advocated that he replace Ian Healy as the national wicket @-@ keeper , but Healy struck 161 in the First Test and maintained his position . Gilchrist continued to perform strongly on the domestic circuit he topped the dismissals count once again , with 62 , along with a batting average of just under 40 , although he failed to post a century . Team success came in the Mercantile Mutual Cup , where the Warriors won by eight wickets against Queensland in the March 1997 final ; Gilchrist was not required to bat .
+
+The 1997 – 98 season ended with Gilchrist top of the dismissals chart for the fourth season in a row with an improved batting average of 47 @.@ 66 , despite playing in only six of the ten qualifying Shield matches due to his becoming a regular member of the national limited overs team . Gilchrist registered his maiden – first @-@ class double century with an unbeaten 203 against South Australia early in the season , before returning late in the season after his international commitments were over . He added 109 against Victoria , and played in the Sheffield Shield final victory over Tasmania , although he scored only eight . There was disappointment for the team in the Mercantile Mutual Cup , losing the semi @-@ final to Queensland . The following season saw Gilchrist 's domestic appearances diminish due to his international commitments : he made only a single appearance in the Mercantile Mutual Cup , but still managed to help Western Australia defend the Sheffield Shield , scoring a century in the qualifying rounds .
+
+Gilchrist 's regular selection for Australia has meant that he is rarely available for domestic selection . He became the Test wicket @-@ keeper in late @-@ 1999 , and between 1999 and 2005 , he made only seven first @-@ class appearances for his state . He did not play in the 2005 – 06 Pura Cup and only appeared three times in the limited @-@ overs ING Cup .
+
+= = International career = =
+
+= = = Early one @-@ day seasons = = =
+
+Gilchrist was called up for the Australian One Day International ( ODI ) team in 1996 , his debut coming against South Africa at Faridabad on 25 October 1996 as the 129th Australian ODI cap , after an injury to incumbent Ian Healy . While not particularly impressive with the bat on his debut , scoring 18 before being bowled by Allan Donald , Gilchrist took his first catch as an international wicketkeeper , Hansie Cronje departing for a golden duck from the bowling of Paul Reiffel . He was run out for a duck in his only other ODI on the tour . Healy resumed his place during the 1996 – 97 season . Gilchrist replaced Healy for the first two ODIs in the 1997 Australian tour of South Africa , after Healy was suspended for dissent . When Healy returned Gilchrist maintained his position in the team as a specialist batsman after Mark Waugh sustained a hand injury . It was during this series that Gilchrist made his first ODI half @-@ century , with an innings of 77 in Durban . He totalled 127 runs at 31 @.@ 75 for the series . Gilchrist went on to play in the Texaco Trophy later in 1997 in the 3 – 0 series loss against England , scoring 53 and 33 in two innings .
+
+At the start of the 1997 – 98 Australian season , Healy and captain Mark Taylor were omitted from the ODI squad as the Australian selectors opted for Gilchrist and Michael di Venuto . Gilchrist 's elevation was made possible by a change in policy by selectors , who announced that selection for ODI and Test teams would be separate , with Test and ODI specialists selected accordingly , while Healy remained the preferred Test wicket @-@ keeper . This came after Australia failed to qualify for the previous season 's ODI triangular series final for the first time in 17 years . The new team was initially unconvincing , losing all four round robin matches against South Africa in the 1997 – 98 Carlton & United Series , with multiple players filling Taylor 's role as Mark Waugh 's opening partner without success . Gilchrist also struggled batting in the lower order at number seven , the conventional wicket @-@ keeper 's batting position , scoring 148 runs at 24 @.@ 66 in the eight qualifying matches . In the first final against South Africa at the Melbourne Cricket Ground Gilchrist was selected as Waugh 's opening partner . In a particularly poor start to the new combination , Waugh was run out after a mix @-@ up with Gilchrist . However , in the second final , Gilchrist struck his maiden ODI century , spearheading Australia 's successful run chase at the Sydney Cricket Ground , securing his position as an opening batsman . Australia won the third final to claim the title .
+
+Touring New Zealand in February 1998 , Gilchrist topped that Australia averages with 200 runs at 50 @.@ 00 , including a match @-@ winning 118 in the first match . He also effected his first ODI stumping , the wicket of Nathan Astle in the Second ODI in Wellington . Australia then played two triangular tournaments in Asia . Gilchrist struggled in India , scoring 86 runs at 17 @.@ 20 . He went on to play in the Coca Cola Cup in Sharjah in April 1998 , a triangular tournament between Australia , India and New Zealand . Australia finished runners @-@ up in the tournament , with Gilchrist taking nine dismissals as wicketkeeper and averaging 37 @.@ 13 with the bat .
+
+Gilchrist won a silver medal at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur , the only time cricket has been in the Commonwealth Games . The matches did not have ODI status , and after winning their first four fixtures , Australia lost the final to South Africa , Gilchrist making 15 . He then scored 103 and ended with 190 runs at 63 @.@ 33 as Australia took a rare 3 – 0 whitewash on Pakistani soil .
+
+Gilchrist was in fine form ahead of the 1999 Cricket World Cup with a productive individual performance in the Carlton & United Series in January and February 1999 against Sri Lanka and England . He finished with 525 runs at a batting average of 43 @.@ 75 with two centuries — both against Sri Lanka — and a fifty , and a total of 27 dismissals in 12 matches . His 131 helped Australia set a successful run @-@ chase at the SCG , and he followed this with 154 at the MCG . The 1999 tour of the West Indies was Australia 's last campaign before the World Cup and continued to prove Gilchrist 's ability as a wicketkeeper @-@ batsman . Gilchrist , with a batting average of 28 @.@ 71 and a strike rate of nearly 90 @.@ 00 , and seven fielding dismissals in a seven @-@ match series which ended 3 – 3 with one tie .
+
+= = = First World Cup success = = =
+
+Gilchrist played in every match of Australia 's successful World Cup campaign , but struggled at first , with scores of 6 , 14 and 0 in the first three matches against Scotland , New Zealand and Pakistan . Australia lost the latter two matches and had to avoid defeat for six consecutive matches to reach the final . Gilchrist 's quick @-@ fire 63 runs in 39 balls against Bangladesh helped the Australians into the Super Six stage of the tournament , which was secured with a win over the West Indies , although Gilchrist made only 21 . Gilchrist continued to struggle in the Super Six phase , scoring 31 , 10 and 5 against India , Zimbabwe and South Africa . Australia won all three matches , the last in the final over , to scrape into the semifinals . Gilchrist made only 20 in the semifinal against South Africa , but completed the final act of the match . With the scores tied , South Africa were going for the winning run when Gilchrist broke the stumps to complete the run out of Allan Donald ; the match was tied , and Australia proceeded to the final as they had won the group stage match against South Africa . Gilchrist 's 54 in the final helped secure Australia 's first world title since 1987 with an eight wicket victory over Pakistan . It was a happy ending for Gilchrist , who had struggled through the tournament , with 237 runs at 21 @.@ 54 .
+
+Success at the World Cup was followed by a defeat by Sri Lanka in the final of the Aiwa Cup in August 1999 , . Gilchrist was the most successful batsman and wicket @-@ keeper of the tournament , with 231 runs at 46 @.@ 20 . While the Test players battled against Sri Lanka , Gilchrist led Australia A in a limited overs series against India A in Los Angeles . He then scored 60 runs at 20 @.@ 00 as the Australians completed a 3 – 0 whitewash of Zimbabwe in October .
+
+= = = Test debut = = =
+
+Gilchrist made his Test match debut in the First Test against Pakistan at the Gabba in Brisbane in November 1999 becoming the 381st Australian Test cricketer . He replaced Healy , who was dropped after a run of poor form , despite the incumbent 's entreaties to the selectors to allow him a farewell game in front of his home crowd . Gilchrist 's entry into the Test arena coincided with a dramatic rise in Australia 's fortunes . Up to this point , they had played eight Tests in 1999 , winning and losing three .
+
+Gilchrist 's icy reception at the Gabba did not faze him ; he took five catches , stumped Azhar Mahmood off Shane Warne 's bowling and scored a rapid 81 , mostly in partnership with ODI partner Waugh , in a match that Australia won comfortably by ten wickets . In his second Test match he made an unbeaten 149 to help guide Australia to victory in a game that looked well beyond their reach . Australia were struggling at 5 / 126 in pursuit of 369 for victory as he joined his Western Australian team @-@ mate , Justin Langer , but the pair put on a record @-@ breaking partnership of 238 to seal an Australian win . Gilchrist continued his strong run throughout his debut Test season , and ended the summer with 485 runs at 69 @.@ 28 in six matches , three each against Pakistan and India , adding two fifties against the latter .
+
+Gilchrist was moderately successful in the following ODIs , the Carlton & United Series ; Australia defeated Pakistan 2 – 0 in a best @-@ of @-@ three final . Gilchrist scored 272 runs at 27 @.@ 20 ; his best effort was 92 in a 152 @-@ run victory over India on Australia Day . Gilchrist then scored 251 runs at 41 @.@ 66 in the ODIs during a tour of New Zealand . The highlight was a 128 in Christchurch that propelled Australia to a score of 6 / 349 . Gilchrist was named man of the match in two of the games .
+
+In the Third Test against New Zealand in 2000 , Gilchrist recorded the third best Test performance ever by a wicketkeeper , and the best by an Australian , taking ten catches in the match . Although Gilchrist 's batting was modest , yielding 144 runs at 36 @.@ 00 , Australia took a 3 – 0 clean sweep . In two home and away ODI series against South Africa , Gilchrist had a quiet time , scoring 170 runs at 26 @.@ 66 . South Africa won three of the six matches , with one tie .
+
+Later that year , he was handed the vice @-@ captaincy of the Australian team in place of Shane Warne , who had been plagued by a number of off @-@ the @-@ field controversies , including an altercation with some teenage boys , and a sex scandal with a British nurse .
+
+The 2000 – 01 season saw a West Indian touring party and Gilchrist warmed up with consecutive first @-@ class centuries for Western Australia . Captaining his Test team for the first time in place of the injured Steve Waugh in the Third Test in Adelaide . Gilchrist scored only 9 and 10 not out , but a ten @-@ wicket haul from Colin Miller resulted in a hard @-@ fought five @-@ wicket victory for Australia . Gilchrist described the match as " the proudest moment of my career " . Waugh resumed the captaincy on his return to the team for the Fourth and Fifth Tests , with the series finishing in a 5 – 0 whitewash . Gilchrist scored 241 runs at 48 @.@ 20 with two fifties . In the ensuing ODI tournament , Gilchrist scored 326 runs at 36 @.@ 22 with a top @-@ score of 98 as the Australians won all ten matches .
+
+Up to this point , Gilchrist had played in 14 Tests , all in Australasia , and all of which had been won . Australia 's run of 15 consecutive Test wins faced a steep challenge on the tour of India , where they had not won a Test series since 1969 – 70 .
+
+Australia 's streak looked in danger during the First Test in Mumbai when they fell to 5 / 99 in reply to India 's 171 when Gilchrist came to the crease . He counterattacked savagely , scoring 122 in just 112 balls , and featuring in a 197 @-@ run partnership with Matthew Hayden in only 32 overs . This swung the momentum back to Australia , who reached 349 . Gilchrist took six catches and was named Man of the Match in a ten wicket victory , extending the world record run to 16 .
+
+Gilchrist 's form dipped momentarily , with a rare king pair ( two golden ducks in the same match ) in the Second Test in Kolkata and just two runs in his two innings in Chennai . He was out LBW four consecutive times in the last two Tests , three of these to Harbhajan Singh , who took 32 wickets in the series to end Australia 's run by inflicting a 2 – 1 series loss . His one @-@ day form remained strong , with 172 runs at 43 @.@ 00 in the ODI series in India , as Australia bounced back to win the series 3 – 2 . During this series he captained the ODI team for the first time , winning all three of the matches under his captaincy .
+
+= = = 2001 Ashes = = =
+
+Gilchrist played a pivotal role in the 2001 Ashes series which Australia won 4 – 1 , with 340 runs at a batting average of 68 @.@ 00 and 26 dismissals in the five match series .
+
+Gilchrist warmed up by putting his ODI struggles on English soil in 1999 behind him , scoring 248 runs at 49 @.@ 60 in the triangular tournament preceding the Tests , scoring an unbeaten 76 in the final win over Pakistan .
+
+Gilchrist put the disappointment of India behind him in the First Test at Edgbaston , scoring 152 from only 143 balls . The allowed Australia to reach 576 in only 545 minutes , and set up an innings victory that set the tone for the series . Gilchrist then added 90 in the eight @-@ wicket win in the Second Test at Lord 's , before turning the tide in the Third Test at Trent Bridge . Australia slumped to 7 / 105 in reply to the hosts ' 185 , but Gilchrist 's 54 took the tourists to 190 before a seven @-@ wicket win resulted in the retention of the Ashes .
+
+Gilchrist captained the team in the Fourth Test at Headingley after an injury to Steve Waugh . After persistent rain interruptions , Gilchrist declared with Australia four down at tea on the fourth day , leaving England with a target of 315 , which , despite losing two early wickets , they reached with six wickets to spare , ( Mark Butcher scoring an unbeaten 173 , including 24 boundaries ) . Gilchrist failed to pass 25 in the last two Tests , but it had been a productive season ; he scored centuries in both of Australia 's county matches .
+
+Two home series followed in the 2001 – 02 season , a fully drawn ( 0 – 0 ) three match series against New Zealand and a whitewash over South Africa 3 – 0 . Gilchrist scored 118 in the First Test against New Zealand and an unbeaten 83 in the Third Test in Perth as the Australians held on for a draw with three wickets intact . However , Gilchrist did little in the triumph over South Africa , failing to pass 35 . He ended the summer Tests with 353 runs at 50 @.@ 42 .
+
+In the ensuing ODIs , Gilchrist scored only 97 runs at 16 @.@ 16 . The Australian selectors sought to accommodate Hayden , who had been successful as a Test opener , into the ODI team by rotating him with Gilchrist and Waugh , but this appeared to unsettle the team . With a newly fragile top @-@ order , Australia failed to qualify for the finals , and the Waugh brothers were dropped from the team , ending Gilchrist 's four @-@ year partnership with Mark . Ricky Ponting was promoted to the captaincy ahead of vice captain Gilchrist .
+
+The Australians then toured South Africa the next month and it was during the First Test in Johannesburg that Gilchrist broke the record for the fastest double century in Tests on 23 February , requiring 212 balls for the feat . This was eight balls quicker than Ian Botham 's innings against India at The Oval in 1982 . He ended unbeaten on 204 , having featured in a partnership of 317 with Damien Martyn at a run rate of 5 @.@ 5 . South Africa were demoralised and lost by an innings after being forced to follow on . The record lasted only one month , however , with New Zealand 's Nathan Astle taking 59 balls less to reach the milestone during an innings in March 2002 .
+
+In the Second Test at Cape Town , Gilchrist struck 138 from 108 balls to set up a first innings lead and eventual four @-@ wicket win . He then top @-@ scored with 91 in the Third Test , and although Australia lost the match , Gilchrist ended the series with an astonishing 473 at 157 @.@ 66 from just 474 balls , in addition to 14 dismissals .
+
+Gilchrist captained the ODI team , once again for a single match , against Kenya in Nairobi during the PSO Tri @-@ Nation Tournament . Despite Australia 's unbeaten run in the competition , the final , against Pakistan was abandoned due to rain , so the teams shared the trophy . During the six middle months of 2002 , Gilchrist played in 18 ODIs , scoring 562 runs at 31 @.@ 22 , including a century , recovering from his slump .
+
+After scoring 122 runs at 40 @.@ 66 in the 3 – 0 Test series clean sweep over Pakistan in the United Arab Emirates , Gilchrist went on to help the Australians retain The Ashes 4 – 1 in 2002 – 03 , playing in all five matches of the series , finishing with 330 runs at 55 @.@ 50 and taking 25 dismissals as wicket @-@ keeper . After scoring fifties in the first two Tests , Gilchrist scored a counter @-@ attacking 133 from 121 balls in the Fifth Test at the SCG , but was unable to prevent Australia 's only loss of the series .
+
+From the time of his debut up to the 2003 World Cup , Gilchrist 's played in 40 Tests in series . With the exception of the 2001 tour of India , when he averaged 24 @.@ 80 ( he made 124 runs in the series ; 122 of them came in one innings ) , his performances with the bat were such that he was described at the time as the " finest batsman @-@ wicketkeeper to have graced the game " . At one point in March 2002 , Gilchrist 's Test average was over 60 ; the second @-@ highest for any established player in Test history , and he topped the ICC Test batting rankings in May 2002 .
+
+Gilchrist warmed up for the World Cup in South Africa by scoring 310 runs at 44 @.@ 28 in the triangular tournament in Australia against England and Sri Lanka . His performances over the past year were recognised with the Allan Border Medal .
+
+= = = 2003 World Cup = = =
+
+Gilchrist played in all but one of the matches in Australia 's successful defence of their World Cup title ; he was rested for the group match against the Netherlands . He finished the tournament with 408 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 80 at a strike rate of 105 . He scored four half @-@ centuries , and was run out against Sri Lanka in the Super Six stage just a single run short of a century . In the semi @-@ final , he scored 22 before being caught off an inside @-@ edge onto pad off the bowling of Aravinda de Silva . The umpire gave no reaction , however Gilchrist walked off the pitch after a moment 's pause . In 2009 it was described as an " astonishing moment " drawing criticism from England 's Angus Fraser , who " objected to him being canonised simply for not cheating " , and from others who " thought that he walked almost by accident ; that having played his shot he overbalanced in the direction of the pavilion . " His actions nevertheless drew praise from the majority . In the final , India elected to field first and Gilchrist hammered 57 from 48 balls , featuring in a century opening stand with Hayden to seize the initiative . This laid the foundation for Australia 's 2 / 359 and a crushing 125 @-@ run win , ending an unbeaten campaign . Gilchrist was also the competition 's most successful wicketkeeper , making 21 dismissals .
+
+Success in the World Cup was followed up by a tour of the West Indies where Gilchrist was part of a side that won both the ODI and Test series . He scored 282 runs at 70 @.@ 50 with one century in the four Tests , and 212 runs at 35 @.@ 33 in the ODIs . The Australians then defeated a touring Bangladeshi cricket team in short series in both forms of the game . Gilchrist was only sporadically required with the bat .
+
+= = = Decline and revival = = =
+
+After scoring his first Test century at his home ground in Perth , an unbeaten 113 against Zimbabwe , Gilchrist 's Test form dipped again during the 2003 – 04 season , with only 120 runs coming in the next 10 innings , during the home series against India ( drawn 1 – 1 ) and the away series in Sri Lanka ( won 3 – 0 ) . However , he returned to form in the Second Test Kandy , scoring a quickfire 144 in the second innings to set up a 27 @-@ run win after Australia conceded a 91 @-@ run first innings lead .
+
+However , he maintained high standards in ODIs during this period , including 111 against India in Bangalore , 172 against Zimbabwe , just one run short of Mark Waugh 's Australian record , and two further half @-@ centuries in the VB Series in Australia . His success in One @-@ day cricket was underlined by his rise to the top of the ICC ODI batting rankings in February 2004 . However , he was unable to maintain this form on the 2004 tours of Sri Lanka , Zimbabwe and the Champions Trophy in England , accumulating 253 runs at 28 @.@ 11 in 11 innings .
+
+Gilchrist then scored 115 runs at 28 @.@ 75 in two Tests at home to Sri Lanka in mid @-@ 2004 , and captained in the First Test win in Darwin with Ponting absent . Australia won the series 1 – 0 .
+
+A 104 in the First Test against India in October 2004 proved to be a false renaissance ; he scored only 104 runs in the remaining seven innings on the Indian tour and 139 runs in eight ODI innings towards the end of the 2004 – 05 season , which formed the lowest average period of Gilchrist 's career until 2007 . He took the captaincy of the Test team once again , in place of the injured Ricky Ponting , and led the Australian side to an historic 2 – 1 series victory in India , a feat last achieved in 1969 . Ponting recovered to lead the team in the Fourth Test , Australia 's only loss .
+
+Gilchrist returned to form when New Zealand toured Australia at the start of southern hemisphere season . He scored 126 and 50 in the 2 – 0 Test series clean sweep and scored fifties in both ODIs . He then scored 230 runs at 76 @.@ 66 in three Tests against Pakistan , including a rapid 113 in the Third Test at the SCG as Australia won all five Tests during the summer . He made it three successive Test centuries with 121 and 162 in the first two Tests on the tour of New Zealand , before ending with an unbeaten 60 in the Third Test ; he totalled 343 runs at 114 @.@ 33 for the series . His ODI form in the early part of 2005 remained moderate , with 308 runs at 28 @.@ 00 during the southern summer .
+
+Gilchrist was in strong form ahead of the Tests , scoring 393 runs at 49 @.@ 13 in the ODIs in England . The highlight was the 121 not out in the final game of the one @-@ day NatWest Series , Gilchrist being awarded the man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match award . However , he performed poorly in the five Tests , with 204 runs at 25 @.@ 50 . Just as in India in 2001 , Australia lost 2 – 1 , and Gilchrist fell four times to man of the series Andrew Flintoff .
+
+Australia and Gilchrist returned to form after the Ashes in the series against the ICC World XI . Gilchrist scored 45 , 103 and 32 as Australia swept the ODIs 3 – 0 , and top @-@ scored with 94 in the first innings of the one @-@ off Test , which Australia won . However , this did not transfer into the regular international matches . In six home Tests against the West Indies and South Africa in 2005 – 06 , Gilchrist managed only 190 runs at 23 @.@ 75 , but Australia was unhindered , winning 3 – 0 and 2 – 0 respectively .
+
+His one @-@ day form also began to suffer , scoring only 11 runs in three ODIs in New Zealand and 13 in the first two matches of the VB Series . He was rested for two games and returned to form against Sri Lanka on 29 January 2006 on his home ground , the WACA , hitting 116 runs off 105 balls to lead Australia to victory . He continued in this vein with the fastest ever century by an Australian in just 67 balls against Sri Lanka at the Gabba , ending with 122 as Australia won the deciding third final by nine wickets . After a slow start , he ended the series with 432 runs at 48 @.@ 00 .
+
+The purple patch ended on the tour of South Africa and then Bangladesh . He scored 206 runs at 29 @.@ 42 in five Tests and 248 runs at 35 @.@ 42 in eight ODIs , inflated by a 144 in the First Test against Bangladesh . Despite this , Australia won all five Tests . Gilchrist scored 130 runs at 26 @.@ 00 , including a 92 against the West Indies as Australia won the 2006 Champions Trophy in India .
+
+On 16 December 2006 , during the Third Ashes Test at the WACA , Gilchrist scored a century in 57 balls , including twelve fours and four sixes , the second fastest recorded Test century . At 97 runs from 54 balls , Gilchrist needed three runs from the next delivery to better Viv Richards ' record set in 1986 . The ball delivered by Matthew Hoggard was wide and Gilchrist was unable to score from it . He later claimed that the " batting pyrotechnics " had been the result of a miscommunication with the Australian captain Ricky Ponting ; Gilchrist had actually been told not to score quick runs with a view to declaring the innings .
+
+He ended the 2006 – 07 Ashes with a century and two fifties , totalling 229 runs at 45 @.@ 80 at a strike rate of over 100 as Australia regained the Ashes with a 5 – 0 whitewash . It was an inconsistent series ; aside from three scores mentioned , Gilchrist failed to pass one in his other three innings . Between Ashes series , Gilchrist had averaged only 25 with one Test century .
+
+However , both he and Australia suffered a surprising string of poor results in the 2006 @-@ 07 Commonwealth Bank Series , Gilchrist managing an average of only 22 @.@ 20 during the tournament . Australia won seven of their eight qualifying matches , but England won with two finals victories over the Australians . Gilchrist scored 60 and 61 in the first two matches but did not pass 30 thereafter . He was then rested for Australia 's winless three @-@ match ODI tour of New Zealand , before his selection for the 2007 Cricket World Cup . Having previously indicated that it was highly likely that he would retire after the 2007 World Cup , he then stated a desire to play on aftwerwards .
+
+= = = 2007 World Cup = = =
+
+Gilchrist and Australia started their 2007 World Cup campaign by winning all three of their matches in Group A , against Scotland , the Netherlands and South Africa . Australia won all six of their matches in the Super8 stage with little difficulty — the margins of victory were exceeded 80 runs or six wickets in every instance . They topped the table and thus qualifying for a semi @-@ final rematch against fourth @-@ placed South Africa . Gilchrist opened the Australian batting in each match , taking a pinch @-@ hitting role in the opening powerplays . Initially successful in the group matches , scoring 46 , 57 and 42 , he failed in the first Super8 match against West Indies ( 7 ) , but bounced back to score a second half @-@ century ( 59 not out ) in a ten @-@ wicket victory against Bangladesh in a match drastically shortened due to rain . After a run of middling scores , he failed again in the final Super8 match against New Zealand .
+
+As a batsman , Gilchrist was dismissed for a single run in the semi @-@ final against South Africa , despite which Australia won by seven wickets . As wicket @-@ keeper , however , he took four catches , equalling the most dismissals in one match in the tournament and bringing his total for the tournament to 14 , second behind Sri Lanka 's Kumar Sangakkara .
+
+Gilchrist opened the batting against Sri Lanka in the final . This was Gilchrist 's third successive World Cup final , and the third time he scored at least a 50 runs in World Cup finals and he went on to make his only ever century in a world cup match . Gilchrist went on to score 149 runs off 104 balls with thirteen fours and eight sixes , the highest individual score in a World Cup final , eclipsing his captain Ricky Ponting 's score of 140 in the 2003 final . Australia won and he was named the man of the match . Subsequently there has been some controversy over Gilchrist 's use of a squash ball inside his glove during this innings . The MCC stated that Gilchrist had not acted against the laws or the spirit of the game , since there is no restriction against the external or internal form of batting gloves .
+
+In September 2007 , Gilchrist played in the inaugural World Twenty20 . He scored 169 runs at 33 @.@ 80 as Australia were knocked out by India in the semifinals . Gilchrist then scored 208 runs at 34 @.@ 66 as Australia took an away ODI series against India 4 – 2 . In November , Gilchrist 's peers voted him the greatest Australian ODI cricketer ever , for which he was awarded an honour at an ACA function before Australia 's second Test against Sri Lanka . He was only required to bat once in the Tests , and made 67 not out as Australia swept Sri Lanka aside 2 – 0 .
+
+= = = Retirement = = =
+
+On 26 January 2008 during the 4th and final Test of the 2007 – 08 series against India , Gilchrist announced that he would retire from international cricket at the end of the season . A back injury kept Ricky Ponting off the field for sections of the Indian 's second innings , resulting in Gilchrist captaining the team for the part of final two days of his Test cricket career . India batted out the match for a draw , so Gilchrist 's 14 in the first innings was his final Test innings ; he took his 379th and final catch when Virender Sehwag was caught behind . Gilchrist had scored only 150 runs at 21 @.@ 42 in his final Test series .
+
+John Buchanan , who coached Australia during most of Gilchrist 's international career , predicted that Gilchrist 's retirement would have more impact than the previous year 's retirements of Damien Martyn , Glenn McGrath , Shane Warne and Justin Langer and Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd asked Gilchrist to reconsider . Gilchrist later revealed that he chose to retire after dropping VVS Laxman during the first innings , and realising that he had lost his " competitive edge . " He played out the summer 's ODI series , before ending in disappointment when India beat Australia 2 – 0 in the 2007 @-@ 08 Commonwealth Bank Series finals . Gilchrist managed only seven and two in the finals . His highlight of the series was his scoring 118 and being named Man of the Match in his final match at his adopted home in Perth on 15 February 2008 , against Sri Lanka . He ended his final series with 322 runs at 32 @.@ 20 .
+
+= = = Indian Premier League = = =
+
+Gilchrist was contracted by the Hyderabad @-@ based Deccan Chargers in the inaugural season 's player auction for US $ 700 @,@ 000 . In Deccan 's fourth match of the inaugural 2008 season , Gilchrist hammered the second fastest hundred in the IPL , off just 42 balls , as Deccan recorded their first win , against Mumbai . Gilchrist led the Deccan Chargers in the second half of the IPL in the absence of regular captain VVS Laxman , who was ruled out for the rest of the tournament due to injury . Deccan came last , winning only two of 14 matches .
+
+In the second season , Gilchrist was installed as captain in place of Laxman by new coach and former Australian teammate Darren Lehmann . The team started well and won their first four matches but stumbled and won only three of their remaining ten qualifying matches . They qualified fourth into the semifinals and Gilchrist led the team to the final by striking 85 off just 35 balls against the Delhi Daredevils . Although made a duck in the final against the Royal Challengers Bangalore , Deccan won by six runs to take the title . Gilchrist was named the Player of The Tournament .
+
+In the fourth season , Gilchrist was contracted by Kings XI Punjab for US $ 900 @,@ 000 . He was chosen the captain for the team as Kumar Sangakkara ( former captain of Punjab ) had moved to Deccan Chargers . In March 2012 he was named " player @-@ coach " , replacing his friend and former Australia teammate Michael Bevan , whose contract as head coach was not renewed . Gilchrist had speculated on retiring from the IPL at the end of the 2012 season , after Kings XI Punjab failed to make it to the play @-@ offs .
+
+In the sixth season , Gilchrist made a comeback for his final IPL stint . He stated the reason as being the Kings XI management 's decision to renew his contract for another season . An interesting change in the team staff was the induction of Darren Lehmann as the new Kings XI coach . This brought together the duo of Gilchrist and Lehmann who had guided their previous franchise , the Deccan Chargers to its 2009 IPL victory . Some good performances by the players led the Kings XI Punjab team eyeing for the fourth spot in the play @-@ offs and a possible maiden win under Gilchrist 's leadership . They were knocked out very late in the tournament . In his final game at IPL , Gilchrist decided to bowl the last over of the match against the Mumbai Indians , where he got the wicket of Harbhajan Singh of his first ball , securing KXIP 's victory in the match . In a recent press conference , Gilchrist has confirmed that this will be his final IPL season and that he was looking forward to a fresh start in the inaugural Caribbean Premier League in July 2013 .
+
+= = = Middlesex = = =
+
+He signed a short @-@ term contract in November 2009 to play English Twenty20 cricket for Middlesex between 3 and 24 June 2010 . He was appointed interim captain on 11 June upon the sudden resignation of Shaun Udal . In addition to the seven Twenty20 fixtures , he is also captaining the county versus the touring Australians in a fifty @-@ over friendly .
+
+In addition to this he will be taking part in the major sporting events Titans of Cricket in October 2011 – an evening of exciting challenges for famous sportsmen , touring across the UK in Manchester and Birmingham , with the grand finale in London 's O2
+
+In July 2014 , he played for the Rest of the World side in the Bicentenary Celebration match at Lord 's .
+
+= = Style of play = =
+
+Gilchrist 's attacking batting has been a key part of Australia 's one @-@ day success , as he usually opened the batting . He was a part of the successful 1999 , 2003 and 2007 Cricket World Cup campaigns . Gilchrist 's Test batting average in the upper 40s is unusually high for a wicket @-@ keeper . He is currently 45th on the all – time list of highest batting averages . He maintains a Test strike @-@ rate of 82 runs per hundred balls , the highest since balls were recorded in full . His combination of attack and consistency create one of the most dynamic world cricketers ever , playing shots to all areas of the field with uncommon timing . He second on the all @-@ time list of most sixes in Tests at 100 with only Brendon McCullum ahead of him with 107 . Gilchrist 's skills as a wicket @-@ keeper are sometimes questioned ; some people would claim that he is the best keeper in Australia while Victorian wicket @-@ keeper Darren Berry was regarded by many as the best Australian wicket @-@ keeper of the 1990s and early 2000s .
+
+In this role , Gilchrist is perhaps disadvantaged by his relatively tall stature for a pure wicket @-@ keeper . However , while perhaps not as elegant as some , he has successfully kept wicket for spin bowler Shane Warne and fast bowlers Glenn McGrath and Brett Lee for most of his international career . His partnerships with McGrath and Lee are second and fourth respectively in both test and ODI history for the number of wickets taken . With Alec Stewart and Mark Boucher , he shares the record for most catches ( 6 ) by a wicketkeeper in a ODI match , however he has now achieved this feat five times , the most recent versus India in 2008 CB Series . The match in 2007 was also the second time he took six dismissals and scored a half century in the same ODI ; he remains the only player to do so even once . At Old Trafford in August 2005 , he passed Alec Stewart 's world record of 4 @,@ 540 runs as a Test wicketkeeper , Statistically , he is currently the most successful ODI wicket @-@ keeper in history ; with 417 catches and 55 stumpings , a total of 472 dismissals , his closest rival , Mark Boucher , is more than 80 dismissals behind .
+
+= = Walking and discipline = =
+
+Cricket has for many years debated whether batsmen should " walk " , that is to agree that they have been dismissed and leave the field of play without waiting for ( or contrary to ) an umpire 's decision . Gilchrist reignited this debate by walking during a high @-@ profile match , the 2003 World Cup semi @-@ final against Sri Lanka , after the umpire ruled him to be not out . He has since proclaimed himself to be " a walker " , or a batsman who will consistently walk , and has done so on numerous occasions . On one occasion against Bangladesh , Gilchrist walked but TV replays failed to suggest any contact between his bat and the ball . Without such contact , he could not have been caught out .
+
+Gilchrist 's actions have sparked debate amongst current and former players and umpires . Ricky Ponting has declared on several occasions that he is not a walker but will leave it to each player to decide whether they wish to walk or not . While no other Australian top order batsmen have expressly declared themselves to be walkers , lower @-@ order batsmen Jason Gillespie and Michael Kasprowicz both walked during Test matches in India in 2004 . In 2004 , New Zealand captain Stephen Fleming accused Gilchrist of conducting a " walking crusade " when Craig McMillan refused to walk after Gilchrist had caught him off an edge from the bowling of Jason Gillespie in the First Test in Brisbane . After the appeal was turned down by the umpire , who did not hear the edge , Gilchrist goaded McMillan about the edge , and McMillan 's angry response was picked up by the stump microphone : " ... not everyone is walking , Gilly ... not everyone has to walk , mate ... " . The taunt was effective , however , as McMillan , perhaps distracted , missed the next ball and was given out leg before wicket . Gilchrist said in his autobiography that he had " zero support in the team " for his stance and that he felt that the topic made the dressing room uncomfortable . He added that he " felt isolated " and " silently accused of betraying the team . Implictly I was made to feel selfish , as if I was walking for the sake of my own clean image , thereby making everyone else look dishonest . "
+
+Gilchrist has been noted for his emotional outbursts on the cricket field , and has been fined multiple times for dissent against umpiring decisions . In January 2006 , he was fined 40 % of his match fee in an ODI against South Africa . In another instance , in early 2004 in Sri Lanka , Gilchrist audibly argued with umpire Peter Manuel after batting partner Andrew Symonds was given out . After the argument concluded , Manuel consulted umpiring partner Billy Bowden and reversed his decision , recalling Symonds to the crease . Gilchrist was also reprimanded by the Australian Cricket Board for publicly questioning the legality of Muttiah Muralitharan 's bowling action in 2002 , as his comments were found to be in breach of the clause in the player code of conduct relating to " detrimental public comment " .
+
+During the 2003 World Cup , Gilchrist accused Pakistani wicketkeeper Rashid Latif of making a racist remark towards him while the latter was batting in their group match . Latif who was cleared by match referee Clive Lloyd , threatened to sue Gilchrist for this claim .
+
+= = Charity , media , business career and political work = =
+
+Outside cricket , Gilchrist is an ambassador for the charity World Vision in India , a country in which he is popular due to his cricketing achievements , and sponsors a boy whose father has died . He was approached in early 2005 by the US baseball franchise , the Boston Red Sox , with a view to him playing for them when his cricket career ended . However , he was selected for the 2007 Cricket World Cup and announced his retirement from Test and One @-@ Day cricket in early 2008 .
+
+In March 2008 , Gilchrist joined the Nine Network . Gilchrist has appeared as one of a panel of revolving co @-@ hosts for the revived Wide World of Sports Weekend Edition . He made his debut on the program in March 2008 , and commentates on Nine 's cricket coverage during the Australian summer . In 2013 Gilchrist joined Ricky Ponting and various other names in cricket to commentate for Channel Ten in the third series of the Big Bash League .
+
+As Amway Australia Ambassador , Gilchrist has played a role in many of their charity events . In August 2010 , he presented the Freedom Wheels program , an initiative to provide modified bikes to kids with disabilities , a cheque for $ 20 @,@ 000 .
+
+Gilchrist has been the chair of the National Australia Day Council since 2008 . In 2008 , Gilchrist supported debate on whether Australia Day should be moved to a new date because the current date marks European settlement and is offensive to many Aboriginal Australians . Gilchrist is considered to have left @-@ wing views ; Australian captain Ricky Ponting commented in his annual Captain 's Diary that his deputy had a penchant for reading Karl Marx while on tour .
+
+Gilchrist has had a number of company directorships outside of cricket . His appointment to the board of ASX listed sandalwood company TFS Corporation , committee member of Commonwealth Business Forum in Perth and director of Travelex . The appointment to TFS Corporation was not without controversy when as a board member of TFS he was named as a plaintiff suing his own TFS shareholders for defamation
+
+= = Autobiography = =
+
+Gilchrist 's autobiography True Colours , published in 2008 , was the subject of much controversy . Gilchrist questioned the integrity of leading Indian batsman Sachin Tendulkar in relation to the evidence he presented in the Monkeygate dispute , which was about allegations of racism against Harbhajan Singh . The autobiography said that Tendulkar told the first hearing that he could not hear what Harbhajan said to Andrew Symonds ; Gilchrist said he was " certain he [ Tendulkar ] was telling the truth " because he was " a fair way away " . Gilchrist then questioned why Tendulkar then agreed with Harbhajan 's claim at the second hearing that the exchange was an obscenity , and concluded that the process was " a joke " . He also raised questions over Tendulkar 's sportsmanship and said he was " hard to find for a changing @-@ room handshake after we have beaten India " .
+
+There was a backlash in India , which forced Gilchrist to clarify his position . Gilchrist later insisted that he did not accuse Tendulkar of lying in his testimony . He also denied calling the Indian a " bad sport " in regards to the handshake issue . Tendulkar responded by saying that " those remarks came from someone who doesn 't know me enough . I think he made loose statements ... I reminded him that I was the first person to shake hands after the Sydney defeat . " The autobiography also blamed the ICC for allowing Sri Lankan cricketer Muralitharan to bowl ; Gilchrist believes that ICC changed the throwing law to legitimise a bowling action that he regards as illegitimate . The law change was described as " a load of horse crap . That 's rubbish . " Gilchrist claimed that Muralitharan threw the ball and alleged that the ICC protected him because Sri Lankan cricket authorities portrayed any criticism of the bowler 's legitimacy as racism and a witchhunt conducted by whites . In response to these comments , former Sri Lankan captain Marvan Atapattu said that by questioning the credentials of players like Muralitharan and Tendulkar , Gilchrist had done no good to his own reputation .
+
+= = Achievements = =
+
+= = = Awards = = =
+
+Gilchrist was one of five Wisden Cricketers of the Year for 2002 , and Australia 's One @-@ day International Player of the Year in 2003 and 2004 . He was awarded the Allan Border Medal in 2003 , and was the only Australian cricketer who was a current player at the time to have been named in " Richie Benaud 's Greatest XI " in 2004 . He was selected in the ICC World XI for the charity series against the ACC Asian XI , 2004 – 05 , was voted as " World 's Scariest Batsman " in a poll of international bowlers , and was named as wicket @-@ keeper and opening batsman in Australia 's " greatest ever ODI team . " In a poll of over ten thousand people hosted in 2007 by ESPNcricinfo , he was voted the ninth greatest all @-@ rounder of the last one hundred years . A panel of prominent cricket writers selected him in Australia 's all @-@ time best XI for ESPNcricinfo . Gilchrist has not only left his mark on Australian cricket but the whole cricketing world . In 2010 , Gilchrist was made a Member of the Order of Australia for his services to cricket and the community . He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 2012 . On 9 @-@ December @-@ 2013 , ICC announced that they had inducted Gilchrist in the prestigious ICC Hall of Fame .
+
+= = = Test match performance = = =
+
+Test debut : vs Pakistan , Brisbane , 1999 – 2000 .
+
+Gilchrist 's best Test batting score of 204 not out was made against South Africa , Johannesburg , 2001 – 2002 .
+
+He has captained Australia in six Tests : four wins , one loss , one draw .
+
+Holder of the second most sixes in a Test career , with 100 sixes .
+
+Holder of fourth fastest Test hundred ( 100 in 57 deliveries ) vs England , 16 December 2006 .
+
+Holder of the second most Test dismissals by a wicketkeeper ( 416 ) , 4 February 2008 .
+
+Holder of most Test centuries by a wicketkeeper ( 17 ) , 4 February 2008 .
+
+= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match awards ( Test matches ) = = =
+
+= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ series awards ( Test match series ) = = =
+
+= = = ODI highlights = = =
+
+ODI debut : vs South Africa , Faridabad , 1996 – 97 .
+
+Holder of most ODI dismissals by a wicketkeeper ( 472 ) , as of 4 November 2011 .
+
+Gilchrist 's best ODI batting score of 172 was made against Zimbabwe , Hobart , 2003 – 04 .
+
+He has captained Australia in 15 ODIs : 11 wins , 4 losses .
+
+Holder for record of second fastest ODI century by an Australian ( 100 from 67 deliveries against Sri Lanka on 14 February 2006 ) .
+
+Holder of most ODI centuries by a wicketkeeper ( 15 ) , 4 February 2008 .
+
+= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match awards ( ODIs ) = = =
+
+= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ series awards ( ODI series ) = = =
+
+= = = Twenty20 Centuries = = =
+
+= = Career Best Performances = =
+
+= Carom billiards =
+
+Carom billiards , sometimes called carambole billiards or simply carambole ( and in some cases used as a synonym for the game of straight rail from which many carom games derive ) , is the overarching title of a family of billiards games generally played on cloth @-@ covered , 1 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 3 @.@ 0 @-@ metre ( 5 by 10 ft ) pocketless tables , which often feature heated slate beds . In its simplest form , the object of the game is to score points or " counts " by caroming one 's own cue ball off both the opponent 's cue ball and the object ball ( s ) on a single shot . The invention as well as the exact date of origin of carom billiards is somewhat obscure but is thought to be traceable to 18th @-@ century France .
+
+There is a large array of carom billiards disciplines . Some of the more prevalent today and historically are ( chronologically by apparent date of development ) : straight rail , cushion caroms , balkline , three @-@ cushion billiards and artistic billiards . There are many other carom billiards games , predominantly intermediary or offshoot games combining elements of those already listed , such as the champion 's game , an intermediary game between straight rail and balkline , as well as games which are hybrids of carom billiards and pocket billiards , such as English billiards played on a snooker table and its descendant games , American four @-@ ball billiards , and cowboy pool .
+
+= = Etymology = =
+
+The word carom , which simply means any strike and rebound , was in use in reference to billiards by at least 1779 , sometimes spelled " carrom " . Sources differ on the origin . It has been pegged variously as a shortening of the Spanish and Portuguese word carambola , or the French word carambole , which are used to describe the red object ball . Some etymologists have suggested that carambola , in turn , was derived from a yellow @-@ to @-@ orange , tropical Asian fruit also known in Portuguese as a carambola ( which was a corruption of the original name of the fruit , karambal in the Marathi language of India ) , also known as star fruit . But this may simply be folk etymology , as the fruit bears no resemblance to a billiard ball , and there is no direct evidence for such a derivation .
+
+In modern French , the word carambolage means ' successive collision ' , currently used mainly in reference to carom or cannon shots in billiards , and to multiple @-@ vehicle car crashes ) .
+
+= = Equipment = =
+
+= = = Cloth = = =
+
+Cloth has been used to cover billiards tables since the 15th century . The predecessor company of the most famous maker of billiard cloth , Iwan Simonis , was formed in 1453 . Most cloth made for carom billiards tables is a type of baize that is dyed green , and is made from 100 % worsted wool , which provides a very fast surface allowing the balls to travel with little resistance across the table bed . The green color of cloth was originally chosen to emulate the look of grass , and has been so colored since the 16th century . However , as in green eyeshades , the color also serves a useful function : Humans have a higher light sensitivity to green than to any other color , so green cloth permits play for longer periods of time without eye strain .
+
+= = = Balls = = =
+
+Modern billiard balls are made from highly resilient plastics with a typical diameter of 61 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 42 in ) . They are significantly larger and heavier than their pocket billiards counterparts , ranging between 205 and 220 grams ( 7 @.@ 2 and 7 @.@ 8 oz ) with a typical weight of 210 g ( 7 @.@ 5 oz ) . While UMB , the International Olympic Committee @-@ recognized world carom billiards authority , technically permits balls as small as 61 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) , no major manufacturer produces such balls any longer , and the de facto standard is 61 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 42 in ) . The three standard balls in most carom billiards games consist of a completely white cue ball , a second cue ball with typically a red or black dot on it ( to aid in differentiation between the two cue balls ) , and a third , red ball . In some sets of balls , however , the second cue ball is solid yellow . Both types of ball sets are permitted in tournament play .
+
+Billiard balls have been made from many different materials throughout the history of the game , including clay , wood , ivory , plastics ( including celluloid , Bakelite , crystalate , and phenolic resin , polyester and acrylic ) and even steel . The dominant material from 1627 until the early- to mid @-@ 20th century was ivory . The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental concerns but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters . It was in part spurred on by a New York billiard table manufacturer who announced a prize of $ 10 @,@ 000 for a substitute material . The first viable substitute was celluloid billiard balls , invented by John Wesley Hyatt in 1868 , but the material was volatile and highly inflammable , sometimes exploding during manufacture .
+
+= = = Cues = = =
+
+Carom billiard cues have specialized refinements making them different from the typical pool cue with which many people are more familiar . Such cues tend to be shorter and lighter overall , with a shorter ferrule , a thicker butt and joint , a wooden joint pin ( in high @-@ end examples ) and collarless wood @-@ to @-@ wood joint ( for a one @-@ piece cue " feel " ) , a fast , conical taper , and a smaller tip diameter as compared with pool cues . Typical cues are 140 – 140 cm ( 54 – 56 in ) in length and 470 – 520 g ( 16 @.@ 5 – 18 @.@ 5 oz ) in weight — lighter for straight rail , heavier for three @-@ cushion — with a tip 11 – 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 – 0 @.@ 47 in ) in diameter . The specialization makes the cue significantly stiffer , which aids in handling the larger and heavier billiard balls as compared with pool cues . It also acts to reduce deflection ( sometimes called " squirt " ) , which may be defined as displacement of the cue ball 's path away from the parallel line formed by the cue stick 's direction of travel . It is a factor that occurs every time english ( side ) is employed , and its effects are magnified by speed . In some carom games , deflection plays a large role because many shots require extremes of english , coupled with great speed ; this is a combination typically minimized as much as possible , by contrast , in pool . The wood used in carom cues can vary widely , and most quality carom cues are handmade .
+
+= = = Heated slate = = =
+
+The slate bed of a billiard table is often heated to about 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) above room temperature , which helps to keep moisture out of the cloth to aid the balls rolling and rebounding in a consistent manner , and generally makes a table play faster . A heated table is required under international carom rules and is an especially important requirement for the games of three @-@ cushion billiards and artistic billiards . Heating table beds is an old practice . Queen Victoria ( lived 1819 – 1901 ) had a billiard table that was heated using zinc tubes , although the aim at that time was chiefly to keep the then @-@ used ivory balls from warping . The first use of electric heating was for an 18 @.@ 2 balkline tournament held in December 1927 between Welker Cochran and Jacob Schaefer , Jr . The New York Times announced it with fanfare : " For the first time in the history of world 's championship balkline billiards a heated table will be used ... "
+
+= = History of games = =
+
+= = = Straight rail = = =
+
+Straight rail , sometimes referred to as carom billiards , straight billiards , the three @-@ ball game , the carambole game , and the free game in Europe , is thought to date to the 18th century , although no exact time of origin is known . It was known as French caroms , French billiards or the French game in early times , taking those bygone names from the French who popularized it . The object of straight rail is simple : one point , called a " count " , is scored each time a player 's cue ball makes contact with both object balls ( the second cue ball and the third ball ) on a single stroke . A win is achieved by reaching an agreed upon number of counts .
+
+At straight rail 's inception there was no restriction on the manner of scoring . However , the technique of crotching , or freezing two balls into the corner where the rails meet — the crotch — vastly increasing counts , resulted in an 1862 rule which allowed only three counts before at least one ball had to be driven away . Techniques continued to develop which increased counts greatly despite the crotching prohibition , especially the development of a variety of " nurse " techniques . The most important of these , the rail nurse , involves the progressive nudging of the object balls down a rail , ideally moving them just a few centimeters on each count , keeping them close together and positioned at the end of each stroke in the same or near the same configuration such that the nurse can be replicated again and again .
+
+Straight rail is still popular in Europe , where it is considered a fine practice game for both balkline and three @-@ cushion billiards . Additionally , Europe hosts professional competitions known as pentathlons after the ancient Greek Olympic competitions , in which straight rail is featured as one of five billiards disciplines at which players compete , the other four being 47 @.@ 1 balkline , cushion caroms , 71 @.@ 2 balkline and three @-@ cushion billiards .
+
+Straight rail was played professionally in the US from 1873 to 1879 , but is uncommon there today .
+
+= = = The champion 's game = = =
+
+The new game appearing in 1879 , called the champion 's game or limited @-@ rail , is considered an intermediary game between straight rail and balkline and was designed with the specific intent of frustrating the rail nurse . The game employed diagonal lines — balklines — at the table 's corners to regions where counts were restricted , thus " cutting off four triangular spaces in the four corners , [ taking ] away 711 mm ( 28 in ) of the ' nursing ' surface of the end rails and 1 @,@ 422 mm ( 56 in ) on the long rails . " Ultimately , however , despite its divergence from straight rail , the champion 's game simply expanded the dimensions of the balk space defined under the existing crotch prohibition which was not sufficient to stop nursing .
+
+= = = Balkline = = =
+
+Balkline succeeded the champion 's game , adding more rules to curb nursing techniques . There are many variation of balkline but all divide the table into marked regions called balk spaces . Such balk spaces define areas of the table surface in which a player may only score up to a threshold number of points while the object balls are within that region .
+
+In the balkline games , rather than drawing balklines a few inches from the corners , the entire table is divided into rectangular balk spaces , by drawing balklines a certain distance lengthwise and widthwise across the length of the table a set number of inches parallel out from each rail . This divides the table into eight rectangular balkspaces . Additionally , rectangles are drawn where each balkline meets a rail , called anchor spaces , which developed to stop a number of nursing techniques that exploited the fact that if the object balls straddled a balkline , no count limit was in place .
+
+For the most part , the differences between one balkline game to another is defined by two measures : 1 ) the spacing of the balklines , and 2 ) the number of points that are allowed in each balk space before at least one ball must leave the region . Generally , balkline games , and their particular restrictions , are given numerical names indicating both of these characteristics ; the first number indicated either inches or centimeters depending on the game , and the second , after a dot , indicates the count restriction in balk spaces , which is always either one or two . For example , in 18 @.@ 2 balkline , one of the more prominent balkline games and of U.S. origin , the name indicates that balklines are drawn 18 inches distant from each rail , and only two counts are allowed ( before the first short , we call " entrée " and for the second short " dedans " ) in a balk space before a ball must leave ( in 18 @.@ 1 , we call directly the first short " dedans " ) . By contrast , in 71 @.@ 2 balkline , of French invention , lines are drawn 71 centimeters distant from each rail , also with a two count restriction for balk spaces .
+
+Over its history balkline has had many variations including 8 @.@ 2 , 10 @.@ 2 , 12 @.@ 2 , 13 @.@ 2 , 12 ½ .2 , 14 @.@ 1 , 14 @.@ 2 , 18 @.@ 1 , 18 @.@ 2 , 28 @.@ 2 , 38 @.@ 2 , 39 @.@ 2 , 42 @.@ 2 , 45 @.@ 1 , 45 @.@ 2 , 47 @.@ 1 , 47 @.@ 2 , 57 @.@ 2 and 71 @.@ 2 balkline . In its various incarnations , balkline was the predominate carom discipline from 1883 to the 1930s when it was overtaken by three @-@ cushion billiards ( and pocket billiards ) . Balkline is popular in Europe and the Far East .
+
+= = = Cushion caroms = = =
+
+Cushion caroms , sometimes called by its original name , the indirect game , is traceable to 1820 's Britain and is a descendant of the doublet game dating to at least 1807 . The game is sometimes referred to as one @-@ cushion or one @-@ cushion billiards , which is the direct translation of its name into English from various other languages such as Spanish ( " una banda " ) and German ( " einband " ) .
+
+The object of the game is to score cushion caroms , meaning a carom off of both object balls with at least one rail being struck before the hit on the second object ball . Cushions caroms was defunct for a number of years , but was revived in the late 1860s as another alternative to straight rail , for the same reasons that balkline developed , i.e. , as an alternative to the tedium engendered by the use of the " rail nurse " ( see above ) . Cushion caroms is still popular in Europe .
+
+= = = Three @-@ cushion billiards = = =
+
+In three @-@ cushion billiards , sometimes called three @-@ cushion carom , or carambole , the object is to carom off both object balls with at least three rail cushions being contacted before the contact of the cue ball with the second object ball . Three @-@ cushion is a very difficult game . Averaging one point per inning is professional @-@ level play , and averaging 1 @.@ 5 to 2 is world @-@ class play . An average of one means that for every turn at the table , a player makes 1 point and misses once , thus making a point on 50 % of his or her shots .
+
+The origin of the game is not entirely known . It is undisputed that one Wayman Crow McCreery of St. Louis , Missouri popularized the game in the 1870s . At least one publication categorically states he invented the game as well . The first three @-@ cushion billiards tournament took place January 14 – 31 , 1878 in St. Louis , with McCreery a participant and New Yorker Leon Magnus the winner . The high run for the tournament was just 6 points , and the high average a 0 @.@ 75 . The game was infrequently played , with many top carom players of the era voicing their dislike of it , until after the 1907 introduction of the Lambert Trophy . By 1924 , three @-@ cushion had become so popular that two giants in other billiard disciplines agreed to take up the game especially for a challenge match . On September 22 , 1924 , Willie Hoppe , the world 's balkline champion ( who later took up three @-@ cushion with a passion ) , and Ralph Greenleaf , the world 's straight pool title holder , played a well advertised , multi @-@ day , match to 600 points . Hoppe was the eventual winner with a final score in of 600 – 527 .
+
+Three @-@ cushion billiards retains great popularity in parts of Europe , Asia , and Latin America , and is the most popular carom billiards game played in the US today , where pool is far more widespread . The principal governing body of the sport is the Union Mondiale de Billard ( UMB ) . It had been staging world three @-@ cushion championships since the late 1920s . The International Olympic Committee @-@ recognized World Pool @-@ Billiard Association ( WPA ) cooperates with the UMB to keep their rulesets synchronized .
+
+= = = Artistic billiards = = =
+
+In artistic billiards , sometimes called fantasy billiards or ( in French ) fantaisie classique , players compete at performing 76 preset shots of varying difficulty . Each set shot has a maximum point value assigned for perfect execution , ranging from a 4 @-@ point minimum for lowest level difficulty shots , and climbing to an 11 @-@ point maximum for shots deemed highest in difficulty level . There is a total of 500 points available to a player . The governing body of the sport is the Confédération Internationale de Billard Artistique ( CIBA ) .
+
+Each shot in an artistic billiards match is played from a well @-@ defined position ( in some venues within an exacting two millimeter tolerance ) , and each shot must unfold in an established manner . Players are allowed three attempts at each shot . In general , the shots making up the game — even 4 @-@ point shots — require a high degree of skill , devoted practice and specialized knowledge to perform .
+
+World title competition first started in 1986 and required the use of ivory balls . However , this requirement was dropped in 1990 . The highest score ever achieved in world competition was 374 , by the Frenchman Jean Reverchon in 1992 , while the highest score in competition overall is 427 set by Belgian Walter Bax on March 12 , 2006 at a competition held in Deurne , Belgium , beating his own previous record of 425 . The game is played predominantly in western Europe , especially in France , Belgium and the Netherlands .
+
+= = Competition disciplines = =
+
+Triathlon : Straight rail , Balkline and One @-@ cushion or Balkline , One @-@ cushion und Three @-@ cushion ( like the actually ANAG Billiard Cup ) .
+
+Pentathlon : Straight rail , Balkline ( 47 @.@ 2 & 71 @.@ 2 ) , One @-@ cushion and Three @-@ cushion .
+
+= 2012 Hawaii Bowl =
+
+The 2012 Sheraton Hawaii Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game held on December 24 , 2012 at Aloha Stadium in Honolulu , Hawaii in the United States . The eleventh edition of the Hawaii Bowl began at 3 : 00 p.m. HAST and aired on ESPN . It featured the SMU Mustangs from Conference USA against the Mountain West Conference co @-@ champion Fresno State Bulldogs , and was the final game of the 2012 NCAA Division I FBS football season for both teams . The Mustangs accepted their invitation after earning a 6 @-@ 6 record in the regular season , while the Bulldogs accepted their invitation after a 9 @-@ 3 regular season record .
+
+The pre @-@ game buildup focused primarily on the strong rushing attacks of both teams as well as the overall sound offense of Fresno State . Most analysts predicted a resounding victory by Fresno State . The point spread favored Fresno State as 12 @-@ point favorites over the Mustangs . Contrary to predictions , SMU won the game by a score of 43 @-@ 10 , largely thanks to the play of defensive end Margus Hunt , who forced two fumbles and totaled three sacks ( including one safety ) as well as two interceptions that were returned for touchdowns . Consequently , Hunt and Fresno State 's Davante Adams , who totaled 13 receptions for 144 yards and a touchdown , were named the game 's co @-@ Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) .
+
+= = Teams = =
+
+Conference USA has had its tie @-@ in to the Hawaii Bowl ever since the game 's establishment in 2002 . The Mountain West Conference started its affiliation with the game when the hometown Hawaii Warriors moved to said conference ( previously , Hawaii , and said tie @-@ in , belonged to the Western Athletic Conference ) . In fact , Hawaii has an automatic bid to the bowl game should it be eligible ; however , because of its 3 @-@ 9 record in 2012 , it was not bowl @-@ eligible , leaving the spot to the fifth bowl @-@ eligible Mountain West team . The 2012 Hawaii Bowl was the seventh meeting between Fresno State and SMU , the last one coming in 2004 .
+
+This was the Mustangs ' second Hawaii Bowl , following the 2009 game where they defeated the Nevada Wolf Pack by a score of 45 @-@ 10 ( SMU 's first bowl bid since playing in Hawaii in the 1984 Aloha Bowl , and their first since the program was relaunched in 1989 after being shut down for two years due to massive NCAA rules violations ) . It also was the Mustangs ' final game as a member of Conference USA before they moved to the Big East Conference in 2013 .
+
+= = Pregame buildup = =
+
+One of the keys to the game , according to ESPN.com blogger Matt Fortuna , was to stop the run . Both teams had 1 @,@ 000 + yard rushers ( Zach Line for SMU , Robbie Rouse for Fresno State ) , but SMU 's rush defense ( 24th in FBS ) was better than Fresno State 's ( 73rd in FBS ) . Many analysts predicted that Fresno State would emerge victorious , some going as far as to predict a blowout , but said that for SMU to emerge victorious , they would have to win the field position battle as well as create turnovers .
+
+= = = Fresno State = = =
+
+In their first season in the Mountain West , the Bulldogs became co @-@ champions with a 7 @-@ 1 conference record . This was the Bulldogs ' first appearance in the Hawaii Bowl . Coming into the 2012 season , Bulldogs ' coach Tim DeRuyter said that his team would challenge for a Mountain West Conference title . After making good on that promise , the Bulldogs attempted to achieve their first bowl victory since the 2007 Humanitarian Bowl . A victory in the Hawaii Bowl would have given Fresno State a 10 @-@ win season for the first time since 2001 , when quarterback Derek Carr 's older brother David was the Bulldogs ' quarterback .
+
+= = = = Offense = = = =
+
+Fresno State was led offensively by their quarterback , junior Derek Carr , who finished 14th in the country in quarterback rating ( 155 @.@ 9 ) , 8th in passing yards ( 4 @,@ 104 ) , and tied for 3rd in touchdowns ( 37 ) . Carr was named the Mountain West Conference Player of the Year and announced before the game that he would return to Fresno State to play his senior season . The Bulldogs were riding a five @-@ game winning streak coming into the game ; the fewest points they scored during any game of that streak was 42 . The Bulldogs ' rushing attack was led by 5 @-@ foot , 7 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) 190 @-@ pound ( 86 kg ) senior running back Robbie Rouse , who rushed for 1490 yards , which ranked 14th in the country . Rouse , who rushed for over 100 yards in nine games during the regular season , was also Fresno State 's second @-@ leading receiver ( in terms of receptions ) , catching the ball 63 times for 435 yards . Carr 's top target in the passing game was redshirt freshman wideout Davante Adams , who had broken several school records during his freshman year including becoming just the seventh freshman in school history to record over 100 yards receiving in a single game and setting the single @-@ game school record for a freshman by recording 12 receptions against Oregon . In total , Adams amassed 102 catches for 1312 yards and 14 touchdowns , all of which led the team . His efforts earned him a spot on Phil Steele 's fourth @-@ team All @-@ America squad and accolades as the Mountain West Conference Freshman of the Year . Fresno State 's starter at tight end was senior Marcel Jensen , who totaled 20 receptions for 339 yards and 4 touchdowns , all of which were career highs . Jensen was an honorable mention all @-@ conference honoree . The Bulldogs ' offensive line was anchored by junior left tackle Austin Wentworth , who achieved first @-@ team all @-@ conference honors .
+
+= = = = Defense = = = =
+
+Described as " well @-@ rounded and explosive " by SBNation.com , Fresno State 's defense was paramount to their success during the season . Their 3 @-@ 4 defense was installed by their first @-@ year coach , DeRuyter , and proved effective throughout the season . They finished third in the NCAA in interceptions , amassing 22 of them . 8 of those 22 interceptions came from Fresno State 's defensive leader , Mountain West Conference Defensive Player of the Year , first @-@ team All @-@ American , and NCAA leader in interceptions senior safety Phillip Thomas , who also recorded a career high 82 tackles and finished second on the team with 4 sacks , the second @-@ most by a defensive back in the country . Fresno State 's defense was also successful rushing the passer ; they finished ninth in the NCAA in sacks with 39 of them . Fresno State 's front seven was led by sophomore Tyeler Davison , who achieved first team all @-@ conference accolades and recorded six tackles for loss during the season . The Bulldogs ' leader in sacks was junior nose tackle Andy Jennings , who achieved 5 @.@ 5 of them . The Bulldogs ' linebackers were led by senior Travis Brown . Brown totaled 68 tackles and was a first team all @-@ conference selection .
+
+= = = SMU = = =
+
+Coming into the 2012 season , SMU was widely expected to finish third in the Conference USA West Division . They exceeded that expectation by finishing second in the C @-@ USA West and earning a bid to the Hawaii Bowl . A year after his season ended due to a foot injury , running back Zach Line was poised to have a breakout year and was expected to win the Conference USA Offensive Player of the Year award .
+
+= = = = Offense = = = =
+
+At quarterback , University of Texas transfer Garrett Gilbert started for the Mustangs and struggled ; he totaled a 53 % completion percentage , 15 touchdowns , and 15 interceptions , the latter of which was tied for ninth @-@ most in the NCAA . The Mustangs ' offensive leader was three @-@ time All @-@ Conference USA player and 2012 Conference USA Offensive Player of the Year running back Zach Line , who had totaled 4 @,@ 185 rushing yards and 37 touchdowns in his career coming into the game . Line was also the Mustangs ' fourth @-@ leading receiver ( in terms of receptions ) , totaling 33 for 229 yards . SMU 's wide receiving corps featured a trio of standouts : senior Darius Johnson , junior Jeremy Johnson , and sophomore Der 'rikk Thompson . The former Johnson , who is one of just two SMU players ever to record three 60 @-@ catch seasons , led the Mustangs with 787 receiving yards from 64 receptions which included 5 touchdowns . The latter Johnson totaled 67 receptions , which led the team , for 679 yards and 3 touchdowns . Thompson , who led the trio by averaging 13 @.@ 0 yards per reception , caught the ball 41 times for 535 yards and 4 touchdowns during the regular season . Coach June Jones ' spread offense did not employ a tight end , and none were on the roster for the Mustangs . The Mustangs ' offensive line was led by senior Bryan Collins , who achieved 2nd team all @-@ conference honors .
+
+= = = = Defense = = = =
+
+The Mustangs were defensively anchored by senior defensive end Margus Hunt , who achieved eight sacks en route to a first @-@ team all @-@ conference selection . Prior to the game , there was significant hype surrounding the defensive matchup between Fresno State 's Davante Adams and SMU 's cornerback junior Kenneth Acker , who intercepted the ball three times during the season . Acker achieved second @-@ team all @-@ conference accolades . SMU 's defense also had an all @-@ conference honoree in the linebacking corps , senior Ja 'Gared Davis , who totaled 77 tackles during the season . The Mustangs were prolific in turnovers and led the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) in interceptions returned for touchdowns ( 8 ) , tied for fourth in interceptions ( 21 ) , and finished third in total takeaways ( 37 ) . Despite their success with turnovers , the Mustangs were far more mediocre in scoring defense , in which they allowed 25 @.@ 7 points per game ( tied for 54th nationally ) , and total defense , in which they gave up 396 @.@ 1 yards per game ( 62nd nationally ) .
+
+= = Game summary = =
+
+= = = Game notes = = =
+
+= = = = First quarter = = = =
+
+SMU received the ball to start the game and marched down the field on an 8 @-@ play , 52 @-@ yard drive highlighted by a 37 @-@ yard run by quarterback Garrett Gilbert to set up a 41 @-@ yard field goal attempt by Chase Hover which he missed . Fresno State 's subsequent drive lasted only two series and ended in a punt . The remainder of the first quarter 's drives ended in punts . There were a total of three drives that went three @-@ and @-@ out in the quarter , two by SMU and one by Fresno State .
+
+= = = = Second quarter = = = =
+
+SMU struck first in the second quarter via a 17 @-@ yard rush from Gilbert , their quarterback , to put the Bulldogs up 7 @-@ 0 . Fresno State 's ensuing drive started with a first down , but ended when quarterback Derek Carr was sacked by SMU defender Margus Hunt ; Hunt forced a fumble that was recovered by the Mustangs at the Fresno State 16 @-@ yard line . SMU gained only three yards on their drive , but due to their excellent field position , kicker Chase Hover was able to convert a 30 @-@ yard field goal making it 10 @-@ 0 .
+
+Fresno State 's offensive woes continued on their next drive . On second down , Carr was sacked for a loss of 18 yards to the 6 @-@ yard line . On third down , Hunt recorded another sack which resulted in a safety to make the score 12 @-@ 0 SMU . Zach Line rushed for an 8 @-@ yard touchdown to cap an 11 @-@ play , 67 @-@ yard drive after the safety . This made the score 19 @-@ 0 .
+
+Hunt continued his fantastic first @-@ half performance on Fresno State 's next drive , forcing running back Robbie Rouse to fumble . It was recovered by safety Taylor Reed . Hover kicked a 48 @-@ yard field goal to make the score 22 @-@ 0 . Fresno State finally started to put together a solid drive at the end of the half including three consecutive first @-@ down passes from Carr to Isaiah Burse for 16 yards , Greg Watson for 12 yards , and Davante Adams for 33 yards respectively that set up first and goal at the three @-@ yard line with 0 : 39 remaining in the half . The Bulldogs failed to execute , however , and ended the half without scoring at all . The final play of the half was a pass to tight end Marcel Jensen in the end zone , but he dropped the ball , thus ending the scoring threat .
+
+= = = = Third quarter = = = =
+
+Since SMU had received the ball to start the game , Fresno State got possession to start the second half . The first play from scrimmage of the half was a 38 @-@ yard pass from Carr to Burse which got the Bulldogs up to the Mustangs ' 41 @-@ yard line . The drive stalled from there , however , after a six @-@ yard loss on a pass play , a false start penalty , a pass completed for no gain , and an incomplete pass . After a 42 @-@ yard punt that was returned for 4 yards , SMU was set up at their 14 @-@ yard line . The ensuing drive for SMU showed promise after they got into Bulldog territory , but an interception by Sean Alston returned for 50 yards to the SMU 15 ended any chance of scoring for the Mustangs . Fresno State finally put points on the board after setting up in the red zone ; Carr threw a 6 @-@ yard pass to Adams making the score 22 @-@ 7 after Quentin Breshears tacked on the point after . On the ensuing drive , SMU ran 7 plays for 75 yards in 3 : 20 in a drive that culminated with a 21 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Gilbert to Darius Johnson ; the drive included a 27 @-@ yard rush by Zach Line as well as a 19 @-@ yard pass from Gilbert to Der 'rikk Thompson . After the TD , the score was 29 @-@ 7 SMU . The teams then exchanged punts for the remainder of the quarter .
+
+= = = = Fourth quarter = = = =
+
+Fresno State was able to run a 7 @-@ play , 72 @-@ yard drive to begin the fourth quarter that culminated with a 32 @-@ yard field goal by Breshears making the score 29 @-@ 10 . Any chance of a Bulldog comeback was quashed after Carr threw two interceptions returned for touchdowns to Reed and Hayden Greenbauer , the latter of which came with just 1 : 14 to play . The final score was 43 @-@ 10 , the Mustangs victorious .
+
+= = = = Post @-@ game = = = =
+
+SMU 's resounding victory was considered an upset , and during the game , the Mustangs set a single @-@ season record for most interceptions returned for a touchdown ( 8 ) , surpassing the 2011 Southern Miss Golden Eagles football team . Margus Hunt was named the game 's Most Valuable Player because of his two @-@ forced fumble , three @-@ sack ( including one safety ) performance . In total , the Mustangs achieved seven sacks , the most Fresno State had surrendered in a single game all year . Davante Adams ' third @-@ quarter touchdown reception lengthened his streak to eight consecutive games with a touchdown reception , tying a Fresno State record that was set by Henry Ellard in 1982 .
+
+= = = Scoring summary = = =
+
+= = = Statistics = = =
+
+= = = = Team statistics = = = =
+
+= = = = Individual statistics = = = =
+
+= = = = = Passing = = = = =
+
+= = = = = Rushing = = = = =
+
+= = = = = Receiving = = = = =
+
+Source :
+
+= SM U @-@ 21 ( Germany ) =
+
+SM U @-@ 21 was a U @-@ boat built for the Imperial German Navy shortly before World War I. The third of four Type U @-@ 19 @-@ class submarines , these were the first U @-@ boats in German service to be equipped with diesel engines . U @-@ 21 was built between 1910 and October 1913 at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig . She was armed with four torpedo tubes and a single deck gun , though a second was added during her career .
+
+In September 1914 , U @-@ 21 became the first submarine to sink a ship with a self @-@ propelled torpedo when she destroyed the cruiser HMS Pathfinder off the Firth of Forth . She also sank several transports in the English Channel and the Irish Sea later in the year , all in accordance with the cruiser rules then in effect . In early 1915 , U @-@ 21 was transferred to the Mediterranean Sea to support the Ottoman Empire against the Anglo @-@ French attacks during the Gallipoli Campaign . Shortly after her arrival , she sank the British battleships HMS Triumph and HMS Majestic while they were bombarding Ottoman positions at Gallipoli . Further successes followed in the Mediterranean in 1916 , including the sinking of the French armored cruiser Amiral Charner in February .
+
+Throughout 1916 , U @-@ 21 served in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as U @-@ 36 , since Germany was not yet at war with Italy and thus could not legally attack Italian warships under the German flag . She returned to Germany in March 1917 to join the unrestricted commerce war against British maritime trade . In 1918 , she was withdrawn from front line service and was employed as a training submarine for new crews . She survived the war and sank while under tow by a British warship in 1919 .
+
+= = Design = =
+
+U @-@ 21 was 64 @.@ 15 meters ( 210 @.@ 5 ft ) long overall with a beam of 6 @.@ 10 m ( 20 @.@ 0 ft ) and a height of 8 @.@ 10 m ( 26 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced 650 metric tons ( 640 long tons ; 720 short tons ) surfaced and 837 t ( 824 long tons ; 923 short tons ) submerged . The boat 's propulsion system consisted of a pair of 8 @-@ cylinder 2 @-@ stroke diesel engines manufactured by MAN SE for use on the surface and two electric double motor @-@ dynamos built by AEG for use while submerged . U @-@ 21 and her sister boats were the first German submarines to be equipped with diesel engines . The electric motors were powered by a bank of two 110 @-@ cell batteries . U @-@ 21 could cruise at a top speed of 15 @.@ 4 knots ( 28 @.@ 5 km / h ; 17 @.@ 7 mph ) on the surface and 9 @.@ 5 knots ( 17 @.@ 6 km / h ; 10 @.@ 9 mph ) submerged . Steering was controlled by a pair of hydroplanes forward and another pair aft , and a single rudder .
+
+U @-@ 21 was armed with four 50 @-@ centimeter ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , which were supplied with a total of six torpedoes . One pair was located in the bow and the other was in the stern . She was initially fitted with a machine gun for use on the surface , but by the end of 1914 this was replaced with a 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 gun . In 1916 , a second 8 @.@ 8 cm gun was added . U @-@ 21 had a crew of four officers and twenty @-@ five enlisted sailors .
+
+= = Service history = =
+
+U @-@ 21 was built at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig ( now Gdańsk , Poland ) . She was laid down in 1910 and launched on 8 February 1913 . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , she was commissioned into the fleet on 22 October 1913 .
+
+= = = North Sea operations = = =
+
+At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , U @-@ 21 was based at the island of Heligoland in the German Bight , commanded by Kapitänleutnant ( Captain Lieutenant ) Otto Hersing . In early August , Hersing took U @-@ 21 on a patrol into the Dover Straits but he found no British vessels . On 14 August U @-@ 21 went on a second patrol , this time in company with her sister boats U @-@ 19 and U @-@ 22 , to the northern North Sea between Norway and Scotland . The patrol was an attempt to locate the British blockade line and gather intelligence , but they spotted only a single cruiser and a destroyer off the Norwegian coast . Hersing attempted to enter the Firth of Forth — a major Royal Navy fleet base — later in the month but was unsuccessful .
+
+On 5 September 1914 , U @-@ 21 encountered the British scout cruiser HMS Pathfinder off the Isle of May . Hersing had surfaced his U @-@ boat to recharge his batteries when a lookout spotted smoke from Pathfinder 's funnels on the horizon . U @-@ 21 submerged to make an attack , but Pathfinder turned away on her patrol line ; U @-@ 21 could not hope to keep up with the cruiser while submerged , so Hersing broke off the chase and resumed recharging his batteries . Shortly thereafter , Pathfinder reversed course again and headed back toward U @-@ 21 . Hersing maneuvered into an attack position and fired a single torpedo , which hit Pathfinder just aft of her conning tower . The torpedo detonated one of the cruiser 's magazines , which destroyed the ship in a large explosion . The British were able to lower only a single lifeboat before Pathfinder sank . Other survivors were found clinging to wreckage by torpedo boats that rushed to the scene . Pathfinder was the first warship to be sunk by a modern submarine . A total of 261 sailors were killed in the attack .
+
+U @-@ 21 caught the French steamer SS Malachite on 14 November ; after forcing the ship to stop and examining her cargo manifest , Hersing ordered the crew to abandon ship before he sank Malachite with his deck gun . U @-@ 21 's next success came three days later with the British collier SS Primo , which he also sank in accordance with the cruiser rules that governed commerce raiding . These two ships were the first vessels to be sunk in the restricted German submarine offensive against British and French merchant shipping .
+
+On 22 January , Hersing took his U @-@ boat through the Dover Barrage in the Channel before turning into the Irish Sea . He shelled the airfield on Walney Island , though a coastal battery quickly forced him to withdraw . The next day , U @-@ 21 stopped the collier SS Ben Cruachan ; after evacuating her crew , the Germans sank her with scuttling charges . Later that day , U @-@ 21 stopped and sank the steamers SS Linda Blanche and SS Kilcuan . In both cases , Hersing adhered to the prize rules , including flagging down a passing trawler to pick up the ships ' crews . After these successes , U @-@ 21 withdrew from the area to avoid the British patrols that would arrive in the aftermath of the sinkings . After passing back through the Dover Barrage , U @-@ 21 cruised back to Wilhelmshaven .
+
+= = = In the Mediterranean 1915 – 17 = = =
+
+In April 1915 , U @-@ 21 was transferred to the Mediterranean Sea to support Germany 's ally , Turkey . She left Kiel on 25 April , and the first leg of the voyage , from Germany to Austria @-@ Hungary , took eighteen days . Hersing took his submarine north around Scotland to avoid the Dover patrols , and rendezvoused with the supply ship SS Marzala off Cape Finisterre to refuel . Unfortunately for the Germans , Marzala carried poor quality crude oil that could not be burned in the boat 's diesel engines ; U @-@ 21 had less than half of her fuel supply remaining , and was only halfway on the voyage to Austria @-@ Hungary . Hersing was forced to run his U @-@ boat on the surface to conserve fuel , which increased the risk of detection by Allied forces . While en route the Germans managed to escape from patrolling British and French torpedo boats and transport ships that might have reported their location .
+
+U @-@ 21 finally arrived in Cattaro on 13 May , with only 1 @.@ 8 t ( 1 @.@ 8 long tons ; 2 @.@ 0 short tons ) of fuel left in her tanks — she had left Germany with 56 t ( 55 long tons ; 62 short tons ) . She spent a week at the Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine bases at Pola and Cattaro in mid @-@ May , where she was visited by Georg von Trapp , an Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boat commander . Several other German submarines joined U @-@ 21 in the following months , after calls for assistance from the Ottoman ground forces on the Gallipoli peninsula , who were taking heavy casualties from the bombardments from Allied warships . These U @-@ boats included U @-@ 33 , U @-@ 34 , U @-@ 35 , and U @-@ 39 .
+
+U @-@ 21 arrived in her operational area off Gallipoli on 25 May ; that day , she encountered the British pre @-@ dreadnought battleship HMS Triumph . Hersing brought his U @-@ boat to within 300 yards ( 270 m ) of his target and fired a single torpedo , which hit Triumph . U @-@ 21 then dived under the sinking battleship to escape the destroyers hunting her . Hersing then took his boat to the sea floor to wait for the Allied forces to abandon the chase . After twenty @-@ eight hours on the sea floor , U @-@ 21 surfaced to recharge her batteries and bring in fresh air . On 27 May , Hersing attacked and sank his second battleship , HMS Majestic . This time , the British had attempted to protect her with torpedo nets and several small ships , but Hersing was able to aim a torpedo through the defenses . Majestic sank in the span of four minutes . These two successes brought significant dividends : all Allied capital ships were withdrawn to protected anchorages and were thus unable to bombard Ottoman positions on the peninsula . For these two successes , the crew of U @-@ 21 was awarded the Iron Cross by Kaiser Wilhelm II , while Hersing himself received the Pour le Mérite , Germany 's highest award for valor .
+
+After sinking Majestic , Hersing took his submarine to refuel at a Turkish port before attempting the dangerous route through the Dardanelles to Constantinople . While transiting the straits , U @-@ 21 was nearly pulled into a whirlpool but the Germans managed to escape . After arriving in the Ottoman capital , the crew were given a large welcoming ceremony attended by Enver Pasha . U @-@ 21 required significant maintenance , and so the crew was given a month of shore leave while the repairs were carried out . Once the repair work was finished , U @-@ 21 sortied through the Dardanelles for another patrol . Hersing spotted the Allied munitions ship Carthage , which he sank with a single torpedo . Later on the patrol , a lookout on an Allied trawler spotted U @-@ 21 's periscope ; the Germans had to crash dive to escape from being rammed , but doing so brought them into a minefield . One mine exploded off the U @-@ boat 's stern but it caused no significant damage , and U @-@ 21 was able to withdraw to Constantinople .
+
+U @-@ 21 thereafter moved to the Black Sea where she and UB @-@ 14 served as the nucleus of the newly formed Black Sea Flotilla . In September , U @-@ 21 undertook another patrol in the eastern Mediterranean . In the meantime , the Allies had finally managed to establish a complete blockade of the Dardanelles with mines and nets to prevent submarines from operating out of Constantinople . Unable to return to Constantinople , Hersing instead took his U @-@ boat back to Cattaro . Germany would not be in a formal state of war with Italy until August 1916 . As a result , German U @-@ boats could not legally attack Italian ships , despite the fact that Italy was at war with Austria @-@ Hungary . To circumvent this restriction , German submarines operating in the Mediterranean were commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , though their German crews remained aboard . Following her arrival in Cattaro , U @-@ 21 was commissioned as the Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ 36 . She served under this name until Italy declared war on Germany on 27 August 1916 .
+
+In the meantime , U @-@ 36 began to have further successes against Allied maritime trade . On 1 February 1916 , she sank the British steamer SS Belle of France . A week later , U @-@ 36 torpedoed and sank the French armored cruiser Amiral Charner off the Syrian coast . The cruiser sank quickly with heavy loss of life ; 427 men went down with their ship . In the spring of 1916 , while patrolling off Sicily , U @-@ 36 encountered an Allied Q @-@ ship , an auxiliary cruiser disguised as an unarmed merchant ship . U @-@ 36 fired a shot across the Q @-@ ship 's bow , but it refused to stop and returned fire with a small deck gun . Hersing decided to close and sink the ship , which then revealed her heavy armament . Wounded by shell splinters , Hersing withdrew his submarine under cover of a smoke screen before submerging .
+
+On 30 April , Hersing sank the British steamer City of Lucknow . He sank three small , Italian sailing vessels off Corsica between 26 and 28 October , and on 31 October U @-@ 21 sent the 5 @,@ 800 t ( 5 @,@ 700 @-@ long @-@ ton ) steamship Glenlogan to the bottom . Over the next three days , another four Italian ships — the steamships Bernardo Canale and Torero and two small sailing vessels — were sunk off Sicily . On 23 December , U @-@ 21 torpedoed the British steamer SS Benalder east of Crete , but the ship managed to reach Alexandria .
+
+= = = Return to the North Sea = = =
+
+In early 1917 , U @-@ 21 was recalled to Germany to join the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign being waged against Britain . While en route , she stopped and sank a pair of British sailing vessels off Oporto on 16 February and another pair of Portuguese sailing ships the next day . On 20 February , U @-@ 21 sank the French steamer Cacique in the Bay of Biscay . Two days later in the Western Approaches , she finished off the Dutch steamer Bandoeng , which had been damaged by the submarine UC @-@ 5 on 15 February . Seven more ships followed Bandoeng that day . They included six more Dutch steamers — Eemland , Gaasterland , Jacatra , Noorderdijk , Zaandijk , and Menado — and the Norwegian steamer Normanna . On another patrol in late April , Hersing caught four more ships : the Norwegian Giskö and Theodore William on 22 April and Askepot on 29 April , along with the Russian Borrowdale on 30 April . Another Russian vessel , Lindisfarne , followed on 3 May . The British steamers Adansi and Killarney were sunk on 6 and 8 May , respectively . The Swedish Baltic , which proved to be Hersing 's last victory , was sunk on 27 June .
+
+Hersing attacked a convoy of fifteen merchant ships escorted by fourteen destroyers in August south @-@ west of Ireland . He took U @-@ 21 between two of the escorting destroyers and briefly used his periscope to gauge the speed and course of the transports before firing two torpedoes and diving . Hersing reported both torpedoes hit and the destroyers immediately rushed to begin their depth charge attacks . After a five @-@ hour hunt , the destroyers withdrew to rejoin the convoy . The experience led Hersing to change tactics in future attacks on escorted convoys ; instead of attacking the ships from as far away as possible , he chose to fire his torpedoes at closer range and then dive under the transport ships , where the destroyers would be unable to launch their depth charges for fear of damaging the transports . As of 1918 , she was assigned to the III U @-@ boat Flotilla . Later in 1918 , the submarine was used as a training boat for new crews . She survived the war , but on 22 February 1919 , she accidentally sank in the North Sea while under tow to Britain , where she would be formally surrendered .
+
+In the course of her commerce raiding , U @-@ 21 sank forty ships for a combined 113 @,@ 580 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and damaged two more for a total of 8 @,@ 918 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The ships sunk included two battleships and two cruisers .
+
+= = Summary of raiding history = =
+
+= Homer the Whopper =
+
+" Homer the Whopper " is the season premiere of The Simpsons ' twenty @-@ first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 27 , 2009 . In the episode , Comic Book Guy creates a new superhero called Everyman who takes powers from other superheroes . Homer is cast as the lead in the film adaptation . To get Homer into shape , the movie studio hires a celebrity fitness trainer , Lyle McCarthy , to help him . Homer gets into great shape and is really excited , but when McCarthy leaves to train another client , he starts over @-@ eating again and ultimately this leads to the film 's failure .
+
+The episode was written by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg , who are " obsessed " fans of the show , and directed by Lance Kramer . " Homer The Whopper " was intended to be a commentary on how Hollywood treats superhero films . Rogen also guest stars in the episode as the character Lyle McCarthy , making him the second guest star to both write an episode and appear in it ; Ricky Gervais was the first . " Homer the Whopper " has received mixed reviews from television critics and acquired a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 3 in its original broadcast .
+
+= = Plot = =
+
+Bart and Milhouse convince Comic Book Guy to publish a comic book he wrote titled Everyman , in which the title character can absorb superpowers from the characters of comic books he touches . The comic becomes an instant hit , and many Hollywood studios become interested in making it into a movie . Comic Book Guy agrees to let Everyman become a movie , but only if he can pick the star . When Comic Book Guy sees Homer , he considers Homer perfect for the role , as he wants Everyman to be played by a middle @-@ aged fat man . But the studio executives realize that audiences want a physically fit actor for the role , so they hire celebrity fitness trainer Lyle McCarthy to get Homer into shape . After a month , Homer becomes fit and the movie begins production .
+
+Soon afterward , however , McCarthy leaves Homer for another client . Without McCarthy to keep him in shape , Homer starts eating again and gains all the weight back . Homer can no longer fit into his costume or even his trailer , and the movie begins to go over budget . The studio executives and Comic Book Guy worry that the film will not be successful . The final version of the movie features scenes with the fat Homer and the physically fit Homer merged , upsetting and confusing the audience . After the premiere of the film , McCarthy returns and offers to get Homer into shape again , which Homer accepts . The studio executives offer to let Comic Book Guy direct the sequel , on the condition that Comic Book Guy lie to the fans and say he liked the film . Though pleased by the offer , Comic Book Guy rejects it and openly criticizes the movie online , and thus it becomes a box office failure and Everyman is never adapted again .
+
+= = Production = =
+
+Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg , writers of the film Superbad , are " obsessed " fans of The Simpsons . After learning that The Simpsons executive producer James L. Brooks was a fan of Superbad , they decided to ask the producers of the show if they could write an episode . In 2006 , Ricky Gervais , co @-@ creator of The Office , received credit for writing the season 17 episode " Homer Simpson , This Is Your Wife " . Rogen and Goldberg " thought if [ Gervais ] got to write one , maybe [ they ] could try . " They were invited to The Simpsons writers room , where they pitched several episode ideas . One was accepted , and they wrote an outline with the help of some feedback from the regular writers .
+
+Rogen commented that he and Goldberg wanted to show with the episode how Hollywood generally ruins superhero films . He said that " the whole joke is that Homer is cast to play a guy who 's an everyman and they try to make him into this physically fit guy . " Rogen also noted that the plot mirrors the situation he was in while working on the film The Green Hornet , when he had to lose weight and do physical training for his role . Show runner Al Jean commented that the writers tried not to repeat the comic book film theme from the " Radioactive Man " episode . Instead they decided to parody the fact that almost every comic book has been turned into a film . Jean commented that that scene in the episode in which the studio executives " are trying to think up an idea that hasn 't been done really is what they are doing these days [ in real life ] . "
+
+The table read took place in August 2008 , and production on the episode began soon after that . Rogen later said that " we sat down for a read @-@ through and three hours later I 'm in a studio improv @-@ ing with Homer Simpson , it was the single greatest day of my life . " Rogen also guest stars in the episode as the character Lyle McCarthy , making him the second guest star to both write an episode and appear in it ; Gervais also appeared in the episode he wrote . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening also makes an appearance in the episode .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+In its original American broadcast in the United States on September 27 , 2009 , " Homer The Whopper " was watched in 8 @.@ 31 million homes and acquired a 4 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating / 12 % share . The rating was down seven percent from the previous season 's premiere , which was viewed in 9 @.@ 3 million homes the night it aired .
+
+Since airing , " Homer The Whopper " has received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Steve Fritz of Newsarama called the episode " amazing " and commented that the " overall comic book theme was perfect . " Reviewers for TV Guide cited Matt Groening 's cameo , the dinner table scene , Homer trying to lose weight at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , and the opening scene where Bart questions Comic Book Guy about Spider @-@ Man as the highlights of the episode .
+
+Robert Canning of IGN was positive about " Homer The Whopper " , giving it an 8 @.@ 6 / 10 rating . He commented that the first act of the episode was the strongest , while the others were weaker . Canning believed the reason for this was that the viewers have already seen Homer " struggle with his weight countless times , and Rogen 's trainer , though funny much of the time , will likely never be remembered as a classic guest role . " He added , however , that Rogen and Goldberg are able to find " a few new angles with the weight jokes , so it 's not a complete loss . " Overall , Canning thought " Homer The Whopper " was a good start to the twenty @-@ first season , and although the plot may not be very original , the writers added " freshness to the proceedings . " The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff did not think the script was as good as Gervais ' , but commented that Rogen and Goldberg " managed to make a mostly amusing season premiere . " He added that he thought the Hollywood satirizing featured in this episode had been overused on the show , but " the specificity of what the [ episode ] was making fun of — trainers who help stars slim down ( in this case , helping Homer slim down ) — went a long way toward making the episode palatable . " VanDerWerff concluded that while the episode " didn ’ t try anything new [ ... ] , [ he ] had fun with it all the same . "
+
+= Overhill Cherokee =
+
+Overhill Cherokee was the term for the Cherokee people located in their historic settlements in what is now the U.S. state of Tennessee in the Southeastern United States , on the west side of the Appalachian Mountains . This name was used by 18th @-@ century European traders and explorers from British colonies along the Atlantic coast , as they had to cross the mountains to reach these settlements .
+
+Situated along the lower Little Tennessee , lower Tellico , and lower Hiwassee rivers , the Overhill towns rose to prominence within the Cherokee Nation in the early 18th century , when they began to standardize trade with the British colonists . In the early part of the century , the Overhill towns ' remote location at the far end of the Trading Path meant they were reached only by those traders and explorers adventurous enough to make the difficult journey to the interior over the mountain range . By the middle of the century , the Overhill towns were consistently courted by both British and French emissaries , as the two powers struggled for the control of the continent and the lucrative fur trade .
+
+During and following the American Revolutionary War , in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , the westward thrust of Euro @-@ American settlement led to the decline of the Overhill towns . The Cherokee were forced to cede most of their lands in this area through a series of unfavorable treaties with the United States , and they migrated to the south and west away from settler pressure for a time .
+
+The Overhill town of Chota , in present @-@ day Monroe County , Tennessee , was recognized as the de facto capital of the entire Cherokee Nation for most of the 18th century , when it was the major settlement . The town of Tanasi became the namesake for the state of Tennessee . Many prominent Cherokee leaders , including Attakullakulla , Oconastota , Nancy Ward , and Sequoyah , were born and raised in Overhill towns .
+
+In the 1970s , most of the former Overhill sites were submerged by the impoundment of the Little Tennessee River in a Tennessee Valley Authority project . But , archaeologists conducted extensive excavations prior to this , during which they identified most of the Overhill towns and extracted thousands of artifacts , helping them develop volumes of invaluable information regarding the region 's Cherokee and pre @-@ Cherokee inhabitants . Different cultures of indigenous peoples had lived along the river for 12 @,@ 000 years .
+
+= = Geographic area = =
+
+The Overhill settlements were concentrated around three rivers at the base of the Great Smoky Mountains and the Unicoi Mountains , in what are now Monroe and Polk counties in Tennessee . The northernmost of these three rivers , the Little Tennessee , was the locus for a string of prominent Overhill settlements situated between modern @-@ day Vonore and Calderwood Dam . Other important settlements were situated along the Hiwassee River south of modern Etowah and along the Tellico River in modern Tellico Plains .
+
+Although Native Americans used most of the Tennessee side of the Great Smoky Mountains primarily as a hunting ground , early Euro @-@ American explorers recalled abandoned villages and temporary hunting camps scattered around the region . These were often found in the game @-@ rich coves of the northern part of the range and near the junctions of major streams .
+
+= = = Prominent Overhill villages = = =
+
+Mialoquo ( Amaye 'le 'gwa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , on a now @-@ submerged island in the middle of the Little Tennessee River . This was just north of the modern U.S. Route 411 bridge . Mooney believed Mialoquo might have been the village of Nilaque , which the naturalist John Bartram recorded visiting . The term " Mialoquo " means " Great Island . " 35 @.@ 61534 ° N 84 @.@ 24048 ° W  / 35 @.@ 61534 ; -84.24048
+
+Tuskegee ( Taskigi ) – located at the confluence of the Tellico and Little Tennessee rivers south of modern @-@ day Fort Loudoun State Park . Tuskegee was the birthplace of Sequoyah , noted as the first person to independently create a written alphabet , which he did for the Cherokee language . 35 @.@ 59167 ° N 84 @.@ 20222 ° W  / 35 @.@ 59167 ; -84.20222
+
+Tomotley – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , adjacent to Toqua along the Little Tennessee River . Timberlake reported a councilhouse in Tomotley that would sound a " death hallow " to signify the return of a war party . 35 @.@ 57182 ° N 84 @.@ 18697 ° W  / 35 @.@ 57182 ; -84.18697
+
+Toqua ( Dakwa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , at the confluence of Toco Creek and the Little Tennessee River , just south of modern @-@ day Fort Loudoun State Park . 35 @.@ 56984 ° N 84 @.@ 17248 ° W  / 35 @.@ 56984 ; -84.17248
+
+Tanasi – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , adjacent to Chota along the Little Tennessee River . The town was the capital of the Overhill Cherokee c . 1721 – 1730 . The Little Tennessee was originally simply called the " Tennessee , " which was an alternate spelling of " Tanasi . " European @-@ American settlers eventually applied the name to the entire state . 35 @.@ 55005 ° N 84 @.@ 13374 ° W  / 35 @.@ 55005 ; -84.13374
+
+Chota ( Itsa 'sa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , along the Little Tennessee River , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of modern @-@ day Vonore . Chota was the de facto Cherokee capital in the mid @-@ 18th century , and birthplace of several prominent chiefs . At the time of Timberlake 's visit in 1761 , Chota consisted of a large councilhouse , which could seat 500 , and about 60 houses . The town 's name is sometimes spelled " Echota . " 35 @.@ 55507 ° N 84 @.@ 13104 ° W  / 35 @.@ 55507 ; -84.13104
+
+Citico ( Si 'tiku ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , at the confluence of Citico Creek and the Little Tennessee River . The town 's name is sometimes spelled " Settaco . " 35 @.@ 54887 ° N 84 @.@ 09891 ° W  / 35 @.@ 54887 ; -84.09891
+
+Chilhowee ( Tsu 'lun 'we ) – located in present @-@ day Blount and Monroe counties at the confluence of Abrams Creek and the Little Tennessee River . The junction of modern U.S. Route 129 and Foothills Parkway is nearby . 35 @.@ 55231 ° N 84 @.@ 00737 ° W  / 35 @.@ 55231 ; -84.00737
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+Tallassee ( Ta 'lasi ) – located in present @-@ day Blount and Monroe counties along the Little Tennessee River , a mile or so downstream from the modern Calderwood Dam . The modern town of Tallassee is situated much further downstream , and its location should not be confused with that of the ancient village . The Cherokee Tallassee is sometimes referred to as " Tallassee Old Town . " 35 @.@ 50556 ° N 84 @.@ 00028 ° W  / 35 @.@ 50556 ; -84.00028
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+Great Tellico ( Talikwa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , Tennessee , in Tellico Plains , where the Tellico River levels out at the base of the Unicoi Mountains . Great Tellico rose to prominence in early 18th century under its chief Moytoy . Sir Alexander Cuming , who visited the town in 1730 , reported that Great Tellico had the fiercest warriors of all the Overhill towns . Great Tellico 's sister town , Chatuga , was also located in the valley . 35 @.@ 36627 ° N 84 @.@ 28745 ° W  / 35 @.@ 36627 ; -84.28745
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+Great Hiwassee ( Ayouwasi ) – located in present @-@ day Polk County , Tennessee , along the Hiwassee River at the base of the Unicoi Mountains , where the river levels into a fertile plain . The site has been developed as farmland . The term Hiwassee means " savanna " or " plain . " Hiwassee is sometimes called " Hiwassee Old Town . " 35 @.@ 24314 ° N 84 @.@ 58149 ° W  / 35 @.@ 24314 ; -84.58149