079project 1.0.0

package/tests/test_FIrststep6.txt

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+
+= = = Original dispute = = =
+
+In 2005 , Jeffrey Heffernan was a detective with the Paterson , New Jersey , police . His supervisor and the chief of police were both appointed by the city 's incumbent mayor , Jose Torres , who was being challenged by city councilman Lawrence Spagnola in that year 's election . Heffernan was friendly with Spagnola , a former police chief , and informally supported his campaign , although he could not vote in the election as he did not live in the city . At the request of his sick mother , he went while off @-@ duty to pick up a lawn sign for her after her previous sign was stolen . Other officers saw him at the distribution location holding a sign and talking to campaign staff . They soon notified superiors and the next day he was demoted from detective to patrol officer for his perceived " overt involvement " with the Spagnola campaign .
+
+= = = District court = = =
+
+Heffernan sued the city , the mayor , and his superior officers under 42 USC § 1983 in the federal District Court for New Jersey , claiming that his rights of freedom of speech as well as freedom of association had been violated . Heffernan contended that while he had not actually engaged in any protected speech , the department acted on the belief that he had , and the department should not have demoted him on the basis of that erroneous belief .
+
+In 2009 , a jury found for Heffernan and awarded him damages from the police officials and the city . Despite the verdict , Heffernan sought a retrial because Judge Peter G. Sheridan had not allowed him to pursue the freedom of speech claim ; the defense did so as well because Judge Sheridan had allowed the freedom of association claim . While he was considering these motions , Judge Sheridan became aware of a conflict of interest through a former law firm and set aside the verdict , setting a new date for trial before Judge Dennis M. Cavanaugh .
+
+Judge Cavanaugh granted summary judgment to the defendants on the freedom of speech claim based on their earlier motions , holding that Heffernan had not engaged in protected speech so his rights could not have been violated . In 2012 , the Third Circuit Court of Appeals reversed Judge Cavanaugh 's ruling and remanded the case to him with instructions that he was to allow Heffernan to present his freedom of association claim and consider the facts from the jury trial when reconsidering the summary @-@ judgment motions .
+
+Judge Kevin McNulty heard the case on remand . After considering the parties ' motions for summary judgment again , he ruled in the city 's favor in 2014 . Heffernan , he ruled , had not engaged in any protected speech or expressive conduct . Judge McNulty also ruled that Heffernan could not prevail on claims his perceived speech was protected , per Ambrose v. Robinson Township , a previous case on that issue in the Third Circuit , or that his actions were protected since they aided and abetted speech . Judge McNulty also rejected similar claims for freedom of association . He decided that Dye v. Office of the Racing Commission , a case in which the Sixth Circuit had held that the First Amendment reached perceived political association , was not a precedent he could rely on since Dye itself explicitly rejected Ambrose and as a district judge he could not reject circuit precedent .
+
+= = = Court of Appeals = = =
+
+On appeal to the Third Circuit , a three @-@ judge panel of Judge Robert Cowen , Judge Morton Ira Greenberg and Judge Thomas I. Vanaskie unanimously held for the city . In a decision issued in 2015 , Judge Vanaskie , writing for the Court , reiterated Judge McNulty 's finding that Heffernan 's actions in picking up the sign for his mother did not constitute protected speech or association . He distinguished the case at hand from the Sixth Circuit 's ruling in Dye by noting that in that case , the employers had inferred the employees ' intent from their non @-@ participation in partisan politics rather than an actual action they had taken , as had occurred in Heffernan 's case .
+
+Judge Vanaskie instead found guidance from the Supreme Court 's 1984 holding in Waters v. Churchill , where it had upheld an Illinois public hospital 's dismissal of a nurse for her comments about a supervisor to a colleague despite an ongoing factual dispute about the substance of those comments , since it found the hospital administration had made a reasonable attempt to investigate what the nurse had said before firing her . In that case , the Court had said explicitly that disciplining employees for things they did not actually do did not rise to the level of a constitutional violation .
+
+= = = Supreme Court = = =
+
+Following the Third Circuit 's decision , Heffernan petitioned the Supreme Court for certiorari , requesting they hear the case . After the Court considered both Heffernan 's petition and the city 's reply , it granted the petition on the first day of the 2015 term . Both parties consented to the filing of amicus curiae briefs by uninvolved parties who believed they had a stake in the outcome of the case . The National Association of Government Employees , Becket Fund for Religious Liberty and Thomas Jefferson Center for the Protection of Free Expression filed amicus briefs in support of Heffernan , while the New Jersey State League of Municipalities and the National Conference of State Legislatures filed briefs in support of the City of Paterson . The United States government also filed an amicus brief in support of Heffernan , as well as a motion to appear at oral argument , which the Court granted , meaning the Solicitor General 's office would be appearing at oral arguments , held on January 19 , 2016 .
+
+= = = = Oral arguments = = = =
+
+Mark Frost , arguing for petitioner Jeffrey Heffernan , was immediately met with questions from the justices : Anthony Kennedy asked for clarification on the particular right to be protected , and Antonin Scalia , Samuel Alito and Chief Justice John Roberts all questioned him about whether his rights could be infringed if he was not actually engaged in any speech . Justice Scalia ( who died before the decision was announced ) argued that there was " no constitutional right not to be fired for the wrong reason " . Frost responded that the motives of the government , rather than the actions of the individual , were important in this case . Assistant to the Solicitor General Ginger Anders , arguing on behalf of the United States as amicus curiae in favor of Heffernan , continued this argument stating that there is " a First Amendment right not to have adverse action taken against him by his employer for the unconstitutional purpose of suppressing disfavored political beliefs . "
+
+Arguing for respondents , Thomas Goldstein distinguished between political neutrality and political apathy . He argued that the First Amendment protects political neutrality , the conscious choice to not take a position , but does not protect political apathy , when a person simply does not care and makes no particular choice to be neutral . As Heffernan claimed that he had no affiliation with the Spagnola , the respondents argued that Heffernan 's actions constitute unprotected apathy rather than a conscious choice of neutrality . Justice Elena Kagan questioned him as to the purpose of the First Amendment saying , " the idea has to do with why the government acted " to which Goldstein responded , " It 's called an individual right , not a government wrong . " Frost took a rebuttal to respond to Goldstein 's distinction between political neutrality and apathy arguing that there is little distinction as the government is acting for impermissible reasons in both cases .
+
+= = Opinion of the Court = =
+
+In a 6 – 2 decision authored by Justice Stephen Breyer , the Court reversed the ruling of the lower Court and ruled that the employer 's motive is material to First Amendment challenges . Citing Waters v. Churchill , Justice Breyer wrote ,
+
+[ w ] e conclude that , as in Waters , the government 's reason for demoting Heffernan is what counts here . When an employer demotes an employee out of a desire to prevent the employee from engaging in political activity that the First Amendment protects , the employee is entitled to challenge that unlawful action under the First Amendment ... — even if , as here , the employer makes a factual mistake about the employee 's behavior .
+
+The Court remanded the case to the Third Circuit and made clear in its opinion that while it is impermissable to retaliate based upon perceived protected speech , the lower courts should take into consideration whether Heffernan was disciplined for violating any different and neutral policies . The majority provided three main arguments in support of its reasoning : that their interpretation is more in line with the text of the First Amendment , that their interpretation better served the First Amendment 's purpose of limiting political patronage , and that such an interpretation will not significantly burden employers .
+
+Justice Breyer argued that unlike the Fourteenth Amendment which focuses on the rights of the people , the First Amendment focuses on the actions of the government when it says , " Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom of speech . " As the text of the amendment focuses on the government 's abilities to make laws , it is the government 's actions and motives , not the actual actions of citizens which are proscribed by the Amendment . While the policy at issue was not a law of Congress , the actions were still that of a government official which infringed upon rights guaranteed by the First Amendment .
+
+The Court supported this interpretation by recognizing that the First Amendment sought to prevent government actions from discouraging protected activity . Citing Branti v. Finkel , the Court pointed out that precedent never required plaintiffs in political affiliation cases to show change in allegiance to be successful , and similarly extended that logic to this case : the potential chilling affect on constitutionally protected speech still exists regardless of the factual basis of the employer 's reasoning . Because employees thinking of engaging in protected activity will be equally dissuaded by an incorrect dismissal as by a correct dismissal , both reasonings should be considered in violation of the First Amendment .
+
+Respondents argued that finding employers liable for factual mistakes would place substantial costs upon employers . The Court rejected this argument , saying that an employee would still need to prove the employeer acted out of an improper motive . Referring to Heffernan 's case and those like it , the Court said that " the employee will , if anything , find it more difficult to prove that motive , for the employee will have to point to more than his own conduct to show an employer 's intent " .
+
+= = = Dissent = = =
+
+Justice Clarence Thomas authored the dissent , in which Justice Alito joined . Justice Thomas argued that the previous ruling should have been upheld " because federal law does not provide a cause of action to plaintiffs whose constitutional rights have not been violated " . The dissent focused on the text of the statute Heffernan was suing under : 42 U.S.C. § 1983 . The statute only provides a cause of action for those whose rights have actually been violated by the government . Because Heffernan maintained that he was not exercising his First Amendment rights , the dissent argued that those rights could not have been violated , and that a section 1983 claim requires that the employee engage in protected activity and that the employer retaliate against that activity .
+
+The dissent argued that , for a section 1983 claim to be valid , " harm alone is not enough ; it has to be the right kind of harm " . Thomas provided an example of a law allowing police to pull over any driver without cause . This would obviously violate the Fourth Amendment rights of anyone stopped , but people stuck in traffic who were injured by the collateral damage of unconstitutional actions would not be able to sue because none of their rights were violated . Similarly , it is not enough for Heffernan to have shown injury but violation of an actual right as well . For the dissent , even if the dismissal was for the wrong reason and harm was suffered , the dismissal cannot infringe upon rights he never exercised .
+
+Further supporting their argument , the dissent cited Monterey v. Del Monte Dunes at Monterey , Ltd. to argue that a Section 1983 claim falls under tort law in order to draw a distinction between how attempts are handled under tort and criminal law . Under criminal law , a factually impossible attempt , such as trying to steal from an empty pocket or defraud someone with no money , can still be tried as an attempt . No such doctrine exists in tort law . Because Heffernan was not engaged in protected activity , the police department could only have attempted to deprive him of his right and thus must fail because " there are no attempted torts . "
+
+= = Commentary = =
+
+The day after oral arguments , Gilad Edelman criticized the Court 's assumption that Heffernan never exercised his First Amendment rights , saying , " the Supreme Court may miss an opportunity to make sure that cases like his really are rare . " Edelman interpreted Heffernan 's actions as well within the existing First Amendment precedent . Though Heffernan was not necessarily supporting the candidate , he was talking and associating with people , actions already protected under existing precedent . Edelman went further and suggested that regardless of whether or not Heffernan intended to be identified as supporting the campaign , he was still punished for associating .
+
+Soon after the ruling was announced , the decision was largely praised . Jonathan Stahl , a writer at the Constitution Daily , said that " [ t ] he potential impact of this case on our understanding of the First Amendment is notable " . Similarly , The Economist called it " good law " and a " significant development " for expanding the existing jurisprudence to perceived speech , not just actual speech .
+
+= Regulamentul Organic =
+
+Regulamentul Organic ( Romanian name , translated as Organic Statute or Organic Regulation ; French : Règlement Organique , Russian : Органический регламент , Organichesky reglament ) was a quasi @-@ constitutional organic law enforced in 1834 – 1835 by the Imperial Russian authorities in Moldavia and Wallachia ( the two Danubian Principalities that were to become the basis of the modern Romanian state ) . The document partially confirmed the traditional government ( including rule by the hospodars ) and set up a common Russian protectorate which lasted until 1854 . The Regulament itself remained in force until 1858 . Conservative in its scope , it also engendered a period of unprecedented reforms which provided a setting for the Westernization of the local society . The Regulament offered the two Principalities their first common system of government .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+The two principalities , owing tribute and progressively ceding political control to the Ottoman Empire since the Middle Ages , had been subject to frequent Russian interventions as early as the Russo @-@ Turkish War ( 1710 – 1711 ) , when a Russian army penetrated Moldavia and Emperor Peter the Great probably established links with the Wallachians . Eventually , the Ottomans enforced a tighter control on the region , effected under Phanariote hospodars ( who were appointed directly by the Porte ) . Ottoman rule over the region remained contested by competition from Russia , which , as an Eastern Orthodox empire with claim to a Byzantine heritage , exercised notable influence over locals . At the same time , the Porte made several concessions to the rulers and boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia , as a means to ensure the preservation of its rule .
+
+The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca , signed in 1774 between the Ottomans and Russians , gave Russia the right to intervene on behalf of Eastern Orthodox Ottoman subjects in general , a right which it used to sanction Ottoman interventions in the Principalities in particular . Thus , Russia intervened to preserve reigns of hospodars who had lost Ottoman approval in the context of the Napoleonic Wars ( the casus belli for the 1806 – 12 conflict ) , and remained present in the Danubian states , vying for influence with the Austrian Empire , well into the 19th century and annexing Moldavia 's Bessarabia in 1812 .
+
+Despite the influx of Greeks , arriving in the Principalities as a new bureaucracy favored by the hospodars , the traditional Estates of the realm ( the Divan ) remained under the tight control of a number of high boyar families , who , while intermarrying with members of newly arrived communities , opposed reformist attempts – and successfully preserved their privileges by appealing against their competitors to both Istanbul and Saint Petersburg .
+
+In the last decades of the 18th century , the growing strategic importance of the region brought about the establishment of consulates representing European powers directly interested in observing local developments ( Russia , the Austrian Empire , and France ; later , British and Prussian ones were opened as well ) . An additional way for consuls to exercise particular policies was the awarding of a privileged status and protection to various individuals , who were known as sudiți ( " subjects " , in the language of the time ) of one or the other of the foreign powers .
+
+A seminal event occurred in 1821 , when the rise of Greek nationalism in various parts of the Balkans in connection with the Greek War of Independence led to occupation of the two states by the Filiki Eteria , a Greek secret society who sought , and initially obtained , Russian approval . A mere takeover of the government in Moldavia , the Eterist expedition met a more complex situation in Wallachia , where a regency of high boyars attempted to have the anti @-@ Ottoman Greek nationalists confirm both their rule and the rejection of Phanariote institutions . A compromise was achieved through their common support for Tudor Vladimirescu , an Oltenian pandur leader who had already instigated an anti @-@ Phanariote rebellion ( as one of the Russian sudiți , it was hoped that Vladimirescu could assure Russia that the revolt was not aimed against its influence ) . However , the eventual withdrawal of Russian support made Vladimirescu seek a new agreement with the Ottomans , leaving him to be executed by an alliance of Eterists and weary locals ( alarmed by his new anti @-@ boyar program ) ; after the Ottomans invaded the region and crushed the Eteria , the boyars , still perceived as a third party , obtained from the Porte an end to the Phanariote system
+
+= = Akkerman Convention and Treaty of Adrianople = =
+
+The first reigns through locals – Ioniță Sandu Sturdza as Prince of Moldavia and Grigore IV Ghica as Prince of Wallachia – were , in essence , short @-@ lived : although the patron @-@ client relation between Phanariote hospodars and a foreign ruler was never revived , Sturdza and Ghica were deposed by the Russian military intervention during the Russo @-@ Turkish War , 1828 – 1829 . Sturdza 's time on the throne was marked by an important internal development : the last in a series of constitutional proposals , advanced by boyars as a means to curb princely authority , ended in a clear conflict between the rapidly decaying class of low @-@ ranking boyars ( already forming the upper level of the middle class rather than a segment of the traditional nobility ) and the high @-@ ranking families who had obtained the decisive say in politics . The proponent , Ionică Tăutu , was defeated in the Divan after the Russian consul sided with the conservatives ( expressing the official view that the aristocratic @-@ republican and liberal aims of the document could have threatened international conventions in place ) .
+
+On October 7 , 1826 , the Ottoman Empire — anxious to prevent Russia 's intervention in the Greek Independence War — negotiatied with it a new status for the region in Akkerman , one which conceded to several requests of the inhabitants : the resulting Akkerman Convention was the first official document to nullify the principle of Phanariote reigns , instituting seven @-@ year terms for new princes elected by the respective Divans , and awarding the two countries the right to engage in unrestricted international trade ( as opposed to the tradition of limitations and Ottoman protectionism , it only allowed Istanbul to impose its priorities in the grain trade ) . The convention also made the first mention of new Statutes , enforced by both powers as governing documents , which were not drafted until after the war – although both Sturdza and Ghica had appointed commissions charged with adopting such projects .
+
+The Russian military presence on the Principalities ' soil was inaugurated in the first days of the war : by late April 1828 , the Russian army of Peter Wittgenstein had reached the Danube ( in May , it entered present @-@ day Bulgaria ) . The campaign , prolonged for the following year and coinciding with devastating bubonic plague and cholera epidemics ( which together killed around 1 @.@ 6 % of the population in both countries ) , soon became a drain on local economy : according to British observers , the Wallachian state was required to indebt itself to European creditors for a total sum of ten million piastres , in order to provide for the Russian army 's needs . Accusations of widespread plunder were made by the French author Marc Girardin , who travelled in the region during the 1830s ; Girardin alleged that Russian troops had confiscated virtually all cattle for their needs , and that Russian officers had insulted the political class by publicly stating that , in case the supply in oxen was to prove insufficient , boyars were to be tied to carts in their place – an accusation backed by Ion Ghica in his recollections . He also recorded a mounting dissatifaction with the new rule , mentioning that peasants were especially upset by the continuous maneuvers of troops inside the Principalities ' borders . Overall , Russophilia in the two Principalities appears to have suffered a major blow . Despite the confiscations , statistics of the time indicated that the pace of growth in heads of cattle remained steady ( a 50 % growth appears to have occurred between 1831 and 1837 ) .
+
+The Treaty of Adrianople , signed on September 14 , 1829 , confirmed both the Russian victory and the provisions of the Akkerman Convention , partly amended to reflect the Russian political ascendancy over the area . Furthermore , Wallachia 's southern border was settled on the Danube thalweg , and the state was given control over the previously Ottoman @-@ ruled ports of Brăila , Giurgiu , and Turnu Măgurele . The freedom of commerce ( which consisted mainly of grain exports from the region ) and freedom of navigation on the river and on the Black Sea were passed into law , allowing for the creation of naval fleets in both Principalities in the following years , as well as for a more direct contact with European traders , with the confirmation of the Moldavia and Wallachia 's commercial privileges first stipulated at Akkerman ( alongside the tight links soon established with Austrian and Sardinian traders , the first French ships visited Wallachia in 1830 ) .
+
+Russian occupation over Moldavia and Wallachia ( as well as the Bulgarian town of Silistra ) was prolonged pending the payment of war reparations by the Ottomans . Emperor Nicholas I assigned Fyodor Pahlen as governor over the two countries before the actual peace , as the first in a succession of three Plenipotentiary Presidents of the Divans in Moldavia and Wallachia , and official supervisor of the two commissions charged with drafting the Statutes . The bodies , having for secretaries Gheorghe Asachi in Moldavia and Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei in Wallachia , had resumed their work while the cholera epidemic was still raging , and continued it after Pahlen had been replaced with Pyotr Zheltukhin in February 1829 .
+
+= = Adoption and character = =
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+The post @-@ Adrianople state of affairs was perceived by many of the inhabitants of Wallachia and Moldavia as exceptionally abusive , given that Russia confiscated both of the Principalities ' treasuries , and that Zheltukhin used his position to interfere in the proceedings of the commission , nominated his own choice of members , and silenced all opposition by having anti @-@ Russian boyars expelled from the countries ( including , notably , Iancu Văcărescu , a member of the Wallachian Divan who had questioned his methods of government ) . According to the radical Ghica , " General Zheltukhin [ and his subordinates ] defended all Russian abuse and injustice . Their system consisted in never listening to complaints , but rather rushing in with accusations , so as to inspire fear , so as the plaintiff would run away for fear of not having to endure a harsher thing than the cause of his [ original ] complaint " . However , the same source also indicated that this behaviour was hiding a more complex situation : " Those who nevertheless knew Zheltukhin better … said that he was the fairest , most honest , and most kind of men , and that he gave his cruel orders with an aching heart . Many gave assurance that he had addressed to the emperor heart @-@ breaking reports on the deplorable state in which the Principalities were to be found , in which he stated that Russia 's actions in the Principalities deserved the scorn of the entire world " .
+
+The third and last Russian governor , Pavel Kiselyov ( or Kiseleff ) , took office on October 19 , 1829 , and faced his first major task in dealing with the last outbreaks of plague and cholera , as well as the threat of famine , with which he dealt by imposing quarantines and importing grain from Odessa . His administration , lasting until April 1 , 1834 , was responsible for the most widespread and influential reforms of the period , and coincided with the actual enforcement of the new legislation . The earliest of Kiselyov 's celebrated actions was the convening of the Wallachian Divan in November 1829 , with the assurance that abuses were not to be condoned anymore .
+
+Regulamentul Organic was adopted in its two very similar versions on July 13 , 1831 ( July 1 , OS ) in Wallachia and January 13 , 1832 ( January 1 , OS ) in Moldavia , after having minor changes applied to it in Saint Petersburg ( where a second commission from the Principalities , presided by Mihail Sturdza and Alexandru Vilara , assessed it further ) . Its ratification by Sultan Mahmud II was not a requirement from Kiselyov 's perspective , who began enforcing it as a fait accompli before this was granted . The final version of the document sanctioned the first local government abiding by the principles of separation and balance of powers . The hospodars , elected for life ( and not for the seven @-@ year term agreed in the Convention of Akkerman ) by an Extraordinary Assembly which comprised representatives of merchants and guilds , stood for the executive , with the right to nominate ministers ( whose offices were still referred to using the traditional titles of courtiers ) and public officials ; hospodars were to be voted in office by an electoral college with a confirmed majority of high @-@ ranking boyars ( in Wallachia , only 70 persons were members of the college ) .
+
+Each National Assembly ( approximate translation of Adunarea Obștească ) , inaugurated in 1831 – 2 , was a legislature itself under the control of high @-@ ranking boyars , comprising 35 ( in Moldavia ) or 42 members ( in Wallachia ) , voted into office by no more than 3 @,@ 000 electors in each state ; the judiciary was , for the very first time , removed from the control of hospodars . In effect , the Regulament confirmed earlier steps leading to the eventual separation of church and state , and , although Orthodox church authorities were confirmed a privileged position and a political say , the religious institution was closely supervised by the government ( with the establishment of a quasi @-@ salary expense ) .
+
+A fiscal reform ensued , with the creation of a poll tax ( calculated per family ) , the elimination of most indirect taxes , annual state budgets ( approved by the Assemblies ) and the introduction of a civil list in place of the hospodars ' personal treasuries . New methods of bookkeeping were regulated , and the creation of national banks was projected , but , like the adoption of national fixed currencies , was never implemented .
+
+According to the historian Nicolae Iorga , " The [ boyar ] oligarchy was appeased [ by the Regulament 's adoption ] : a beautifully harmonious modern form had veiled the old medieval structure … . The bourgeoisie … held no influence . As for the peasant , he lacked even the right to administer his own commune , he was not even allowed to vote for an Assembly deemed , as if in jest , « national » . " Nevertheless , conservative boyars remained suspicious of Russian tutelage , and several expressed their fear that the regime was a step leading to the creation of a regional guberniya for the Russian Empire . Their mistrust was , in time , reciprocated by Russia , who relied on hospodars and the direct intervention of its consuls to push further reforms . Kiselyov himself voiced a plan for the region 's annexation to Russia , but the request was dismissed by his superiors .
+
+= = Economic trends = =
+
+= = = Cities and towns = = =
+
+Beginning with the reformist administration of Kiselyov , the two countries experienced a series of profound changes , political , social , as well as cultural .
+
+Despite underrepresentation in politics , the middle class swelled in numbers , profiting from a growth in trade which had increased the status of merchants . Under continuous competition from the sudiți , traditional guilds ( bresle or isnafuri ) faded away , leading to a more competitive , purely capitalist environment . This nevertheless signified that , although the traditional Greek competition for Romanian merchants and artisans had become less relevant , locals continued to face one from Austrian subjects of various nationalities , as well as from a sizeable immigration of Jews from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria and Russia – prevented from settling in the countryside , Jews usually became keepers of inns and taverns , and later both bankers and leaseholders of estates . In this context , an anti @-@ Catholic sentiment was growing , based , according to Keith Hitchins , on the assumption that Catholicism and Austrian influence were closely related , as well as on a widespread preference for secularism .
+
+The Romanian middle class formed the basis for what was to become the liberal electorate , and accounted for the xenophobic discourse of the National Liberal Party during the latter 's first decade of existence ( between 1875 and World War I ) .
+
+Urban development occurred at a very fast pace : overall , the urban population had doubled by 1850 . Bucharest , the capital of Wallachia , expanded from about 70 @,@ 000 in 1831 to about 120 @,@ 000 in 1859 ; Iași , the capital of Moldavia , followed at around half that number . Brăila and Giurgiu , Danube ports returned to Wallachia by the Ottomans , as well as Moldavia 's Galați , grew from the grain trade to become prosperous cities . Kiselyov , who had centered his administration on Bucharest , paid full attention to its development , improving its infrastructure and services and awarding it , together with all other cities and towns , a local administration ( see History of Bucharest ) . Public works were carried out in the urban sphere , as well as in the massive expansion of the transport and communications system .
+
+= = = Countryside = = =
+
+The success of the grain trade was secured by a conservative take on property , which restricted the right of peasants to exploit for their own gain those plots of land they leased on boyar estates ( the Regulament allowed them to consume around 70 % of the total harvest per plot leased , while boyars were allowed to use a third of their estate as they pleased , without any legal duty toward the neighbouring peasant workforce ) ; at the same time , small properties , created after Constantine Mavrocordatos had abolished serfdom in the 1740s , proved less lucrative in the face of competition by large estates – boyars profited from the consequences , as more landowning peasants had to resort to leasing plots while still owing corvées to their lords . Confirmed by the Regulament at up to 12 days a year , the corvée was still less significant than in other parts of Europe ; however , since peasants relied on cattle for alternative food supplies and financial resources , and pastures remained the exclusive property of boyars , they had to exchange right of use for more days of work in the respective boyar 's benefit ( as much as to equate the corresponding corvée requirements in Central European countries , without ever being enforced by laws ) . Several laws of the period display a particular concern in limiting the right of peasants to evade corvées by paying their equivalent in currency , thus granting the boyars a workforce to match a steady growth in grain demands on foreign markets .
+
+In respect to pasture access , the Regulament divided peasants into three wealth @-@ based categories : fruntași ( " foremost people " ) , who , by definition , owned 4 working animals and one or more cows ( allowed to use around 4 hectares of pasture ) ; mijlocași ( " middle people " ) – two working animals and one cow ( around 2 hectares ) ; codași ( " backward people " ) – people who owned no property , and not allowed the use of pastures .
+
+At the same time , the major demographic changes took their toll on the countryside . For the very first time , food supplies were no longer abundant in front of a population growth ensured by , among other causes , the effective measures taken against epidemics ; rural – urban migration became a noticeable phenomenon , as did the relative increase in urbanization of traditional rural areas , with an explosion of settlements around established fairs .
+
+These processes also ensured that industrialization was minimal ( although factories had first been opened during the Phanariotes ) : most revenues came from a highly productive agriculture based on peasant labour , and were invested back into agricultural production . In parallel , hostility between agricultural workers and landowners mounted : after an increase in lawsuits involving leaseholders and the decrease in quality of corvée outputs , resistance , hardened by the examples of Tudor Vladimirescu and various hajduks , turned to sabotage and occasional violence . A more serious incident occurred in 1831 , when around 60 @,@ 000 peasants protested against projected conscription criteria ; Russian troops dispatched to quell the revolt killed around 300 people .
+
+= = Political and cultural setting = =
+
+The most noted cultural development under the Regulament was Romanian Romantic nationalism , in close connection with Francophilia . Institutional modernization engered a renaissance of the intelligentsia . In turn , the concept of " nation " was first expanded beyond its coverage of the boyar category , and more members of the privileged displayed a concern in solving problems facing the peasantry : although rarer among the high @-@ ranking boyars , the interest was shared by most progressive political figures by the 1840s .
+
+Nationalist themes now included a preoccupation for the Latin origin of Romanians and the common ( but since discarded ) reference to the entire region as Dacia ( first notable in the title of Mihail Kogălniceanu 's Dacia Literară , a short @-@ lived Romantic literary magazine published in 1840 ) . As a trans @-@ border notion , Dacia also indicated a growth in Pan @-@ Romanian sentiment – the latter had first been present in several boyar requests of the late 18th century , which had called for the union of the two Danubian Principalities under the protection of European powers ( and , in some cases , under the rule of a foreign prince ) . To these was added the circulation of fake documents which were supposed to reflect the text of Capitulations awarded by the Ottoman Empire to its Wallachian and Moldavian vassals in the Middle Ages , claiming to stand out as proof of rights and privileges which had been long neglected ( see also Islam in Romania ) .
+
+Education , still accessible only to the wealthy , was first removed from the domination of the Greek language and Hellenism upon the disestablishment of Phanariotes sometime after 1821 ; the attempts of Gheorghe Lazăr ( at the Saint Sava College ) and Gheorghe Asachi to engender a transition towards Romanian @-@ language teaching had been only moderately successful , but Wallachia became the scene of such a movement after the start of Ion Heliade Rădulescu 's teaching career and the first issue of his newspaper , Curierul Românesc . Moldavia soon followed , after Asachi began printing his highly influential magazine Albina Românească . The Regulament brought about the creation of new schools , which were dominated by the figures of Transylvanian Romanians who had taken exile after expressing their dissatifaction with Austrian rule in their homeland – these teachers , who usually rejected the adoption of French cultural models in the otherwise conservative society ( viewing the process as an unnatural one ) , counted among them Ioan Maiorescu and August Treboniu Laurian . Another impetus for nationalism was the Russian @-@ supervised creation of small standing armies ( occasionally referred to as " militias " ; see Moldavian military forces and Wallachian military forces ) . The Wallachian one first maneuvered in the autumn of 1831 , and was supervised by Kiselyov himself . According to Ion Ghica , the prestige of military careers had a relevant tradition : " Only the arrival of the Muscovites [ sic ] in 1828 ended [ the ] young boyars ' sons flighty way of life , as it made use of them as commissioners ( mehmendari ) in the service of Russian generals , in order to assist in providing the troops with [ supplies ] . In 1831 most of them took to the sword , signing up for the national militia . "
+
+The Westernization of Romanian society took place at a rapid pace , and created a noticeable , albeit not omnipresent , generation gap . The paramount cultural model was the French one , following a pattern already established by contacts between the region and the French Consulate and First Empire ( attested , among others , by the existence of a Wallachian plan to petition Napoleon Bonaparte , whom locals believed to be a descendant of the Byzantine Emperors , with a complaint against the Phanariotes , as well as by an actual anonymous petition sent in 1807 from Moldavia ) . This trend was consolidated by the French cultural model partly adopted by the Russians , a growing mutual sympathy between the Principalities and France , increasingly obvious under the French July Monarchy , and , as early as the 1820s , the enrolment of young boyars in Parisian educational institutions ( coupled with the 1830 opening of a French @-@ language school in Bucharest , headed by Jean Alexandre Vaillant ) . The young generation eventually attempted to curb French borrowings , which it had come to see as endangering its nationalist aspirations .
+
+= = Statutory rules and nationalist opposition = =
+
+In 1834 , despite the founding documents ' requirements , Russia and the Ottoman Empire agreed to appoint the first two hospodars ( instead of providing for their election ) , as a means to ensure both the monarchs ' support for a moderate pace in reforms and their allegiance in front of conservative boyar opposition . The choices were Alexandru II Ghica ( the stepbrother of the previous monarch , Grigore IV ) as Prince of Wallachia and Mihail Sturdza ( a distant cousin of Ioniță Sandu ) as Prince of Moldavia . The two rules ( generally referred to as Domnii regulamentare – " statutory " or " regulated reigns " ) , closely observed by the Russian consuls and various Russian technical advisors , soon met a vocal and unified opposition in the Assemblies and elsewhere .
+
+Immediately after the confirmation of the Regulament , Russia had begun demanding that the two local Assemblies each vote an Additional Article ( Articol adițional ) – one preventing any modification of the texts without the common approval of the courts in Istanbul and Saint Petersburg . In Wallachia , the issue turned into scandal after the pressure for adoption mounted in 1834 , and led to a four @-@ year @-@ long standstill , during which a nationalist group in the legislative body began working on its own project for a constitution , proclaiming the Russian protectorate and Ottoman suzerainty to be over , and self @-@ determination with guarantees from all European Powers of the time . The radical leader of the movement , Ion Câmpineanu , maintained close contacts with Polish nobleman Adam Jerzy Czartoryski 's Union of National Unity ( as well as with other European nationalists Romantics ) ; after the Additional Article passed due to Ghica 's interference and despite boyar protests , Câmpineanu was forced to abandon his seat and take refuge in Central Europe ( until being arrested and sent back by the Austrians to be imprisoned in Bucharest ) . From that point on , opposition to Ghica 's rule took the form of Freemason and carbonari @-@ inspired conspiracies , formed around young politicians such as Mitică Filipescu , Nicolae Bălcescu , Eftimie Murgu , Ion Ghica , Christian Tell , Dimitrie Macedonski , and Cezar Bolliac ( all of whom held Câmpineanu 's ideology in esteem ) — in 1840 , Filipescu and most of his group ( who had tried in vain to profit from the Ottoman crisis engendered by Muhammad Ali 's rebellion ) were placed under arrest and imprisoned in various locations .
+
+Noted abuses against the rule of law and the consequent threat of rebellion made the Ottoman Empire and Russia withdraw their support for Ghica in 1842 , and his successor , Gheorghe Bibescu , reigned as the first and only prince to have been elected by any one of the two Assemblies . In Moldavia , the situation was less tense , as Sturdza was able to calm down and manipulate opposition to Russian rule while introducing further reforms .
+
+In 1848 , upon the outbreak of the European revolutions , liberalism consolidated itself into more overt opposition , helped along by contacts between Romanian students with the French movement . Nevertheless , the Moldavian revolution of late March 1848 was an abortive one , and led to the return of Russian troops on its soil . Wallachia 's revolt was successful : after the Proclamation of Islaz on June 21 sketched a new legal framework and land reform with an end to all corvées ( a program acclaimed by the crowds ) , the conspirators managed to topple Bibescu , who had by then dissolved the Assembly , without notable violence , and established a Provisoral Government in Bucharest .
+
+The new executive , orchestrating the public burning of the Regulament in September , attempted to play Ottoman interests against Russian ones , trying to obtain backing from the Porte ; the relative initial success was rendered void after Russian diplomats pressured Sultan Abd @-@ ul @-@ Mejid I to intervene in their place ( and thus not risk losing yet more control over the region to a more determined Russian expedition ) . A Russian occupation over Wallachia soon joined the Ottoman one ( begun on September 18 ) , and both lasted until April 1851 ; in 1849 , the two powers signed the Treaty of Balta Liman , which asserted the right of the Porte to nominate hospodars for seven @-@ year terms .
+
+= = Crimean War = =
+
+The Crimean War again brought the two countries under Russian military administration , inaugurated in 1853 . The hospodars of the period , Prince Grigore Alexandru Ghica in Moldavia and Prince Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei in Wallachia , were removed from their thrones , and the region was governed by the Russian general Aleksandr Ivanovich Budberg .
+
+As the Balkans remained a secondary theatre of war , the two Principalities were taken over by a neutral Austrian administration in September 1854 – part of a settlement between the Porte and Russia ( the Austrians remained until 1857 ) . Grigore Ghica and Știrbei were returned to the thrones in the same year , and completed the last series of reforms carried under the terms of the Regulament . The most far @-@ reaching among these were the ones concerning Roma slavery . In Moldavia , Romas were liberated , without a period of transition , on December 22 , 1855 ; the change was more gradual in Wallachia , where measures to curb trade had been taken earlier , and where the decision to ban the ownership of slaves was taken by Știrbei on February 20 , 1856 . Concerned by worsening boyar @-@ peasant relations , Știrbei , who governed without an Assembly ( and had instead appointed his own Divan ) , enacted measures to improve the situation in the countryside , and ultimately enforced contract @-@ based work as the rule on estates ( whereby peasants who were not indebted after five years in service could leave the land they were working on ) .
+
+This was the moment when the call for union of the two Principalities began to be voiced with confidence , and the two monarchs showed more or less approval for the designs of the unionist Partida Națională ( created by 1848 revolutionaries who had returned from exile ) .
+
+The war ended with the Treaty of Paris ( March 30 , 1856 ) , which placed the countries , still as Ottoman vassals , under the protectorate of all European Powers ( the United Kingdom , the French Empire , the Kingdom of Piedmont @-@ Sardinia , Prussia , Austria , and , never again completely , Russia ) . The protector states had to decide on a compromise formula for the projected union ; the Ottomans demanded and obtained , in contradiction with the Regulament , the removal of both hospodars from their thrones , pending elections for the ad hoc Divans . The outcome remained disputed until the election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza , who reigned as first Domnitor of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia , the basis of modern Romania .
+
+= Western Chalukya Empire =
+
+The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan , South India , between the 10th and 12th centuries . This Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya after its regal capital at Kalyani , today 's Basavakalyan in Karnataka and alternatively the Later Chalukya from its theoretical relationship to the 6th @-@ century Chalukya dynasty of Badami . The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi , a separate dynasty . Prior to the rise of these Chalukyas , the Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta controlled most of Deccan and Central India for over two centuries . In 973 , seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire after a successful invasion of their capital by the ruler of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa , Tailapa II , a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty ruling from Bijapur region defeated his overlords and made Manyakheta his capital . The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Someshvara I who moved the capital to Kalyani .
+
+For over a century , the two empires of Southern India , the Western Chalukyas and the Chola dynasty of Tanjore fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of Vengi . During these conflicts , the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi , distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage took sides with the Cholas further complicating the situation . During the rule of Vikramaditya VI , in the late 11th and early 12th centuries , the Western Chalukyas convincingly contended with the Cholas and reached a peak ruling territories that spread over most of the Deccan , between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south . His exploits were not limited to the south for even as a prince , during the rule of Someshvara I , he had led successful military campaigns as far east as modern Bihar and Bengal . During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan , the Hoysalas , the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri , the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri , were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th century .
+
+The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style , an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire . Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka . Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi , the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti , the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi . This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India , especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language Kannada , and Sanskrit .
+
+= = History = =
+
+Knowledge of Western Chalukya history has come through examination of the numerous Kannada language inscriptions left by the kings ( scholars Sheldon Pollock and Jan Houben have claimed 90 percent of the Chalukyan royal inscriptions are in Kannada ) , and from the study of important contemporary literary documents in Western Chalukya literature such as Gada Yuddha ( 982 ) in Kannada by Ranna and Vikramankadeva Charitam ( 1120 ) in Sanskrit by Bilhana . The earliest record is dated 957 , during the rule of Tailapa II when the Western Chalukyas were still a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas and Tailapa II governed from Tardavadi in present @-@ day Bijapur district , Karnataka . The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated . One theory , based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas , suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami Chalukya dynasty of 6th @-@ century , while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the early Chalukyas .
+
+The records suggests a possible rebellion by a local Chalukya King , Chattigadeva of Banavasi @-@ 12000 province ( c . 967 ) , in alliance with local Kadamba chieftains . This rebellion however was unfruitful but paved the way for his successor Tailapa II . A few years later , Tailapa II re @-@ established Chalukya rule and defeated the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II by timing his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused in the Rashtrakuta capital of Manyakheta by the invading Paramaras of Central India in 973 . After overpowering the Rashtrakutas , Tailapa II moved his capital to Manyakheta and consolidated the Chalukya empire in the western Deccan by subjugating the Paramara and other aggressive rivals and extending his control over the land between the Narmada River and Tungabhadra River . However , some inscriptions indicate that Balagamve in Mysore territory may have been a power centre up to the rule of Someshvara I in 1042 .
+
+The intense competition between the kingdom of the western Deccan and those of the Tamil country came to the fore in the 11th century over the acutely contested fertile river valleys in the doab region of the Krishna and Godavari River called Vengi ( modern coastal Andhra Pradesh ) . The Western Chalukyas and the Chola Dynasty fought many bitter wars over control of this strategic resource . The imperial Cholas gained power during the time of the famous king Rajaraja Chola I and the crown prince Rajendra Chola I. The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi were cousins of the Western Chalukyas but became increasingly influenced by the Cholas through their marital ties with the Tamil kingdom . As this was against the interests of the Western Chalukyas , they wasted no time in involving themselves politically and militarily in Vengi . When King Satyashraya succeeded Tailapa II to the throne , he was able to protect his kingdom from Chola aggression as well as his northern territories in Konkan and Gujarat although his control over Vengi was shaky . His successor , Jayasimha II , fought many battles with the Cholas in the south around c . 1020 – 21 when both these powerful kingdoms struggled to choose the Vengi king . Shortly thereafter in c . 1024 , Jayasimha II subdued the Paramara of central India and the rebellious Yadava King Bhillama .
+
+It is known from records that Jayasimha 's son Someshvara I , whose rule historian Sen considers a brilliant period in the Western Chalukya rule , moved the Chalukya capital to Kalyani in c . 1042 . Hostilities with the Cholas continued while both sides won and lost battles , though neither lost significant territory during the ongoing struggle to install a puppet on the Vengi throne . In 1068 Someshvara I , suffering from an incurable illness , drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River ( Paramayoga ) . Despite many conflicts with the Cholas in the south , Someshvara I had managed to maintain control over the northern territories in Konkan , Gujarat , Malwa and Kalinga during his rule . His successor , his eldest son Someshvara II , feuded with his younger brother , Vikramaditya VI , an ambitious warrior who had initially been governor of Gangavadi in the southern Deccan when Someshvara II was the king . Before 1068 , even as a prince , Vikramaditya VI had invaded Bengal , weakening the ruling Pala Empire . These incursions led to the establishment of Karnata dynasties such as the Sena dynasty and Varman dynasty in Bengal , and the Nayanadeva dynasty in Bihar . , Married to a Chola princess ( a daughter of Vira Rajendra Chola ) , Vikramaditya VI maintained a friendly alliance with them . After the death of the Chola king in 1070 , Vikramaditya VI invaded the Tamil kingdom and installed his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Adhirajendra , on the throne creating conflict with Kulothunga Chola I , the powerful ruler of Vengi who sought the Chola throne for himself . At the same time Vikramaditya VI undermined his brother , Someshvara II , by winning the loyalty of the Chalukya feudatories : the Hoysala , the Seuna and the Kadambas of Hangal . Anticipating a civil war , Someshvara II sought help from Vikramaditya VI 's enemies , Kulothunga Chola I and the Kadambas of Goa . In the ensuing conflict of 1076 , Vikramaditya VI emerged victorious and proclaimed himself king of the Chalukya empire .
+
+The fifty @-@ year reign of Vikramaditya VI , the most successful of the later Chalukya rulers , was an important period in Karnataka 's history and is referred to by historians as the " Chalukya Vikrama era " . Not only was he successful in controlling his powerful feudatories in the north ( Kadamba Jayakesi II of Goa , Silhara Bhoja and the Yadava King ) and south ( Hoysala Vishnuvardhana ) , he successfully dealt with the imperial Cholas whom he defeated in the battle of Vengi in 1093 and again in 1118 . He retained this territory for many years despite ongoing hostilities with the Cholas . This victory in Vengi reduced the Chola influence in the eastern Deccan and made him emperor of territories stretching from the Kaveri River in the south to the Narmada River in the north , earning him the titles Permadideva and Tribhuvanamalla ( lord of three worlds ) . The scholars of his time paid him glowing tributes for his military leadership , interest in fine arts and religious tolerance . Literature proliferated and scholars in Kannada and Sanskrit adorned his court . Poet Bilhana , who immigrated from far away Kashmir , eulogised the king in his well known work Vikramankadeva Charita . Vikramaditya VI was not only an able warrior but also a devout king as indicated by his numerous inscriptions that record grants made to scholars and centers of religion .
+
+The continual warring with the Cholas exhausted both empires , giving their subordinates the opportunity to rebel . In the decades after Vikramaditya VI 's death in 1126 , the empire steadily decreased in size as their powerful feudatories expanded in autonomy and territorial command . The time period between 1150 and 1200 saw many hard fought battles between the Chalukyas and their feudatories who were also at war with each other . By the time of Jagadhekamalla II , the Chalukyas had lost control of Vengi and his successor , Tailapa III , was defeated by the Kakatiya king Prola in 1149 . Tailapa III was taken captive and later released bringing down the prestige of the Western Chalukyas . Seeing decadence and uncertainty seeping into Chalukya rule , the Hoysalas and Seunas also encroached upon the empire . Hoysala Narasimha I defeated and killed Tailapa III but was unable to overcome the Kalachuris who were vying for control of the same region . In 1157 the Kalachuris under Bijjala II captured Kalyani and occupied it for the next twenty years , forcing the Chalukyas to move their capital to Annigeri in the present day Dharwad district .
+
+The Kalachuris were originally immigrants into the southern Deccan from central India and called themselves Kalanjarapuravaradhisavaras . Bijjala II and his ancestors had governed as Chalukya commanders ( Mahamandaleshwar ) over the Karhad @-@ 4000 and Tardavadi @-@ 1000 provinces ( overlapping region in present @-@ day Karnataka and Maharashtra ) with Mangalavada or Annigeri as their capital . Bijjala II 's Chikkalagi record of 1157 calls him Mahabhujabala Chakravarti ( " emperor with powerful shoulders and arms " ) indicating he no longer was a subordinate of the Chalukyas . However the successors of Bijjala II were unable to hold on to Kalyani and their rule ended in 1183 when the last Chalukya scion , Someshvara IV made a final bid to regain the empire by recapturing Kalyani . Kalachuri King Sankama was killed by Chalukya general Narasimha in this conflict . During this time , Hoysala Veera Ballala II was growing ambitious and clashed on several occasions with the Chalukyas and the other claimants over their empire . He defeated Chalukya Someshvara IV and Seuna Bhillama V bringing large regions in the Krishna River valley under the Hoysala domains , but was unsuccessful against Kalachuris . The Seunas under Bhillama V were on an imperialistic expansion too when the Chalukyas regained Kalyani . Their ambitions were temporarily stemmed by their defeat against Chalukya general Barma in 1183 but they later had their vengeance in 1189 .
+
+The overall effort by Someshvara IV to rebuild the Chalukya empire failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Someshvara IV into exile in Banavasi 1189 . After the fall of the Chalukyas , the Seunas and Hoysalas continued warring over the Krishna River region in 1191 , each inflicting a defeat on the other at various points in time . This period saw the fall of two great empires , the Chalukyas of the western Deccan and the Cholas of Tamilakam . On the ruins of these two empires were built the Kingdoms of their feudatories whose mutual antagonisms filled the annals of Deccan history for over a hundred years , the Pandyas taking control over some regions of the erstwhile Chola empire .
+
+= = Administration = =
+
+The Western Chalukya kingship was hereditary , passing to the king 's brother if the king did not have a male heir . The administration was highly decentralised and feudatory clans such as the Alupas , the Hoysalas , the Kakatiya , the Seuna , the southern Kalachuri and others were allowed to rule their autonomous provinces , paying an annual tribute to the Chalukya emperor . Excavated inscriptions record titles such as Mahapradhana ( Chief minister ) , Sandhivigrahika , and Dharmadhikari ( chief justice ) . Some positions such as Tadeyadandanayaka ( commander of reserve army ) were specialised in function while all ministerial positions included the role of Dandanayaka ( commander ) , showing that cabinet members were trained as army commanders as well as in general administrative skills .
+
+The kingdom was divided into provinces such as Banavasi @-@ 12000 , Nolambavadi @-@ 32000 , Gangavadi @-@ 96000 , each name including the number of villages under its jurisdiction . The large provinces were divided into smaller provinces containing a lesser number of villages , as in Belavola @-@ 300 . The big provinces were called Mandala and under them were Nadu further divided into Kampanas ( groups of villages ) and finally a Bada ( village ) . A Mandala was under a member of the royal family , a trusted feudatory or a senior official . Tailapa II himself was in charge of Tardavadi province during the Rashtrakuta rule . Chiefs of Mandalas were transferable based on political developments . For example , an official named Bammanayya administered Banavasi @-@ 12000 under King Someshvara III but was later transferred to Halasige @-@ 12000 . Women from the royal family also administered Nadus and Kampanas . Army commanders were titled Mahamandaleshwaras and those who headed a Nadu were entitled Nadugouvnda .
+
+The Western Chalukyas minted punch @-@ marked gold pagodas with Kannada and Nagari legends which were large , thin gold coins with several varying punch marks on the obverse side . They usually carried multiple punches of symbols such as a stylised lion , Sri in Kannada , a spearhead , the king 's title , a lotus and others . Jayasimha II used the legend Sri Jaya , Someshvara I issued coins with Sri Tre lo ka malla , Someshvara II used Bhuvaneka malla , Lakshmideva 's coin carried Sri Lasha , and Jagadhekamalla II coinage had the legend Sri Jagade . The Alupas , a feudatory , minted coins with the Kannada and Nagari legend Sri Pandya Dhanamjaya . Lakkundi in Gadag district and Sudi in Dharwad district were the main mints ( Tankhashaley ) . Their heaviest gold coin was Gadyanaka weighting 96 grains , Dramma weighted 65 grains , Kalanju 48 grains , Kasu 15 grains , Manjadi 2 @.@ 5 grains , Akkam 1 @.@ 25 grains and Pana 9 @.@ 6 grain .
+
+= = Economy = =
+
+Agriculture was the empire 's main source of income through taxes on land and produce . The majority of the people lived in villages and worked farming the staple crops of rice , pulses , and cotton in the dry areas and sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall , with areca and betel being the chief cash crops . The living conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as there are no records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords . If peasants were disgruntled the common practice was to migrate in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them , thereby depriving him of revenue from their labor .
+
+Taxes were levied on mining and forest products , and additional income was raised through tolls for the use of transportation facilities . The state also collected fees from customs , professional licenses , and judicial fines . Records show horses and salt were taxed as well as commodities ( gold , textiles , perfumes ) and agricultural produce ( black pepper , paddy , spices , betel leaves , palm leaves , coconuts and sugar ) . Land tax assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the type of produce . Chalukya records specifically mention black soil and red soil lands in addition to wetland , dry land and wasteland in determining taxation rates .
+
+Key figures mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas ( officials ) or Goudas . The Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata , the Praja Gavunda ( people 's Gavunda ) and the Prabhu Gavunda ( lord of Gavundas ) . They served the dual purpose of representing the people before the rulers as well as functioning as state appointees for tax collection and the raising of militias . They are mentioned in inscriptions related to land transactions , irrigation maintenance , village tax collection and village council duties .
+
+The organisation of corporate enterprises became common in the 11th century . Almost all arts and crafts were organised into guilds and work was done on a corporate basis ; records do not mention individual artists , sculptors and craftsman . Only in the regions ruled by the Hoysala did individual sculptors etched their names below their creations . Merchants organised themselves into powerful guilds that transcended political divisions , allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars and revolutions . Their only threat was the possibility of theft from brigands when their ships and caravans traveled to distant lands . Powerful South Indian merchant guilds included the Manigramam , the Nagarattar and the Anjuvannam . Local guilds were called nagaram , while the Nanadesis were traders from neighbouring kingdoms who perhaps mixed business with pleasure . The wealthiest and most influential and celebrated of all South Indian merchant guilds was the self @-@ styled Ainnurruvar , also known as the 500 Svamis of Ayyavolepura ( Brahmins and Mahajanas of present @-@ day Aihole ) , who conducted extensive land and sea trade and thereby contributed significantly to the total foreign trade of the empire . It fiercely protected its trade obligations ( Vira Bananjudharma or law of the noble merchants ) and its members often recorded their achievements in inscriptions ( Prasasti ) . Five hundred such excavated Prasasti inscriptions , with their own flag and emblem , the bull , record their pride in their business .
+
+Rich traders contributed significantly to the king 's treasury through paying import and export taxes . The edicts of the Aihole Svamis mention trade ties with foreign kingdoms such as Chera , Pandya , Maleya ( Malaysia ) , Magadh , Kaushal , Saurashtra , Kurumba , Kambhoja ( Cambodia ) , Lata ( Gujarat ) , Parasa ( Persia ) and Nepal . Travelling both land and sea routes , these merchants traded mostly in precious stones , spices and perfumes , and other specialty items such as camphor . Business flourished in precious stones such as diamonds , lapis lazuli , onyx , topaz , carbuncles and emeralds . Commonly traded spices were cardamom , saffron , and cloves , while perfumes included the by @-@ products of sandalwood , bdellium , musk , civet and rose . These items were sold either in bulk or hawked on streets by local merchants in towns . The Western Chalukyas controlled most of South India 's west coast and by the 10th century they had established extensive trade ties with the Tang Empire of China , the empires of Southeast Asia and the Abbasid Caliphate in Bhagdad , and by the 12th century Chinese fleets were frequenting Indian ports . Exports to Song Dynasty China included textiles , spices , medicinal plants , jewels , ivory , rhino horn , ebony and camphor . The same products also reached ports in the west such as Dhofar and Aden . The final destinations for those trading with the west were Persia , Arabia and Egypt . The thriving trade center of Siraf , a port on the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf , served an international clientele of merchants including those from the Chalukya empire who were feasted by wealthy local merchants during business visits . An indicator of the Indian merchants ' importance in Siraf comes from records describing dining plates reserved for them . In addition to this , Siraf received aloe wood , perfumes , sandalwood and condiments . The most expensive import to South India were Arabian horse shipments , this trade being monopolised by Arabs and local Brahmin merchants . Traveller Marco Polo , in the 13th century , recorded that the breeding of horses never succeeded in India due to differing climatic , soil and grassland conditions .
+
+= = Culture = =
+
+= = = Religion = = =
+
+The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western Chalukyas in the 10th century , coinciding with the defeat of the Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in Gangavadi , was a setback to Jainism . The growth of Virashaivism in the Chalukya territory and Vaishnava Hinduism in the Hoysala region paralleled a general decreased interest in Jainism , although the succeeding kingdoms continued to be religiously tolerant . Two locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory continued to be patronaged , Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli . The decline of Buddhism in South India had begun in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara 's Advaita philosophy . The only places of Buddhist worship that remained during the Western Chalukya rule were at Dambal and Balligavi . There is no mention of religious conflict in the writings and inscriptions of the time which suggest the religious transition was smooth .
+
+Although the origin of the Virashaiva faith has been debated , the movement grew through its association with Basavanna in the 12th century . Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints preached of a faith without a caste system . In his Vachanas ( a form of poetry ) , Basavanna appealed to the masses in simple Kannada and wrote " work is worship " ( Kayakave Kailasa ) . Also known as the Lingayats ( worshipers of the Linga , the universal symbol of Shiva ) , these Virashaivas questioned many of the established norms of society such as the belief in rituals and the theory of rebirth and supported the remarriage of widows and the marriage of unwed older women . This gave more social freedom to women but they were not accepted into the priesthood . Ramanujacharya , the head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam , traveled to the Hoysala territory and preached the way of devotion ( bhakti marga ) . He later wrote Sribhashya , a commentary on Badarayana Brahmasutra , a critique on the Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara . Ramanujacharya 's stay in Melkote resulted in the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana converting to Vaishnavism , a faith that his successors also followed .
+
+The impact of these religious developments on the culture , literature , and architecture in South India was profound . Important works of metaphysics and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written over the next centuries . Akka Mahadevi , Allama Prabhu , and a host of Basavanna 's followers , including Chenna Basava , Prabhudeva , Siddharama , and Kondaguli Kesiraja wrote hundreds of poems called Vachanas in praise of Lord Shiva . The esteemed scholars in the Hoysala court , Harihara and Raghavanka , were Virashaivas . This tradition continued into the Vijayanagar empire with such well @-@ known scholars as Singiraja , Mallanarya , Lakkana Dandesa and other prolific writers of Virashaiva literature . The Saluva , Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagar empire were followers of Vaishnavism and a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanujacharya exists today in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara . Scholars in the succeeding Mysore Kingdom wrote Vaishnavite works supporting the teachings of Ramanujacharya . King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism .
+
+= = = Society = = =
+
+The rise of Veerashaivaism was revolutionary and challenged the prevailing Hindu caste system which retained royal support . The social role of women largely depended on their economic status and level of education in this relatively liberal period . Freedom was more available to women in the royal and affluent urban families . Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts , such as Chalukya queen Chandala Devi 's and Kalachuri queen Sovala Devi 's skill in dance and music . The compositions of thirty Vachana women poets included the work of the 12th @-@ century Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi whose devotion to the bhakti movement is well known . Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi , ( sister of King Jayasimha II ) who fought and defeated rebellious feudals . Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood indicating that Sati ( a custom in which a dead man 's widow used to immolate herself on her husband 's funeral pyre ) though present was on a voluntary basis . Ritual deaths to achieve salvation were seen among the Jains who preferred to fast to death ( Sallekhana ) , while people of some other communities chose to jump on spikes ( Shoolabrahma ) or walking into fire on an eclipse .
+
+In a Hindu caste system that was conspicuously present , Brahmins enjoyed a privileged position as providers of knowledge and local justice . These Brahmins were normally involved in careers that revolved around religion and learning with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial affairs . They were patronised by kings , nobles and wealthy aristocrats who persuaded learned Brahmins to settle in specific towns and villages by making them grants of land and houses . The relocation of Brahmin scholars was calculated to be in the interest of the kingdom as they were viewed as persons detached from wealth and power and their knowledge was a useful tool to educate and teach ethical conduct and discipline in local communities . Brahmins were also actively involved in solving local problems by functioning as neutral arbiters ( Panchayat ) .
+
+Regarding eating habits , Brahmins , Jains , Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities . Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats , sheep , pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge , hare , wild fowl and boar . People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches ( Kusti ) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling . Horse racing was a popular outdoor past time . In addition to these leisurely activities , festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of acrobats , dancers , dramatists and musicians was often provided .
+
+Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples . Marketplaces served as open air town halls where people gathered to discuss and ponder local issues . Choirs , whose main function was to sing devotional hymns , were maintained at temple expense . Young men were trained to sing in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu Matha , Jain Palli and Buddhist Vihara . These institutions provided advanced education in religion and ethics and were well equipped with libraries ( Saraswati Bhandara ) . Learning was imparted in the local language and in Sanskrit . Schools of higher learning were called Brahmapuri ( or Ghatika or Agrahara ) . Teaching Sanskrit was a near monopoly of Brahmins who received royal endowments for their cause . Inscriptions record that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen . The four most popular subjects with royal students were Economics ( Vartta ) , Political Science ( Dandaniti ) , Veda ( trayi ) and Philosophy ( Anvikshiki ) , subjects that are mentioned as early as Kautilyas Arthasastra .
+
+= = = Literature = = =
+
+The Western Chalukya era was one of substantial literary activity in the native Kannada , and Sanskrit . In a golden age of Kannada literature , Jain scholars wrote about the life of Tirthankaras and Virashaiva poets expressed their closeness to God through pithy poems called Vachanas . Nearly three hundred contemporary Vachanakaras ( Vachana poets ) including thirty women poets have been recorded . Early works by Brahmin writers were on the epics , Ramayana , Mahabharata , Bhagavata , Puranas and Vedas . In the field of secular literature , subjects such as romance , erotics , medicine , lexicon , mathematics , astrology , encyclopedia etc. were written for the first time .
+
+Most notable among Kannada scholars were Ranna , grammarian Nagavarma II , minister Durgasimha and the Virashaiva saint and social reformer Basavanna . Ranna who was patronised by king Tailapa II and Satyashraya is one among the " three gems of Kannada literature " . He was bestowed the title " Emperor among poets " ( Kavi Chakravathi ) by King Tailapa II and has five major works to his credit . Of these , Saahasabheema Vijayam ( or Gada yuddha ) of 982 in Champu style is a eulogy of his patron King Satyashraya whom he compares to Bhima in valour and achievements and narrates the duel between Bhima and Duryodhana using clubs on the eighteenth day of the Mahabharata war . He wrote Ajitha purana in 993 describing the life of the second Tirthankara , Ajitanatha .
+
+Nagavarma II , poet laureate ( Katakacharya ) of King Jagadhekamalla II made contributions to Kannada literature in various subjects . His works in poetry , prosody , grammar and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged . Kavyavalokana in poetics , Karnataka @-@ Bhashabhushana on grammar and Vastukosa a lexicon ( with Kannada equivalents for Sanskrit words ) are some of his comprehensive contributions . Several works on medicine were produced during this period . Notable among them were Jagaddala Somanatha 's Karnataka Kalyana Karaka .
+
+A unique and native form of poetic literature in Kannada called Vachanas developed during this time . They were written by mystics , who expressed their devotion to God in simple poems that could appeal to the masses . Basavanna , Akka Mahadevi , Allama Prabhu , Channabasavanna and Siddharama are the best known among them .
+
+In Sanskrit , a well @-@ known poem ( Mahakavya ) in 18 cantos called Vikramankadeva Charita by Kashmiri poet Bilhana recounts in epic style the life and achievements of his patron king Vikramaditya VI . The work narrates the episode of Vikramaditya VI 's accession to the Chalukya throne after overthrowing his elder brother Someshvara II . The great Indian mathematician Bhāskara II ( born c.1114 ) flourished during this time . From his own account in his famous work Siddhanta Siromani ( c . 1150 , comprising the Lilavati , Bijaganita on algebra , Goladhaya on the celestial globe and Grahaganita on planets ) Bijjada Bida ( modern Bijapur ) was his native place .
+
+Manasollasa or Abhilashitartha Chintamani by king Someshvara III ( 1129 ) was a Sanskrit work intended for all sections of society . This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including medicine , magic , veterinary science , valuing of precious stones and pearls , fortifications , painting , music , games , amusements etc . While the book does not give any of dealt topics particular hierarchy of importance , it serves as a landmark in understanding the state of knowledge in those subjects at that time . Someshwara III also authored a biography of his famous father Vikramaditya VI called Vikraman @-@ Kabhyudaya . The text is a historical prose narrative which also includes a graphic description of the geography and people of Karnataka .
+
+A Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara became famous in the field of legal literature for his Mitakshara , in the court of Vikramaditya VI . Perhaps the most acknowledged work in that field , Mitakshara is a treatise on law ( commentary on Yajnavalkya ) based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of modern India . An Englishman Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance giving it currency in the British Indian court system . Some important literary works of the time related to music and musical instruments were Sangita Chudamani , Sangita Samayasara and Sangita Ratnakara .
+
+= = = Architecture = = =
+
+The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture . The architecture designed during this time served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya Architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century . The art of the Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the " Gadag style " after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra River @-@ Krishna River doab region of present @-@ day Gadag district in Karnataka . The dynasty 's temple building activity reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century with over a hundred temples built across the Deccan , more than half of them in present @-@ day central Karnataka . Apart from temples , the dynasty 's architecture is well known for the ornate stepped wells ( Pushkarni ) which served as ritual bathing places , a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi . These stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries .
+
+The Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi ( Gadag district ) , the Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal ( Gadag district ) , the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti ( Bellary district ) , the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali ( Davangere district ) , the Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri ( Haveri district ) , the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri ( Dharwad district ) , the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi ( Koppal district ) , the Kaitabheshvara Temple at Kubatur , and the Kedareshvara Temple at Balligavi are the finest examples produced by the later Chalukya architects . The 12th @-@ century Mahadeva Temple with its well executed sculptures is an exquisite example of decorative detail . The intricate , finely crafted carvings on walls , pillars and towers speak volumes about Chalukya taste and culture . An inscription outside the temple calls it " Emperor of Temples " ( devalaya chakravarti ) and relates that it was built by Mahadeva , a commander in the army of king Vikramaditya VI . The Kedareswara Temple ( 1060 ) at Balligavi is an example of a transitional Chalukya @-@ Hoysala architectural style . The Western Chalukyas built temples in Badami and Aihole during their early phase of temple building activity , such as Mallikarjuna Temple , the Yellamma Temple and the Bhutanatha group of Temples .
+
+The vimana of their temples ( tower over the shrine ) is a compromise in detail between the plain stepped style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative finish of the Hoysalas . To the credit of the Western Chalukya architects is the development of the lathe turned ( tuned ) pillars and use of Soapstone ( Chloritic Schist ) as basic building and sculptural material , a very popular idiom in later Hoysala temples . They popularised the use of decorative Kirtimukha ( demon faces ) in their sculptures . Famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom included Chalukyan architects who were natives of places such as Balligavi . The artistic wall decor and the general sculptural idiom was dravidian architecture . This style is sometimes called Karnata dravida , one of the notable traditions in Indian architecture .
+
+= = = Language = = =
+
+The local language Kannada was mostly used in Western ( Kalyani ) Chalukya inscriptions and epigraphs . Some historians assert that ninety percent of their inscriptions are in the Kannada language while the remaining are in Sanskrit language . More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to Vikramaditya VI than any other king prior to the 12th century , many of which have been deciphered and translated by historians of the Archaeological Survey of India . Inscriptions were generally either on stone ( Shilashasana ) or copper plates ( Tamarashasana ) . This period saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature and poetry , impetus to which came from the devotional movement of the Virashaivas ( called Lingayatism ) who expressed their closeness to their deity in the form of simple lyrics called Vachanas . At an administrative level , the regional language was used to record locations and rights related to land grants . When bilingual inscriptions were written , the section stating the title , genealogy , origin myths of the king and benedictions were generally done in Sanskrit . Kannada was used to state terms of the grants , including information on the land , its boundaries , the participation of local authorities , rights and obligations of the grantee , taxes and dues , and witnesses . This ensured the content was clearly understood by the local people without any ambiguity .
+
+In addition to inscriptions , chronicles called Vamshavalis were written to provide historical details of dynasties . Writings in Sanskrit included poetry , grammar , lexicon , manuals , rhetoric , commentaries on older works , prose fiction and drama . In Kannada , writings on secular subjects became popular . Some well known works are Chandombudhi , a prosody , and Karnataka Kadambari , a romance , both written by Nagavarma I , a lexicon called Rannakanda by Ranna ( 993 ) , a book on medicine called Karnataka @-@ Kalyanakaraka by Jagaddala Somanatha , the earliest writing on astrology called Jatakatilaka by Sridharacharya ( 1049 ) , a writing on erotics called Madanakatilaka by Chandraraja , and an encyclopedia called Lokapakara by Chavundaraya II ( 1025 ) .
+
+= Worlds Apart ( Fringe ) =
+
+" Worlds Apart " is the twentieth episode of the fourth season of the Fox science @-@ fiction drama television series Fringe , and the series ' 85th episode overall . It was co @-@ written by series story editor Matt Pitts and DC Comics ' Nicole Phillips based on a story by co @-@ producer Graham Roland . Charles Beeson served as director .
+
+The series depicts members of a Federal Bureau of Investigation " Fringe Division " team based in Boston , Massachusetts as they investigate a series of unexplained , often ghastly occurrences , which are related to mysteries surrounding a parallel universe . In this episode , David Robert Jones ( Jared Harris ) employs former Cortexiphan subjects to create simultaneous earthquakes across the globe , leading Dr. Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) to hypothesize that the end of both the prime and parallel universes is imminent . The two worlds must decide whether to close the bridge that was repairing the parallel universe , or they may all face destruction .
+
+" Worlds Apart " first aired on April 27 , 2012 in the United States . The episode featured the return of David Call and Pascale Hutton , two guest actors not seen since the second season finale . It aired in the wake of the official renewal of a fifth season for the series . An estimated 3 @.@ 1 million viewers watched the episode , a small increase from the previous episode . Critical reception was generally positive , as many highlighted the performances as well as the scene between the two Walters .
+
+= = Plot = =
+
+Several earthquakes strike simultaneously across the globe , at the same time and locations in both the prime and parallel universe . The combined Fringe teams agree that David Robert Jones is behind it , the quakes the result of stresses of bringing the two universes into synchronization so that he can collapse both of them . The teams also conclude that Jones has found a means , through the previous " experiment " in Westfield , Vermont ( " Welcome to Westfield " ) , to ride out the destruction of both universes . The idea of shutting down the bridge created by the Machine is brought up , believing that the bridge is enabling Jones ' plan . However , this is considered a last resort , as destroying the bridge will affect the healing of the singularities in the parallel universe .
+
+When a second simultaneous set of earthquakes occur , the parallel universe 's version of Nick Lane ( David Call ) approaches Agent Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) of the prime universe , believing him to be the parallel universe 's version of Lee . Lee feigns familiarity , learning that Nick had visions of being at the epicenter of the quake before it began . When Lee reports this to Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) in the prime universe , she suddenly recalls her Cortexiphan trials including fellow subject Nick Lane , and with the team 's help , identifies that other Cortexiphan subjects are the epicenter of these quakes , linking to their parallel universe versions to achieve synchronization .
+
+Believing that by taking in one of the Cortexiphan subjects they can stop the effects of another quake , a willing Lane from the parallel universe travels to the prime and is hooked to Walter 's ( John Noble ) equipment . Olivia also hooks herself up , allowing her to communicate what she sees in Lane 's mind . When the prime version of Lane attempts to get into the right position , Olivia is able to identify his location , and he is captured in time . However , despite disrupting the process for Lane , earthquakes continue across the world . Walter estimates that the next set of quakes will cause both universes to collapse .
+
+The captured Lane expresses his belief that Jones is helping the prime universe to defeat the parallel one . Olivia tries to convince him of Jones ' true intentions . Eventually , Lane agrees to show the Fringe team a location where he once met with Jones . The team raids the site but finds nothing ; meanwhile , Lane escapes custody using his abilities . With only hours left until the next set of quakes , as projected by a watch that Lane was wearing , plans are made to shut down the bridge before this time runs out .
+
+Walter and Walternate ( Noble ) start the Machine equipment to overload , which will take several minutes , after which they can pull the power and deactivate the Machine . Lee states to Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) that he will be staying in the parallel universe , where he feels at home , reflecting a previous conversation Peter had with Lee about staying with Olivia in the prime universe . Walter and Walternate have a heartfelt discussion over Peter , and Walter expresses concern that if the bridge disappears , so will Peter . The other Fringe members say their goodbyes to their counterparts . Eventually , the Machine is overloaded and deactivated , and the parallel universe aspects of the room disappear ; Walter is pleased to see Peter remains .
+
+= = Production = =
+
+Fringe story editor Matt Pitts and DC Comics ' Nicole Phillips co @-@ wrote the teleplay , based on a story by co @-@ producer Graham Roland . English director Charles Beeson , known for his work on the science fiction television series Supernatural and Terminator : The Sarah Connor Chronicles , directed " Worlds Apart " , his second episode of the season ( the other being " Making Angels " ) .
+
+In an on @-@ set interview with The Huffington Post , actor John Noble explained that the episode 's primary storyline concerned the bridge between the two worlds . The third season finale , he explained , ended with the two universes healing themselves with the help of a " bridge " . He remarked , " What happens if that bridge now begins to be used as a conduit for evil ? That ’ s the issue we ’ re facing . What do you do ? What do you do with this wonderful discovery ? Do you keep it ? What do you lose if you lose it ? For example , if we didn ’ t have that [ link ] , we ... wouldn ’ t have all these wonderful characters that we ’ ve grown to love . What would happen ? I think we have to face that issue . We have to face the issue of ' How long can you keep this alive , this link between interlacing the two universes ? ' "
+
+Guest stars David Call and Pascale Hutton reprised their characters Nick Lane and Sally Clark , respectively . Both actors had last appeared in the second season finale " Over There " . Lead actress Anna Torv was pleased with their return , explaining , " A few faces from the past pop up , which is always fun . "
+
+The reappearance of Nick Lane and his storyline helped resolve an earlier plot point from " Over There , " in which he was recognized by Fringe agent Lincoln Lee before dying . Noble noted that " Worlds Apart ' and the rest of the fourth season brought back a number of characters from the series ' " rich history " , including Sally , Nick , and David Robert Jones . " This episode , " he commented , " is bringing those things back together for us as we face the decision of what to do . Do we keep the worlds together ? How do we keep them together without creating the monster that is happening ? How do we stop this monster from happening ? That ’ s what this is all about . "
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+= = = Ratings = = =
+
+" Worlds Apart " was first broadcast on the day following the announcement of the renewal of Fringe for a final shortened fifth season . The episode saw a small increase in viewership from the previous week , with an estimated 3 @.@ 09 million viewers . In the adult demographic , the episode received a 1 @.@ 0 / 3 ratings share , which means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 0 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds with television sets , and 3 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . Fringe finished in fourth place among both total viewers and adults , behind episodes of CSI : New York , Grimm , and Primetime : What Would You Do ? .
+
+= = = Reviews = = =
+
+" Worlds Apart " received generally positive reviews from television critics . Entertainment Weekly writer Jeff Jensen noted that with the closing of the bridge , " Fringe effectively pulled the plug on the creative idea that defined the best years of the show . [ ... ] I don 't think we can understate the passing of the parallel world premise . " While he said he would miss the lost characters , especially Fauxlivia , the series " got the emotions [ of their departure ] just right . " He added his hope that the characters would be revisited . In an interview , Pinckner said that they had spoken to Fox executives about closing off the bridge , to which one executive partner reportedly said , " I was so sad . I had tears in my eyes when we closed the door " . The executive added that despite having initially thought the idea of doppelganger characters as a poor one , she admitted that she " was so wrong " .
+
+Jensen went on to praise Walter and Walternate 's conversation as " devastatingly perfect , " commenting " Just the very action of sitting , of Walternate choosing to literally to meet Walter at his lowest moment , was extraordinarily moving . " Dave Bradley of SFX magazine highlighted the episode 's acting as one particular positive element , praising Torv and Noble for " delivering perfect double performances . " Bradley also praised the scenes between the two Walters and two Astrids , writing that the " moments of connection make the decision to split the universes apart incredibly poignant . " Los Angeles Times writer Andrew Hanson also praised the Walter @-@ Walternate scenes , explaining that after their seated conversation " you almost forget the two characters are played by the same actor . If this isn ’ t the year that John Noble gets recognition for his performances in Fringe , it will be a crime . "
+
+The A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode with an A , describing " Worlds Apart " as an " exciting , emotional episode " that " seems to resolve some of this season ’ s storylines while setting up the upcoming two @-@ part season finale . " His favorite part of the episode was when the two teams worked together ; he gave particular attention to the Walter @-@ Walternate talk , remarking , " The last scene between the two Walters is something that I ’ ve been waiting to see for years now , and John Noble nails both sides of the conversation . It ’ s now one of the whole series ’ signature moments : Walter and Walternate , side @-@ by @-@ side . " Other critics also lauded the conversation between Walter and Walternate over Peter .
+
+In a 2013 list , Den of Geek ranked " Worlds Apart " as the seventh best episode of the entire series , explaining that it " perhaps [ is ] a little rushed , but overall this is a satisfying conclusion to a number of major plot threads . Airing directly after " Letters of Transit " , the closing off of a number of dangling stories and characters in this episode allowed the remaining two episodes of season four and all of season five to deal with matters closer to home , and tie up the show ’ s most important remaining mystery , the Observers . "
+
+= Pinoy =
+
+Pinoy ( / ˈpinɔɪ / ) is an informal demonym referring to the Filipino people in the Philippines and their culture as well as to overseas Filipinos in the Filipino diaspora .
+
+An unspecified number of Filipinos refer to themselves as Pinoy or sometimes the feminine Pinay . The word is formed by taking the last four letters of Filipino and adding the diminutive suffix -y in the Tagalog language ( the suffix is commonly used in Filipino nicknames : e.g. " Ninoy " or " Noynoy " for Benigno Jr. and III respectively ] , " Totoy " for Augusto , etc . ) . Pinoy was used for self @-@ identification by the first wave of Filipinos going to the continental United States before World War II and has been used both in a pejorative sense and as a term of endearment , similar to Chicano . Although Pinoy and Pinay are regarded as derogatory by some younger Filipino @-@ Americans , the terms have been widely used and have recently gained mainstream usage particularly among members of the Filipino masses and the Filipino @-@ American sector .
+
+Pinoy was created to differentiate the experiences of those immigrating to the United States but is now a slang term used to refer to all people of Filipino descent . " Pinoy music " impacted the socio @-@ political climate of the 1970s and was employed by both Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos and the People Power Revolution that overthrew his regime . Recent mainstream usages tend to center on entertainment ( Pinoy Big Brother ) and music ( Pinoy Idol ) , which have played a significant role in developing national and cultural identity . As of 2016 , the term has been extensively used by the government of the Philippines itself with apparently no derogatory connotations . It is now more positive than the slang term " flip " .
+
+= = Origins = =
+
+According to Filipino American historian Dawn Mabalon , the earliest appearance of the terms " Pinoy " and " Pinay " was in a 1926 issue of the Filipino Student Bulletin . The article that featured the terms is titled " Filipino Women in U.S. Excel in Their Courses : Invade Business , Politics . "
+
+= = = Motivations = = =
+
+The desire to self @-@ identify can likely be attributed to the diverse and independent history of the archipelagic country - comprising 7 @,@ 107 islands in the western Pacific Ocean - which trace back 30 @,@ 000 years before becoming a Spanish colony in the 16th century and later occupied by the United States , which led to the outbreak of the Philippine – American War ( 1899 – 1902 ) . The Commonwealth of the Philippines was established in 1935 with the country gaining its independence in 1946 after hostilities in the Pacific Theatre of the Second World War had ended . The Philippines have over 170 languages indigenous to the area , most of which belong to the Malayo @-@ Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family . In 1939 , then @-@ president Manuel L. Quezon renamed the Tagalog language as the Wikang Pambansa ( " national language " ) . The language was further renamed in 1959 as Filipino by Secretary of Education Jose Romero . The 1973 constitution declared the Filipino language to be co @-@ official , along with English , and mandated the development of a national language to be known as Filipino . Since then , the two official languages are Filipino and English .
+
+As of 2003 there are more than eleven million overseas Filipinos worldwide , equivalent to about 11 % of the total population of the Philippines .
+
+= = Earliest usages = =
+
+The earliest known usages of Pinoy / Pinay in magazines and newspapers date to the 1920s include taking on social issues facing Pinoy , casual mentions of Pinoys at events , while some are advertisements from Hawaii from Filipinos themselves . The following are the more notable earliest usages :
+
+= = = United States = = =
+
+In the United States , the earliest published usage known is a Philippine Republic article written in January 1924 by Dr. J. Juliano , a member of the faculty of the Schurz school in Chicago - " Why does a Pinoy take it as an insult to be taken for a Shintoist or a Confucian ? " and " What should a Pinoy do if he is addressed as a Chinese or a Jap ? "
+
+= = = Philippines = = =
+
+In the Philippines , the earliest published usage known is from December 1926 , in History of the Philippine Press , which briefly mentions a weekly Spanish @-@ Visayan @-@ English publication called Pinoy based in Capiz and published by the Pinoy Publishing Company . In 1930 , the Manila @-@ based magazine Khaki and Red : The Official Organ of the Constabulary and Police printed an article about street gangs stating " another is the ' Kapatiran ' gang of Intramuros , composed of patrons of pools rooms who banded together to ' protect pinoys ' from the abusive American soldados . "
+
+= = = Notable literature = = =
+
+Pinoy is first used by Filipino poet Carlos Bulosan , in his 1946 semi @-@ autobiography , America Is in the Heart - " The Pinoys work every day in the fields but when the season is over their money is in the Chinese vaults . " The book describes his childhood in the Philippines , his voyage to America , and his years as an itinerant laborer following the harvest trail in the rural West . It has been used in American Ethnic courses to illustrate the racism experienced by thousands of Filipino laborers during the 1930s and 40s in the United States .
+
+= = Pinoy music = =
+
+In the early 1970s , Pinoy music or " Pinoy pop " emerged , often sung in Tagalog - it was a mix of rock , folk and ballads - marking a political use of music similar to early hip hop but transcending class . The music was a " conscious attempt to create a Filipino national and popular culture " and it often reflected social realities and problems . As early as 1973 , the Juan De la Cruz Band was performing " Ang Himig Natin " ( " Our Music " ) , which is widely regarded as the first example of Pinoy rock . " Pinoy " gained popular currency in the late 1970s in the Philippines when a surge in patriotism made a hit song of Filipino folk singer Heber Bartolome 's " Tayo 'y mga Pinoy " ( " We are Pinoys " ) . This trend was followed by Filipino rapper Francis Magalona 's " Mga Kababayan Ko " ( " My Countrymen " ) in the 1990s and Filipino rock band Bamboo 's " Noypi " ( " Pinoy " in reversed syllables ) in the 2000s . Nowadays , " Pinoy " is used as an adjective to some terms highlighting their relationship to the Philippines or Filipinos . Pinoy rock was soon followed by Pinoy folk and later , Pinoy jazz . Although the music was often used to express opposition to then Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos and his use of martial law and the creating of the Batasang Bayan , many of the songs were more subversive and some just instilled national pride . Perhaps because of the cultural affirming nature and many of the songs seemingly being non @-@ threatening , the Marcos administration ordered radio stations to play at least one - and later , three - Pinoy songs each hour . Pinoy music was greatly employed both by Marcos and political forces who sought to overthrow him .
+
+= California condor =
+
+The California condor ( Gymnogyps californianus ) is a New World vulture , the largest North American land bird . This condor became extinct in the wild in 1987 ( all remaining wild individuals were captured ) , but the species has been reintroduced to northern Arizona and southern Utah ( including the Grand Canyon area and Zion National Park ) , the coastal mountains of central and southern California , and northern Baja California . Although other fossil members are known , it is the only surviving member of the genus Gymnogyps . The species is listed as critically endangered by the IUCN .
+
+The plumage is black with patches of white on the underside of the wings ; the head is largely bald , with skin color ranging from gray on young birds to yellow and bright orange on breeding adults . Its huge 3 @.@ 0 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wingspan is the widest of any North American bird , and its weight of up to 12 kg ( 26 lb ) nearly equals that of the trumpeter swan , the heaviest among native North American bird species . The condor is a scavenger and eats large amounts of carrion . It is one of the world 's longest @-@ living birds , with a lifespan of up to 60 years .
+
+Condor numbers dramatically declined in the 20th century due to poaching , lead poisoning , and habitat destruction . A conservation plan was put in place by the United States government that led to the capture of all the remaining wild condors which was completed in 1987 , with a total population of 27 individuals . These surviving birds were bred at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park and the Los Angeles Zoo . Numbers rose through captive breeding and , beginning in 1991 , condors were reintroduced into the wild . The California condor is one of the world 's rarest bird species : as of October 2014 there are 425 condors living wild or in captivity . The condor is a significant bird to many Californian Native American groups and plays an important role in several of their traditional myths .
+
+= = Taxonomy = =
+
+The California condor was described by English naturalist George Shaw in 1797 as Vultur californianus . It was originally classified in the same genus as the Andean condor ( V. gryphus ) , but , due to the Andean condor 's slightly different markings , slightly longer wings , and tendency to kill small animals to eat , the California condor has now been placed in its own monotypic genus . The generic name Gymnogyps is derived from the Greek gymnos / γυμνος " naked " or " bare " , and gyps / γυψ " vulture " , while the specific name californianus comes from its location in California . The word condor itself is derived from the Quechua word kuntur .
+
+The exact taxonomic placement of the California condor and the other six species of New World vultures remains unclear . Though similar in appearance and ecological roles to Old World vultures , the New World vultures evolved from a different ancestor in a different part of the world . Just how different the two are is currently under debate , with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World vultures are more closely related to storks . More recent authorities maintain their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures or place them in their own order , Cathartiformes . The South American Classification Committee has removed the New World vultures from Ciconiiformes and instead placed them in Incertae sedis , but notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is possible .
+
+= = = Evolutionary history = = =
+
+The genus Gymnogyps is an example of a relict distribution . During the Pleistocene epoch , this genus was widespread across the Americas . From fossils , the Floridan Gymnogyps kofordi from the Early Pleistocene and the Peruvian Gymnogyps howardae from the Late Pleistocene have been described . A condor found in Late Pleistocene deposits on Cuba was initially described as Antillovultur varonai , but has since been recognized as another member of Gymnogyps , Gymnogyps varonai . It may even have derived from a founder population of California condors .
+
+Today 's California condor is the sole surviving member of Gymnogyps and has no accepted subspecies . However , there is a Late Pleistocene form that is sometimes regarded as a palaeosubspecies , Gymnogyps californianus amplus . Current opinions are mixed regarding the classification of the form as a chronospecies or a separate species Gymnogyps amplus . Gymnogyps amplus occurred over much of the bird 's historical range – even extending into Florida – but was larger , having about the same weight as the Andean condor . This bird also had a wider bill . As the climate changed during the last ice age , the entire population became smaller until it had evolved into the Gymnogyps californianus of today , although more recent studies by Syverson query that theory .
+
+= = Description = =
+
+The adult California condor is a uniform black with the exception of large triangular patches or bands of white on the underside of the wings . It has gray legs and feet , an ivory @-@ colored bill , a frill of black feathers surrounding the base of the neck , and brownish red eyes . The juvenile is mostly a mottled dark brown with blackish coloration on the head . It has mottled gray instead of white on the underside of its flight feathers .
+
+The condor 's head and neck have few feathers , and the skin of the head and neck is capable of flushing noticeably in response to emotional state , a capability that can serve as communication between individuals . The skin color varies from yellowish to a glowing reddish @-@ orange . The birds do not have true syringeal vocalizations . They can make a few hissing or grunting sounds only heard when very close .
+
+Contrary to the usual rule among true birds of prey , the female is slightly smaller than the male . Overall length can range from 109 to 140 cm ( 43 to 55 in ) and wingspan from 2 @.@ 49 to 3 m ( 8 @.@ 2 to 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Their weight can range from 7 to 14 @.@ 1 kg ( 15 to 31 lb ) , with estimations of average weight ranging from 8 to 9 kg ( 18 to 20 lb ) . Wingspans of up to 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) have been reported but no wingspan over 3 @.@ 05 m ( 10 @.@ 0 ft ) has been verified . Most measurements are from birds raised in captivity , so determining if there are any major differences in measurements between wild and captive condors is difficult .
+
+California condors have the largest wingspan of any North American bird . They are surpassed in both body length and weight only by the trumpeter swan and the introduced mute swan . The American white pelican and whooping crane also have longer bodies than the condor . Condors are so large that they can be mistaken for a small , distant airplane , which possibly occurs more often than they are mistaken for other species of bird .
+
+The middle toe of the California condor 's foot is greatly elongated , and the hind one is only slightly developed . The talons of all the toes are straight and blunt , and are thus more adapted to walking than gripping . This is more similar to their supposed relatives the storks than to birds of prey and Old World vultures , which use their feet as weapons or organs of prehension .
+
+= = Historic range = =
+
+At the time of human settlement of the Americas , the California condor was widespread across North America ; condor bones from the late Pleistocene have been found at the Cutler Fossil Site in southern Florida . However , climate changes associated with the end of the last glacial period and the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna led to a subsequent reduction in range and population . Five hundred years ago , the California condor roamed across the American Southwest and West Coast . Faunal remains of condors have been found documented in Arizona , Nevada , New Mexico , and Texas . The Lewis and Clark Expedition of the early 19th century reported on their sighting and shooting of California condors near the mouth of the Columbia River .
+
+= = Habitat = =
+
+The condors live in rocky shrubland , coniferous forests , and oak savannas . They are often found near cliffs or large trees , which they use as nesting sites . Individual birds have a huge range and have been known to travel up to 250 km ( 160 mi ) in search of carrion .
+
+There are two sanctuaries dedicated to this bird , the Sisquoc Condor Sanctuary in the San Rafael Wilderness and the Sespe Condor Sanctuary in the Los Padres National Forest . These areas were chosen because of their prime condor nesting habitat .
+
+= = Ecology and behavior = =
+
+When in flight , the movements of the condor are remarkably graceful . The lack of a large sternum to anchor their correspondingly large flight muscles restricts them to being primarily soarers . The birds flap their wings when taking off from the ground , but after attaining a moderate elevation they largely glide , sometimes going for miles without a single flap of their wings . They have been known to fly up to speeds of 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) and as high as 4 @,@ 600 m ( 15 @,@ 100 ft ) . They prefer to roost on high perches from which they can launch without any major wing @-@ flapping effort . Often , these birds are seen soaring near rock cliffs , using thermals to aid them in keeping aloft .
+
+The California condor has a long life span , reaching up to 60 years . If it survives to adulthood , the condor has few natural threats other than humans . Because they lack a syrinx , their vocal display is limited to grunts and hisses . Condors bathe frequently and can spend hours a day preening their feathers . Condors also perform urohidrosis , or defecate on their legs , to reduce their body temperature . There is a well @-@ developed social structure within large groups of condors , with competition to determine a pecking order decided by body language , competitive play behavior , and a variety of hisses and grunts . This social hierarchy is displayed especially when the birds feed , with the dominant birds eating before the younger ones .
+
+= = = Diet = = =
+
+Wild condors maintain a large home range , often traveling 250 km ( 160 mi ) a day in search of carrion . It is thought that in the early days of its existence as a species , the California condor lived off the carcasses of the " megafauna " , which are now extinct in North America . They still prefer to feast on large , terrestrial mammalian carcasses such as deer , goats , sheep , donkeys , horses , pigs , cougars , bears , or cattle . Alternatively , they may feed on the bodies of smaller mammals , such as rabbits or coyotes , aquatic mammals such as whales and California sea lions , or salmon . Bird and reptile carcasses are rarely eaten . Since they do not have a sense of smell , they spot these corpses by looking for other scavengers , like eagles and smaller vultures , the latter of which cannot rip through the tougher hides of these larger animals with the efficiency of the larger condor . They can usually intimidate other scavengers away from the carcass , with the exception of bears , which will ignore them , and golden eagles , which will fight a condor over a kill or a carcass . In the wild they are intermittent eaters , often going for between a few days to two weeks without eating , then gorging themselves on 1 – 1 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 2 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 3 lb ) of meat at once .
+
+= = = Reproduction = = =
+
+Condors begin to look for a mate when they reach sexual maturity at the age of six . To attract a prospective mate , the male condor performs a display , in which the male turns his head red and puffs out his neck feathers . He then spreads his wings and slowly approaches the female . If the female lowers her head to accept the male , the condors become mates for life . The pair makes a simple nest in caves or on cliff clefts , especially ones with nearby roosting trees and open spaces for landing . A mated female lays one bluish @-@ white egg every other year . Eggs are laid as early as January to as late as April . The egg weighs about 280 grams ( 10 oz ) and measures from 90 to 120 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) in length and about 67 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) in width . If the chick or egg is lost or removed , the parents " double clutch " , or lay another egg to take the lost one 's place . Researchers and breeders take advantage of this behavior to double the reproductive rate by taking the first egg away for puppet @-@ rearing ; this induces the parents to lay a second egg , which the condors are sometimes allowed to raise .
+
+The eggs hatch after 53 to 60 days of incubation by both parents . Chicks are born with their eyes open and sometimes can take up to a week to leave the shell completely . The young are covered with a grayish down until they are almost as large as their parents . They are able to fly after five to six months , but continue to roost and forage with their parents until they are in their second year , at which point the parents typically turn their energies to a new nest . Ravens are the main predatory threat to condor eggs , while golden eagles and bears are potential predators of condor offspring .
+
+= = Conservation = =
+
+= = = Obstacles to recovery = = =
+
+In modern times , a wide variety of causes have contributed to the condor 's decline . Its low clutch size ( one young per nest ) , combined with a late age of sexual maturity , make the bird vulnerable to artificial population decline . Significant past damage to the condor population has also been attributed to poaching , especially for museum specimens , lead poisoning ( from eating animals containing lead shot ) , DDT poisoning , electric power lines , egg collecting , and habitat destruction . During the California Gold Rush , some condors were even kept as pets . The leading cause of mortality in nestling condors is the ingestion of trash that is fed to them by their parents .
+
+In addition to this , cattle ranchers who observed condors feeding on the dead young of their cattle assumed that the birds killed the cattle . This fallacy led to the condor 's extirpation in some parts of the western United States . This belief was so deeply ingrained that the reintroduction of condors to the Grand Canyon was challenged by some cattle ranchers , who mistakenly believed that the bird hunted calves and lambs .
+
+Unanticipated deaths among recent condor populations occurred due to contact with golden eagles , lead poisoning , and other factors such as power line collisions . Since 1994 , captive @-@ bred California condors have been trained to avoid power lines and people . Since the implementation of this aversion conditioning program , the number of condor deaths due to power lines has greatly decreased . Lead poisoning due to fragmented lead bullets in large game waste is a particularly big problem for condors due to their extremely strong digestive juices ; lead waste is not as much of a problem for other avian scavengers such as the turkey vulture and common raven . This problem has been addressed in California by the Ridley @-@ Tree Condor Preservation Act , a bill that went into effect July 1 , 2008 that requires that hunters use non @-@ lead bullets when hunting in the condor 's range . Blood lead levels in golden eagles as well as turkey vultures has declined with the implementation of the Ridley @-@ Tree Condor Preservation Act , demonstrating that the legislation has helped reduce other species ' lead exposures aside from the California condor .
+
+In an article titled : " Condors or lead ammunition ? We can 't have both " published by The Ecologist in January 2015 , author Dawn Starin states : " Over 60 % of the adult and juvenile deaths ( that is , excluding chicks and fledglings ) in the wild population have been as a result of lead poisoning . " She continues : " Because condors have been known to live past the age of 50 , do not breed until they are at least six years old , and raise only one chick every other year , their populations cannot withstand the mortality rates caused by this neurological toxin . " According to epidemiologist Terra Kelly : " Until all natural food sources are free from lead @-@ based ammunition , lead poisoning will threaten recovery of naturally sustaining populations of condors in the wild . " The article also states : " The military doesn 't use lead , and if that isn 't a huge message I don 't know what is . " However , this statement must be taken in the context that the military has limited the use of lead ammunition at installations in the condor 's range , not service wide .
+
+= = = California Condor Recovery Plan = = =
+
+As the condor 's population continued to decline , discussion began about starting a captive breeding program for the birds . Opponents to this plan argued that the condors had the right to freedom , that capturing all of the condors would change the species ' habits forever , and that the cost was too great . However , the project received the approval of the United States government , and the capture of the remaining wild condors was completed on Easter Sunday 1987 , when AC @-@ 9 , the last wild condor , was captured . At that point , there were only 22 condors in existence , all in captivity .
+
+The goal of the California Condor Recovery Plan was to establish two geographically separate populations , one in California and the other in Arizona , each with 150 birds and at least 15 breeding pairs . As the Recovery Program works toward this goal the number of release sites has grown . There are three active release sites in California , one in Arizona and one in Baja California , Mexico .
+
+The captive breeding program , led by the San Diego Wild Animal Park and Los Angeles Zoo , and with other participating zoos around the country , including the Oklahoma City Zoo and Botanical Garden , got off to a slow start due to the condor 's mating habits . However , utilizing the bird 's ability to double clutch , biologists began removing the first egg from the nest and raising it with puppets , allowing the parents to lay another egg .
+
+As the number of condors grew , attention began to focus on releasing some back into the wild . In 1988 , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service began a reintroduction experiment involving the release of captive Andean condors into the wild in California . Only females were released , to eliminate the possibility of accidentally introducing a South American species into the United States . The experiment was a success , and all the Andean condors were recaptured and re @-@ released in South America . California condors were released in 1991 and 1992 in California , and again in 1996 in Arizona near the Grand Canyon . Though the birth rate remains low in the wild , their numbers are increasing steadily through regular releases of captive @-@ reared adolescents .
+
+The California condor conservation project may be one of the most expensive species conservation projects in United States history , costing over $ 35 million , including $ 20 million in federal and state funding , since World War II . As of 2007 the annual cost for the condor conservation program was around $ 2 @.@ 0 million per year . However , nesting milestones have been recently reached by the reintroduced condors . In 2003 , the first nestling fledged in the wild since 1981 . In March 2006 , a pair of California condors , released by Ventana Wildlife Society , attempted to nest in a hollow tree near Big Sur , California . This was the first time in more than 100 years in which a pair of California condors had been seen nesting in Northern California . As of November 2011 there were 394 individuals living , including 205 in the wild and the rest in the San Diego Wild Animal Park , the Los Angeles Zoo , the Oregon Zoo , and the World Center for Birds of Prey in Boise , Idaho . As of October 2010 , the wild condor population in its name state of California reached 100 individuals , and 73 wild condors in Arizona . As of May 2012 , the number of living individuals has reached 405 , with 179 living in captivity . By June 2014 , using data from the National Park Service , the condor population had reached 439 : 225 in the wild and 214 in captivity . Official statistics from the October 2014 USFWS record an overall population of 425 , of which 219 are wild and 206 are captive .
+
+As the Recovery Program achieved milestones , a fifth active release site in Sierra de San Pedro Mártir National Park , Baja California , Mexico , was added to the three release sites in California ( Big Sur , Pinnacles National Park and Bitter Creek National Wildlife Refuge ) and the Vermilion Cliffs release site in Arizona . In early 2007 , a California condor laid an egg in Mexico for the first time since at least the 1930s . The population of the condors has risen due to these wild and also captive nestings . In June , 2016 , three chicks that were born in Chapultepec Zoo in Mexico City , were flawn to Sierra de San Pedro Mártir National Park , Baja California , Mexico . In the spring of 2009 , a second wild chick was born in the Sierra de San Pedro Mártir National Park and was named Inyaa ( " Sun " in the Kiliwa language ) by local environmentalists . In 2014 , Condor # 597 , also known as " Lupine " , was spotted near Pescadero , a coastal community south of San Francisco . Lupine had been routinely seen at Pinnacles National Park after having been released into the wild at Big Sur the previous year . Younger birds of the Central California are seeking to expand their territory , which could mean that a new range expansion is possible for the more than 60 condors flying free in central California . Also in 2014 the first successful breeding in Utah was reported . A pair of condors , who were released in Arizona , nested in Zion National Park and the hatching of one chick was confirmed .
+
+= = = Condor Watch = = =
+
+A crowdsourcing project called Condor Watch ( CW ) was started on April 14 , 2014 , hosted by the web portal Zooniverse . Volunteers are asked to examine motion @-@ capture images of California condors associated with release sites managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service , National Park Service and Ventana Wildlife Society . The tasks on the website include identifying tagged condors and marking the distance to feeding sources such as animal carcasses . Biologists can then use this data to deduce which birds are at risk of lead poisoning .
+
+Condor Watch enables volunteers , or citizen scientists , to participate in active research . The project has up 175 @,@ 000 images to view and assess — far more than the team could hope to view on their own . Lead scientist Myra Finkelstein believes volunteering is fun because it allows enthusiasts to track the " biographies " of individual condors . Citizen science has long been used in ornithology , for instance in the Audubon Society 's Christmas Bird Count , which began in 1900 and the breeding bird survey which began in 1966 . McCaffrey ( 2005 ) believes this approach not only directly benefits ongoing projects , but will also help train aspiring ornithologists .
+
+= = Relationship with humans = =
+
+Throughout its historic range , the California condor has been a popular subject of mythology and an important symbol to Native Americans . Unusually , this bird takes on different roles in the storytelling of the different tribes .
+
+The Wiyot tribe of California say that the condor recreated mankind after Above Old Man wiped humanity out with a flood . However , other tribes , such as California 's Mono , viewed the condor as a destroyer , not a creator . They say that Condor seized humans , cut off their heads , and drained their blood so that it would flood Ground Squirrel 's home . Condor then seized Ground Squirrel after he fled , but Ground Squirrel managed to cut off Condor 's head when Condor paused to take a drink of the blood . According to the Yokut tribe , the condor sometimes ate the moon , causing the lunar cycle , and his wings caused eclipses . The Chumash tribe of Southern California believed that the condor was once a white bird , but it turned black when it flew too close to a fire .
+
+Condor bones have been found in Native American graves , as have condor feather headdresses . Cave paintings of condors have also been discovered . Some tribes ritually killed condors to make ceremonial clothing out of their feathers . Shamans then danced while wearing these to reach the upper and lower spiritual worlds . Whenever a shaman died , his clothes were said to be cursed , so new clothing had to be made for his successor . Some scientists , such as Noel Snyder , believe that this process of making ceremonial clothing contributed to the condor 's decline .
+
+= Spencer ( surname ) =
+
+Spencer ( also Spence , Spender , Spens , and Spenser ) is a surname . The origin can be traced directly to Robert d 'Abbetot , who is listed as Robert le Dispenser , a tenant @-@ in @-@ chief of several counties , in the Domesday Book of 1086 . Robert was possibly one of the Norman knights who fought alongside ( or accompanied ) William the Conqueror in the defeat of Harold II , King of England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 . There is little doubt that both Robert and his brother Urse came to England at about the time of the Battle of Hastings . They were both beneficiaries of William over the years , and were given titles and substantial land and property — suggesting repayment for some earlier deeds . It is likely that Robert 's first acknowledgment was his official appointment as Royal " Dispencier " sometimes expressed more grandly as " Royal Steward " , " King 's Steward " or " Lord Steward " . As dispenser of provisions to the King and his household Robert was known and recorded as Robert le Despencer or , in its Latinised form , Robertus Dispensator . There is also the possibility that Robert held this official position before arriving in England .
+
+Robert 's adopted surname was usually written as Despenser or Dispenser — notably in works such as the Domesday Book of 1086 and the Scottish Ragman Rolls of 1291 and 1296 . From 1066 until the 13th century the occupational name attributed to Robert d 'Abbetot existed with numerous spelling and other variations . Eventually both the " le " and " de " that frequently preceded the name were omitted . In 1392 the popular " s " in the centre of the name was discarded and replaced with the " c " seen in the present @-@ day form — Spencer .
+
+The surname Spencer has gained in popularity over time . In the 19th century it also become popular as a given name — especially in the more anglicised areas of the United States .
+
+= = Variations = =
+
+= = = English = = =
+
+In its transition from the French dispencier to its current form , the name Spencer has been presented and spelled in many ways — especially through the period of its early evolution in the medieval period from c.1100 to 1350 AD . The following ( in alphabetical order ) is a selection of the many orthographic variants :
+
+Despencer , de Expansa ( derived from expence ) , De Spencer , de Spendure , de Spens , de la Despense , De la Spence , de la Spense , del Spens , Despenser , DeSpenser , Dispencer , Dispenser , Despensator , Dispensator , la Spens , le Despencer , le Despendur , le Despencer , le Despenser , le dispencer , le Espencer , le Espenser , le Spencer , le Spendur , Spendure , le Spenser , le Spensier , Spence , Spences , Spen , Spender , Spens , Spensar , Spense , Spenser , Spensers , Spensor , Spincer , also the rare patronymic Spencers , and the aphetic ( derived ) Spender .
+
+Within a few generations the le ( " the " ) usually placed before Despenser was omitted . The name variant Spens first appears as Simon del Spens , dated 1300 , in the " Charters of Gisburn Priory " , Yorkshire , England , during the reign of Edward I. Spence , another form of Spens , means both " the place where provisions are kept " and the " clerk of the kitchen " . This form of the name was popular in both the north of England and in Scotland . In Fife the word referred to " a spare room beside the kitchen " , and in England to a " yard , enclosure or buttery " — simply an abbreviation of despencer referring to the household store . The principal Scottish family of Clan Spens descend from one of the ancient Earls of Fife . John " Dispensator or Le Dispenser " appeared in a list of the tenants and vassals of Walter fitz Alan High Steward of Scotland in the period 1161 – 1171 . Roger ' Dispensator ' witnessed a charter by Bricius de Douglas , the bishop of Moray granting the church of Deveth to Spynie between 1202 and 1222 . The family de Spens in Fife trace their ancestry back to 1170 and the " Baron de Spens d 'Estignols " , who settled in France in 1450 , and " the Count de Spens , who ranked among the first of the Swedish nobility and was generalissimo of the Swedish forces " . As a north country word for ' pantry ' , spence was used by Poet Laureate Alfred Lord Tennyson in the sense of a refectory : " Bluff Harry broke into the spence and turn 'd the cowls adrift " ( The Talking Oak , l.47. ) .
+
+The surnames Stewart and Stuart denote essentially the same occupation but have a completely different word derivation . They originate from the pre @-@ 7th @-@ century English words stigweard — a compound of stig meaning household — and weard , a guardian .
+
+= = = Other countries and cultures = = =
+
+Foreign Equivalents :
+
+German : Speiser – a steward . This is a derivative of the Middle High German spise , meaning food or supplies via the Old High German — in turn derived from Late Latin expe ( n ) sa ( pecunia ) , or " ( money ) expended " .
+
+Jewish ( Ashkenazic ) : Speiser – occupational name for a grocer , from a later semantic development of " Speiser " .
+
+Greek : Economos – the anglicised surname derived from the Greek oikonomou ( " oi " in Greek pronounced as a long E. ) Oikon ( English = ēcon ) means house in classical Greek . This surname has the same occupational derivation as Spencer but , like the surnames Stewart and Stuart , has a different etymology . The original meaning of oikonomou was a home owner but it evolved to mean estate manager , somebody who was responsible for all resources on the estate , a steward . Oikonomou was a medieval Eastern Roman title for somebody who was in charge of a project or institution ; it is still used by the Greek Orthodox church . Over time the meaning of Oikonomou has evolved from " manager of resources " to " manager of money , a treasurer " .
+
+= = Etymology = =
+
+Philologists have been able to track changes in the name Spencer over time — in different dialects and languages — as well as trace its derivation from a common ancestry . The name Spencer can be traced through its Latin and French roots to its Middle English and modern form .
+
+Medieval Latin – dispensa , dispensator and dispensarius – steward .
+
+Old French –
+
+a. despense – larder
+
+b. espenser , -ier – dispenser of money , provisions etc . ; someone working at , or in charge of , the buttery ; a household steward
+
+c. despendour – steward .
+
+Anglo @-@ French – despenser , -ier .
+
+Middle English – spens ( e ) and spence – larder ; dispensour – steward . With the agent suffix – er this becomes spenser – butler or steward .
+
+= = = Derivation = = =
+
+In England , up to about the time of the Norman Conquest when communities were small , each person was identifiable by a single name , usually a personal name or nickname . Picts , Gaels , Britons , Anglo @-@ Saxons , Scandinavians and Normans all originally used single names , but as the population increased , it became necessary to identify people further — giving rise to names like John the butcher , Henry of Sutton , Roger son of Richard and William the short , which naturally evolved into John Butcher , Henry Sutton , Roger Richardson and William Short . Although a few hereditary patrilineal surnames ( those passed from father to son and daughter ) appear to have existed in before the Norman Conquest , the now traditional use of binomials ( two names , a given name and a surname ) appears to have gathered momentum at this time — particularly after the introduction of records for personal taxation , known in England as the poll tax , first levied in 1275 . The poll tax was the historical means by which local communities recorded the registering , categorizing , and polling of citizens , free @-@ subjects and other voters .
+
+The meaning of a surname generally derives from one of the following four sources : location ( toponym ) such as a specific place ( e.g. London , York ) or feature of the place or landscape ( e.g. Hill , Townsend ) ; a relationship ( e.g. Richardson ) ; a nickname ( e.g. Grey , Wellbeloved ) ; or an occupation or office ( e.g. Sawyer , Skinner ) . The surname Spencer relates to occupation and office .
+
+= = Robert Despenser , Urse d 'Abbetot , and the Despenser family = =
+
+= = = Robert Despenser = = =
+
+Robert d 'Abbetot was the son of Almericus d 'Abbetot whose Viking ancestry has been traced back to Tancred of Hauteville ( 980 – 1041 ) . Almericus is known to have held the position of mayor in the town of Saint @-@ Jean @-@ d 'Abbetot in Normandy . Robert , like William 's other close knights , was granted titles , lands and a high position in William 's court . In addition to his position as steward he also was given land grants in county Bedford . He held his office for the period c.1088 – 1098 .
+
+Robert 's last name of d 'Abbetot had no meaning in England so it was likely changed to Robert le Despenser ( many spelling variants of this name exist including Robert the Dispensor , Robert Despensator , Robert Dispenser , and Robert fitzThurstin . ) which reflected his new official position and occupation . He seems to have maintained his popularity with William because in the Domesday Book of 1086 , Robert Despenser was listed as a land tenant @-@ in @-@ chief in Gloucestershire , Leicestershire , Lincolnshire , Oxfordshire , and Warwickshire , as well as holding lands in Worcestershire obtained from the Bishop of Worcester .
+
+Robert is assumed to have died shortly after restoring some estates to Westminster Abbey but he appears to have had no legitimate male children , as his heir was his brother Urse . He may have had a daughter , as some of his lands were inherited by the Marmion family , but it is also possible that a daughter of Urse married into the Marmion family . Robert 's office as the king 's steward may also have gone to Urse , as it was later held by Urse 's heirs . A later steward , Thurstin , might have been an illegitimate son of Robert .
+
+= = = Robert 's brother Urse d 'Abbetot = = =
+
+Robert Despenser 's brother , Urse d 'Abbetot ( c . 1040 – 1108 ) , became a medieval Sheriff of Worcester and royal official . He did not take up the name Despenser . In Normandy the brothers lived in the town of Saint Jean d 'Abbetot as tenants on lands of feudal lords in the Tancarville family in the Pays de Caux region on the lower Seine .
+
+Ralph Fitz Gerald ( Chamberlain of Tankerville ) was the elder brother of Aumary d 'Abetot . Their father was Gerold ( husband of Helisendis ) Sire de Tankerville with the hereditary office of chamberlain to the Dukes of Normandy . His younger son , Aumary , inherited the fiefs of Abetot and had two sons , Urso and Robert " Despencer " who gave the name to the noble families of Le Despencer and Spenser that trace their descent from his niece . In 1073 Urse was one of the king 's council . He rendered great service in the suppression of the rebellion of the Earls of Hereford and Norfolk and had a reputation as a spoiler and devastator of the Church . Urse 's son Roger d 'Abetot , having killed a servant of Henry I , was banished and his confiscated estates given by the king — together with the hand of his sister Emmeline d 'Abetot — to Walter de Beauchamp of Bedford .
+
+However , within 2 – 3 years of 1066 both brothers were established in England — Urse as Sheriff of Worcestershire , supervising the construction of Worcester Castle . The Domesday survey showed Urse 's lands mostly in the West Midlands while Robert 's extended to the North Sea . Robert remained a benefactor to the Priory of St. Barbe @-@ en @-@ Auge in Normandy , which had been founded by the Tancarville lords .
+
+Lands held by the d 'Abbetots in Worcester are recorded in Hemming 's Cartulary . The d 'Abbetot family settled mostly in Worcester where they were lords of Hindlip ( Hind Leap ) , 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Worcester , for 200 years holding the manor for a knight 's fee , that is , the service of an armed knight in the event of war . A church has stood on the site since the 11th century . Two villages have taken the D 'Abbetot family name . Redmarley D 'Abitot lies on the extreme south @-@ west border of Worcestershire in Gloucestershire . Here the D 'Abitots owned property in the parish in the 16th century , and lived at Down House although the last member of the family is believed to have died in the 18th century . The other village is Croome D 'Abitot , which lies 7 – 8 miles south @-@ east of Worcester . Many of the descendants of Robert Despenser and Urse achieved notoriety of various kinds and the Dispenser line has been traced for at least 10 generations .
+
+= = = Associated families = = =
+
+The Norman family of de Ferrers , through Henry de Ferrers , had received the largest grants of land and manors in Derbyshire and were closely related to the d 'Abbetots by marriage . Similarly , Urse 's son Roger had a sister , Emmeline , who married Walter de Beauchamp from another influential family of the time . Walter succeeded to Urse 's lands after the exiling of Roger around 1110 . Tradition has it that the Derbyshire D 'Abitots sprang either from Robert d 'Abitot or a junior branch of the Worcester d 'Abitots , although it is more likely to trace directly from Urse .
+
+= = Heraldry = =
+
+Heraldry , the practice of designing , displaying , describing , and recording coats of arms and badges , arose from the need to distinguish participants in combat when their faces were hidden by iron and steel helmets . The process of creating coats of arms ( these are often called " family crests " but in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland an individual , rather than a family , had a coat of arms ) began in the eight and 9th centuries . Eventually a formal system of rules developed into increasingly complex forms of heraldry that allowed the use of coats of arms by countries , states , provinces , towns and villages in a form of civic heraldry . In more recent times coats of arms have evolved from their military origins to denote educational institutes , and other establishments , apparently leading to the modern logo and corporate livery .
+
+The secretum or private seal of Henry le Despenser , Bishop of Norwich ( A.D. 1370 – 1406 ) is shown here . Arms of Hugh le Despencer .
+
+= = Hereditary names and genetic lineages = =
+
+The possession of the surname Spencer does not necessarily indicate a hereditary relationship to Robert Despenser . Irregularities can occur with non @-@ paternity and it is possible that consecutive but unrelated people in the same occupation may well have adopted the same name resulting in the foundation of many different Spencer genetic lineages . It is known , for example , that in London in the 13th and 14th centuries trade apprentices would take on the names of their masters . Nevertheless , also in London , surnames of all kinds had become hereditary in the patrician class by the 12th century .
+
+Nevertheless , the genetic similarity of people with identical surnames has been shown to be quite high , especially those with rarer surnames . It might seem an almost insurmountable task to determine the true lineage of contemporary Spencers when such an " occupational " name probably has many founders . Nevertheless , modern genetics now has the capacity to discriminate relationships at an increasingly detailed resolution both in terms of close recent ancestry and distant ancestry . Many people are now using gene testing laboratories as part of a surname DNA project to resolve not only who their close relations are around the world , but also the migration patterns of their ancestors over the 50 @,@ 000 years since modern man left Africa .
+
+In America many Spencers have been traced back genetically to four Spencer brothers : William Spencer 1601 – 1640 , Thomas Spencer 1607 – 1687 , Michael Spencer 1611 – 1653 , and Gerard Spencer 1614 – 1685 .
+
+= = The Spencer aristocracy = =
+
+The English aristocratic Spencer family has resided at their ancestral home at Althorp , Northamptonshire , since the early 16th century . The Estate now covers 14 @,@ 000 acres ( 57 km2 ) in Northamptonshire , Warwickshire and Norfolk . From pre @-@ Tudor times the Spencers had been farmers , coming to prominence in Warwickshire in the 15th century when John Spencer became feoffee of Wormleighton in 1469 , and a tenant at Althorp in 1486 . His nephew , another John , used the gains from trade in livestock and commodities to buy both properties . He was knighted in 1504 and died in 1522 . John 's descendants expanded the family holdings through business dealings and marriage into the peerage . The family is related through marriage to the Churchills of Blenheim Palace , a line that included the Dukes of Marlborough and Winston Churchill . From the Althorp line came the Earls of Sunderland , the later Dukes of Marlborough , and the Earls Spencer . The family captured international attention when Lady Diana Frances Spencer married Prince Charles on 29 July 1981 , and her death in a car crash in Paris on 31 August 1997 .
+
+= = Notable Spencers = =
+
+The following is a small selection of notable Spencers .
+
+= = = 13th Century = = =
+
+Hugh le Despenser I ( died 1238 ) was a wealthy land owner in the East Midlands of England , as well as High Sheriff of Berkshire .
+
+Sir Hugh le Despencer , 1st Baron le Despencer ( 1223 – 1265 ) son of Hugh le Despenser I was an important ally of Simon de Montfort during the reign of Henry III . He served briefly as Justiciar of England ( Chief Justice ) in 1260 and as Constable of the Tower of London and the castles of Shrewsbury , Bruges , and Balsover .
+
+Hugh le Despenser , 1st Earl of Winchester ( 1262 – 1326 ) the elder Despenser , was for a time the chief adviser to King Edward II of England .
+
+Hugh Despenser the Younger ( 1286 – 1326 ) became Royal Chamberlain in 1318 and the favourite of Edward II of England but developed a reputation for greed and , after falling out with the Barons , was accused of treason . He was forced into exile in 1321 with his father , who later fled to Bordeaux . Hugh was captured and sentenced to public execution by hanging ( for thievery ) , and drawing and quartering ( for treason ) .
+
+= = = 14th Century = = =
+
+Edward le Despenser ( 1310 – 1342 ) was the third eldest son of Hugh le Despenser the Younger by his wife Eleanor de Clare .
+
+Edward le Despencer , 1st Baron le Despencer , KG ( also called Despenser ) ( c . 24 March 1335 or 1336 – 11 November 1375 ) was the son of Edward le Despenser ( 1310 – 1342 ) and Anne , the sister of Henry , Lord Ferrers of Groby . He succeeded as Lord of Glamorgan in 1349 .
+
+Thomas le Despenser , 1st Earl of Gloucester ( 22 September 1373 – 13 January 1400 , Bristol ) was the son of Edward le Despenser , 1st Baron le Despencer , whom he succeeded in 1375 .
+
+Richard le Despenser , 4th Baron Burghersh ( 1396 – 1414 ) was the son and heir of Thomas le Despenser , 1st Earl of Gloucester ( 1373 – 1400 )
+
+= = = 16th Century = = =
+
+John Spencer ( 1524 – 1586 ) , owner of Althorp and MP
+
+Edmund Spenser ( c . 1552 – 13 January 1599 ) was an English poet best known for The Faerie Queene , an epic poem celebrating — through fantastical allegory — the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I. He is recognized as one of the premier craftsmen of Modern English verse in its infancy .
+
+= = = 17th Century = = =
+
+Col. Nicholas Spencer ( 1633 – 1689 ) was an English merchant born at Cople , Bedfordshire , who emigrated to the Colony of Virginia , where he served as land agent for his cousin Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper . A planter with extensive landholdings , Spencer later served in the Virginia House of Burgesses , as Secretary and President of the Council of the Virginia Colony , and as Acting Governor . With his friend John Washington , Col. Spencer patented the Mount Vernon estate land grant .
+
+= = = 19th Century = = =
+
+Sir Walter Baldwin Spencer KCMG ( 23 June 1860 – 14 July 1929 ) was a British @-@ Australian biologist and anthropologist .
+
+Herbert Spencer ( 27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903 ) was an English philosopher , prominent classical liberal political theorist , and sociological theorist of the Victorian era .
+
+= = = 20th Century = = =
+
+Elizabeth Spencer ( soprano ) was a recording artist for Thomas Alva Edison .
+
+Percy Spencer ( 9 July 1894 – 8 September 1970 ) American inventor of the microwave oven .
+
+Diana , Princess of Wales , ( Diana Frances ; née Spencer ; 1 July 1961 – 31 August 1997 ) was the first wife of Charles , Prince of Wales .
+
+Prince William , Duke of Cambridge eldest son of Diana , Princess of Wales second in line to the thrones of the United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth realms .
+
+Prince Harry second son of Diana , Princess of Wales .
+
+Cliff Spencer , co @-@ author of the original implementation of the Unix utility sudo
+
+= = Popularity , numbers and distribution = =
+
+There is strong evidence that despite population movement in the 19th Century most people stayed relatively near to their place of birth . The greatest density of Spencers in present @-@ day England is in Nottinghamshire , followed by Derbyshire ( see below ) . Derby and Notts were closely connected at the time of Domesday , and up until the time of Elizabeth I had the same Sheriff . The d 'Abbetot family had holdings in Croome , Hindlip and Redmarley as well as Clopton and Acton Beauchamp .
+
+In North America early settlement of Spencers date to Thomas Spencer in Virginia in 1623 ; William Spencer , Cambridge , Massachusetts in 1630 ; Thomas Spencer , Maine 1630 . Col. Nicholas Spencer arrived in Virginia in the 1650s and subsequently served as Acting Governor . An account of Spencers in America has been published by Ancestry.com.
+
+Spencers arriving in Australia with the convicts of the First Fleet in 1788 were Daniel Spencer from Dorchester , John Spencer , and Mary Spence from Wigan . With the Third Fleet in 1791 came John Spencer from Lancaster and Thomas Spencer from London .
+
+Statistics for popularity , numbers and distribution of Spencers are presented in the tables below :
+
+FPM = frequency per million
+
+= Main sequence =
+
+In astronomy , the main sequence is a continuous and distinctive band of stars that appears on plots of stellar color versus brightness . These color @-@ magnitude plots are known as Hertzsprung – Russell diagrams after their co @-@ developers , Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell . Stars on this band are known as main @-@ sequence stars or " dwarf " stars .
+
+After a star has formed , it generates thermal energy in the dense core region through nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms into helium . During this stage of the star 's lifetime , it is located along the main sequence at a position determined primarily by its mass , but also based upon its chemical composition and other factors . All main @-@ sequence stars are in hydrostatic equilibrium , where outward thermal pressure from the hot core is balanced by the inward pressure of gravitational collapse from the overlying layers . The strong dependence of the rate of energy generation in the core on the temperature and pressure helps to sustain this balance . Energy generated at the core makes its way to the surface and is radiated away at the photosphere . The energy is carried by either radiation or convection , with the latter occurring in regions with steeper temperature gradients , higher opacity or both .
+
+The main sequence is sometimes divided into upper and lower parts , based on the dominant process that a star uses to generate energy . Stars below about 1 @.@ 5 times the mass of the Sun ( or 1 @.@ 5 solar masses ( M ☉ ) ) primarily fuse hydrogen atoms together in a series of stages to form helium , a sequence called the proton – proton chain . Above this mass , in the upper main sequence , the nuclear fusion process mainly uses atoms of carbon , nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries in the CNO cycle that produces helium from hydrogen atoms . Main @-@ sequence stars with more than two solar masses undergo convection in their core regions , which acts to stir up the newly created helium and maintain the proportion of fuel needed for fusion to occur . Below this mass , stars have cores that are entirely radiative with convective zones near the surface . With decreasing stellar mass , the proportion of the star forming a convective envelope steadily increases , whereas main @-@ sequence stars below 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ undergo convection throughout their mass . When core convection does not occur , a helium @-@ rich core develops surrounded by an outer layer of hydrogen .
+
+In general , the more massive a star is , the shorter its lifespan on the main sequence . After the hydrogen fuel at the core has been consumed , the star evolves away from the main sequence on the HR diagram . The behavior of a star now depends on its mass , with stars below 0 @.@ 23 M ☉ becoming white dwarfs directly , whereas stars with up to ten solar masses pass through a red giant stage . More massive stars can explode as a supernova , or collapse directly into a black hole .
+
+= = History = =
+
+In the early part of the 20th century , information about the types and distances of stars became more readily available . The spectra of stars were shown to have distinctive features , which allowed them to be categorized . Annie Jump Cannon and Edward C. Pickering at Harvard College Observatory developed a method of categorization that became known as the Harvard Classification Scheme , published in the Harvard Annals in 1901 .
+
+In Potsdam in 1906 , the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung noticed that the reddest stars — classified as K and M in the Harvard scheme — could be divided into two distinct groups . These stars are either much brighter than the Sun , or much fainter . To distinguish these groups , he called them " giant " and " dwarf " stars . The following year he began studying star clusters ; large groupings of stars that are co @-@ located at approximately the same distance . He published the first plots of color versus luminosity for these stars . These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars , which he named the Main Sequence .
+
+At Princeton University , Henry Norris Russell was following a similar course of research . He was studying the relationship between the spectral classification of stars and their actual brightness as corrected for distance — their absolute magnitude . For this purpose he used a set of stars that had reliable parallaxes and many of which had been categorized at Harvard . When he plotted the spectral types of these stars against their absolute magnitude , he found that dwarf stars followed a distinct relationship . This allowed the real brightness of a dwarf star to be predicted with reasonable accuracy .
+
+Of the red stars observed by Hertzsprung , the dwarf stars also followed the spectra @-@ luminosity relationship discovered by Russell . However , the giant stars are much brighter than dwarfs and so , do not follow the same relationship . Russell proposed that the " giant stars must have low density or great surface @-@ brightness , and the reverse is true of dwarf stars " . The same curve also showed that there were very few faint white stars .
+
+In 1933 , Bengt Strömgren introduced the term Hertzsprung – Russell diagram to denote a luminosity @-@ spectral class diagram . This name reflected the parallel development of this technique by both Hertzsprung and Russell earlier in the century .
+
+As evolutionary models of stars were developed during the 1930s , it was shown that , for stars of a uniform chemical composition , a relationship exists between a star 's mass and its luminosity and radius . That is , for a given mass and composition , there is a unique solution for determining the star 's radius and luminosity . This became known as the Vogt @-@ Russell theorem ; named after Heinrich Vogt and Henry Norris Russell . By this theorem , when a star 's chemical composition and its position on the main sequence is known , so too is the star 's mass and radius . ( However , it was subsequently discovered that the theorem breaks down somewhat for stars of non @-@ uniform composition . )
+
+A refined scheme for stellar classification was published in 1943 by W. W. Morgan and P. C. Keenan . The MK classification assigned each star a spectral type — based on the Harvard classification — and a luminosity class . The Harvard classification had been developed by assigning a different letter to each star based on the strength of the hydrogen spectral line , before the relationship between spectra and temperature was known . When ordered by temperature and when duplicate classes were removed , the spectral types of stars followed , in order of decreasing temperature with colors ranging from blue to red , the sequence O , B , A , F , G , K and M. ( A popular mnemonic for memorizing this sequence of stellar classes is " Oh Be A Fine Girl / Guy , Kiss Me " . ) The luminosity class ranged from I to V , in order of decreasing luminosity . Stars of luminosity class V belonged to the main sequence .
+
+= = Formation = =
+
+When a protostar is formed from the collapse of a giant molecular cloud of gas and dust in the local interstellar medium , the initial composition is homogeneous throughout , consisting of about 70 % hydrogen , 28 % helium and trace amounts of other elements , by mass . The initial mass of the star depends on the local conditions within the cloud . ( The mass distribution of newly formed stars is described empirically by the initial mass function . ) During the initial collapse , this pre @-@ main @-@ sequence star generates energy through gravitational contraction . Upon reaching a suitable density , energy generation is begun at the core using an exothermic nuclear fusion process that converts hydrogen into helium .
+
+When nuclear fusion of hydrogen becomes the dominant energy production process and the excess energy gained from gravitational contraction has been lost , the star lies along a curve on the Hertzsprung – Russell diagram ( or HR diagram ) called the standard main sequence . Astronomers will sometimes refer to this stage as " zero age main sequence " , or ZAMS . The ZAMS curve can be calculated using computer models of stellar properties at the point when stars begin hydrogen fusion . From this point , the brightness and surface temperature of stars typically increase with age .
+
+A star remains near its initial position on the main sequence until a significant amount of hydrogen in the core has been consumed , then begins to evolve into a more luminous star . ( On the HR diagram , the evolving star moves up and to the right of the main sequence . ) Thus the main sequence represents the primary hydrogen @-@ burning stage of a star 's lifetime .
+
+= = Properties = =
+
+The majority of stars on a typical HR diagram lie along the main @-@ sequence curve . This line is pronounced because both the spectral type and the luminosity depend only on a star 's mass , at least to zeroth @-@ order approximation , as long as it is fusing hydrogen at its core — and that is what almost all stars spend most of their " active " lives doing .
+
+The temperature of a star determines its spectral type via its effect on the physical properties of plasma in its photosphere . A star 's energy emission as a function of wavelength is influenced by both its temperature and composition . A key indicator of this energy distribution is given by the color index , B − V , which measures the star 's magnitude in blue ( B ) and green @-@ yellow ( V ) light by means of filters . This difference in magnitude provides a measure of a star 's temperature .
+
+= = Dwarf terminology = =
+
+Main @-@ sequence stars are called dwarf stars , but this terminology is partly historical and can be somewhat confusing . For the cooler stars , dwarfs such as red dwarfs , orange dwarfs , and yellow dwarfs are indeed much smaller and dimmer than other stars of those colors . However , for hotter blue and white stars , the size and brightness difference between so @-@ called dwarf stars that are on the main sequence and the so @-@ called giant stars that are not becomes smaller ; for the hottest stars it is not directly observable . For those stars the terms dwarf and giant refer to differences in spectral lines which indicate if a star is on the main sequence or off it . Nevertheless , very hot main @-@ sequence stars are still sometimes called dwarfs , even though they have roughly the same size and brightness as the " giant " stars of that temperature .
+
+The common use of dwarf to mean main sequence is confusing in another way , because there are dwarf stars which are not main @-@ sequence stars . For example , a white dwarf is the dead core of a star that is left after the star has shed its outer layers , that is much smaller than a main @-@ sequence star- — roughly the size of Earth . These represent the final evolutionary stage of many main @-@ sequence stars .
+
+= = Parameters = =
+
+By treating the star as an idealized energy radiator known as a black body , the luminosity L and radius R can be related to the effective temperature Teff by the Stefan – Boltzmann law :
+
+L
+
+= 4πσR2Teff4
+
+where σ is the Stefan – Boltzmann constant . As the position of a star on the HR diagram shows its approximate luminosity , this relation can be used to estimate its radius .
+
+The mass , radius and luminosity of a star are closely interlinked , and their respective values can be approximated by three relations . First is the Stefan – Boltzmann law , which relates the luminosity L , the radius R and the surface temperature Teff . Second is the mass – luminosity relation , which relates the luminosity L and the mass M. Finally , the relationship between M and R is close to linear . The ratio of M to R increases by a factor of only three over 2 @.@ 5 orders of magnitude of M. This relation is roughly proportional to the star 's inner temperature TI , and its extremely slow increase reflects the fact that the rate of energy generation in the core strongly depends on this temperature , whereas it has to fit the mass – luminosity relation . Thus , a too high or too low temperature will result in stellar instability .
+
+A better approximation is to take ε =
+
+L / M , the energy generation rate per unit mass , as ε is proportional to TI15 , where TI is the core temperature . This is suitable for stars at least as massive as the Sun , exhibiting the CNO cycle , and gives the better fit R ∝ M0.78.
+
+= = = Sample parameters = = =
+
+The table below shows typical values for stars along the main sequence . The values of luminosity ( L ) , radius ( R ) and mass ( M ) are relative to the Sun — a dwarf star with a spectral classification of G2 V. The actual values for a star may vary by as much as 20 – 30 % from the values listed below .
+
+= = Energy generation = =
+
+All main @-@ sequence stars have a core region where energy is generated by nuclear fusion . The temperature and density of this core are at the levels necessary to sustain the energy production that will support the remainder of the star . A reduction of energy production would cause the overlaying mass to compress the core , resulting in an increase in the fusion rate because of higher temperature and pressure . Likewise an increase in energy production would cause the star to expand , lowering the pressure at the core . Thus the star forms a self @-@ regulating system in hydrostatic equilibrium that is stable over the course of its main sequence lifetime .
+
+Main @-@ sequence stars employ two types of hydrogen fusion processes , and the rate of energy generation from each type depends on the temperature in the core region . Astronomers divide the main sequence into upper and lower parts , based on which of the two is the dominant fusion process . In the lower main sequence , energy is primarily generated as the result of the proton @-@ proton chain , which directly fuses hydrogen together in a series of stages to produce helium . Stars in the upper main sequence have sufficiently high core temperatures to efficiently use the CNO cycle . ( See the chart . ) This process uses atoms of carbon , nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries in the process of fusing hydrogen into helium .
+
+At a stellar core temperature of 18 Million Kelvin , the PP process and CNO cycle are equally efficient , and each type generates half of the star 's net luminosity . As this is the core temperature of a star with about 1 @.@ 5 M ☉ , the upper main sequence consists of stars above this mass . Thus , roughly speaking , stars of spectral class F or cooler belong to the lower main sequence , while A @-@ type stars or hotter are upper main @-@ sequence stars . The transition in primary energy production from one form to the other spans a range difference of less than a single solar mass . In the Sun , a one solar @-@ mass star , only 1 @.@ 5 % of the energy is generated by the CNO cycle . By contrast , stars with 1 @.@ 8 M ☉ or above generate almost their entire energy output through the CNO cycle .
+
+The observed upper limit for a main @-@ sequence star is 120 – 200 M ☉ . The theoretical explanation for this limit is that stars above this mass can not radiate energy fast enough to remain stable , so any additional mass will be ejected in a series of pulsations until the star reaches a stable limit . The lower limit for sustained proton – proton nuclear fusion is about 0 @.@ 08 M ☉ or 80 times the mass of Jupiter . Below this threshold are sub @-@ stellar objects that can not sustain hydrogen fusion , known as brown dwarfs .
+
+= = Structure = =
+
+Because there is a temperature difference between the core and the surface , or photosphere , energy is transported outward . The two modes for transporting this energy are radiation and convection . A radiation zone , where energy is transported by radiation , is stable against convection and there is very little mixing of the plasma . By contrast , in a convection zone the energy is transported by bulk movement of plasma , with hotter material rising and cooler material descending . Convection is a more efficient mode for carrying energy than radiation , but it will only occur under conditions that create a steep temperature gradient .
+
+In massive stars ( above 10 M ☉ ) the rate of energy generation by the CNO cycle is very sensitive to temperature , so the fusion is highly concentrated at the core . Consequently , there is a high temperature gradient in the core region , which results in a convection zone for more efficient energy transport . This mixing of material around the core removes the helium ash from the hydrogen @-@ burning region , allowing more of the hydrogen in the star to be consumed during the main @-@ sequence lifetime . The outer regions of a massive star transport energy by radiation , with little or no convection .
+
+Intermediate @-@ mass stars such as Sirius may transport energy primarily by radiation , with a small core convection region . Medium @-@ sized , low @-@ mass stars like the Sun have a core region that is stable against convection , with a convection zone near the surface that mixes the outer layers . This results in a steady buildup of a helium @-@ rich core , surrounded by a hydrogen @-@ rich outer region . By contrast , cool , very low @-@ mass stars ( below 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ ) are convective throughout . Thus the helium produced at the core is distributed across the star , producing a relatively uniform atmosphere and a proportionately longer main sequence lifespan .
+
+= = Luminosity @-@ color variation = =
+
+As non @-@ fusing helium ash accumulates in the core of a main @-@ sequence star , the reduction in the abundance of hydrogen per unit mass results in a gradual lowering of the fusion rate within that mass . Since it is the outflow of fusion @-@ supplied energy that supports the higher layers of the star , the core is compressed , producing higher temperatures and pressures . Both factors increase the rate of fusion thus moving the equilibrium towards a smaller , denser , hotter core producing more energy whose increased outflow pushes the higher layers further out . Thus there is a steady increase in the luminosity and radius of the star over time . For example , the luminosity of the early Sun was only about 70 % of its current value . As a star ages this luminosity increase changes its position on the HR diagram . This effect results in a broadening of the main sequence band because stars are observed at random stages in their lifetime . That is , the main sequence band develops a thickness on the HR diagram ; it is not simply a narrow line .
+
+Other factors that broaden the main sequence band on the HR diagram include uncertainty in the distance to stars and the presence of unresolved binary stars that can alter the observed stellar parameters . However , even perfect observation would show a fuzzy main sequence because mass is not the only parameter that affects a star 's color and luminosity . Variations in chemical composition caused by the initial abundances , the star 's evolutionary status , interaction with a close companion , rapid rotation , or a magnetic field can all slightly change a main @-@ sequence star 's HR diagram position , to name just a few factors . As an example , there are metal @-@ poor stars ( with a very low abundance of elements with higher atomic numbers than helium ) that lie just below the main sequence and are known as subdwarfs . These stars are fusing hydrogen in their cores and so they mark the lower edge of main sequence fuzziness caused by variance in chemical composition .
+
+A nearly vertical region of the HR diagram , known as the instability strip , is occupied by pulsating variable stars known as Cepheid variables . These stars vary in magnitude at regular intervals , giving them a pulsating appearance . The strip intersects the upper part of the main sequence in the region of class A and F stars , which are between one and two solar masses . Pulsating stars in this part of the instability strip that intersects the upper part of the main sequence are called Delta Scuti variables . Main @-@ sequence stars in this region experience only small changes in magnitude and so this variation is difficult to detect . Other classes of unstable main @-@ sequence stars , like Beta Cephei variables , are unrelated to this instability strip .
+
+= = Lifetime = =
+
+The total amount of energy that a star can generate through nuclear fusion of hydrogen is limited by the amount of hydrogen fuel that can be consumed at the core . For a star in equilibrium , the energy generated at the core must be at least equal to the energy radiated at the surface . Since the luminosity gives the amount of energy radiated per unit time , the total life span can be estimated , to first approximation , as the total energy produced divided by the star 's luminosity .
+
+For a star with at least 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , when the hydrogen supply in its core is exhausted and it expands to become a red giant , it can start to fuse helium atoms to form carbon . The energy output of the helium fusion process per unit mass is only about a tenth the energy output of the hydrogen process , and the luminosity of the star increases . This results in a much shorter length of time in this stage compared to the main sequence lifetime . ( For example , the Sun is predicted to spend 130 million years burning helium , compared to about 12 billion years burning hydrogen . ) Thus , about 90 % of the observed stars above 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ will be on the main sequence . On average , main @-@ sequence stars are known to follow an empirical mass @-@ luminosity relationship . The luminosity ( L ) of the star is roughly proportional to the total mass ( M ) as the following power law :
+
+<formula>
+
+This relationship applies to main @-@ sequence stars in the range 0 @.@ 1 – 50 M ☉ .
+
+The amount of fuel available for nuclear fusion is proportional to the mass of the star . Thus , the lifetime of a star on the main sequence can be estimated by comparing it to solar evolutionary models . The Sun has been a main @-@ sequence star for about 4 @.@ 5 billion years and it will become a red giant in 6 @.@ 5 billion years , for a total main sequence lifetime of roughly 1010 years . Hence :
+
+<formula>
+
+where M and L are the mass and luminosity of the star , respectively , <formula> is a solar mass , <formula> is the solar luminosity and <formula> is the star 's estimated main sequence lifetime .
+
+Although more massive stars have more fuel to burn and might be expected to last longer , they also must radiate a proportionately greater amount with increased mass . Thus , the most massive stars may remain on the main sequence for only a few million years , while stars with less than a tenth of a solar mass may last for over a trillion years .
+
+The exact mass @-@ luminosity relationship depends on how efficiently energy can be transported from the core to the surface . A higher opacity has an insulating effect that retains more energy at the core , so the star does not need to produce as much energy to remain in hydrostatic equilibrium . By contrast , a lower opacity means energy escapes more rapidly and the star must burn more fuel to remain in equilibrium . Note , however , that a sufficiently high opacity can result in energy transport via convection , which changes the conditions needed to remain in equilibrium .
+
+In high @-@ mass main @-@ sequence stars , the opacity is dominated by electron scattering , which is nearly constant with increasing temperature . Thus the luminosity only increases as the cube of the star 's mass . For stars below 10 M ☉ , the opacity becomes dependent on temperature , resulting in the luminosity varying approximately as the fourth power of the star 's mass . For very low @-@ mass stars , molecules in the atmosphere also contribute to the opacity . Below about 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , the luminosity of the star varies as the mass to the power of 2 @.@ 3 , producing a flattening of the slope on a graph of mass versus luminosity . Even these refinements are only an approximation , however , and the mass @-@ luminosity relation can vary depending on a star 's composition .
+
+= = Evolutionary tracks = =
+
+When a main @-@ sequence star consumes the hydrogen at its core , the loss of energy generation causes its gravitational collapse to resume . Stars with less than 0 @.@ 23 M ☉ , are predicted to directly become white dwarfs when energy generation by nuclear fusion of hydrogen at their core comes to a halt . In stars between this threshold and 10 M ☉ , the hydrogen surrounding the helium core reaches sufficient temperature and pressure to undergo fusion , forming a hydrogen @-@ burning shell . In consequence of this change , the outer envelope of the star expands and decreases in temperature , turning it into a red giant . At this point the star is evolving off the main sequence and entering the giant branch . The path which the star now follows across the HR diagram , to the upper right of the main sequence , is called an evolutionary track .
+
+The helium core of a red giant continues to collapse until it is entirely supported by electron degeneracy pressure — a quantum mechanical effect that restricts how closely matter can be compacted . For stars of more than about 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , the core eventually reaches a temperature where it becomes hot enough to burn helium into carbon via the triple alpha process . Stars with more than 5 – 7 @.@ 5 M ☉ can additionally fuse elements with higher atomic numbers . For stars with ten or more solar masses , this process can lead to an increasingly dense core that finally collapses , ejecting the star 's overlying layers in a Type II supernova explosion , Type Ib supernova or Type Ic supernova .
+
+When a cluster of stars is formed at about the same time , the life span of these stars will depend on their individual masses . The most massive stars will leave the main sequence first , followed steadily in sequence by stars of ever lower masses . Thus the stars will evolve in order of their position on the main sequence , proceeding from the most massive at the left toward the right of the HR diagram . The current position where stars in this cluster are leaving the main sequence is known as the turn @-@ off point . By knowing the main sequence lifespan of stars at this point , it becomes possible to estimate the age of the cluster .
+
+= = = General = = =
+
+Kippenhahn , Rudolf , 100 Billion Suns , Basic Books , New York , 1983 .
+
+= = = Technical = = =
+
+Arnett , David , Supernovae and Nucleosynthesis , Princeton University Press , Princeton , 1996 .
+
+Bahcall , John N. , Neutrino Astrophysics , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 1989 .
+
+Bahcall , John N. , Pinsonneault , M.H. , and Basu , Sarbani , " Solar Models : Current Epoch and Time Dependences , Neutrinos , and Helioseismological Properties , " The Astrophysical Journal , 555 , 990 , 2001 .
+
+Barnes , C. A. , Clayton , D. D. , and Schramm , D. N. ( eds . ) , Essays in Nuclear Astrophysics , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 1982 .
+
+Bowers , Richard L. , and Deeming , Terry , Astrophysics I : Stars , Jones and Bartlett , Publishers , Boston , 1984 .
+
+Bradley W. Carroll & Dale A. Ostlie ( 2007 ) . An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics . Person Education Addison @-@ Wesley San Francisco . ISBN 0 @-@ 80530402 @-@ 9 .
+
+Chabrier , Gilles , and Baraffe , Isabelle , " Theory of Low @-@ Mass Stars and Substellar Objects , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 38 , 337 , 2000 .
+
+Chandrasekhar , S. , An Introduction to the study of stellar Structure , Dover Publications , Inc . , New York , 1967 .
+
+Clayton , Donald D. , Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis , University of Chicago Press , Chicago , 1983 .
+
+Cox , J. P. , and Giuli , R. T. , Principles of Stellar Structure , Gordon and Breach , New York , 1968 .
+
+Fowler , William . , Caughlan , Georgeanne R. , and Zimmerman , Barbara A. , " Thermonuclear Reaction Rates , I , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 5 , 525 , 1967 .
+
+Fowler , William A. , Caughlan , Georgeanne R. , and Zimmerman , Barbara A. , " Thermonuclear Reaction Rates , II , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 13 , 69 , 1975 .
+
+Hansen , Carl J. , Kawaler , Steven D. , and Trimble , Virginia Stellar Interiors : Physical Principles , Structure , and Evolution , Second Edition , Springer @-@ Verlag , New York , 2004 .
+
+Harris , Michael J. , Fowler , William A. , Caughlan , Georgeanne R. , and Zimmerman , Barbara A. , " Thermonuclear Reaction Rates , III , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 21 , 165 , 1983 .
+
+Iben , Icko , Jr , " Stellar Evolution Within and Off the Main Sequence , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 5 , 571 , 1967 .
+
+Iglesias , Carlos A , and Rogers , Forrest J. , " Updated Opal Opacities , " The Astrophysical Journal , 464 , 943 , 1996 .
+
+Kippenhahn , Rudolf , and Weigert , Alfred , Stellar Structure and Evolution , Springer @-@ Verlag , Berlin , 1990 .
+
+Liebert , James , and Probst , Ronald G. , " Very Low Mass Stars " , Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 25 , 437 , 1987 .
+
+Padmanabhan , T. , Theoretical Astrophysics , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 2002 .
+
+Prialnik , Dina , An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 2000 .
+
+Novotny , Eva , Introduction to Stellar Atmospheres and Interior , Oxford University Press , New York , 1973 .
+
+Shore , Steven N. , The Tapestry of Modern Astrophysics , John Wiley and Sons , Hoboken , 2003 .
+
+= SS Christopher Columbus =
+
+The SS Christopher Columbus was an American excursion liner on the Great Lakes , in service between 1893 and 1933 . She was the only whaleback ship ever built for passenger service . The ship was designed by Alexander McDougall , the developer and promoter of the whaleback design .
+
+Columbus was built between 1892 and 1893 at Superior , Wisconsin , by the American Steel Barge Company . Initially , she ferried passengers to and from the World 's Columbian Exposition . Later , she provided general transportation and excursion services to various ports around the lakes .
+
+At 362 feet ( 110 m ) , the ship was the longest whaleback ever built , and reportedly also the largest vessel on the Great Lakes when she was launched . Columbus is said to have carried more passengers during her career than any other vessel on the Great Lakes . After a career lasting four decades , she was retired during the Great Depression and scrapped in 1936 by the Manitowoc Shipbuilding Company at Manitowoc , Wisconsin .
+
+= = Background and proposal = =
+
+The history of the Columbus is linked with that of the whalebacks , an innovative but not widely accepted ship design of the late 1880s , and of their designer , Alexander McDougall . A Scottish immigrant , Great Lakes captain , inventor and entrepreneur , McDougall developed the idea of the whaleback as a way to improve the ability of barges to follow a towing vessel in heavy seas . Whalebacks were characterized by distinctive hull shapes with rounded tops , lacking conventional vertical sides . Waves thus broke across their hulls with considerably less force than when striking a conventional hull . Water could also flow around the rounded turrets which resembled gun turrets on contemporary warships ; the superstructure and deckhouses were mounted on these turrets . The rounded contours of whalebacks gave them an unconventional appearance , and McDougall 's ship and barge designs were received with considerable skepticism , resistance , and derision . As they had porcine @-@ looking snouts for bows , some observers called them " pig boats " .
+
+After McDougall was unable to persuade existing shipbuilders to try his designs , he founded the American Steel Barge Company in Superior , Wisconsin in 1888 , and built them himself . McDougall actively promoted his design and company by sending the SS Charles W. Wetmore to London , and starting another shipyard in Everett , Washington , which built the SS City of Everett . When the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition , to be held in Chicago , Illinois , was in the planning stages , McDougall recognized another opportunity to publicize his design . The Columbus , conceived as an elaborate ferry , was intended to demonstrate that the whaleback design would work well in passenger service , and would be able to travel at high speed . The ship 's name honored the explorer Christopher Columbus as did the World 's Columbian Exposition itself , timed to coincide with the 400th anniversary of his first voyage to the New World .
+
+= = Construction and Columbian Exposition = =
+
+The World 's Fair Steamship Company ordered the construction of the Columbus at an estimated cost of $ 360 @,@ 000 . The job was undertaken at McDougall 's American Steel Barge Company works in Superior , Wisconsin , starting in the fall of 1892 .
+
+The hull framing , which included nine bulkheads , was completed on September 13 , 1892 . The ship 's propulsion mechanisms were next installed , consisting of a single four @-@ bladed , 14 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) diameter , 19 @-@ foot ( 6 m ) pitch propeller , the two reciprocating triple @-@ expansion steam engines ( with three cylinders of 26 @-@ inch ( 66 cm ) , 42 @-@ inch ( 107 cm ) and 70 @-@ inch ( 178 cm ) diameters in a common frame with a 42 @-@ inch ( 107 cm ) stroke ) manufactured by Samuel F. Hodge & Co. of Detroit , Michigan , and six steel tubular return Scotch boilers , ( 11 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) diameter by 12 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) long ) , built by Cleveland Shipbuilding Company . The rounded hull top was then added , followed by the six turrets , which were substantially larger than those employed on freighter whalebacks . The ship was launched on December 3 , 1892 , after which two superstructure decks were mounted on the turrets along the centerline of her hull to afford access to her two internal decks , one in the turrets and one in the hull below .
+
+She was fitted out over the remainder of late 1892 and early 1893 . Electric lighting was used , and she was elegantly furnished . Her grand saloon and skylighted promenade deck contained several fountains and a large aquarium filled with trout and other fish of the lakes . The cabins and public spaces were fitted out with oak paneling , velvet carpets , etched glass windows , leather furniture and marble . Shops and restaurants were provided for the passengers .
+
+McDougall 's American Steel Barge Company had committed in the contract that the Columbus would be built and delivered in three months , making her one of the fastest @-@ built large ships of her time . The builders further promised rapid loading and unloading , predicting that the vessel would be able to embark 5 @,@ 000 passengers in five minutes , and disembark the same passengers in even less time . The Columbus was specified to be able run the 6 miles ( 10 km ) from the dock downtown to the fairgrounds at Jackson Park and 64th Street in 20 minutes .
+
+McDougall set up another holding company , the Columbian Whaleback Steamship Company of Duluth , Minnesota , to own and operate the Columbus . She was commissioned on May 13 , 1893 . Her first captain was John McArthur , who had captained other whalebacks for McDougall 's firms , starting with the first powered whaleback , the Colgate Hoyt , built in 1890 . McDougall was quoted as having said to McArthur , " There is your steamboat ; take her down to Chicago and make a success of her . "
+
+McArthur did just that . Painted in all white livery , the Columbus made multiple round trips per day , sailing along the Lake Michigan shoreline from the Randolph Street / Van Buren Street dock to the Jackson Park site of the World 's Columbian Exposition 's Beaux arts " White City " exposition fairgrounds . A contemporary souvenir booklet called her " the greatest marine wonder of its time " , and another publication dubbed her the " Queen of the Lakes . " She had an estimated capacity of 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 passengers on her four decks , but it was reported that she carried 7 @,@ 000 on her maiden voyage . The Goodrich Transit Line steamer Virginia ( later the USS Blue Ridge ) is said to have raced against her .
+
+The Columbus carried between 1 @.@ 7 and 2 @.@ 0 million passengers ( sources differ ) during the exposition , with only one fatality , a crew member . In recognition of that success , the commissioners of the exposition presented Captain McArthur with a gold watch engraved with a representation of the ship . McArthur went on to captain other whalebacks including the Frank Rockefeller , which became the SS Meteor , the only whaleback surviving today .
+
+= = Regular service = =
+
+After the exposition ended the Columbus entered passenger service , and an additional deck ( third superstructure , fifth total ) was added during the 1899 – 1900 winter season . Despite the Columbus ' success at the exposition , and McDougall 's promotional efforts , the whaleback design never caught on . By 1900 , the last whalebacks had been built in Superior : the Alexander McDougall in 1899 ( the last powered ship ) , and the John Smeaton , the last whaleback barge . The American Steel Barge Company was sold to the American Ship Building Company , becoming their Superior Works , and switched to more conventional laker designs .
+
+In 1899 the Columbus was leased to and operated by the Goodrich Transit Line , whose steamer Virginia had been a perennial racing rival . She changed hands in 1905 to the Milwaukee & Chicago Transportation company – possibly a Goodrich holding company – and again in 1909 to Goodrich Transit Line . Her livery was at some point between 1906 and 1909 changed to a black hull with yellow accents , and she was placed in service on the route between Chicago and Milwaukee , Wisconsin . The Columbus remained with the Goodrich line for several years . Although she was used for excursions elsewhere around the Great Lakes , her regular schedule was a daily trip to Milwaukee , leaving Chicago mid @-@ morning , sailing to Milwaukee for a two @-@ hour stopover , and then returning ( see advertisement right ) . She made daily round @-@ trip excursions from the Goodrich docks at the Rush Street Bridge .
+
+Columbus had at least three accidents . In June 1895 she suffered an explosion caused by a steam pipe becoming disconnected while she was underway . Accounts differ , but some claim that this happened during a race with her rival , Virginia . In July 1905 , she collided with the schooner Ralph Campbell in the Chicago River . On June 30 , 1917 , she was involved in her most serious accident , a collision with a water tower . The collision happened in Milwaukee while she was being maneuvered by tugs away from her dock . The Milwaukee River current caught her , spinning her sideways , and her bow sheared off two legs of the Yahr @-@ Lang Drug Company 's water tower , toppling it and flooding Columbus ' decks with about 25 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 95 @,@ 000 l ) . The collision killed 16 passengers and severely damaged her pilot house , putting her out of service for the rest of the year .
+
+The Columbus was one of the first ships to be fitted with an on @-@ board radio , installed by 1909 , when she was allocated the call letters " KC " . Columbus and the SS Chicago used radio to help coordinate the rescue of over 200 passengers from the Goodrich liner City of Racine when the Racine was disabled off Waukegan , Illinois , in Lake Michigan .
+
+In 1915 , the SS Eastland capsized while docked in the Chicago River , with the loss of over 800 lives . Officials subsequently ordered many passenger ships to undergo stability testing , which the Columbus passed easily . Even with 7 @,@ 500 sandbags ( simulating passengers ) piled on one side , and tugboats pulling in that direction , she listed only 12 degrees . Columbus was featured at the Century of Progress exhibition in Chicago in 1932 – 33 .
+
+= = Disposition = =
+
+The Columbus was taken out of service in 1933 , and changed hands twice during the Great Depression , in 1933 and again in 1934 . She was scrapped in 1936 at the Manitowoc Shipbuilding Company in Manitowoc , Wisconsin .
+
+SS Christopher Columbus carried 1 @.@ 7 – 2 million passengers in her first year alone , and is estimated to have carried more passengers than any other vessel on the Great Lakes . She was one of the most photographed passenger ships on the lakes , and souvenir postcards of her are still widely available . One of her anchors , the design of which was patented by McDougall on February 3 , 1891 , is displayed at the Mariners ' Museum in Newport News , Virginia .
+
+= Jim Bottomley =
+
+James Leroy Bottomley ( April 23 , 1900 – December 11 , 1959 ) was an American professional baseball player . A first baseman , Bottomley played in Major League Baseball from 1922 through 1937 for the St. Louis Cardinals , Cincinnati Reds , and St. Louis Browns . He also served as player @-@ manager for the Browns in 1937 . Playing for the Cardinals against Brooklyn at Ebbets Field on September 16 , 1924 , he set the all @-@ time single game RBI record with 12 .
+
+Born in Oglesby , Illinois , Bottomley grew up in Nokomis , Illinois . He dropped out of high school at the age of 16 to raise money for his family . After playing semi @-@ professional baseball , the Cardinals scouted and signed Bottomley . He won the League Award , given to the most valuable player , in 1928 , and was a part of World Series championship teams in 1926 and 1931 . He played for the Cardinals through the 1932 season , after which he was traded to the Reds . After playing for Cincinnati for three years , he played two more seasons with the Browns .
+
+After finishing his playing career with the Browns , Bottomley joined the Chicago Cubs organization as a scout and minor league baseball manager . After suffering a heart attack , Bottomley and his wife retired to raise cattle in Missouri . Bottomley was nicknamed " Sunny Jim " because of his cheerful disposition . Bottomley was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1974 by the Veterans Committee and to the Cardinals Hall of Fame in 2014 .
+
+= = Early life = =
+
+Bottomley was born on April 23 , 1900 , to Elizabeth ( née Carter ) and John Bottomley in Oglesby , Illinois . His family later moved to Nokomis , Illinois , where Bottomley enrolled in grade school and Nokomis High School . He dropped out when he was 16 years old in order to help support his family financially . Bottomley worked as a coal miner , truck driver , grocery clerk , and railroad clerk . His younger brother , Ralph , died in a mining accident in 1920 .
+
+Bottomley also played semi @-@ professional baseball for several local teams to make additional money , earning $ 5 a game ( $ 79 in current dollar terms ) . A police officer who knew Branch Rickey , the general manager of the St. Louis Cardinals , saw Bottomley play , and recommended Bottomley to Rickey .
+
+= = Professional career = =
+
+= = = St. Louis Cardinals = = =
+
+Rickey dispatched scout Charley Barrett to investigate Bottomley . The Cardinals decided to invite Bottomley to a tryout in late 1919 , and signed him to a $ 150 @-@ a @-@ month ( $ 2 @,@ 047 in current dollar terms ) contract . Bottomley began his professional career in minor league baseball in 1920 . That year , Bottomley played for the Mitchell Kernels of the Class @-@ D South Dakota League , posting a .312 batting average in 97 games , as Barrett continued to scout him . He also played six games for the Sioux City Packers of the Class @-@ A Western League . During his time in the minor leagues , the media began to call Bottomley " Sunny Jim " , due to his pleasant disposition .
+
+The next season , Bottomley played for the Houston Buffaloes of the Class @-@ A Texas League . Bottomley suffered a leg injury early in the season which became infected , and impeded his performance during the season . Bottomley managed only a .227 batting average in 130 games and struggled with his fielding . Unable to sell Bottomley to Houston for $ 1 @,@ 200 after the season ( $ 15 @,@ 920 in current dollar terms ) , Rickey sold Bottomley to the Syracuse Chiefs of the Class @-@ AA International League for $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 13 @,@ 267 in current dollar terms ) . Fully recovered from his leg injury in 1922 , Bottomley batted .348 with 14 home runs , 15 triples , and a .567 slugging percentage for the Chiefs . After the season , the Cardinals purchased Bottomley from the Chiefs for $ 15 @,@ 000 ( $ 212 @,@ 058 in current dollar terms ) .
+
+Bottomley made his Major League Baseball debut for the St. Louis Cardinals on August 18 , 1922 . Replacing Jack Fournier , Bottomley batted .325 in 37 games . The Cardinals named Bottomley their starting first baseman in 1923 . As a rookie , Bottomley batted .371 , finishing second in the National League ( NL ) behind teammate Rogers Hornsby , who batted .384 . His .425 on @-@ base percentage also finished second in the NL behind Hornsby , while he finished sixth in slugging percentage , with a .535 mark . His 94 runs batted in ( RBIs ) were tenth @-@ best in the league .
+
+Bottomley posted a .316 batting average in 1924 . In a game against the Brooklyn Dodgers on September 16 , 1924 , Bottomley set the major league record for RBIs in a single game , with 12 , breaking Wilbert Robinson 's record of 11 , set in 1892 . Robinson was serving as the manager of the Dodgers at the time . This mark has since been tied by Mark Whiten in 1993 . Finishing the season with 111 RBIs , placing third in the NL , Bottomley 's 14 home runs were seventh @-@ best in the NL , while his .500 slugging percentage was good for tenth .
+
+Bottomley hit .367 in 1925 , finishing second in the NL to Hornsby . He led the NL with 227 hits , while his 128 RBIs were third @-@ best , and his .413 on @-@ base percentage was seventh @-@ best in the league . Bottomley batted .298 during the 1926 season , with an NL @-@ leading 120 RBIs . His 19 home runs placed second in the NL , behind Hack Wilson 's 21 , while his .506 slugging percentage was sixth @-@ best . He batted .345 in the 1926 World Series , as the Cardinals defeated the New York Yankees .
+
+In 1927 , Bottomley finished the season with 124 RBIs , fourth best in the league , and a .509 slugging percentage , finishing sixth in the NL . Bottomley hit .325 with 31 home runs and 136 RBIs in 1928 , leading the league in home runs and RBIs . He also became the second Major League player in history to join the 20 – 20 – 20 club . That year , he won the League Award , given to the most valuable player of the NL . The Cardinals reached the 1928 World Series , and Bottomley batted .214 as they lost to the New York Yankees .
+
+In 1929 , Bottomley hit 29 home runs , finishing seventh in the NL , while his 137 RBIs were fifth @-@ best , and his .568 slugging percentage placed him in eighth . After having what manager Gabby Street considered a " poor year " in 1930 , Bottomley struggled in the 1930 World Series , batting .045 in 22 at @-@ bats , as the Cardinals lost to the Philadelphia Athletics . Following the series , Bottomley described his World Series performance as " a bust as far as hitting goes " .
+
+Amid questions about Bottomley 's status with the Cardinals heading into the 1931 season , he demonstrated renewed hitting ability during spring training . Despite the presence of Ripper Collins , a superior fielder who transferred to the Cardinals from the Rochester Red Wings of the International League , Street announced that Bottomley would remain the starting first baseman . However , Bottomley suffered an injury and struggled early in the 1931 season after returning to the game , and it appeared that he might lose his job to Collins , who filled in for Bottomley during his injury . Bottomley returned to form after his return , and he finished the season with a .3482 batting average , placing third behind teammate Chick Hafey 's .3489 and Bill Terry 's .3486 , the closest batting average finish in MLB history . His .534 slugging percentage was the sixth best in the league . The Cardinals reached the 1931 World Series , with Bottomley batting .160 , as the Cardinals defeated the Athletics . That offseason , other teams began to attempt to trade for either Bottomley or Collins . Bottomley batted .296 in 1932 , though he only played in 91 games .
+
+= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =
+
+After the 1932 season , the Cardinals traded Bottomley to the Cincinnati Reds for Ownie Carroll and Estel Crabtree , in an attempt to partner Bottomley with Chick Hafey in developing a more potent offensive attack . Bottomley had also sought Cincinnati 's managerial position that offseason , which instead went to Donie Bush .
+
+Bottomley threatened to quit baseball in a salary dispute with the Reds , as he attempted to negotiate a raise from his $ 8 @,@ 000 salary ( $ 146 @,@ 242 in current dollar terms ) , a reduction from the $ 13 @,@ 000 salary ( $ 225 @,@ 471 in current dollar terms ) he earned with the Cardinals the previous year . He and the Reds eventually came to terms on a one @-@ year contract believed to be worth between $ 10 @,@ 000 and $ 13 @,@ 000 . Bottomley finished eighth in the NL with 83 RBIs in 1933 , and ninth with 13 home runs . In three seasons with the Reds , Bottomley failed to hit higher than .283 or record more than 83 RBIs in a season . Bottomley left the Reds during spring training in 1935 due to a salary dispute , deciding to return to the team in April .
+
+= = = St. Louis Browns = = =
+
+Before the 1936 season , the Reds traded Bottomley to the St. Louis Browns of the American League ( AL ) , who were managed by Hornsby , for Johnny Burnett . During a July road trip , Bottomley announced his retirement as a result of an injured back ; however , he changed his mind and decided to remain with the team . Bottomley batted .298 for the 1936 season .
+
+Bottomley decided to return to baseball in 1937 . When the Browns struggled during the 1937 season , beginning the season with a 25 – 52 win @-@ loss record , the Browns fired Hornsby and named Bottomley their player @-@ manager . Bottomley led the Browns to 21 more victories , as the team finished the season in eighth place , with a 46 – 108 record . The Browns trailed the seventh place Athletics by 9 1 ⁄ 2 games , and were 56 games out of first place . As a player , Bottomley batted .239 in 65 games during the 1937 season . Bottomley was among the ten oldest players in the AL that year .
+
+The Browns did not retain Bottomley after the 1937 season , replacing him with Street , who served as his first assistant during the 1937 season . In 1938 , Bottomley served as the player @-@ manager of Syracuse . After a bad start to the season , and with team president Jack Corbett not adding capable players , Bottomley resigned and was replaced with Dick Porter . Bottomley also indicated that he did not want to continue playing .
+
+Bottomley also holds the single @-@ season record for most unassisted double plays by a first baseman , with eight . Bottomley is also known as the only man to be sued for hitting a home run when a fan was hit by the ball when he was not looking . He had over 100 RBIs in each season from 1924 to 1929 . Bottomley was the second player in baseball history to hit 20 or more doubles , triples , and home runs in one season ( Frank Schulte being the first ) and the first of two players ( Lou Gehrig being the other ) to collect 150 or more doubles , triples , and home runs in a career .
+
+= = Personal = =
+
+Bottomley married Elizabeth " Betty " Browner , who operated a St. Louis beauty parlor , on February 4 , 1933 . The couple had no children . After he retired from baseball in 1938 , Bottomley and his wife moved to the Bourbon , Missouri , area , where he raised Hereford cattle . In 1939 , Bottomley became a radio broadcaster , signing a deal with KWK , an AM broadcasting station , to broadcast Cardinals and Browns games .
+
+Bottomley returned to baseball as a scout for the Cardinals in 1955 . In 1957 , he joined the Chicago Cubs as a scout and managed the Pulaski Cubs of the Class D Appalachian League . While managing in Pulaski , Bottomley suffered a heart attack . The Bottomleys moved to nearby Sullivan , Missouri . Bottomley died of a heart ailment in December 1959 . He and his wife Betty were interred in the International Order of Fellows Cemetery , Sullivan , Missouri .
+
+= = Honors = =
+
+Bottomley was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame posthumously in 1974 by the Veterans Committee . The Baseball Writers ' Association of America charged that the Veterans Committee was not selective enough in choosing members . Charges of cronyism were levied against the Veterans Committee . When Bottomley was elected , the Veterans Committee included Frankie Frisch , a teammate of Bottomley 's with the Cardinals . Frisch and Bill Terry , also a member of the Veterans Committee at the time , shepherded the selections of teammates Jesse Haines in 1970 , Dave Bancroft and Chick Hafey in 1971 , Ross Youngs in 1972 , George Kelly in 1973 , and Freddie Lindstrom in 1976 . This led to the Veterans Committee having its powers reduced in subsequent years . In 2014 , the Cardinals announced Bottomley among 22 former players and personnel to be inducted into the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum for the inaugural class of 2014 .
+
+The city park in Sullivan is named for Bottomley . A museum in Nokomis , Illinois , the Bottomley @-@ Ruffing @-@ Schalk Baseball Museum , is dedicated to Bottomley and fellow Hall of Famers Ray Schalk and Red Ruffing , who were also Nokomis natives .
+
+= HMS Vigilant ( 1777 ) =
+
+HMS Vigilant was a merchantman converted into a warship during the American Revolution . After serving as a transport in North American waters from 1775 , she was purchased by the Royal Navy ( RN ) and modified for shore bombardment duties in 1777 . She was instrumental in the eventual British success during the siege of Fort Mifflin that same year and supported British operations in Georgia and South Carolina in 1779 – 80 . Her heavy armament proved to be more than Vigilant was designed to handle and she was condemned and disposed of in 1780 .
+
+= = Description and service = =
+
+Built at Whitby in 1774 , the ship was named the Grand Duchess of Russia and she was chartered by the Navy Board to serve as a transport at the beginning of 1775 . While being modified at Deptford Dockyard in February , the ship was surveyed and found to be barque @-@ rigged and just over 308 tons burthen in size . A survey in New York two years later gave her length as 120 ft ( 36 @.@ 6 m ) , measured at the keel , with a beam of 36 ft ( 11 @.@ 0 m ) . Naval historian Rif Winfield quotes her tonnage as 684 14 ⁄ 94 burthen with a length at the gundeck of 122 feet 6 inches ( 37 @.@ 3 m ) and beam of 34 ft 10 in ( 10 @.@ 6 m ) .
+
+Grand Duchess of Russia departed for Boston , Massachusetts carrying 150 marines on 30 March 1775 and she remained in North American waters for the next two years . Vice Admiral Lord Howe , commander of the North American Station , informed the Admiralty on 23 April that he had purchased the Grand Duchess of Russia and commissioned her as HMS Vigilant to bombard targets ashore . The ship received fourteen 24 @-@ pounder guns from the 50 @-@ gun ship Centurion and two 9 @-@ pounder and four 6 @-@ pounder guns from the hospital ( prison ) ship Jersey . Additional gun ports were cut in Vigilant 's side to allow two guns to be switched from one side to give her a broadside of nine guns . The 150 men of her crew were made up from the crews of Howe 's flagship , the third rate Eagle , Centurion , and the fourth rate Preston while her 30 marines were drawn from the marine brigade at Halifax .
+
+Her conversion was completed by the end of June and her first task was to cover the evacuation of British troops from Perth Amboy , New Jersey on 29 July . The following month , Vigilant served as Howe 's flagship when he landed British troops at Elkton , Maryland , at the northern end of Chesapeake Bay , during the Philadelphia Campaign . In October , the ship sailed for the mouth of the Delaware River to attack the American fortifications defending Philadelphia . During this voyage , she rolled so badly during heavy weather that the round shot fell out of her guns and it was later decided that she should not put to sea with her guns mounted except during the summer months . Vigilant was not designed to carry such heavy weights as the 2 @,@ 200 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) 24 pounders up high in the ship and cutting gun ports in her sides further weakened her structure .
+
+The first attack on Fort Mifflin on 22 – 23 October had been a disaster with two British ships run aground and burnt . For the second attack three weeks later , Vigilant 's crew was reinforced with an extra 50 men to work the guns and 24 riflemen to suppress the defenders of the fort during the attack . The ship 's sides were reinforced and two guns were transferred to the starboard side of the ship . Her trim was maintained by placing casks of water on the port side . While other ships bombarded the fort from the main channel , Vigilant and a smaller ship worked their way up a secondary channel to the rear of the fort . They were able to silence the fort 's guns by 6 p.m. , and the Americans evacuated five hours later , despite the ship 's grapeshot and small arms fire . During the attack Vigilant only lost three men killed and five wounded ; her hull had only been hit several times , but her rigging was shot to pieces . In recognition of the ship 's success , her commander , Lieutenant John Henry , was promoted to the command of the frigate Fowey .
+
+Vigilant was generally inactive while the British occupied Philadelphia , but she sailed to New York City when the British evacuated the city in June 1778 . She joined the small British squadron there upon the approach of a French squadron under the command of the Comte d 'Estaing in July , but the French declined to engage the British ships . The ship accompanied the British squadron to Newport , Rhode Island as it attempted to lift the Franco @-@ American siege , but Vigilant was badly damaged when a storm interrupted the planned battle on 13 August . Despite the damage , she supported British troops on 29 – 30 August as they pursued the retreating Americans who had abandoned the siege after the French ships sailed to Boston for repairs . A few days later , on 4 September , the ship collided with the sloop @-@ of @-@ war Raven during the British raid on New London , Connecticut and had her bow stove in by the other ship . Vigilant was quickly repaired in New York and participated in the attack on Little Egg Harbor River in October .
+
+At the beginning of December , the ship sailed from New York to Savannah , Georgia to assist in the attack on that city . Despite dismounting her main armament , the ship had to keep one or more pumps running continuously during the voyage to prevent her from sinking . She arrived at Savannah on 28 December , after the British had secured the city . Her nine @-@ pounder guns were ordered removed when she was reclassified as a 20 @-@ gun armed transport on 22 December . Throughout 1779 , Vigilant supported British operations along the coasts of Georgia and South Carolina , despite running aground several times . Lacking substantial repairs during this time , the ship 's condition deteriorated until her crew refused to take her to sea from Beaufort , South Carolina on 28 February 1780 to support the planned siege of Charleston . She was then surveyed and condemned as " utterly unfit for sea " and decommissioned on 9 April . Her crew and armament were loaded aboard the transport Margaret & Martha and taken to Charleston where they were transferred to the transport Margery , which had been purchased and renamed Sandwich to serve as Vigilant 's replacement . The ship was burnt at Beaufort sometime later that year .
+
+= David Falk =
+
+David B. Falk ( born 1950 ) is an American sports agent who primarily works with basketball players in the National Basketball Association . Falk began his career representing professional tennis players for Donald Dell 's ProServ and is best known for representing sports icon Michael Jordan for the entirety of Jordan 's career . Besides Jordan , Falk has represented more than 100 other NBA players , and is generally considered to be the most influential player agent the NBA has seen . During the peak years of Falk 's career in the 1990s , he was often considered the second @-@ most powerful person in the NBA behind Commissioner David Stern , and in 2000 he had at least one client on all but two NBA teams . He was listed among the " 100 Most Powerful People in Sports " for 12 straight years from 1990 to 2001 by The Sporting News , and was also named one of the Top 50 Marketers in the United States by Advertising Age in 1995 .
+
+Falk negotiated the then @-@ highest contracts in NBA history for Patrick Ewing and Danny Ferry . He also negotiated professional sports ' first $ 100 million contract for Alonzo Mourning as part of an unprecedented free agency period , during which his company , FAME , changed the entire salary structure of the NBA , negotiating more than $ 400 million in contracts for its free agent clients in a six @-@ day period .
+
+In January 2007 , Falk re @-@ launched FAME , and today serves as its founder and CEO . He represented 9 players in 2012 ; in the prime of his sports agent career in the 1990s he represented as many as 40 players at a time .
+
+= = Personal life = =
+
+Falk was born to a middle @-@ class Jewish family on Long Island , New York , the second of three children . Falk 's father had never finished high school and owned two butcher shops on Long Island , while his mother , Pearl Falk , had two master 's degrees , spoke six languages , and had worked as an interpreter in World War II for Nelson Rockefeller in Latin American affairs . Falk described his mother , a teacher and inspirational force as " a perfectionist " , and called her " the biggest influence in my life " , the one who drove him to achieve great heights .
+
+" Nothing was really ever good enough . I brought home my college board scores — I think I got just under 1 @,@ 400 the first time . She was crushed . She didn 't understand how I could do so poorly . I think that I share a lot of those qualities . She used to have an expression that I would say is the guiding principle of my life : Always shoot for the stars and never settle for second best . "
+
+Falk 's mother was an avid New York Knicks fan , a fact which influenced Falk 's career decision upon his career path . Longtime childhood friend and colleague , Attorney Reid Kahn , remembers Falk proclaiming that he wanted to represent professional athletes in the fourth grade . Another high school friend noted that Falk was not good enough to make any of the teams at Douglas MacArthur High School ( Levittown , New York ) , but that he was an ardent sports fan who frequently watched baseball games at Shea Stadium .
+
+He graduated Syracuse University in 1972 , with a degree in economics , and subsequently , George Washington University Law School , where he earned a J.D. with honors in 1975 .
+
+During his law school years , his parents separated . Falk maintained minimal contact with his father , but remained very close with his mother until her death in 1988 .
+
+Falk lives in Rockville , Maryland with his wife , Rhonda ( Frank ) . Rhonda served as an undergraduate admissions counselor for George Washington University for five years , where she recruited students from the New England area as well as from the Caribbean . For 10 years she worked as a production manager for STSC , a software company in Rockville , Maryland . She later moved into the software publishing division and managed the distribution and sales of software through international resellers around the world . She also serves on the board of directors of Woodmont Country Club .
+
+The Falks have two daughters , Daina , ( born 1983 ) an honors graduate of Duke University and an accomplished Beverly Hills photographer , and Jocelyn ( born 1988 ) , a dean 's list student majoring in television and communication at Syracuse University .
+
+= = Sports marketing , promotions , and contracts = =
+
+= = = ProServ and signing of Michael Jordan = = =
+
+After many attempts to establish contact with agents Bob Woolf of Boston and Larry Fleisher , Falk turned to ProServ 's Donald Dell in 1974 . Falk attempted to get Dell on the phone for " six or seven weeks . " Finally , annoyed at Dell 's seeming unavailability , Falk called Dell 's office " about 17 times in a three @-@ hour period " until Dell took his call . When Dell informed him that ProServ was not hiring , Falk offered to work for free . Dell consented to take on Falk as an unpaid intern while he was attending law school , finally offering him a full @-@ time job starting at $ 13 @,@ 000 after his graduation from George Washington University Law School in 1975 .
+
+Dell was a former pro tennis player and primarily represented tennis players , so he allowed Falk to handle a large portion of ProServ 's NBA dealings . Falk proved to be a capable agent and negotiator , as he signed the # 1 NBA Draft picks in 1976 ( John Lucas ) and 1981 ( Mark Aguirre ) , and negotiated the first million @-@ dollar NBA shoe deal for James Worthy in 1982 .
+
+ProServ had an inside track with North Carolina after they successfully represented a number of N.C. basketball alumni , including Tom LaGarde , Phil Ford , Dudley Bradley , and James Worthy . In 1984 , the same year Michael Jordan entered the NBA Draft , Frank Craighill and Lee Fentress , two of Dell 's ProServ partners , left to start a competing firm , Advantage International . Dell and Falk signed # 3 pick Jordan , while Craighill and Fentress signed Sam Perkins .
+
+= = = Nike shoe deal : " Air Jordan " = = =
+
+After signing Jordan , Falk quickly made the first great deal for him : the Nike shoe deal . At the start of the 80s , only Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar had a six @-@ figure shoe deal for $ 100 @,@ 000 ( with Adidas ) , and Nike was a small player next to companies like Converse , which had virtually owned the market on basketball shoes through the 1970s . After James Worthy signed an 8 @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 2 million endorsement deal with New Balance in 1982 , also negotiated by Falk , Falk decided to make large demands to shoe companies for Jordan 's services , including his own shoe line and a royalty .
+
+" We decided to stretch the envelope " , Falk said . " Instead of calling up the companies and asking them how much they would pay Michael Jordan , we called them up and asked them to make a presentation and explain what they could do to promote him . Needless to say , this got a lot of quizzical replies . "
+
+Unbeknownst to Falk and Jordan , Nike had decided to target Jordan as their player of the future . Jordan himself was initially reticent ; throughout college he had worn Converse because of the company 's endorsement deal with Tar Heels coach Dean Smith , and off the court , he wore Adidas . Jordan had never worn or even seen a Nike shoe before the company contacted him .
+
+Nike 's initial offer was $ 250 @,@ 000 , his own shoe line , and a percentage of the revenues . Jordan already had a standing offer from Adidas for $ 500 @,@ 000 , and Falk demanded that Nike match the figure in addition to the revenue percentage . Nike came back with an offer of $ 500 @,@ 000 and a smaller cut . Falk agreed .
+
+" David Falk elected to take more guaranteed money and less revenue percentage " , said ( Nike Scout ) Sonny Vaccaro . " So out of the chute he lost himself a lot of money . But in retrospect , it really amounted to nothing . It wasn 't a big @-@ time bidding war . Probably the most determining thing was Adidas wasn 't going to offer him a lot of money . It was the first time that the athlete was going to share in the royalties of the shoe . That was the gamble . "
+
+The deal was all the more significant because it was considered difficult to market African @-@ American players in 1984 , especially in a team sport like basketball . In fact , Nike insisted on several " outs " in its initial contract with Jordan : the shoe line could be dropped if certain sales figures were not met , or if Jordan failed to make the NBA All @-@ Star Game in his first three years . The shoe line was expected to earn $ 3 million for Nike in about three to four years . As it turned out , the Air Jordan sneaker earned Nike $ 130 million in 1985 alone , making their $ 500 @,@ 000 contract with Jordan one of the great bargains of all time , a precursor to Jordan 's more lucrative deals with Nike , including a 1997 deal for $ 30 million . Jordan 's relationship with Nike is often considered the most successful sports endorsement relationship in history .
+
+= = = Marketing Michael Jordan = = =
+
+Falk soon proved himself to be a capable agent with many innovative marketing ideas . He allowed Nike to establish Jordan 's primary image , then began splitting it up among other advertisers , including Coca @-@ Cola , Chevrolet , Gatorade , McDonald 's , Ball Park Franks , Wilson Sporting Goods , Rayovac , Wheaties , Hanes , and MCI . Falk 's ideas stretched to all areas of the marketplace , including a fragrance ( called simply " Michael Jordan " ) made by the Beverly Hills designer Bijan , which was cited as the best @-@ marketed product of 1996 by the American Marketing Association . Falk even came up with the idea of teaming Bugs Bunny and Jordan together in a feature film , and then sold the concept to Warner Bros. in 1993 . The ensuing film , Space Jam , was executive produced by Falk and released in 1996 . Perhaps most importantly , Falk " set a precedent by ' opting out ' Jordan from the league 's licensing program , in effect reclaiming Jordan 's image for his own use . " Jordan himself was very grateful for his agent 's remarkable negotiating and marketing abilities , even with Falk 's penchant for making powerful enemies along the way .
+
+" A lot of people don 't like David , but he 's the best at what he does " , Jordan told USA Today last year . " What he does is get underneath your skin , whoever he 's negotiating with , because he figures out what your objectives are , your angles . He understands the market ; he understands the players . He 's a brash , arrogant , egotistical , aggressive negotiator , which is good , because when you have someone represent you , you want him to do that . Marketing @-@ wise , he 's great . He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan . ' "
+
+Due partly to Falk 's tenacity and partly to Michael Jordan 's own professional success and personal magnetism , Jordan became " indisputably the most powerful and effective endorser of products in American history , ... ( making ) the business of hawking products more lucrative than playing the game . " Jordan 's success was such that he turned down $ 300 million worth of endorsement deals in the space of 4 months in 1998 .
+
+= = = ProServ split , establishment and sale of FAME = = =
+
+In 1992 , after great early success , Falk considered himself underpaid and underappreciated . He split with ProServ and Donald Dell to establish his own company , Falk Associates Management Enterprises ( FAME ) .
+
+" I paid more in taxes this year ( 1996 ) than I earned in 17 years working for Donald Dell " , Falk said with some lingering bitterness . " I 'm all for loyalty , but that has to be a two @-@ way street . "
+
+In the split , a messy professional divorce , Falk brought all of his considerable client list with him , but agreed to provide Dell with 50 % of fees for Dell 's former clients and 17 @.@ 5 % of Falk 's income for new contracts . Dell " sought arbitration to enforce the agreement , claiming that Falk ' unilaterally ' had rewritten clients ' third @-@ party contracts to reduce fees to Dell . "
+
+Falk and partners Curtis Polk and Mike Higgins soon propelled FAME to the top of the NBA player representation business . At its peak , the company consisted of about 25 people and represented 45 players . During FAME 's 7 @-@ year existence , it represented " an unprecedented 6 first @-@ round draft picks in the NBA , negotiated over $ 400 million in contracts for its free @-@ agent clients , and negotiated four of the five largest contracts in team sports history . " Just prior to the company 's sale in 1998 , the contracts of Falk 's players totaled almost $ 800 million .
+
+In 1998 , Falk sold FAME to the entertainment group SFX for $ 100 million , while remaining the group 's president . In the space of a year , SFX bought 14 private sports representation companies for a combined $ 1 @.@ 5 billion and consolidated them into SFX Sports Group in 1999 , naming Falk as Chairman . Ironically , one of the companies SFX acquired was ProServ , and Falk found himself in charge of the company that he had left on such bitter terms .
+
+During his Chairmanship at SFX Sports Group from 1999 to 2001 , " Falk oversaw the acquisition of a dozen sports agencies that enabled SFX to represent approximately 20 percent of MLB and NBA players . " Largely due to the work of Falk and fellow agent Arn Tellem , the umbrella SFX Sports Group represented 78 NBA players in contract negotiations in 2000 , and came to represent approximately one @-@ third of NBA players in 2002 .
+
+= = 1995 and 1998 NBA lockouts = =
+
+= = = 1995 NBA lockout = = =
+
+Falk was one of the key figures in the 1995 NBA lockout . The lockout originally occurred when the players wanted a soft salary cap , while the owners wanted a hard salary cap . Falk led a rebellion on the National Basketball Players Association ( NBPA ) by establishing a dissident faction of 16 players and a number of agents ( including players Michael Jordan , Patrick Ewing , Alonzo Mourning , Reggie Miller , and fellow agents Marc Fleisher and Arn Tellem ) that began advocating for NBPA decertification . The goal was to strip NBA management of antitrust protection , making the salary cap and other forms of collective bargaining violations of antitrust laws , win a settlement in court , and then immediately re @-@ form the Players ' Union . NBA Commissioner David Stern criticized Falk 's involvement in the negotiations , saying that he was " trashing his own clients . " Kenny Gattison , the Charlotte Hornets ' player representative , went so far as to blame the entire lockout on Falk .
+
+" I think this whole thing has been manufactured by David Falk " , Gattison told The Charlotte Observer Friday night . " The guys he used to initiate the decertification drive aren 't concerned with the union and the everyday little guy . These guys have been in the league 10 or 11 years and have yet to voice an opinion about what 's going on . Then all of a sudden David Falk doesn 't like what 's going on . "
+
+Despite considerable support , decertification was defeated by a vote of the Players ' Union , 226 – 134 . But even though Falk did not manage to decertify the NBPA , his influence helped to lead to the abandonement of a luxury tax on salaries , and ultimately led to a deal that increased the players ' portion of NBA revenues from 52 % to 57 % , as well as the salary structure that saw Michael Jordan make $ 33 million for the 1998 season alone . Some argued that the concessions Falk gained from the owners through his role in the 1995 lockout were the primary cause of another lockout that occurred just three seasons later .
+
+= = = 1998 – 99 NBA lockout = = =
+
+During the 1998 – 99 lockout , Falk was often described as the " invisible hand " that guided union negotiations . The NBPA President during the lockout , Patrick Ewing , was a client of Falk 's . Falk was also the agent of " nearly half " of the union 's 19 @-@ member negotiating committee , including Alonzo Mourning , Juwan Howard , and Dikembe Mutombo . Though his presence in negotiations was already assumed , Falk publicly stated in an October 31 , 1998 New York Times article that he would " roll up his sleeves and exert as much influence as he ( could ) behind the scenes , ... ( planning ) to take a more proactive role in ending the lockout . "
+
+Shortly after his statements in the Times article , Falk and Arn Tellem , who together represented more than 70 of the NBA 's 400 players , organized a charity exhibition game , with part of the proceeds going to financially pinched NBA players . The rosters had a number of Falk clients , and some saw the game as a threat by Falk " to create a new league through a partnership with the entertainment giant SFX , which [ had ] recently purchased Falk 's company for $ 150 million . " The game was played on December 19 , 1998 in the Atlantic City Convention Center , featuring 16 All @-@ Stars and drawing a crowd of about 6 @,@ 000 people . Falk and the other organizers had originally planned to give 90 % of the proceeds to NBA players , but public criticism caused them to instead give almost all of the $ 1 million to national and local charities .
+
+Meanwhile , Falk was being criticized on multiple fronts for his role in lockout negotiations . NBA Commissioner David Stern accused Falk and Arn Tellem specifically of " holding the deal hostage " to reap benefits for their high @-@ end clients . Fellow player agent Harold MacDonald disparaged what he saw as Falk 's excessive influence on the union 's president , Patrick Ewing :
+
+" Every time I see Patrick say something , it 's almost like watching the Energizer bunny " , said the agent Harold MacDonald , who represents Derrick Coleman and Terry Mills . " I 'm just waiting for Falk to put in another battery , and off Patrick goes again . Hardly any influence ? Give me a break . "
+
+Isiah Thomas , who was President of the Players ' Union from 1988 to 1994 , blasted Falk by saying that " he 's been trying to take over the union for years , " and many saw Falk as the controlling influence in the union 's negotiations . Falk 's involvement in the 1998 lockout also led to Mike Lupica famously dubbing Falk " Rasputin off the bench " in a New York Daily News article , " the rare person who could make a writer root for a sports owner . " The lockout finally ended just 29 hours before the cancellation of the entire NBA season after the players overwhelmingly ratified the latest deal put forward , 179 @-@ 5 .
+
+= = Influence and inspiration = =
+
+= = = Facilitating NBA trades = = =
+
+Falk 's client list , with Michael Jordan its centerpiece , made him one of the primary movers and shakers in the NBA , able to leverage teams into agreeing to his terms on contracts and trades . Some speculated that Falk engineered as many as one of every five NBA trades during the height of his power , and he was often considered the second @-@ most powerful man in basketball behind NBA Commissioner David Stern . In The Sporting News ' list of the " 100 Most Powerful People in Sports " , Falk was listed no lower than # 32 for 10 straight years from 1991 to 2000 , peaking at # 14 from 1998 to 1999 .
+
+" Falk has massive leverage " , says the general manager of one N.B.A. team who didn 't want his name used for fear of angering Falk . " If he just had Michael , he would be considered a marketing genius , which he is . But David represents so many players that he is a major force . He pretty much gets what he asks for . "
+
+A 1999 deal in which Falk forced the Minnesota Timberwolves to trade Stephon Marbury gives a good indication of how Falk used his power . Falk threatened the Timberwolves by telling them that Marbury would walk away in free agency at the end of the season if he was not traded , as well as suggesting that he would dump his stable of free agents into the lap of Chicago Bulls GM Jerry Krause if Marbury was not moved . As the Minnesota Timberwolves started looking around for possible trade scenarios , Falk even went so far as to veto a trade that would have brought Kerry Kittles ( another Falk client ) to Minnesota for Marbury , claiming that Kittles had no interest in playing for Minnesota . The Timberwolves were eventually forced to send Marbury to New Jersey in a three @-@ team trade . Minnesota 's General Manager , Kevin McHale , was greatly embittered about the trade , and has been quoted as saying that " If a nuclear bomb dropped on earth , two things would survive : roaches and David Falk . "
+
+A second trade which resulted from Falk 's influence was the 2000 mega @-@ deal which moved Knicks All @-@ Star center Patrick Ewing to the Seattle SuperSonics in a four @-@ team trade involving 12 players and 5 draft picks . Falk apparently made threats to the Knicks that he would move Glen Rice to the Miami Heat if they did not consent to trade Ewing , who supposedly wanted out of New York .
+
+Falk was frequently blasted for making use of threats and side @-@ deals to move his clients around and maximize their earnings , but he remained unapologetic , arguing that he was simply looking after the best interests of his clients .
+
+" That 's called leverage " , he said . " Every company in the world uses leverage whenever they engage in any negotiation . It 's bad for the teams and good for the players . I work for the players . "
+
+= = = Building wealth for clients and himself = = =
+
+As early as 1992 , even before his departure from ProServ , other NBA agents had begun acknowledging that Falk generally negotiated the contracts that defined the market for the year , and set the standard by which other agents were judged . By the end of the 1995 NBA lockout , Falk controlled enough top players that he was seen as " dictat ( ing ) the structure and the economics of the entire league , " so much so that during one six @-@ day period in the summer of 1996 , he negotiated six contracts — for Jordan , Alonzo Mourning , Juwan Howard , Kenny Anderson , Dikembe Mutombo and Lee Mayberry — worth more than $ 335 million . Since Falk usually earned 4 % of player contracts , which is the maximum amount allowed by the Players ' Union , he made roughly $ 13 million for these 6 deals alone . He was so successful at negotiating contracts that in 1998 , just before he sold FAME to SFX Entertainment , the contracts of Falk 's players totaled just under $ 800 million .
+
+Falk also earned as much as 20 % of player endorsement deals and off @-@ court income , and with Michael Jordan 's endorsement deals alone soaring to over $ 40 million annually in the mid @-@ 90s , Falk counted his yearly income in the tens of millions . He also negotiated notable shoe endorsements for James Worthy , Boomer Esiason ( the first NFL player to endorse the Reebok Pump ) and Allen Iverson . Falk was not well @-@ liked around the league , with even NBA executives acknowledging that they felt he held a disproportionate amount of power . As the negotiator behind four of the five largest contracts in team sports history and the pre @-@ eminent agent in the NBA , Falk was a contributor to the spike in player salaries that saw the average NBA contract rise from $ 330 @,@ 000 in 1984 , the year Jordan was signed , to $ 4 @.@ 5 million in 2001 , when he stepped down as Chairman of SFX Sports Group . Falk himself scoffed at the venom that was frequently directed his way :
+
+" There 's always something to criticize -- I have too much power or too many clients . I scoff at that . Think about it : If you lived on a block with $ 300 @,@ 000 houses and you sold yours for $ 2 @.@ 5 million , your neighbors would thank you . But in my business they don 't . That used to make me angry . Now I 'm just amused . "
+
+= = = Professional legacy = = =
+
+Falk 's enduring legacy can best be described as the NBA 's new star @-@ centered focus . Falk 's idea was that since most people bought Chicago Bulls tickets to see Michael Jordan , Jordan himself should get a large proportion of the benefit .
+
+" Basketball is a hybrid between an individual and team sport " , Falk is saying . " Very gifted players almost make a team by themselves . In that environment , a Michael Jordan , Alonzo Mourning , Juwan Howard , Shaquille O 'Neal and Patrick Ewing bring in the fans . Fans come to watch them play primarily . They create marketing opportunities , new stadiums , luxury boxes , and they should be paid a disproportionate amount of money . The salary structure should be close to what it is in Hollywood , where Jim Carrey makes $ 16 million a film and the second star makes $ 2 million . That 's what I believe as an economics major and as a neo @-@ capitalist . "
+
+As David Halberstam put it in his book Playing for Keeps : Michael Jordan and the World He Made ,
+
+Michael Jordan and David Falk helped make each other , and each profited to a remarkable degree from their special collaboration . It is true that Michael Jordan was the person who in the end actually did the deeds , went on the court and hit the final jump shot again and again , but it is also true that David Falk helped revolutionize the process of representing a basketball player , going into a team sport and creating the idea of the individual player as a commercial superstar .
+
+= = = Personal legacy and philanthropy = = =
+
+On April 23 , 2008 , Syracuse University established The David B. Falk Center for Sport Management , an annex to the Carrier Dome , to better prepare graduates to enter the sports industry , and student @-@ athletes to manage realities of professional sports through life @-@ skills training , in its College of Human Ecology . It was supported by a $ 5 million gift from Falk and his wife Rhonda . The Falk Center 's inaugural event was a panel discussion on issues in contemporary sports at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Falk is chair of the university 's Sport Management Advisory Board .
+
+On June 22 , 2009 , it was announced that Rick Burton was named the David B. Falk Distinguished Professor of Sport Management and will begin his position on August 20 , teaching courses in international sport , sport communications and sport marketing while pursuing scholarly work , research and other academic initiatives in the Department of Sport Management . Burton was the first executive director of the Warsaw Sports Marketing Center at the University of Oregon 's Lundquist College of Business , chief marketing officer for the U.S. Olympic Committee and commissioner of the National Basketball League in Sydney , Australia .
+
+On March 24 , 2011 it was announced that Falk had made a pledge of an additional $ 15 million to Syracuse University and " The David B. Falk Center for Sports Management " .
+
+In 2014 , Falk and Patrick Ewing announced a $ 3 @.@ 3 million donation to the John R. Thompson , Jr . Intercollegiate Athletics Center under construction at Georgetown University . The amount is a reference to Ewing 's number , 33 .
+
+On Oct. 23 , 2015 , the Dean of the David B. Falk College of Sport and Human Dynamics , Diane Lyden Murphy , will lead a dedication ceremony to commemorate the opening of the new home of the college . For the first time in the college ’ s history — which dates back to 1917 when the School of Home Economics began as a course in the College of Agriculture and the first nutrition course was taught — Falk College ’ s academic disciplines and administrative offices are housed in a central location .
+
+= = Other ventures = =
+
+Falk is also on the board of directors of Sapphire Brands ; a founding investor in private aviation company , Marquis Jet and Golf GCX Partners ; and a founder and principal in Relevad Media Group , a digital alternative advertising company . Falk is a frequent guest lecturer at universities across the country , including Harvard , Yale , and Duke , and serves on the George Washington University National Law Center 's advisory board .
+
+" My mother was a teacher , and I think that 's one reason that , amidst my deal @-@ making skills , I have a very strong pedagogical bent " , he says . " I really enjoy teaching , and believe it is one of the most important professions in our society . "
+
+= = = Executive Producer = = =
+
+Falk executive produced a number of sports @-@ related films , including Space Jam , which teamed Jordan with a number of Looney Tunes characters , Michael Jordan to the Max , the critically acclaimed large @-@ format feature , and the Sports Emmy Award @-@ winning On Hallowed Ground , a documentary on the history of the Rucker Park Basketball League .
+
+= = = The Bald Truth = = =
+
+Falk 's first book , The Bald Truth , was released on February 3 , 2009 .
+
+= = Partial client list = =
+
+Falk 's 2014 NBA player clients are in bold , while his non @-@ NBA player clients are in italics .
+
+= Auricularia auricula @-@ judae =
+
+Auricularia auricula @-@ judae , known as the Jew 's ear , wood ear , jelly ear or by a number of other common names , is a species of edible Auriculariales fungus found worldwide . The fruiting body is distinguished by its noticeably ear @-@ like shape and brown colouration ; it grows upon wood , especially elder . Its specific epithet is derived from the belief that Judas Iscariot hanged himself from an elder tree ; the common name " Judas 's ear " eventually became " Jew 's ear " , while today " jelly ear " and other names are sometimes used . The fungus can be found throughout the year in temperate regions worldwide , where it grows upon both dead and living wood .
+
+In the West , A. auricula @-@ judae was used in folk medicine as recently as the 19th century for complaints including sore throats , sore eyes and jaundice , and as an astringent . Although it is not widely consumed in the West , it has long been popular in China , to the extent that Australia exported large volumes to China in the early twentieth century . Today , the fungus is a popular ingredient in many Chinese dishes , such as hot and sour soup , and also used in Chinese medicine . It is also used in Ghana , as a blood tonic . Modern research into possible medical applications have variously concluded that A. auricula @-@ judae has antitumour , hypoglycemic , anticoagulant and cholesterol @-@ lowering properties .
+
+= = Taxonomy and naming = =
+
+The species was first mentioned in the scientific literature as Tremella auricula by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum , and later ( 1789 ) described by Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard as Tremella auricula @-@ judae . However , the genus Tremella is now reserved for fungal species that live as parasites on other fungi . Tremella auricula @-@ judae is now considered a basionym . In 1791 , Bulliard transferred the species to the genus Peziza . In 1822 , Elias Magnus Fries transferred the species to Exidia , and , in so doing , sanctioned the name . In 1860 , Miles Joseph Berkeley described the species as a member of Hirneola , a genus described by Fries in 1848 , now considered synonymous with Auricularia .
+
+The species was given the name Auricularia auricula @-@ judae in 1888 by Joseph Schröter . The specific name of A. auricula @-@ judae comprises auricula , the Latin word meaning ear , and Judae , meaning of Judas . Under binomial nomenclature , a species name can comprise only two words ; but the taxonomists responsible for this naming hyphenated the specific name to " bend the rules " and keep the name " within the letter of the law " . The name was criticised by mycologist Curtis Gates Lloyd , who said " Auricularia auricula @-@ Judae is cumbersome and in addition is a slander on the Jews " . Though critical of Lucien Marcus Underwood , saying he " would probably not have known the Jew 's ear from the calves ' liver " , he followed him in using Auricularia auricula , which was in turn used by Bernard Lowy in an article on the entire genus . Despite this , Auricularia auricula @-@ judae is the currently recognised name for the species by many sources , though Auricularia auricula is still occasionally used .
+
+As well as the obligate synonyms from Bulliard , Fries and Berkeley , there are numerous other synonymous names . Mycologist George Willard Martin , writing in 1943 , noted that the species was known by at least 12 binomials , of which none appeared to be valid , and noted that " the citations given for the various names are extremely erratic " . Mycologist Mary F. Barrett attributes " such multiplication of names " to " the wide distribution of the Judas ' ear , its ability to grow upon many different kinds of decaying wood , and to its great variation in size , colour and shape " .
+
+The fungus is associated with Judas Iscariot because of the belief that he hanged himself on an elder tree after his betrayal of Jesus Christ . Folklore suggests that the ears are Judas 's returned spirit , and are all that are left to remind us of his suicide . The common name of the fungus was originally " Judas 's ear " , but this was later shortened to " Judas ear " and , in the late 19th century , shortened again to " Jew 's ear " . Common names for the fungus which refer to Judas can be traced back to at least the end of the 16th century ; for instance , in the 17th century , Thomas Browne wrote of the species :
+
+In Jews ' ears something is conceived extraordinary from the name , which is in propriety but fungus sambucinus , or an excrescence about the roots of elder , and concerneth not the nation of the Jews , but Judas Iscariot , upon a conceit he hanged on this tree ; and is become a famous medicine in quinsies , sore throats , and strangulations , ever since .
+
+While the term " Jew 's meat " was a deprecatory term used for all fungi in the Middle Ages , the term is unrelated to the name " Jew 's ear " . A further change of name to " jelly ear " was recommended in the List of Recommended Names for Fungi . The idea was rejected by mycologist Patrick Harding who considered it " to be the result of political correctness where it is not necessary " , and who " will continue to call [ the species ] Jew 's ear " , explaining that , while anti @-@ Semitism was commonplace in Britain , the name " Jew 's ear " is in reference to Judas , who was a Jew . However , the name has been adopted in some recent field guides .
+
+Unrelated common names include the " ear fungus " , " common ear fungus " , " the Chinese Fungus " , " the pig 's ear " , " the wood ear " , " the black wood ear " , " the tree ear " , and " Kikurage " . The species was known as " fungus sambuca " among herbalists , in reference to Sambuca , the generic name for elder .
+
+= = Description = =
+
+The fruit body of A. auricula @-@ judae is normally 3 to 8 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) across , but can be as much as 12 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . It is distinctively shaped , typically being reminiscent of a floppy ear , though the fruit bodies can also be cup @-@ shaped . It is normally attached to the substrate laterally and sometimes by a very short stalk . The species has a tough , gelatinous , elastic texture when fresh , but it dries hard and brittle . The outer surface is a bright reddish @-@ tan @-@ brown with a purplish hint , often covered in tiny , downy hairs of a grey colour . It can be smooth , as is typical of younger specimens , or undulating with folds and wrinkles . The colour becomes darker with age . The inner surface is a lighter grey @-@ brown in colour and smooth . It is sometimes wrinkled , again with folds and wrinkles , and may have " veins " , making it appear even more ear @-@ like .
+
+= = = Microscopic features = = =
+
+The spores of A. auricula @-@ judae are long and sausage shaped , ranging in size from 16 to 18 micrometres ( μm ) long by 6 to 8 μm thick . The spores themselves are white , cream or yellowish , and are hyaline . The spores can sometimes be seen in a whitish mass on the underside of the fruit body . The species has elongated cylindrical basidia with three transverse septa ( internal cross @-@ walls dividing the hyphae ) . Basidia 60 @-@ 72x 4 @-@ 7.5μm ; sterigmata lateral , well developed , 3 @-@ 4.5μm long . Spores smooth , hyaline , reniform to allantoid , 14 @-@ 18 Χ 6 @-@ 8μm , guttulate . Hairs on the fruit body are from 85 to 100 μm in length , and 5 to 6 μm in diameter . They are hyaline , lack a central strand and have rounded tips . They do not grow in dense tufts .
+
+= = = Similar species = = =
+
+Auricularia auricula @-@ judae is similar to A. fuscosuccinea in colour and texture , and " may be confused with it if only external features are considered " . The spore and basidia sizes of the two species are slightly different , but this is not a reliable way to tell them apart . A. cornea is another similar species in the same genus , but has distinct internal differences , is normally more pilose ( more covered in soft hair ) and tends to fruit in larger numbers .
+
+= = Habitat , ecology and distribution = =
+
+Auricularia auricula @-@ judae grows upon the wood of deciduous trees and shrubs , favouring elder . In up to 90 % of cases , the mushroom is found on elder , but it is often incorrectly assumed to grow exclusively on elder . It has also been recorded on Acer pseudoplatanus ( known in the United Kingdom as sycamore ) , beech , ash , spindle , and in one particular case , the sycamore draining board of an old sink in Hatton Garden . Recently , A. auricula @-@ judae has been recorded from semi @-@ evergreen to evergreen and wet evergreen shola forests in the Western Ghats , India . This species occurs scattered and in clusters on dead or dying branches of trees , on main trunk , decaying logs , etc . This species occurs during the monsoon period in large imbricate clusters and under high humid conditions produces exceptionally large sized basidiomes . A. auricula @-@ judae growing in wet evergreen and shola forests shows remarkable variation in size , shape and colour . In Australia , it is found in Eucalyptus woodland and rainforests ; in the rainforests , it can grow in very large colonies on fallen logs . It favours older branches , where it feeds as a saprophyte ( on dead wood ) or a weak parasite ( on living wood ) , and it causes white rot .
+
+Commonly growing solitarily , it can also be gregarious ( in a group ) or caespitose ( in a tuft ) . Spores are ejected from the underside of the fruit bodies with as many as several hundred thousand an hour , and the high rate continues when the bodies have been significantly dried . Even when they have lost some 90 % of their weight through dehydration , the bodies continue to release a small number of spores . It is found all year , but is most common in autumn . It is widespread throughout temperate and sub @-@ tropical zones worldwide , and can be found across Europe , North America , Asia , Australia , South America and Africa . There has been some debate about the appearance of the species in the tropics ; while it has been frequently reported there , Bernard Lowy , in an article on Auricularia , said that " of the specimens I have examined , none could be assigned here " .
+
+= = Uses = =
+
+= = = Food = = =
+
+Auricularia auricula @-@ judae has a soft , jelly @-@ like texture . Though edible , it was not held in high culinary regard in the west for many years . It has been likened to " eating an Indian rubber with bones in it " , while in 19th @-@ century Britain , it was said that " it has never been regarded here as an edible fungus " . It has a mild flavour , and is useful for mixed mushroom recipes , but is still considered bland in the west . It can be dried and rehydrated , sometimes swelling to a very large size . Young specimens are best , but the species is not edible when raw , needing to be cooked thoroughly . The whole fruit body can be eaten , but should be thoroughly washed before cooking . Cooking can sometimes take a comparatively long time . The nutritional content of 100 g ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) of dried fungus includes 370 kcal , 10 @.@ 6 g of protein , 0 @.@ 2 g of fat , 65 g of carbohydrate , 5 @.@ 8 g ash , and 0 @.@ 03 % mg of carotene . Fresh mushrooms contain about 90 % moisture . Dried specimens may be ground up into a powder and used to absorb excess liquid in soups and stews , as it rehydrates into tiny fragments .
+
+Both A. auricula @-@ judae and the similar A. polytricha are popular in China , where the medicinal use of food is common ; a soup containing the species is used medicinally for dealing with colds and fevers by reducing the heat of the body . There is evidence that the species were being cultivated in China as early as the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) . Li Shizhen , in his Pen Tsao Kang Mu , quotes Tang Ying @-@ chuan from that period as saying " ... put the steamed bran on logs , cover with straw , Wood Ear will grow " . In the early 20th century , large volumes of A. auricula @-@ judae were exported from Australia to China , and it is today still sold in Asian food shops for culinary use . It is also popular in Vietnam , although the climate is there more suited to A. polytricha . A report on small @-@ scale fungi cultivation concluded that A. auricula @-@ judae would be suitable for cultivation only in cooler climates . According to a 2010 publication , the annual production of Auricularia species worldwide is the fourth highest among all industrially cultivated culinary and medicinal mushrooms , and in China , the estimated output was roughly 1 @.@ 655 million tonnes ( based on 2003 data ) , most of which are A. polytricha however ( which has by and large replaced A. auricula @-@ judae in international trade ) .
+
+Auricularia auricula @-@ judae is also in cultivation elsewhere in the world , for instance , in Ghana . In the Brong @-@ Ahafo and Ashanti regions , it is grown with what is referred to as the " plastic bag method " . Sawdust is packed into polypropylene bags and then sterilised by steam for several hours . Once the sawdust has cooled , Sorghum grain spawn is added , and the bags are kept in moderately dark conditions . Once the sawdust is exposed to a humid environment , A. auricula @-@ judae fruit bodies begin to grow . Elsewhere in the world , a study on the use of mushrooms by the Bini people inhabiting a remote village in southern Nigeria found that the local inhabitants collected and ate A. auricula @-@ judae , but that it was not one of the mushrooms they used medicinally .
+
+Collection of the mushroom for culinary use has also been documented in Nepal . However , the Nepalese do not consider it a choice mushroom for eating ; of the three grades given to edible mushrooms , it was given the worst . Again , unlike other mushrooms , no medicinal use was reported . The mushroom has also been the only non @-@ morel species exported from Nepal for culinary use .
+
+Other places where A. auricula @-@ judae has been recorded as commonly consumed include Poland , Mozambique and Indonesia , while , in Bolivia , Goeldi 's monkeys have been recorded as commonly eating the sporocarps .
+
+= = = Folk medicine = = =
+
+Auricularia auricula @-@ judae has been used as a medicinal mushroom by many herbalists . It was used as a poultice to treat inflammations of the eye , as well as a palliative for throat problems . The 16th @-@ century herbalist John Gerard , writing in 1597 , recommended A. auricula @-@ judae for a very specific use ; other fungi were used more generally . He recommends the preparation of a liquid extract by boiling the fruit bodies in milk , or else leaving them steeped in beer , which would then be sipped slowly in order to cure a sore throat . The resultant broth was probably not dissimilar to the Chinese soups that use A. polytricha . Carolus Clusius , writing in 1601 , also said that the species could be gargled to cure a sore throat , and John Parkinson , writing in 1640 , reported that boiling in milk or steeping in vinegar was " the onely use the are put unto that I know " .
+
+Writing in 1694 , herbalist John Pechey described A. auricula @-@ judae by saying " It grows to the Trunk of the Elder @-@ Tree . Being dried it will keep a good year . Boyl 'd in Milk , or infus 'd in Vinegarm ' tis good to gargle the Mouth or Throat in Quinsies , and other inflammations of the Mouth and Throat . And being infus 'd in some proper Water , it is good in Diseases of the Eyes . " The species also saw use as an astringent due to its ability to absorb water . There are recorded medicinal usages from Scotland , where it was again used as a gargle for sore throats , and from Ireland , where , in an attempt to cure jaundice , it was boiled in milk . The medicinal use of A. auricula @-@ judae continued until at least 1860 , when it was still sold at Covent Garden ; at the time , it was not considered edible in the United Kingdom .
+
+Medicinal use in Indonesia was also recorded in the 1930s , and was more recently reported in modern @-@ day Ghana . A report for the 2005 Commonwealth Forestry Conference examining the possible effects of deforestation in southern Ghana on medicinal and edible fungi found that A. auricula @-@ judae was in use as a blood tonic .
+
+= = = Pharmacology = = =
+
+Auricularia auricula @-@ judae has been the subject of research into possible medicinal applications . Experiments in the 1980s concluded that two glucans isolated from the species showed potent antitumour properties when used on mice artificially implanted with Sarcoma 180 tumours . This was despite the conclusion of earlier research indicating that , while aqueous extracts from several other fungal species had antitumour effects , extracts from A. auricula @-@ judae did not . Further , research on genetically diabetic mice showed that a polysaccharide extracted from A. auricula @-@ judae had a hypoglycemic effect ; mice fed with food including the polysaccharide showed reduced plasma glucose , insulin , urinary glucose and food intake .
+
+Another chemical extracted from the species was an acidic polysaccharide ( made up of mostly mannose , glucose , glucuronic acid and xylose ) which showed anticoagulant properties . The article concluded that " the polysaccharides from these mushrooms may constitute a new source of compounds with action on coagulation , platelet aggregation and , perhaps , on thrombosis " . Another study reported that the species may be effective in stopping platelet binding in vitro , with possible uses regarding hypercholesterolemia . Research has shown that A. auricula @-@ judae can be used to lower cholesterol levels generally , and , in particular , is one of two fungi shown to reduce the level of bad cholesterol .
+
+= = Cultural depictions = =
+
+The species is referred to in Christopher Marlowe 's play The Jew of Malta . Iathamore proclaims : " The hat he wears , Judas left under the elder when he hanged himself " . Later , the species was probably partially the inspiration for Emily Dickinson 's poem beginning " The Mushroom is the Elf of Plants " , which depicts a mushroom as the " ultimate betrayer " . Dickinson had both a religious and naturalistic background , and so it is more than likely that she knew of the common name of A. auricula @-@ judae , and of the folklore surrounding Judas 's suicide .
+
+= Jersey Act =
+
+The Jersey Act was introduced to prevent the registration of most American @-@ bred Thoroughbred horses in the British General Stud Book . It had its roots in the desire of the British to halt the influx of American @-@ bred racehorses of possibly impure bloodlines during the early 20th century . Many American @-@ bred horses were exported to Europe to race and retire to a breeding career after a number of US states banned gambling , which depressed Thoroughbred racing as well as breeding in that country . The loss of breeding records during the American Civil War and the late beginning of the registration of American Thoroughbreds led many in the British racing establishment to doubt that the American @-@ bred horses were purebred .
+
+In 1913 the Jockey Club and the owners of the General Stud Book passed a regulation named by the foreign press after the Jockey Club 's senior steward , Lord Jersey , prohibiting the registration of horses in the book unless all of their ancestors had been registered . Despite protests from American breeders the regulation was in force until 1949 . Among the factors influencing its relaxation were the racing success of ineligible horses in Europe and the damage being caused to British and Irish breeders by the unavailability of French Thoroughbreds during and after the Second World War . In addition , by 1949 the impure ancestors of the American bloodlines had receded far back in most horses ' ancestry .
+
+= = Background = =
+
+Before the introduction in 1913 of what became popularly known — " with questionnable taste " according to a correspondent writing in The Times — as the Jersey Act , Thoroughbred horses in the United Kingdom were registered in the General Stud Book , the stud book for British and Irish Thoroughbreds . The rules allowed a horse to be registered if all of the horse 's ancestors were registered in the General Stud Book or if it had been bred outside of Britain or Ireland and was registered in the stud book of its country of origin . Overall the General Stud Book had the most stringent rules for registration of Thoroughbreds at the time , around 1900 ; other countries , including the United States , France , Australia and Russia , were considered by the British and Irish to be much laxer and to have allowed some non @-@ Thoroughbred horses into their national stud books .
+
+The outlawing of race @-@ track betting in parts of the United States between 1900 and 1913 led to a large influx of American @-@ bred horses into Britain and Ireland , giving rise to fears among British breeders that they would be swamped by the American bloodlines and their own stock would become worthless . The biggest state to outlaw betting was New York , which passed the Hart – Agnew Law in 1908 . By 1911 , the average price for yearlings sold at auction was at a record low of $ 230 ( $ 5 @,@ 840 as of 2016 ) . Before 1900 , most horses were imported into Britain to race , and rarely stayed for a breeding career . The outlawing of gambling resulted in large numbers of American horses that could no longer be supported , and many were shipped to Europe for racing . Because of the downturn in the horse market in the US , it was assumed that most of the horses sent to Europe would stay there permanently and , after retirement from the racetrack , would enter their breeding careers outside the US . Between 1908 and 1913 , over 1500 Thoroughbreds were exported from the United States . Those exported included 24 horses who had been or would later become champions – among them Artful , Colin , Henry of Navarre , Peter Pan , and Ballot .
+
+The American Stud Book , the registration book for American Thoroughbreds , was not founded until 1873 , much later than the General Stud Book , and the rules for registration required only that a horse have five generations of ancestors in the American Stud Book or other national stud books , unlike the General Stud Book rules . In addition , many breeding records were destroyed during the American Civil War , as fighting during that conflict took place in noted American Thoroughbred breeding centers . The result was that most American Thoroughbreds in 1913 were unable to show an unblemished pedigree according to the General Stud Book rules . Adding to the problem was the fact that American horses were beginning to win the big horse races in England , starting with Iroquois , who won the 1881 Epsom Derby .
+
+J. B. Haggin , an American breeder and owner of the historic Elmendorf Farm , had begun to ship large contingents of horses to England for sale , including the 1908 Grand National steeplechase winner Rubio , and the fear was that if other American breeders followed his lead , the English racing market would be overwhelmed . As a first step , the English racing authorities began to limit the number of training licences at Newmarket Racecourse , turning away a number of American breeders . The General Stud Book rules for registration were also amended in 1909 to restrict registration to horses whose ancestry entirely traced to horses already registered in the General Stud Book , but horses registered in other national stud books were still allowed to be imported and registered .
+
+= = Introduction = =
+
+The owners of the General Stud Book , Weatherbys , consulted with the Jockey Club , the United Kingdom 's racing authority , and discussions were held about the problems in pedigrees recorded in the American Stud Book . At a meeting of the Jockey Club in spring 1913 , Victor Child Villiers , Lord Jersey , the club 's senior steward , proposed a resolution limiting the registration of American bloodlines . It passed unanimously in May , and a new regulation was placed in the General Stud Book , Volume 22 :
+
+No horse or mare can , after this date , be considered as eligible for admission unless it can be traced without flaw on both sire 's and dam 's side of its pedigree to horses and mares themselves already accepted in the earlier volumes of the book .
+
+Although named the Jersey Act by a critical foreign press , after Lord Jersey , the new regulation did not have the force of law as it was promulgated by the registration authorities of the Thoroughbred horse , not by the United Kingdom government . Nor was it promulgated by the Jockey Club , which had no authority over registration , only over racing matters . The regulation required that any horse registered in the General Stud Book trace in every line to a horse that had already been registered in the General Stud Book , effectively excluding most American @-@ bred Thoroughbreds .
+
+= = Effects = =
+
+The new rule was not applied retroactively , therefore all American @-@ bred horses registered before 1913 remained on the register , and their descendants were also eligible for registration . Of the 7 @,@ 756 mares in Volume 27 of the General Stud Book , published in 1933 , 930 would have been ineligible under the new rule . The Jersey Act did have an immediate impact however , as the winner of the 1914 Epsom Derby , Durbar II , was ineligible for registration , as his dam , Armenia , was bred in the United States and was not herself eligible for the General Stud Book .
+
+The main problem for American breeders was the presence of the blood of Lexington in their breeding programs . Lexington 's pedigree on his dam 's side was suspect in the eyes of British racing authorities , and as he had been the leading sire of racehorses in the United States for 16 years , his descendants were numerous . Most American @-@ bred Thoroughbreds traced to Lexington at least once , and he was not the only horse with suspect bloodlines registered in the American Stud Book .
+
+Most British breeders thought the regulation necessary and welcomed it , whereas most American breeders found it insulting , and believed that it was intended merely to protect the British racehorse market . The rule did adversely affect many British breeders as well though , including even one senior member of the Jockey Club , Lord Coventry , whose successful line of racehorses was ineligible for registration . Initially there was little foreign complaint or organized opposition , probably owing to the effect of the gambling bans in the United States on the domestic horse market . The American Jockey Club did not even remark on the Jersey Act in its official publication , the Racing Calendar , and no mention of it appears in the Jockey Club 's meeting minutes for 1913 . Contributing to the lack of outcry was a legal ruling in New York allowing oral betting at racetracks , which led to the growth of racing in the United States ; by 1920 the American breeding market had rebounded and was booming .
+
+The Jersey Act did not prevent the racing of horses containing the banned bloodlines , as horses with the suspect breeding raced and won in England , but they were considered to be " half @-@ bred " . A number of American @-@ bred horses carrying the lines of Lexington had already been imported into England , including Americus , Rhoda B , and Sibola , and because they were grandfathered in , they and their descendants were allowed to be registered in the General Stud Book . Neither did it prevent the racing of horses that were not registered in the General Stud Book ; it just prevented registration in the General Stud Book . American bloodlines , whether registered in the General Stud Book or not , dominated English racing in the 1920s and 1930s . Horses that were ineligibile for General Stud Book registration , but were allowed to race , were identified with a Maltese cross in programs and auction listings .
+
+A number of American breeders , including the then @-@ chairman of the American Jockey Club , William Woodward , Sr. , lobbied hard throughout the 1930s to have the regulation removed . Woodward , and other defenders of the American bloodlines , argued that the racing performance of the horses proved their purity , even if they could not produce papers that did so . Woodward declared in 1935 that " If we do not get together , we will grow apart . " Those arguing for keeping the Jersey Act in effect pointed out that the General Stud Book is a record of bloodlines , not a work recording racing ability .
+
+The Jersey Act 's major effect was the opposite of what was intended . In the years before the Second World War British and Irish breeders had relied on imported Thoroughbreds from France to enrich their breeding lines , a source that was unavailable during the war , and concerns were beginning to be expressed that the situation might lead to excessive inbreeding . Additionally , by the end of the war American @-@ bred lines were some of the most successful racing lines in the world , effectively making the British and Irish breeding programmes that did not use them second @-@ rate , and harming the rebuilding of English racing . There were even calls for the creation of an international stud book to record all Thoroughbred pedigrees , thus eliminating any perceived slight on the bloodlines that were excluded from the General Stud Book .
+
+= = 1949 amendment = =
+
+Weatherbys , publishers of the Stud Book , approached the Jockey Club in 1948 to ask if it agreed that the Jersey Act was " too restrictive " . The rule was subsequently modified in June 1949 , after the racing careers of a number of horses such as Tourbillon and Djebel persuaded the Jockey Club to reconsider . A number of French @-@ bred Thoroughbreds began to race in England after the Second World War , but because they carried American lines they were considered half @-@ breds . In 1948 two of England 's five classic races were won by half @-@ bred horses , My Babu and Black Tarquin , prompting the Jockey Club to amend the rule in the preface to the General Stud Book , to state that :
+
+Any animal claiming admission from now onwards must be able to prove satisfactorily some eight or nine crosses pure blood , to trace back for at least a century , and to show such performances of its immediate family on the Turf as to warrant the belief in the purity of its blood .
+
+The amendment removed the stigma of not being considered purebred from American @-@ bred horses . A major consideration was that by the late 1940s most of the horses with suspect pedigrees were so far back in most horses ' ancestry that it no longer made much sense to exclude them . Neither did it make much sense to exclude some of the most successful racehorses in Europe from registration . Weatherby 's further amended its regulations in 1969 , introducing the word " thoroughbred " to describe the horses registered in previous volumes of the General Stud Book . In 2006 , Blood @-@ Horse Publications , publisher of The Blood @-@ Horse magazine , chose the " repeal " of the Jersey Act as the 39th most important moment in American Thoroughbred horse racing history .
+
+= Little Wapwallopen Creek =
+
+Little Wapwallopen Creek is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 17 miles ( 27 km ) long and flows through Rice Township , Dorrance Township , Conyngham Township , and Hollenback Township . The watershed of the creek has an area of 39 @.@ 5 square miles ( 102 km2 ) . The creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery and is not considered to be impaired . It has two named tributaries : Pond Creek and Nuangola Outlet . Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek .
+
+Little Wapwallopen Creek ranges from slightly acidic to slightly basic . It is a significant source of flooding in Conyngham Township , Dorrance Township , and Rice Township . Numerous bridges have been constructed across the creek . The surficial geology in its vicinity consists of alluvium , alluvial terrace , alluvial fan , Wisconsinan Ice @-@ Contact Stratified Drift , Wisconsinan Till , and wetlands . Numerous bridges have also been constructed across the creek .
+
+= = Course = =
+
+Little Wapwallopen Creek begins in Boyle Pond in Rice Township . It flows west for several tenths of a mile and passes through another pond before turning south @-@ southwest for more than a mile ( two kilometers ) . It then turns west for a few tenths of a mile and receives Nuangola Outlet , its first named tributary , from the right . The creek turns south @-@ southwest for more than a mile before turning southwest and crossing Interstate 81 and entering Dorrance Township . Several tenths of a mile further downstream , it passes through Andy Pond and turns west @-@ northwest for a short distance . It then turns west @-@ southwest for considerably more than a mile before turning west and then west @-@ northwest . The creek then turns north for a few tenths of a mile before turning west for several tenths of a mile . For the next few miles , it flows roughly west @-@ southwest , entering Conyngham Township . The creek then turns south for several tenths of a mile , briefly entering Hollenback Township before turning north and flowing alongside Hess Mountain as it reenters Conyngham Township . Its valley broadens and it flows west @-@ southwest for a few miles , receiving the tributary Pond Creek and crossing Pennsylvania Route 239 . A short distance further downstream , it reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River .
+
+Little Wapwallopen Creek is approximately 17 miles ( 27 km ) long . It joins the Susquehanna River 168 @.@ 16 miles ( 270 @.@ 63 km ) upriver of its mouth .
+
+= = = Tributaries = = =
+
+Little Wapwallopen Creek has numerous unnamed tributaries and two named tributaries : Nuangola Outlet and Pond Creek . Pond Creek joins Little Wapwallopen Creek 1 @.@ 52 miles ( 2 @.@ 45 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 9 @.@ 69 square miles ( 25 @.@ 1 km2 ) . Nuangola Outlet joins Little Wapwallopen Creek 14 @.@ 55 miles ( 23 @.@ 42 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 2 @.@ 35 square miles ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) .
+
+= = Hydrology = =
+
+The discharge of Little Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth has been observed to range from 0 @.@ 87 to 54 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 025 to 1 @.@ 529 m3 / s ) . The turbidity level of the creek at this location was once measured to be fewer than 5 Jackson Turbidity Units . Its specific conductance ranged from 60 to 80 micro @-@ siemens per centimeter at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) . The creek 's pH ranged between a slightly acidic 6 @.@ 3 and a slightly basic 7 @.@ 4 . The concentration of water hardness ranged from 19 to 23 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 019 to 0 @.@ 023 oz / cu ft ) . The creek is not considered to be impaired as of 2006 .
+
+The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the waters of Little Wapwallopen Creek was measured in the 1970s to be 11 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0110 oz / cu ft ) . The carbon dioxide concentration ranged from 0 @.@ 5 to 9 @.@ 7 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00050 to 0 @.@ 00969 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of bicarbonate ranged from 8 to 12 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0080 to 0 @.@ 0120 oz / cu ft ) and no carbonate was observed .
+
+The concentration of organic nitrogen in Little Wapwallopen Creek was once measured to be 0 @.@ 06 milligrams per liter ( 6 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) and the ammonia concentration was once measured to be 0 @.@ 064 milligrams per liter ( 6 @.@ 4 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrates was measured to be 0 @.@ 74 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00074 oz / cu ft ) and the concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrites was measured to be 0 @.@ 13 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00013 oz / cu ft ) .
+
+In the 1970s , the concentration of calcium in the waters of Little Wapwallopen Creek were found to range from 5 @.@ 00 to 5 @.@ 90 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00499 to 0 @.@ 00589 oz / cu ft ) . The magnesium concentration ranged from 1 @.@ 50 to 2 @.@ 20 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00150 to 0 @.@ 00220 oz / cu ft ) . The combined concentrations of sodium and potassium ranged from 2 @.@ 3 to 3 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0023 to 0 @.@ 0030 oz / cu ft ) and the recoverable iron concentration was once measured at 0 @.@ 08 milligrams per liter ( 8 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) . The sulfate concentration ranged from 12 @.@ 0 to 16 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter and the concentration of chloride ranged from 2 @.@ 3 to 7 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0023 to 0 @.@ 0070 oz / cu ft ) .
+
+The concentration of dissolved solids in Little Wapwallopen Creek was once measured to be 60 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 060 oz / cu ft ) .
+
+At its mouth , the peak annual discharge of Little Wapwallopen Creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 750 cubic feet per second ( 78 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 5 @,@ 250 cubic feet per second ( 149 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 7 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 200 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 12 @,@ 500 cubic feet per second ( 350 m3 / s ) . Upstream of the tributary Pond Creek , the peak annual discharge of the creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 150 cubic feet per second ( 61 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of 4 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 120 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 5 @,@ 900 cubic feet per second ( 170 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 10 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 290 m3 / s ) .
+
+At a point 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) downstream of Blue Ridge Trail , the peak annual discharge of Little Wapwallopen Creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 40 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 300 cubic feet per second ( 65 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 700 cubic feet per second ( 76 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 3 @,@ 900 cubic feet per second ( 110 m3 / s ) . At a point 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) upstream of Blue Ridge Trail , the peak annual discharge of the creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 250 cubic feet per second ( 35 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of 2 @,@ 070 cubic feet per second ( 59 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 470 cubic feet per second ( 70 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 3 @,@ 550 cubic feet per second ( 101 m3 / s ) .
+
+= = Geography , geology , and climate = =
+
+The elevation near the mouth of Little Wapwallopen Creek is 495 feet ( 151 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the creek 's source is approximately 1 @,@ 220 feet ( 370 m ) above sea level . The course of the creek is tortuous .
+
+Alluvium , which consists of stratified sand , silt , and gravel , as well as some boulders , occurs in the valley of Little Wapwallopen Creek to a depth of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) or more . Numerous deposits of Wisconsinan Ice @-@ Contact Stratified Drift are present as well . Alluvial terrace also occurs near the creek , which is the only place in the quadrangle of Sybertsville that contains it in the surficial geology . Wisconsinan Loess , which consists of windblown silt and fine sand , occurs in the southern part of the creek 's valley in the Sybertsville quadrangle . The remains of outwash terraces also occur near the creek in that quadrangle .
+
+In the Sybertsville quadrangle , the surficial geology in the valley of Little Wapwallopen Creek mainly consists of alluvium , alluvial terrace , alluvial fan , Wisconsinan Ice @-@ Contact Stratified Drift , and some small patches of Wisconsinan Till . The surficial geology on the valley slopes and uplands mainly consists of bedrock . In the quadrangle of Freeland , the surficial geology near Little Wapwallopen Creek mainly features Wisconsinan Till , Wisconsinan Ice @-@ Contact Stratified Drift , and alluvium . The surficial geology near the creek in the Wilkes @-@ Barre West quadrangle mainly consists of Wisconsinan Till , with some scattered areas of bedrock and alluvium .
+
+The Berwick Axis , which is also known as the Montour Axis , crosses the Susquehanna River half a mile downstream of the mouth of Little Wapwallopen Creek . There is concealed Marcellus shale near the creek in Hollenback Township .
+
+The water temperature of Little Wapwallopen Creek near Wapwallopen was measured several times during the 1970s . The values ranged from 7 @.@ 0 ° C ( 44 @.@ 6 ° F ) in May 1971 to 19 @.@ 5 ° C ( 67 @.@ 1 ° F ) in September 1972 .
+
+= = Watershed = =
+
+The watershed of Little Wapwallopen Creek has an area of 39 @.@ 5 square miles ( 102 km2 ) . The mouth of the creek is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Berwick . However , its source is in the quadrangle of Wilkes @-@ Barre West . It also flows through the quadrangles of Freeland and Sybertsville . The creek is one of the major streams in Luzerne County .
+
+The land in the 100 year floodplain of Little Wapwallopen Creek mainly consists of agricultural and forested land . However , there are also some areas of rural residential land . A natural gas pipeline 42 inches ( 110 cm ) in diameter and owned by the Transcontinental Gas Pipeline Company crosses an unnamed tributary of Little Wapwallopen Creek .
+
+A 160 @-@ acre ( 65 ha ) lake known as Lilly Lake is in the watershed of Little Wapwallopen Creek , on one of its tributaries . A pond known as Triangle Pond is also in the upper reaches of the watershed . Henry C. Bradsby 's book History of Luzerne County , Pennsylvania described Round Pond as being in the watershed as well . A swamp known as Turner Swamp is also in the watershed . Other lakes in the creek 's vicinity include Andy Pond , Lake Blytheburn , Boyle Pond , Nuangola Lake , and the Ice Ponds . Many patches of wetlands are found in the watershed 's upper reaches .
+
+A package wastewater treatment facility operated by the Crestwood School District discharges into Little Wapwallopen Creek in Rice Township . It has a capacity of 11 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 42 @,@ 000 l ) per day . Another package wastewater treatment facility is operated by Wilbar Realty in the same township and discharges into the creek . It serves 176 homes in Laurel Lake Village and has a capacity of 87 @,@ 500 US gallons ( 331 @,@ 000 l ) .
+
+Little Wapwallopen Creek is one of the main sources of flooding in Conyngham Township , along with the Susquehanna River . The creek is also the main source of flooding in Dorrance Township and one of the main sources in Rice Township . A 100 year flood of the creek would flood substantial areas . Such flooding would also be exacerbated by backwater flooding from the Susquehanna River .
+
+= = History = =
+
+Little Wapwallopen Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1179707 .
+
+Historically , a Native American path went from Council Cup up the Little Wapwallopen Creek valley and to Wilkes @-@ Barre . The path ran from Council Cup to the creek and then northeast alongside it before going past Lily Lake and over Penobscot Mountain towards where Wilkes @-@ Barre is now located . The first person to settle in Conyngham Township was Martin Harter , who settled on the creek near its mouth in 1795 .
+
+In the late 1800s , there was an old ferry road near the mouth of Little Wapwallopen Creek . A railroad bridge also crosses the creek . Historically , a road ran from a small settlement on Big Wapwallopen Creek to an even smaller one on Little Wapwallopen Creek , near where Church Road presently is . The Glen Brook Water Company once had plans to construct a dam on the creek and also on its tributary Pond Creek . The Wilkes @-@ Barre Ice Company and the Hazleton Ice Company also dammed a stream in the creek 's watershed in 1912 and 1916 respectively , forming the Ice Ponds .
+
+A concrete stringer / multi @-@ beam or girder bridge carrying Blytheburn Road was built over Little Wapwallopen Creek in 1920 . It is 33 @.@ 1 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) long . A concrete slab bridge was built across the creek in 1935 and repaired in 2007 . It is 23 @.@ 0 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) long and carries T @-@ 477 / Weyhenmyr Street . In 1940 , a bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 239 was constructed over the creek in Conyngham Township . This bridge is a steel stringer / multi @-@ beam or girder bridge with a length of 65 @.@ 0 feet ( 19 @.@ 8 m ) long .
+
+A three @-@ span bridge carrying Interstate 81 northbound over Little Wapwallopen Creek was constructed in Rice Township in 1964 and repaired in 1987 . This bridge is a prestressed box beam bridge with a length of 162 @.@ 1 feet ( 49 @.@ 4 m ) . A bridge of the same type was built over the creek for Interstate 81 southbound in 1965 . This bridge was also repaired in 1987 and is 185 @.@ 0 feet ( 56 @.@ 4 m ) long . In 1975 , a prestressed stringer / multi @-@ beam or girder bridge carrying State Route 3008 / Ruckle Hill Road was built over the creek . This bridge is 92 @.@ 9 feet ( 28 @.@ 3 m ) long and is in Conyngham Township . A prestressed box beam or girders bridge was built in Dorrance Township in 1988 . It is 63 @.@ 0 feet ( 19 @.@ 2 m ) long . Another bridge of the same type , but with a length of 37 @.@ 1 feet ( 11 @.@ 3 m ) was constructed in 1996 for T @-@ 406 / Georges Road . A steel girder and floorbeam system bridge was built over the creek in 1997 . It is 60 @.@ 0 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) long and carries T @-@ 392 / Hollow Road .
+
+Floodwaters from Little Wapwallopen Creek reached a height of 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) over St. Marys Road in Dorrance Township during a storm in 1972 . This is the only recorded flooding of a developed area caused by a major storm in the township . The creek also once flooded to a depth of 18 to 20 inches ( 46 to 51 cm ) over Hislop Road in Rice Township .
+
+In August 2002 , the Pennsylvania Environmental Council received $ 57 @,@ 897 @.@ 76 to carry out a restoration plan on the upper reaches of Little Wapwallopen Creek . Since 2005 , a project to remedy streambank erosion on the creek has been successful . The creek has a watershed association known as the Little Wapwallopen Creek Watershed Association .
+
+= = Biology = =
+
+The drainage basin of Little Wapwallopen Creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from its mouth upstream for 4 @.@ 40 miles ( 7 @.@ 08 km ) to T @-@ 392 . They also do so in the tributary Pond Creek from its headwaters downstream to its mouth .
+
+Henry C. Bradsby 's 1893 book History of Luzerne County , Pennsylvania stated that Long Pond and Round Pond , two ponds in the watershed , had a large fish population . The creek was stocked with 700 fingerling , yearling , and adult brook trout in 1909 .
+
+The greenway of Little Wapwallopen Creek has been proposed as a conservation area in the Open Space , Greenways & Outdoor Recreation Master Plan for Luzerne County and Lackawanna County .
+
+= What It 's Like Being Alone =
+
+What It 's Like Being Alone is a Canadian television program which aired on CBC Television in 2006 . It is a black comedy created by Brad Peyton , and combines clay animation with voice work by Stacey DePass , Adam Reid , Dwayne Hill , Julie Lemieux , Peter Cugno , and Andrew Sabiston .
+
+Having debuted on 26 June 2006 , the series lasted only until 18 September of that year . The storylines of the thirteen episodes that aired during this timeframe center on the many attempts of fictional mutant children living in an orphanage to get adopted . Princess Lucy , a grey , fat , and warty orphan , is the main character , and the plot begins with her arrival at the orphanage . Critics regarded the series as unusual , and it received notably poor ratings . Commentators considered these ratings to reflect a generally poor performance of CBC programming in 2006 .
+
+= = Characters = =
+
+The storylines of What It 's Like Being Alone revolve around the residents of the fictional Gurney Orphanage , a dark , run @-@ down building . The orphanage has been described by a columnist as Victorian , and it may be set in a bog on the Canadian island of Newfoundland .
+
+Aldous is the eldest of the orphans . She is tall , depressed , very gothic and obsessed with her own death , and carries a black umbrella . She spends most of her time moping about the orphanage and writing depressing poetry . It is insinuated that she actually cares for the other orphans , without letting this on too much . Aldous is voiced by Stacey DePass .
+
+Armie is a boy with no limbs , except for his left arm . He glides around on a skateboard , and often falls over when he uses his arm for something . He is happy and hopeful , despite his obvious handicap . Armie is voiced by Adam Reid .
+
+Brian Brain is an incredibly intelligent 9 @-@ year @-@ old boy with two brains and three eyes . He is often seen inventing things , or gloating about his superiority . His voice is provided by Andrew Sabiston .
+
+Byron and Beasly is a blue baby with two heads . Byron is constantly teased by Beasly , the more demonic head . They vomit acid , and are nearly impossible to bathe . No one is credited with voicing this character .
+
+Charlie is a somewhat homosexual boy who is always on fire . Though he tries not to harm other people , someone or something always ends up burning . Like the other orphan characters , Charlie was part of the story from the beginning , and was specifically inspired by one of Peyton 's jokes , " What ’ s it like being alone ? Like a sunset , but only if you 're on fire . " Charlie is voiced by Peter Cugno .
+
+Princess Lucy is a short , fat , warty and grey girl who believes she is a princess . She is ego @-@ centric , and quite crude , and has a long , lizard @-@ like tongue ; she often carries a lollipop . She firmly believes that she is the most deserving of parents . Princess Lucy is voiced by Dwayne Hill , who was also part of the " Story Department . " Peyton has said that she is his favourite character .
+
+Sammy Fishboy resembles a swamp monster . Outside of his tank , he must always keep a running hose over his head . He often is very rude , especially when he is drunk . He is in love with Isabella , a stone mermaid aquarium decoration , and becomes depressed when it is not around . Sammy is voiced by Julie Lemieux .
+
+Seymore Talkless is an eleven @-@ year @-@ old boy with no mouth and one giant eye . He expresses his emotions through his violin or a variety of signs that have a word or phrase written on them , and expresses panic through crazed hand gestures . No one is credited with voicing this character .
+
+Nanny Goodapple is the orphans ' caretaker . She never speaks , and glides around the other characters . When out , she leaves the welfare of the other children in Aldous ' hands . Nanny Goodapple is also something of a souse . No one is credited with voicing this character .
+
+= = Plot = =
+
+= = = Pilot = = =
+
+The pilot of the series aired with some anticipation . Beforehand , columnist Randall Denley had written that " I suspect [ it ] will be the highlight of the evening , " noting the series had been described as " wondrous and fiendishly humorous . " The first episode , titled " The Gurney Orphanage For Beginners , " features Princess Lucy and her suitcase falling from the sky in front of the orphanage and killing three rabbits . Upon getting up and seeing the orphanage , Princess Lucy believes she has found her castle and royal family . Instead , she is surprised to find the building is full of mutant orphans , and devastated to learn she is an orphan herself . She tries to escape , but finds any way out blocked by a lake monster and a dangerous forest , among other things .
+
+Eventually , a woman agrees to adopt Lucy . However , the other orphans see that the woman will probably not provide the best home for her , and intervene . Lucy ultimately decides that she belongs in the orphanage more so than her ideal castle .
+
+= = = Series = = =
+
+The series was continued with twelve more episodes : Themes explored include " social issues , pop culture references and humour . " Due to the show having the visual appearance of a children 's television series , each episode was preceded by a content warning , stating that the show was intended for an adult audience and that " parental discretion " was advised .
+
+" Do Orphans Dream of Electric Parents ? " is the second episode . It is about Brian Brain inventing robots and making them his parents , only to find that the robots want to divorce each other . In the next episode , " An Orphans Life Indeed " , Princess Lucy seeks a best friend , but her vanity causes her to decide that only she can be her own best friend . Lucy then clones herself , but the clones prove troublesome . Seymore , who is in love with Lucy , ultimately solves the problem by slaughtering the clones with a chainsaw . One critic remarked that this was a particularly " disturbing " scene for the series .
+
+The fourth episode , called " The Perfect Lesson " , sees the orphans trying to perform a play to impress visiting prospective parents . It is from this episode that the show 's title is derived , as the play repeatedly refers to " what it 's like being alone " . This was followed by the episode aired on 24 July , " The Poster Child " which is about a corporation that attempts to adopt Aldous to use her in advertisements . Aldous , under a witch 's curse , must accept this shallow adoption or die .
+
+In the episode " Fire the Reverend " , a religious speaker visits the orphanage and confuses Charlie with Satan ; the real Satan and his son later emerge , and Charlie finds out that while he is mistaken for being evil , Satan 's son is trying to shed the perception that he is good . Eventually Charlie saves the day by persuading Satan and his son to leave the orphanage . The seventh episode is entitled " Red , White and Orphanage " . It is about another orphanage abducting Brian Brain in order to exploit him in their plans for world domination . This was followed by " Sammy 's Episode " , which is about Sammy taking various medications , as well as shock therapy . The ninth episode is " A Tale of Almost Unbearable Sadness , " which is focussed on declining morale in the orphanage and exploration of the dangerous forest .
+
+Alternate names for the tenth episode are " Lucky Lucy " and " You Gotta Know When to Hold ' em " . In it , Princess Lucy bets that Byron and Beasly cannot be cleaned and wins . She afterwards gambles more but nearly loses the orphanage in the process . The episode " Armie Loves Cigarettes " sees Armie taking up smoking . According to the Internet Movie Database , the second last episode and season finale aired on the same day , 18 September . The twelfth and second last episode is called " A Frightful Flu , " and in it Aldous entrusts care for the ailing orphans to a witch . The final episode , " Silver Screen Lucy " or " The Sweet Stink of Success , " is about the orphans making short films to impress a prospective parent , but he ends up adopting Nanny Goodapple and Beasly and Byron , leaving the orphanage to Aldous .
+
+= = Production = =
+
+The show was created by Brad Peyton of Newfoundland and Labrador , who explained that he identified himself as a " freak " growing up , and was thus motivated to try " celebrating flawed characters " in his work ; he also employed stereotypical views of orphanages in the series . Peyton had previously made a black comedy short film called Evelyn : The Cutest Evil Dead Girl , and afterwards declined to shoot a major film . Instead , he turned to What It 's Like Being Alone . He described the genesis of the series :
+
+I had a friend who was depressed , so I went over to her house and started drawing . I made her a little book . She liked it and said I should try to sell it . So I photocopied 200 at Kinkos and sold them at Pages Books . Made like $ 150 dollars . That book turned into What It 's Like Being Alone .
+
+Peyton explained the writing by saying " it always comes out of an emotional place . " One of the writers was Karen Walton , who had previously written the Canadian werewolf film Ginger Snaps . The producers chose the type of animation due to Peyton 's personal interest in it , although he later claimed that a day 's work could lead to seconds ' worth of material . A factory was needed with 8 to 10 teams , with some of the animators having previously worked on the Tim Burton film Corpse Bride . The characters were made out of plastic and foam . Additionally , some animation was done through computers . Each character 's figure had a number of add @-@ on lips to express various sounds , and their eyes and eyebrows were also adjusted frequently during production . The figures could also be fastened into a surface , moved and fastened in again to portray movement . Peyton remarked that " The hardest thing is timing and pacing . " Still , he also liked to emphasize that the series did not cost too much money to produce .
+
+The airing of the series had been stalled for a year , perhaps due to difficulties within the CBC . To get CBC to adopt the series , Peyton showed the company a commercial with the CBC logo in blood , remarking that " It 's been way too long that you 've waited to have your logo covered in blood . " He had also said that What It 's Like Being Alone was meant to attract university and high school students as an audience , and he felt that these people did not ordinarily watch the CBC . CBC itself was looking for original material , and was enthusiastic about the series because it seemed to stand out among Canadian television productions . Peyton 's co @-@ producer was Fred Fuchs , who later rose in the CBC staff ; one critic believed Fuchs ' promotion to be a reason why CBC adopted the series .
+
+= = Reception = =
+
+Critics generally found the series to be unusual . CBC critic Stephen Cole commented that What It 's Like Being Alone has " arguably the most surreal opening sequence in TV history " with a shift in view from a black and white Canadian flag to the orphan characters . He questioned whether the show indicated the CBC had adopted " Addams Family values " and said that it was " the wildest CBC comedy since Twitch City . "
+
+One television critic briefly said that What It 's Like Being Alone is a " weird show , " and simply advised individual viewers to see it for themselves . If they " relate " to it , the critic added , " a ' Yikes ! ' is in order . " Bill Brioux of the Toronto Sun commented that in combining a feel one would usually expect from Tim Burton with elements of Sesame Street , What It 's Like Being Alone would probably not appeal fully to any demographic , despite its originality . Additionally , he felt Princess Lucy would be tiresome , and said he had hoped the show were more amusing .
+
+In terms of ratings , the series did not do well . The Toronto Star described it as one of CBC 's " prime @-@ time dogs " with an audience of 78 @,@ 000 people . The executive Richard Stursberg was blamed for cancelling the more popular Da Vinci 's City Hall and This is Wonderland to make room for this and other shows , and in general for being a " one @-@ man wrecking ball " for the CBC ( the series The One : Making a Music Star had also flopped on CBC in 2006 ) . On 18 September , the series finale had only 163 @,@ 000 viewers , part of the perceived " shocking " low ratings CBC received that year , along with the low ratings of the documentary series Hockey : A People 's History and a mini @-@ series about former @-@ Quebec premier René Lévesque .
+
+= Economy of England in the Middle Ages =
+
+The economy of England in the Middle Ages , from the Norman invasion in 1066 , to the death of Henry VII in 1509 , was fundamentally agricultural , though even before the invasion the market economy was important to producers . Norman institutions , including serfdom , were superimposed on an existing system of open fields and mature , well @-@ established towns involved in international trade . Over the next five centuries the economy would at first grow and then suffer an acute crisis , resulting in significant political and economic change . Despite economic dislocation in urban and extraction economies , including shifts in the holders of wealth and the location of these economies , the economic output of towns and mines developed and intensified over the period . By the end of the period , England had a weak government , by later standards , overseeing an economy dominated by rented farms controlled by gentry , and a thriving community of indigenous English merchants and corporations .
+
+The 12th and 13th centuries saw a huge development of the English economy . This was partially driven by the growth in the population from around 1 @.@ 5 million at the time of the creation of the Domesday Book in 1086 to between 4 and 5 million in 1300 . England remained a primarily agricultural economy , with the rights of major landowners and the duties of serfs increasingly enshrined in English law . More land , much of it at the expense of the royal forests , was brought into production to feed the growing population or to produce wool for export to Europe . Many hundreds of new towns , some of them planned , sprung up across England , supporting the creation of guilds , charter fairs and other important medieval institutions . The descendants of the Jewish financiers who had first come to England with William the Conqueror played a significant role in the growing economy , along with the new Cistercian and Augustinian religious orders that came to become major players in the wool trade of the north . Mining increased in England , with the silver boom of the 12th century helping to fuel a fast @-@ expanding currency .
+
+Economic growth began to falter by the end of the 13th century , owing to a combination of over @-@ population , land shortages and depleted soils . The loss of life in the Great Famine of 1315 – 17 shook the English economy severely and population growth ceased ; the first outbreak of the Black Death in 1348 then killed around half the English population , with major implications for the post @-@ plague economy . The agricultural sector shrank , with higher wages , lower prices and shrinking profits leading to the final demise of the old demesne system and the advent of the modern farming system of cash rents for lands . The Peasants Revolt of 1381 shook the older feudal order and limited the levels of royal taxation considerably for a century to come . The 15th century saw the growth of the English cloth industry and the establishment of a new class of international English merchant , increasingly based in London and the South @-@ West , prospering at the expense of the older , shrinking economy of the eastern towns . These new trading systems brought about the end of many of the international fairs and the rise of the chartered company . Together with improvements in metalworking and shipbuilding , this represents the end of the medieval economy , and the beginnings of the early modern period in English economics .
+
+= = Invasion and the early Norman period ( 1066 – 1100 ) = =
+
+William the Conqueror invaded England in 1066 , defeating the Anglo @-@ Saxon King Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings and placing the country under Norman rule . This campaign was followed by fierce military operations known as the Harrying of the North in 1069 – 70 , extending Norman authority across the north of England . William 's system of government was broadly feudal in that the right to possess land was linked to service to the king , but in many other ways the invasion did little to alter the nature of the English economy . Most of the damage done in the invasion was in the north and the west of England , some of it still recorded as " wasteland " in 1086 . Many of the key features of the English agricultural and financial system remained in place in the decades immediately after the conquest .
+
+= = = Agriculture and mining = = =
+
+= = = = English agriculture = = = =
+
+Agriculture formed the bulk of the English economy at the time of the Norman invasion . Twenty years after the invasion , 35 % of England was covered in arable land , 25 % was put to pasture , 15 % was covered by woodlands and the remaining 25 % was predominantly moorland , fens and heaths . Wheat formed the single most important arable crop , but rye , barley and oats were also cultivated extensively . In the more fertile parts of the country , such as the Thames valley , the Midlands and the east of England , legumes and beans were also cultivated . Sheep , cattle , oxen and pigs were kept on English holdings , although most of these breeds were much smaller than modern equivalents and most would have been slaughtered in winter .
+
+= = = = Manorial system = = = =
+
+In the century prior to the Norman invasion , England 's great estates , owned by the king , bishops , monasteries and thegns , had been slowly broken up as a consequence of inheritance , wills , marriage settlements or church purchases . Most of the smaller landowning nobility lived on their properties and managed their own estates . The pre @-@ Norman landscape had seen a trend away from isolated hamlets and towards larger villages engaged in arable cultivation in a band running north – south across England . These new villages had adopted an open field system in which fields were divided into small strips of land , individually owned , with crops rotated between the field each year and the local woodlands and other common lands carefully managed . Agricultural land on a manor was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage and cultivate directly , called demesne land , and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by local peasants , who would pay rent to the landowner either through agricultural labour on the lord 's demesne fields or through cash or produce . Around 6 @,@ 000 watermills of varying power and efficiency had been built in order to grind flour , freeing up peasant labour for other more productive agricultural tasks . The early English economy was not a subsistence economy and many crops were grown by peasant farmers for sale to the early English towns .
+
+The Normans initially did not significantly alter the operation of the manor or the village economy . William reassigned large tracts of land amongst the Norman elite , creating vast estates in some areas , particularly along the Welsh border and in Sussex . The biggest change in the years after the invasion was the rapid reduction in the number of slaves being held in England . In the 10th century slaves had been very numerous , although their number had begun to diminish as a result of economic and religious pressure . Nonetheless , the new Norman aristocracy proved harsh landlords . The wealthier , formerly more independent Anglo @-@ Saxon peasants found themselves rapidly sinking down the economic hierarchy , swelling the numbers of unfree workers , or serfs , forbidden to leave their manor and seek alternative employment . Those Anglo @-@ Saxon nobles who had survived the invasion itself were rapidly assimilated into the Norman elite or economically crushed .
+
+= = = = Creation of the forests = = = =
+
+The Normans also established the royal forests . In Anglo @-@ Saxon times there had been special woods for hunting called " hays " , but the Norman forests were much larger and backed by legal mandate . The new forests were not necessarily heavily wooded but were defined instead by their protection and exploitation by the crown . The Norman forests were subject to special royal jurisdiction ; forest law was " harsh and arbitrary , a matter purely for the King 's will " . Forests were expected to supply the king with hunting grounds , raw materials , goods and money . Revenue from forest rents and fines came to become extremely significant and forest wood was used for castles and royal ship building . Several forests played a key role in mining , such as the iron mining and working in the Forest of Dean and lead mining in the Forest of High Peak . Several other groups bound up economically with forests ; many monasteries had special rights in particular forests , for example for hunting or tree felling . The royal forests were accompanied by the rapid creation of locally owned parks and chases .
+
+= = = Trade , manufacturing and the towns = = =
+
+Although primarily rural , England had a number of old , economically important towns in 1066 . A large amount of trade came through the Eastern towns , including London , York , Winchester , Lincoln , Norwich , Ipswich and Thetford . Much of this trade was with France , the Low Countries and Germany , but the North @-@ East of England traded with partners as far away as Sweden . Cloth was already being imported to England before the invasion through the mercery trade .
+
+Some towns , such as York , suffered from Norman sacking during William 's northern campaigns . Other towns saw the widespread demolition of houses to make room for new motte and bailey fortifications , as was the case in Lincoln . The Norman invasion also brought significant economic changes with the arrival of the first Jews to English cities . William I brought over wealthy Jews from the Rouen community in Normandy to settle in London , apparently to carry out financial services for the crown . In the years immediately after the invasion , a lot of wealth was drawn out of England in various ways by the Norman rulers and reinvested in Normandy , making William immensely wealthy as an individual ruler .
+
+The minting of coins was decentralised in the Saxon period ; every borough was mandated to have a mint and therefore a centre for trading in bullion . Nonetheless , there was strict royal control over these moneyers , and coin dies could only be made in London . William retained this process and generated a high standard of Norman coins , leading to the use of the term " sterling " as the name for the Norman silver coins .
+
+= = = Governance and taxation = = =
+
+William I inherited the Anglo @-@ Saxon system in which the king drew his revenues from : a mixture of customs ; profits from re @-@ minting coinage ; fines ; profits from his own demesne lands ; and the system of English land @-@ based taxation called the geld . William reaffirmed this system , enforcing collection of the geld through his new system of sheriffs and increasing the taxes on trade . William was also famous for commissioning the Domesday Book in 1086 , a vast document which attempted to record the economic condition of his new kingdom .
+
+= = Mid @-@ medieval growth ( 1100 – 1290 ) = =
+
+The 12th and 13th centuries were a period of huge economic growth in England . The population of England rose from around 1 @.@ 5 million in 1086 to around 4 or 5 million in 1300 , stimulating increased agricultural outputs and the export of raw materials to Europe . In contrast to the previous two centuries , England was relatively secure from invasion . Except for the years of the Anarchy , most military conflicts either had only localised economic impact or proved only temporarily disruptive . English economic thinking remained conservative , seeing the economy as consisting of three groups : the ordines , those who fought , or the nobility ; laboratores , those who worked , in particular the peasantry ; and oratores , those who prayed , or the clerics . Trade and merchants played little part in this model and were frequently vilified at the start of the period , although they were increasingly tolerated towards the end of the 13th century .
+
+= = = Agriculture , fishing and mining = = =
+
+= = = = English agriculture and the landscape = = = =
+
+Agriculture remained by far the most important part of the English economy during the 12th and 13th centuries . There remained a wide variety in English agriculture , influenced by local geography ; in areas where grain could not be grown , other resources were exploited instead . In the Weald , for example , agriculture centred on grazing animals on the woodland pastures , whilst in the Fens fishing and bird @-@ hunting was supplemented by basket @-@ making and peat @-@ cutting . In some locations , such as Lincolnshire and Droitwich , salt manufacture was important , including production for the export market . Fishing became an important trade along the English coast , especially in Great Yarmouth and Scarborough , and the herring was a particularly popular catch ; salted at the coast , it could then be shipped inland or exported to Europe . Piracy between competing English fishing fleets was not unknown during the period . Sheep were the most common farm animal in England during the period , their numbers doubling by the 14th century . Sheep became increasingly widely used for wool , particularly in the Welsh borders , Lincolnshire and the Pennines . Pigs remained popular on holdings because of their ability to scavenge for food . Oxen remained the primary plough animal , with horses used more widely on farms in the south of England towards the end of the 12th century . Rabbits were introduced from France in the 13th century and farmed for their meat in special warrens .
+
+The underlying productivity of English agriculture remained low , despite the increases in food production . Wheat prices fluctuated heavily year to year , depending on local harvests ; up to a third of the grain produced in England was potentially for sale , and much of it ended up in the growing towns . Despite their involvement in the market , even the wealthiest peasants prioritised spending on housing and clothing , with little left for other personal consumption . Records of household belongings show most possessing only " old , worn @-@ out and mended utensils " and tools .
+
+The royal forests grew in size for much of the 12th century , before contracting in the late 13th and early 14th centuries . Henry I extended the size and scope of royal forests , especially in Yorkshire ; after the Anarchy of 1135 – 53 , Henry II continued to expand the forests until they comprised around 20 % of England . In 1217 the Charter of the Forest was enacted , in part to mitigate the worst excesses of royal jurisdiction , and established a more structured range of fines and punishments for peasants who illegally hunted or felled trees in the forests . By the end of the century the king had come under increasing pressure to reduce the size of the royal forests , leading to the " Great Perambulation " around 1300 ; this significantly reduced the extent to the forests , and by 1334 they were only around two @-@ thirds the size they had been in 1250 . Royal revenue streams from the shrinking forests diminished considerably in the early 14th century .
+
+= = = = Development of estate management = = = =
+
+The Normans retained and reinforced the manorial system with its division between demesne and peasant lands paid for in agricultural labour . Landowners could profit from the sales of goods from their demesne lands and a local lord could also expect to receive income from fines and local customs , whilst more powerful nobles profited from their own regional courts and rights .
+
+During the 12th century major landowners tended to rent out their demesne lands for money , motivated by static prices for produce and the chaos of the Anarchy between 1135 and 1153 . This practice began to alter in the 1180s and 1190s , spurred by the greater political stability . In the first years of John 's reign , agricultural prices almost doubled , at once increasing the potential profits on the demesne estates and also increasing the cost of living for the landowners themselves . Landowners now attempted wherever possible to bring their demesne lands back into direct management , creating a system of administrators and officials to run their new system of estates .
+
+New land was brought into cultivation to meet demand for food , including drained marshes and fens , such as Romney Marsh , the Somerset Levels and the Fens ; royal forests from the late 12th century onwards ; and poorer lands in the north , south @-@ west and in the Welsh Marches . The first windmills in England began to appear along the south and east coasts in the 12th century , expanding in number in the 13th , adding to the mechanised power available to the manors . By 1300 it has been estimated that there were more than 10 @,@ 000 watermills in England , used both for grinding corn and for fulling cloth . Fish ponds were created on most estates to provide freshwater fish for the consumption of the nobility and church ; these ponds were extremely expensive to create and maintain . Improved ways of running estates began to be circulated and were popularised in Walter de Henley 's famous book Le Dite de Hosebondrie , written around 1280 . In some regions and under some landowners , investment and innovation increased yields significantly through improved ploughing and fertilisers – particularly in Norfolk , where yields eventually equalled later 18th @-@ century levels .
+
+= = = = Role of the Church in agriculture = = = =
+
+The Church in England was a major landowner throughout the medieval period and played an important part in the development of agriculture and rural trade in the first two centuries of Norman rule . The Cistercian order first arrived in England in 1128 , establishing around 80 new monastic houses over the next few years ; the wealthy Augustinians also established themselves and expanded to occupy around 150 houses , all supported by agricultural estates , many of them in the north of England . By the 13th century these and other orders were acquiring new lands and had become major economic players both as landowners and as middlemen in the expanding wool trade . In particular , the Cistercians led the development of the grange system . Granges were separate manors in which the fields were all cultivated by the monastic officials , rather than being divided up between demesne and rented fields , and became known for trialling new agricultural techniques during the period . Elsewhere , many monasteries had significant economic impact on the landscape , such as the monks of Glastonbury , responsible for the draining of the Somerset Levels to create new pasture land .
+
+The military crusading order of the Knights Templar also held extensive property in England , bringing in around £ 2 @,@ 200 per annum by the time of their fall . It comprised primarily rural holdings rented out for cash , but also included some urban properties in London . Following the dissolution of the Templar order in France by Philip IV of France , Edward II ordered their properties to be seized and passed to the Hospitaller order in 1313 , but in practice many properties were taken by local landowners and the Hospital was still attempting to reclaim them twenty @-@ five years later .
+
+The Church was responsible for the system of tithes , a levy of 10 % on " all agrarian produce ... other natural products gained via labour ... wages received by servants and labourers , and to the profits of rural merchants " . Tithes gathered in the form of produce could be either consumed by the recipient , or sold on and bartered for other resources . The tithe was relatively onerous for the typical peasant , although in many instances the actual levy fell below the desired 10 % . Many clergy moved to the towns as part of the urban growth of the period , and by 1300 around one in twenty city dwellers was a clergyman . One effect of the tithe was to transfer a considerable amount of agriculture wealth into the cities , where it was then spent by these urban clergy . The need to sell tithe produce that could not be consumed by the local clergy also spurred the growth of trade .
+
+= = = = Expansion of mining = = = =
+
+Mining did not make up a large part of the English medieval economy , but the 12th and 13th centuries saw an increased demand for metals in the country , thanks to the considerable population growth and building construction , including the great cathedrals and churches . Four metals were mined commercially in England during the period , namely iron , tin , lead and silver ; coal was also mined from the 13th century onwards , using a variety of refining techniques .
+
+Iron mining occurred in several locations , including the main English centre in the Forest of Dean , as well as in Durham and the Weald . Some iron to meet English demand was also imported from the continent , especially by the late 13th century . By the end of the 12th century , the older method of acquiring iron ore through strip mining was being supplemented by more advanced techniques , including tunnels , trenches and bell @-@ pits . Iron ore was usually locally processed at a bloomery , and by the 14th century the first water @-@ powered iron forge in England was built at Chingley . As a result of the diminishing woodlands and consequent increases in the cost of both wood and charcoal , demand for coal increased in the 12th century and it began to be commercially produced from bell @-@ pits and strip mining .
+
+A silver boom occurred in England after the discovery of silver near Carlisle in 1133 . Huge quantities of silver were produced from a semicircle of mines reaching across Cumberland , Durham and Northumberland – up to three to four tonnes of silver were mined each year , more than ten times the previous annual production across the whole of Europe . The result was a local economic boom and a major uplift to 12th @-@ century royal finances . Tin mining was centred in Cornwall and Devon , exploiting alluvial deposits and governed by the special Stannary Courts and Parliaments . Tin formed a valuable export good , initially to Germany and then later in the 14th century to the Low Countries . Lead was usually mined as a by @-@ product of mining for silver , with mines in Yorkshire , Durham and the north , as well as in Devon . Economically fragile , the lead mines usually survived as a result of being subsidised by silver production .
+
+= = = Trade , manufacturing and the towns = = =
+
+= = = = Growth of English towns = = = =
+
+After the end of the Anarchy , the number of small towns in England began to increase sharply . By 1297 , 120 new towns had been established , and in 1350 – by when the expansion had effectively ceased – there were around 500 towns in England . Many of these new towns were centrally planned : Richard I created Portsmouth , John founded Liverpool , and successive monarchs followed with Harwich , Stony Stratford , Dunstable , Royston , Baldock , Wokingham , Maidenhead and Reigate . The new towns were usually located with access to trade routes in mind , rather than defence , and the streets were laid out to make access to the town 's market convenient . A growing percentage of England 's population lived in urban areas ; estimates suggest that this rose from around 5 @.@ 5 % in 1086 to up to 10 % in 1377 .
+
+London held a special status within the English economy . The nobility purchased and consumed many luxury goods and services in the capital , and as early as the 1170s the London markets were providing exotic products such as spices , incense , palm oil , gems , silks , furs and foreign weapons . London was also an important hub for industrial activity ; it had many blacksmiths making a wide range of goods , including decorative ironwork and early clocks . Pewter @-@ working , using English tin and lead , was also widespread in London during the period . The provincial towns also had a substantial number of trades by the end of the 13th century – a large town like Coventry , for example , contained over three hundred different specialist occupations , and a smaller town such as Durham could support some sixty different professions . The increasing wealth of the nobility and the church was reflected in the widespread building of cathedrals and other prestigious buildings in the larger towns , in turn making use of lead from English mines for roofing .
+
+Land transport remained much more expensive than river or sea transport during the period . Many towns in this period , including York , Exeter and Lincoln , were linked to the oceans by navigable rivers and could act as seaports , with Bristol 's port coming to dominate the lucrative trade in wine with Gascony by the 13th century , but shipbuilding generally remained on a modest scale and economically unimportant to England at this time . Transport remained very costly in comparison to the overall price of products . By the 13th century , groups of common carriers ran carting businesses , and carting brokers existed in London to link traders and carters . These used the four major land routes crossing England : Ermine Street , the Fosse Way , Icknield Street and Watling Street . A large number of bridges were built during the 12th century to improve the trade network .
+
+In the 13th century , England was still primarily supplying raw materials for export to Europe , rather than finished or processed goods . There were some exceptions , such as very high @-@ quality cloths from Stamford and Lincoln , including the famous " Lincoln Scarlet " dyed cloth . Despite royal efforts to encourage it , however , barely any English cloth was being exported by 1347 .
+
+= = = = Expansion of the money supply = = = =
+
+There was a gradual reduction in the number of locations allowed to mint coins in England ; under Henry II , only 30 boroughs were still able to use their own moneyers , and the tightening of controls continued throughout the 13th century . By the reign of Edward I there were only nine mints outside London and the king created a new official called the Master of the Mint to oversee these and the thirty furnaces operating in London to meet the demand for new coins . The amount of money in circulation hugely increased in this period ; before the Norman invasion there had been around £ 50 @,@ 000 in circulation as coin , but by 1311 this had risen to more than £ 1 million . At any particular point in time , though , much of this currency might be being stored prior to being used to support military campaigns or to be sent overseas to meet payments , resulting in bursts of temporary deflation as coins ceased to circulate within the English economy . One physical consequence of the growth in the coinage was that coins had to be manufactured in large numbers , being moved in barrels and sacks to be stored in local treasuries for royal use as the king travelled .
+
+= = = = Rise of the guilds = = = =
+
+The first English guilds emerged during the early 12th century . These guilds were fraternities of craftsmen that set out to manage their local affairs including " prices , workmanship , the welfare of its workers , and the suppression of interlopers and sharp practices " . Amongst these early guilds were the " guilds merchants " , who ran the local markets in towns and represented the merchant community in discussions with the crown . Other early guilds included the " craft guilds " , representing specific trades . By 1130 there were major weavers ' guilds in six English towns , as well as a fullers ' guild in Winchester . Over the following decades more guilds were created , often becoming increasingly involved in both local and national politics , although the guilds merchants were largely replaced by official groups established by new royal charters .
+
+The craft guilds required relatively stable markets and a relative equality of income and opportunity amongst their members to function effectively . By the 14th century these conditions were increasingly uncommon . The first strains were seen in London , where the old guild system began to collapse – more trade was being conducted at a national level , making it hard for craftsmen to both manufacture goods and trade in them , and there were growing disparities in incomes between the richer and poorer craftsmen . As a result , under Edward III many guilds became companies or livery companies , chartered companies focusing on trade and finance , leaving the guild structures to represent the interests of the smaller , poorer manufacturers .
+
+= = = = Merchants and the development of the charter fairs = = = =
+
+The period also saw the development of charter fairs in England , which reached their heyday in the 13th century . From the 12th century onwards , many English towns acquired a charter from the Crown allowing them to hold an annual fair , usually serving a regional or local customer base and lasting for two or three days . The practice increased in the next century and over 2 @,@ 200 charters were issued to markets and fairs by English kings between 1200 and 1270 . Fairs grew in popularity as the international wool trade increased : the fairs allowed English wool producers and ports on the east coast to engage with visiting foreign merchants , circumnavigating those English merchants in London keen to make a profit as middlemen . At the same time , wealthy magnate consumers in England began to use the new fairs as a way to buy goods like spices , wax , preserved fish and foreign cloth in bulk from the international merchants at the fairs , again bypassing the usual London merchants .
+
+Some fairs grew into major international events , falling into a set sequence during the economic year , with the Stamford fair in Lent , St Ives ' in Easter , Boston 's in July , Winchester 's in September and Northampton 's in November , with the many smaller fairs falling in @-@ between . Although not as large as the famous Champagne fairs in France , these English " great fairs " were still huge events ; St Ives ' Great Fair , for example , drew merchants from Flanders , Brabant , Norway , Germany and France for a four @-@ week event each year , turning the normally small town into " a major commercial emporium " .
+
+The structure of the fairs reflected the importance of foreign merchants in the English economy and by 1273 only one @-@ third of the English wool trade was actually controlled by English merchants . Between 1280 and 1320 the trade was primarily dominated by Italian merchants , but by the early 14th century German merchants had begun to present serious competition to the Italians . The Germans formed a self @-@ governing alliance of merchants in London called the " Hanse of the Steelyard " – the eventual Hanseatic League – and their role was confirmed under the Great Charter of 1303 , which exempted them from paying the customary tolls for foreign merchants . One response to this was the creation of the Company of the Staple , a group of merchants established in English @-@ held Calais in 1314 with royal approval , who were granted a monopoly on wool sales to Europe .
+
+= = = = Jewish contribution to the English economy = = = =
+
+The Jewish community in England continued to provide essential money @-@ lending and banking services that were otherwise banned by the usury laws , and grew in the 12th century by Jewish immigrants fleeing the fighting around Rouen . The Jewish community spread beyond London to eleven major English cities , primarily the major trading hubs in the east of England with functioning mints , all with suitable castles for protection of the often persecuted Jewish minority . By the time of the Anarchy and the reign of Stephen , the communities were flourishing and providing financial loans to the king .
+
+Under Henry II , the Jewish financial community continued to grow richer still . All major towns had Jewish centres , and even smaller towns , such as Windsor , saw visits by travelling Jewish merchants . Henry II used the Jewish community as " instruments for the collection of money for the Crown " , and placed them under royal protection . The Jewish community at York lent extensively to fund the Cistercian order 's acquisition of land and prospered considerably . Some Jewish merchants grew extremely wealthy , Aaron of Lincoln so much that upon his death a special royal department had to be established to unpick his financial holdings and affairs .
+
+By the end of Henry 's reign the king ceased to borrow from the Jewish community and instead turned to an aggressive campaign of tallage taxation and fines . Financial and anti @-@ Semite violence grew under Richard I. After the massacre of the York community , in which numerous financial records were destroyed , seven towns were nominated to separately store Jewish bonds and money records and this arrangement ultimately evolved into the Exchequer of the Jews . After an initially peaceful start to John 's reign , the king again began to extort money from the Jewish community , imprisoning the wealthier members , including Isaac of Norwich , until a huge , new taillage was paid . During the Baron 's War of 1215 – 17 , the Jews were subjected to fresh anti @-@ Semitic attacks . Henry III restored some order and Jewish money @-@ lending became sufficiently successful again to allow fresh taxation . The Jewish community became poorer towards the end of the century and was finally expelled from England in 1290 by Edward I , being largely replaced by foreign merchants .
+
+= = = Governance and taxation = = =
+
+During the 12th century the Norman kings attempted to formalise the feudal governance system initially created after the invasion . After the invasion the king had enjoyed a combination of income from his own demesne lands , the Anglo @-@ Saxon geld tax and fines . Successive kings found that they needed additional revenues , especially in order to pay for mercenary forces . One way of doing this was to exploit the feudal system , and kings adopted the French feudal aid model , a levy of money imposed on feudal subordinates when necessary ; another method was to exploit the scutage system , in which feudal military service could be transmuted to a cash payment to the king . Taxation was also an option , although the old geld tax was increasingly ineffective due to a growing number of exemptions . Instead , a succession of kings created alternative land taxes , such as the tallage and carucage taxes . These were increasingly unpopular and , along with the feudal charges , were condemned and constrained in the Magna Carta of 1215 . As part of the formalisation of the royal finances , Henry I created the Chancellor of the Exchequer , a post which would lead to the maintenance of the Pipe rolls , a set of royal financial records of lasting significance to historians in tracking both royal finances and medieval prices .
+
+Royal revenue streams still proved insufficient and from the middle of the 13th century there was a shift away from the earlier land @-@ based tax system towards one based on a mixture of indirect and direct taxation . At the same time , Henry III had introduced the practice of consulting with leading nobles on tax issues , leading to the system whereby the Parliament of England agreed on new taxes when required . In 1275 , the " Great and Ancient Custom " began to tax woollen products and hides , with the Great Charter of 1303 imposing additional levies on foreign merchants in England , with the poundage tax introduced in 1347 . In 1340 , the discredited tallage tax system was finally abolished by Edward III . Assessing the total impact of changes to royal revenues between 1086 and 1290 is difficult . At best , Edward I was struggling in 1300 to match in real terms the revenues that Henry II had enjoyed in 1100 , and considering the growth in the size of the English economy , the king 's share of the national income had dropped considerably .
+
+In the English towns the burgage tenure for urban properties was established early on in the medieval period , and was based primarily on tenants paying cash rents rather than providing labour services . Further development of a set of taxes that could be raised by the towns included murage for walls , pavage for streets , and pontage , a temporary tax for the repair of bridges . Combined with the lex mercatoria , which was a set of codes and customary practices governing trading , these provided a reasonable basis for the economic governance of the towns .
+
+The 12th century also saw a concerted attempt to curtail the remaining rights of unfree peasant workers and to set out their labour rents more explicitly in the form of the English Common Law . This process resulted in the Magna Carta explicitly authorising feudal landowners to settle law cases concerning feudal labour and fines through their own manorial courts rather than through the royal courts . These class relationships between lords and unfree peasants had complex economic implications . Peasant workers resented being unfree , but having continuing access to agricultural land was also important . Under those rare circumstances where peasants were offered a choice between freedom but no land , and continued servitude , not all chose freedom and a minority chose to remain in servitude on the land . Lords benefited economically from their control of the manorial courts and dominating the courts made it easier to manipulate land ownership and rights in their own favour when land became in particularly short supply at the end of this period . Many of the labour duties lords could compel from the local peasant communities became less useful over the period . Duties were fixed by custom , inflexible and understandably resented by the workers involved . As a result , by the end of the 13th century the productivity of such forced labour was significantly lower than that of free labour employed to do the same task . A number of lords responded by seeking to commute the duties of unfree peasants to cash alternatives , with the aim of hiring labour instead .
+
+= = Mid @-@ medieval economic crisis – the Great Famine and the Black Death ( 1290 – 1350 ) = =
+
+= = = Great Famine = = =
+
+The Great Famine of 1315 began a number of acute crises in the English agrarian economy . The famine centred on a sequence of harvest failures in 1315 , 1316 and 1321 , combined with an outbreak of murrain , a sickness amongst sheep and oxen in 1319 – 21 and the fatal ergotism , a fungus amongst the remaining stocks of wheat . Many people died in the ensuing famine , and the peasantry were said to have been forced to eat horses , dogs and cats as well as conducted cannibalism against children , although these last reports are usually considered to be exaggerations . Poaching and encroachment on the royal forests surged , sometimes on a mass scale . Sheep and cattle numbers fell by up to a half , significantly reducing the availability of wool and meat , and food prices almost doubled , with grain prices particularly inflated . Food prices remained at similar levels for the next decade . Salt prices also increased sharply due to the wet weather .
+
+Various factors exacerbated the crisis . Economic growth had already begun to slow significantly in the years prior to the crisis and the English rural population was increasingly under economic stress , with around half the peasantry estimated to possess insufficient land to provide them with a secure livelihood . Where additional land was being brought into cultivation , or existing land cultivated more intensively , the soil may have become exhausted and useless . Bad weather also played an important part in the disaster ; 1315 – 16 and 1318 saw torrential rains and an incredibly cold winter , which in combination badly impacted on harvests and stored supplies . The rains of these years were followed by drought in the 1320s and another fierce winter in 1321 , complicating recovery . Disease , independent of the famine , was also high during the period , striking at the wealthier as well as the poorer classes . The commencement of war with France in 1337 only added to the economic difficulties . The Great Famine firmly reversed the population growth of the 12th and 13th centuries and left a domestic economy that was " profoundly shaken , but not destroyed " .
+
+= = = Black Death = = =
+
+The Black Death epidemic first arrived in England in 1348 , re @-@ occurring in waves during 1360 – 62 , 1368 – 69 , 1375 and more sporadically thereafter . The most immediate economic impact of this disaster was the widespread loss of life , between around 27 % mortality amongst the upper classes , to 40 – 70 % amongst the peasantry . Despite the very high loss of life , few settlements were abandoned during the epidemic itself , but many were badly affected or nearly eliminated altogether . The medieval authorities did their best to respond in an organised fashion , but the economic disruption was immense . Building work ceased and many mining operations paused . In the short term , efforts were taken by the authorities to control wages and enforce pre @-@ epidemic working conditions . Coming on top of the previous years of famine , however , the longer @-@ term economic implications were profound . In contrast to the previous centuries of rapid growth , the English population would not begin to recover for over a century , despite the many positive reasons for a resurgence . The crisis would dramatically affect English agriculture , wages and prices for the remainder of the medieval period .
+
+= = Late medieval economic recovery ( 1350 – 1509 ) = =
+
+The events of the crisis between 1290 and 1348 and the subsequent epidemics produced many challenges for the English economy . In the decades after the disaster , the economic and social issues arising from the Black Death combined with the costs of the Hundred Years War to produce the Peasants Revolt of 1381 . Although the revolt was suppressed , it undermined many of the vestiges of the feudal economic order , and the countryside became dominated by estates organised as farms , frequently owned or rented by the new economic class of the gentry . The English agricultural economy remained depressed throughout the 15th century ; growth at this time came from the greatly increased English cloth trade and manufacturing . The economic consequences of this varied considerably from region to region , but generally London , the South and the West prospered at the expense of the Eastern and the older cities . The role of merchants and trade became increasingly seen as important to the country , and usury gradually became more widely accepted , with English economic thinking increasingly influenced by Renaissance humanist theories .
+
+= = = Governance and taxation = = =
+
+Even before the end of the first outbreak of the Black Death , there were efforts by the authorities to stem the upward pressure on wages and prices , with parliament passing the emergency Ordinance of Labourers in 1349 and the Statute of Labourers in 1351 . The efforts to regulate the economy continued as wages and prices rose , putting pressure on the landed classes , and in 1363 parliament attempted unsuccessfully to centrally regulate craft production , trading and retailing . A rising amount of the royal courts ' time was involved in enforcing the failing labour legislation – as much as 70 % by the 1370s . Many land owners attempted to vigorously enforce rents payable through agricultural service rather than money through their local manor courts , leading to attempts by many village communities to legally challenge local feudal practices using the Domesday Book as a legal basis for their claims . With the wages of the lower classes still rising , the government also attempted to regulate demand and consumption by reinstating the sumptuary laws in 1363 . These laws banned the lower classes from consuming certain products or wearing high @-@ status clothes , and reflected the significance of the consumption of high @-@ quality breads , ales and fabrics as a way of signifying social class in the late medieval period .
+
+The 1370s also saw the government facing difficulties in funding the war with France . The impact of the Hundred Years War on the English economy as a whole remains uncertain ; one suggestion is that the high taxation required to pay for the conflict " shrunk and depleted " the English economy , whilst others have argued for a more modest or even neutral economic impact for the war . The English government clearly found it difficult to pay for its army and from 1377 turned to a new system of poll taxes , aiming to spread the costs of taxation across the entirety of English society .
+
+= = = = Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 = = = =
+
+One result of the economic and political tensions was the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 , in which widespread rural discontent was followed by an invasion of London involving thousands of rebels . The rebels had many demands , including the effective end of the feudal institution of serfdom and a cap on the levels of rural rents . The ensuing violence took the political classes by surprise and the revolt was not fully put down until the autumn ; up to 7 @,@ 000 rebels were executed in the aftermath . As a result of the revolt , parliament retreated from the poll tax and instead focused on a system of indirect taxes centring on foreign trade , drawing 80 % of tax revenues from the exports of wool . Parliament continued to collect direct tax levies at historically high levels up until 1422 , although they reduced them in later years . As a result , successive monarchs found that their tax revenues were uncertain , and Henry VI enjoyed less than half the annual tax revenue of the late 14th century . England 's monarchs became increasingly dependent on borrowing and forced loans to meet the gap between taxes and expenditure and even then faced later rebellions over levels of taxation , including the Yorkshire rebellion of 1489 and the Cornish rebellion of 1497 during the reign of Henry VII .
+
+= = = Agriculture , fishing and mining = = =
+
+= = = = Collapse of the demesne and the creation of the farming system = = = =
+
+The agricultural sector of the English economy , still by far the largest , was transformed by the Black Death . With the shortage of manpower after the Black Death , wages for agricultural labourers rapidly increased and continued to then grow steadily throughout the 15th century . As their incomes increased , labourers ' living conditions and diet improved steadily . A trend for labourers to eat less barley and more wheat and rye , and to replace bread in their diet with more meat , had been apparent since before the Black Death , but intensified during this later period . Nonetheless , England 's much smaller population needed less food and the demand for agricultural products fell . The position of the larger landowners became increasingly difficult . Revenues from demesne lands were diminishing as demand remained low and wage costs increased ; nobles were also finding it more difficult to raise revenue from their local courts , fines and privileges in the years after the Peasants Revolt of 1381 . Despite attempts to increase money rents , by the end of the 14th century the rents paid from peasant lands were also declining , with revenues falling as much as 55 % between the 1380s and 1420s .
+
+Noble and church landowners responded in various ways . They began to invest significantly less in agriculture and land was increasingly taken out of production altogether . In some cases entire settlements were abandoned , and nearly 1 @,@ 500 villages were lost during this period . Landowners also abandoned the system of direct management of their demesne lands , which had begun back in the 1180s , and turned instead to " farming " out large blocks of land for fixed money rents . Initially , livestock and land were rented out together under " stock and lease " contracts , but this was found to be increasingly impractical and contracts for farms became centred purely on land . Many of the rights to church parish tithes were also " farmed " out in exchange for fixed rents . This process was encouraged by the trend for tithe revenues being increasing " appropriated " by central church authorities , rather than being used to support local clergy : around 39 % of parish tithes had been centralised in this way by 1535 . As the major estates transformed , a new economic grouping , the gentry , became evident , many of them benefiting from the opportunities of the farming system . Land distribution remained heavily unequal ; estimates suggest that the English nobility owned 20 % of English lands , the Church and Crown 33 % , the gentry 25 % , and the remainder was owned by peasant farmers . Agriculture itself continued to innovate , and the loss of many English oxen to the murrain sickness in the crisis increased the number of horses used to plough fields in the 14th century , a significant improvement on older methods .
+
+= = = = Forests , fishing and mining = = = =
+
+The royal forests continued to diminish in size and decline in economic importance in the years after the Black Death . Royal enforcement of forest rights and laws became harder after 1348 and certainly after 1381 , and by the 15th century the royal forests were a " shadow of their former selves " in size and economic significance . In contrast , the English fishing industry continued to grow , and by the 15th century domestic merchants and financiers owned fleets of up to a hundred fishing vessels operating from key ports . Herring remained a key fishing catch , although as demand for herring declined with rising prosperity , the fleets began to focus instead on cod and other deep @-@ sea fish from the Icelandic waters . Despite being critical to the fishing industry , salt production in England diminished in the 15th century due to competition from French producers . The use of expensive freshwater fish ponds on estates began to decline during this period , as more of the gentry and nobility opted to purchase freshwater fish from commercial river fisheries .
+
+Mining generally performed well at the end of the medieval period , helped by buoyant demand for manufactured and luxury goods . Cornish tin production plunged during the Black Death itself , leading to a doubling of prices . Tin exports also collapsed catastrophically , but picked up again over the next few years . By the turn of the 16th century , the available alluvial tin deposits in Cornwall and Devon had begun to decline , leading to the commencement of bell and surface mining to support the tin boom that had occurred in the late 15th century . Lead mining increased , and output almost doubled between 1300 and 1500 . Wood and charcoal became cheaper once again after the Black Death , and coal production declined as a result , remaining depressed for the rest of the period – nonetheless , some coal production was occurring in all the major English coalfields by the 16th century . Iron production continued to increase ; the Weald in the South @-@ East began to make increased use of water @-@ power , and overtook the Forest of Dean in the 15th century as England 's main iron @-@ producing region . The first blast furnace in England , a major technical step forward in metal smelting , was created in 1496 in Newbridge in the Weald .
+
+= = = Trade , manufacturing and the towns = = =
+
+= = = = Shrinking towns = = = =
+
+The percentage of England 's population living in towns continued to grow but in absolute terms English towns shrunk significantly as a consequence of the Black Death , especially in the formerly prosperous east . The importance of England 's Eastern ports declined over the period , as trade from London and the South @-@ West increased in relative significance . Increasingly elaborate road networks were built across England , some involving the construction of up to thirty bridges to cross rivers and other obstacles . Nonetheless , it remained cheaper to move goods by water , and consequently timber was brought to London from as far away as the Baltic , and stone from Caen brought over the Channel to the South of England . Shipbuilding , particular in the South @-@ West , became a major industry for the first time and investment in trading ships such as cogs was probably the single biggest form of late medieval investment in England .
+
+= = = = Rise of the cloth trade = = = =
+
+Cloth manufactured in England increasingly dominated European markets during the 15th and early 16th centuries . England exported almost no cloth at all in 1347 , but by 1400 around 40 @,@ 000 cloths a year were being exported – the trade reached its first peak in 1447 when exports reached 60 @,@ 000 . Trade fell slightly during the serious depression of the mid @-@ 15th century , but picked up again and reached 130 @,@ 000 cloths a year by the 1540s . The centres of weaving in England shifted westwards towards the Stour Valley , the West Riding , the Cotswolds and Exeter , away from the former weaving centres in York , Coventry and Norwich .
+
+The wool and cloth trade was primarily now being run by English merchants themselves rather than by foreigners . Increasingly , the trade was also passing through London and the ports of the South @-@ West . By the 1360s , 66 – 75 % of the export trade was in English hands and by the 15th century this had risen to 80 % ; London managed around 50 % of these exports in 1400 , and as much as 83 % of wool and cloth exports by 1540 . The growth in the numbers of chartered trading companies in London , such as the Worshipful Company of Drapers or the Company of Merchant Adventurers of London , continued , and English producers began to provide credit to European buyers , rather than the other way around . Usury grew during the period , and few cases were prosecuted by the authorities .
+
+There were some reversals . The attempts of English merchants to break through the Hanseatic league directly into the Baltic markets failed in the domestic political chaos of the Wars of the Roses in the 1460s and 1470s . The wine trade with Gascony fell by half during the war with France , and the eventual loss of the province brought an end to the English domination of the business and temporary disruption to Bristol 's prosperity until wines began to be imported through the city a few years later . Indeed , the disruption to both the Baltic and the Gascon trade contributed to a sharp reduction in the consumption of furs and wine by the English gentry and nobility during the 15th century .
+
+There were advances in manufacturing , especially in the South and West . Despite some French attacks , the war created much coastal prosperity thanks to the huge expenditure on shipbuilding during the war , and the South @-@ West also became a centre for English piracy against foreign vessels . Metalworking continued to grow , and in particular pewter working , which generated exports second only to cloth . By the 15th century pewter working in London was a large industry , with a hundred pewter workers recorded in London alone , and pewter working had also spread from the capital to eleven major cities across England . London goldsmithing remained significant but saw relatively little growth , with around 150 goldsmiths working in London during the period . Iron @-@ working continued to expand and in 1509 the first cast @-@ iron cannon was made in England . This was reflected in the rapid growth in the number of iron @-@ working guilds , from three in 1300 to fourteen by 1422 .
+
+The result was a substantial influx of money that in turn encouraged the import of manufactured luxury goods ; by 1391 shipments from abroad routinely included " ivory , mirrors , paxes , armour , paper ... , painted clothes , spectacles , tin images , razors , calamine , treacle , sugar @-@ candy , marking irons , patens ... , ox @-@ horns and quantities of wainscot " . Imported spices now formed a part of almost all noble and gentry diets , with the quantities being consumed varying according to the wealth of the household . The English government was also importing large quantities of raw materials , including copper , for manufacturing weapons . Many major landowners tended to focus their efforts on maintaining a single major castle or house rather than the dozens a century before , but these were usually decorated much more luxurious than previously . Major merchants ' dwellings , too , were more lavish than in previous years .
+
+= = = = Decline of the fair system = = = =
+
+Towards the end of the 14th century , the position of fairs began to decline . The larger merchants , particularly in London , began to establish direct links with the larger landowners such as the nobility and the church ; rather than the landowner buying from a chartered fair , they would buy directly from the merchant . Meanwhile , the growth of the indigenous England merchant class in the major cities , especially London , gradually crowded out the foreign merchants upon whom the great chartered fairs had largely depended . The crown 's control over trade in the towns , especially the emerging newer towns towards the end of the 15th century that lacked central civic government , was increasingly weaker , making chartered status less relevant as more trade occurred from private properties and took place all year around . Nonetheless , the great fairs remained of importance well into the 15th century , as illustrated by their role in exchanging money , regional commerce and in providing choice for individual consumers .
+
+= = Historiography = =
+
+The first studies into the medieval economy of England began in the 1880s , principally around the work of English jurist and historian Frederic Maitland . This scholarship , drawing extensively on documents such as the Domesday Book and the Magna Carta , became known as the " Whiggish " view of economic history , focusing on law and government . Late Victorian writers argued that change in the English medieval economy stemmed primarily from the towns and cities , leading to a progressive and universalist interpretation of development over the period , focusing on trade and commerce . Influenced by the evolution of Norman laws , Maitland argued that there was a clear discontinuity between the Anglo @-@ Saxon and Norman economic systems .
+
+In the 1930s the Whiggish view of the English economy was challenged by a group of scholars at the University of Cambridge , led by Eileen Power . Power and her colleagues widened the focus of study from legal and government documents to include " agrarian , archaeological , demographic , settlement , landscape and urban " evidence . This was combined with a neo @-@ positivist and econometric leaning that was at odds with the older Victorian tradition in the subject . Power died in 1940 , and her student and later husband , Michael Postan took forward their work , coming to dominate the post @-@ war field . Postan argued that demography was the principal driving force in the medieval English economy . In a distinctly Malthusian fashion , Postan proposed that the English agrarian economy saw little technical development during the period and by the early 14th century was unable to support the growing population , leading to inevitable famines and economic depression as the population came back into balance with land resources . Postan began the trend towards stressing continuities between the pre- and post @-@ invasion economies , aided by fresh evidence emerging from the use of archaeological techniques to understand the medieval economy from the 1950s onwards .
+
+A Marxist critique of Postan emerged from the 1950s onwards , captured in the academic journal Past & Present . This school of thought agreed that the agrarian economy was central to medieval England , but argued that agrarian issues had less to do with demography than with the mode of production and feudal class relations . In this model the English economy entered the crisis of the early 14th century because of the struggles between landlords and peasant for resources and excessive extraction of rents by the nobility . Similar issues underpinned the Peasants Revolt of 1381 and later tax rebellions . Historians such as Frank Stenton developed the " honour " as a unit of economic analysis and a focus for understanding feudal relations in peasant communities ; Rodney Hilton developed the idea of the rise of the gentry as a key feature for understanding the late medieval period .
+
+Fresh work in the 1970s and 1980s challenged both Postan 's and Marxist approaches to the medieval economy . Local studies of medieval economics , often in considerable detail and fusing new archaeological techniques and rescue archaeology with historical sources , often ran counter to their broader interpretations of change and development . The degree to which feudalism really existed and operated in England after the initial years of the invasion was thrown into considerable doubt , with historians such as David Crouch arguing that it existed primarily as a legal and fiscal model , rather than an actual economic system . Sociological and anthropological studies of contemporary economies , including the work of Ester Boserup showed many flaws with Postan 's key assumptions about demography and land use . The current academic preference is to see the English medieval economy as an " overlapping network of diverse communities " , in which active local choices and decisions are the result of independent agency , rather than historical determinism .
+
+= Mortensrud ( station ) =
+
+Mortensrud is a rapid transit station on the Østensjø Line of the Oslo Metro . It is located in Mortensrud in the Søndre Nordstrand borough of Oslo , Norway . Construction of the station started in 1995 , which was taken into use on 24 November 1997 , when it became the terminal station of the line — following a 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) extension from Skullerud . The extension cost NOK 215 million to build , and most of the section is in tunnels . The station is built in concrete , wood and stone , and cost NOK 35 million . It is served by line 3 , in addition to being an important bus terminal for the borough , including a feeder service to Bjørndal . Travel time along the 13 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 5 mi ) section to the city center is 24 minutes . In 2001 – 02 , the station had 2 @,@ 077 daily boarding passengers . The station serves the surrounding residential area , as well as an adjacent shopping center . South of the station is a turning line for trains .