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-<html>
-<head>
-<title>PLY (Python Lex-Yacc)</title>
-</head>
-<body bgcolor="#ffffff">
-<h1>PLY (Python Lex-Yacc)</h1>
-<b>
-David M. Beazley <br>
-dave@dabeaz.com<br>
-</b>
-<p>
-<b>PLY Version: 3.4</b>
-<p>
-<!-- INDEX -->
-<div class="sectiontoc">
-<ul>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn1">Preface and Requirements</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn1">Introduction</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn2">PLY Overview</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn3">Lex</a>
-<ul>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn4">Lex Example</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn5">The tokens list</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn6">Specification of tokens</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn7">Token values</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn8">Discarded tokens</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn9">Line numbers and positional information</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn10">Ignored characters</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn11">Literal characters</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn12">Error handling</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn13">Building and using the lexer</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn14">The @TOKEN decorator</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn15">Optimized mode</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn16">Debugging</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn17">Alternative specification of lexers</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn18">Maintaining state</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn19">Lexer cloning</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn20">Internal lexer state</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn21">Conditional lexing and start conditions</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn21">Miscellaneous Issues</a>
-</ul>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn22">Parsing basics</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn23">Yacc</a>
-<ul>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn24">An example</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn25">Combining Grammar Rule Functions</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn26">Character Literals</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn26">Empty Productions</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn28">Changing the starting symbol</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn27">Dealing With Ambiguous Grammars</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn28">The parser.out file</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn29">Syntax Error Handling</a>
-<ul>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn30">Recovery and resynchronization with error rules</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn31">Panic mode recovery</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn35">Signaling an error from a production</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn32">General comments on error handling</a>
-</ul>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn33">Line Number and Position Tracking</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn34">AST Construction</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn35">Embedded Actions</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn36">Miscellaneous Yacc Notes</a>
-</ul>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn37">Multiple Parsers and Lexers</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn38">Using Python's Optimized Mode</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn44">Advanced Debugging</a>
-<ul>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn45">Debugging the lex() and yacc() commands</a>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn46">Run-time Debugging</a>
-</ul>
-<li><a href="#ply_nn39">Where to go from here?</a>
-</ul>
-</div>
-<!-- INDEX -->
-<H2><a name="ply_nn1"></a>1. Preface and Requirements</H2>
-<p>
-This document provides an overview of lexing and parsing with PLY.
-Given the intrinsic complexity of parsing, I would strongly advise
-that you read (or at least skim) this entire document before jumping
-into a big development project with PLY.
-</p>
-<p>
-PLY-3.0 is compatible with both Python 2 and Python 3.  Be aware that
-Python 3 support is new and has not been extensively tested (although
-all of the examples and unit tests pass under Python 3.0).   If you are
-using Python 2, you should try to use Python 2.4 or newer.  Although PLY
-works with versions as far back as Python 2.2, some of its optional features
-require more modern library modules.
-</p>
-<H2><a name="ply_nn1"></a>2. Introduction</H2>
-PLY is a pure-Python implementation of the popular compiler
-construction tools lex and yacc. The main goal of PLY is to stay
-fairly faithful to the way in which traditional lex/yacc tools work.
-This includes supporting LALR(1) parsing as well as providing
-extensive input validation, error reporting, and diagnostics.  Thus,
-if you've used yacc in another programming language, it should be
-relatively straightforward to use PLY.
-<p>
-Early versions of PLY were developed to support an Introduction to
-Compilers Course I taught in 2001 at the University of Chicago.  In this course,
-students built a fully functional compiler for a simple Pascal-like
-language.  Their compiler, implemented entirely in Python, had to
-include lexical analysis, parsing, type checking, type inference,
-nested scoping, and code generation for the SPARC processor.
-Approximately 30 different compiler implementations were completed in
-this course.  Most of PLY's interface and operation has been influenced by common
-usability problems encountered by students.   Since 2001, PLY has
-continued to be improved as feedback has been received from users.
-PLY-3.0 represents a major refactoring of the original implementation
-with an eye towards future enhancements.
-<p>
-Since PLY was primarily developed as an instructional tool, you will
-find it to be fairly picky about token and grammar rule
-specification. In part, this
-added formality is meant to catch common programming mistakes made by
-novice users.  However, advanced users will also find such features to
-be useful when building complicated grammars for real programming
-languages.  It should also be noted that PLY does not provide much in
-the way of bells and whistles (e.g., automatic construction of
-abstract syntax trees, tree traversal, etc.). Nor would I consider it
-to be a parsing framework.  Instead, you will find a bare-bones, yet
-fully capable lex/yacc implementation written entirely in Python.
-<p>
-The rest of this document assumes that you are somewhat familar with
-parsing theory, syntax directed translation, and the use of compiler
-construction tools such as lex and yacc in other programming
-languages. If you are unfamilar with these topics, you will probably
-want to consult an introductory text such as "Compilers: Principles,
-Techniques, and Tools", by Aho, Sethi, and Ullman.  O'Reilly's "Lex
-and Yacc" by John Levine may also be handy.  In fact, the O'Reilly book can be
-used as a reference for PLY as the concepts are virtually identical.
-<H2><a name="ply_nn2"></a>3. PLY Overview</H2>
-PLY consists of two separate modules; <tt>lex.py</tt> and
-<tt>yacc.py</tt>, both of which are found in a Python package
-called <tt>ply</tt>. The <tt>lex.py</tt> module is used to break input text into a
-collection of tokens specified by a collection of regular expression
-rules.  <tt>yacc.py</tt> is used to recognize language syntax that has
-been specified in the form of a context free grammar. <tt>yacc.py</tt> uses LR parsing and generates its parsing tables
-using either the LALR(1) (the default) or SLR table generation algorithms.
-<p>
-The two tools are meant to work together.  Specifically,
-<tt>lex.py</tt> provides an external interface in the form of a
-<tt>token()</tt> function that returns the next valid token on the
-input stream.  <tt>yacc.py</tt> calls this repeatedly to retrieve
-tokens and invoke grammar rules.  The output of <tt>yacc.py</tt> is
-often an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST).  However, this is entirely up to
-the user.  If desired, <tt>yacc.py</tt> can also be used to implement
-simple one-pass compilers.
-<p>
-Like its Unix counterpart, <tt>yacc.py</tt> provides most of the
-features you expect including extensive error checking, grammar
-validation, support for empty productions, error tokens, and ambiguity
-resolution via precedence rules.  In fact, everything that is possible in traditional yacc
-should be supported in PLY.
-<p>
-The primary difference between
-<tt>yacc.py</tt> and Unix <tt>yacc</tt> is that <tt>yacc.py</tt>
-doesn't involve a separate code-generation process.
-Instead, PLY relies on reflection (introspection)
-to build its lexers and parsers.  Unlike traditional lex/yacc which
-require a special input file that is converted into a separate source
-file, the specifications given to PLY <em>are</em> valid Python
-programs.  This means that there are no extra source files nor is
-there a special compiler construction step (e.g., running yacc to
-generate Python code for the compiler).  Since the generation of the
-parsing tables is relatively expensive, PLY caches the results and
-saves them to a file.  If no changes are detected in the input source,
-the tables are read from the cache. Otherwise, they are regenerated.
-<H2><a name="ply_nn3"></a>4. Lex</H2>
-<tt>lex.py</tt> is used to tokenize an input string.  For example, suppose
-you're writing a programming language and a user supplied the following input string:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-x = 3 + 42 * (s - t)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-A tokenizer splits the string into individual tokens
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-'x','=', '3', '+', '42', '*', '(', 's', '-', 't', ')'
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Tokens are usually given names to indicate what they are. For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-'ID','EQUALS','NUMBER','PLUS','NUMBER','TIMES',
-'LPAREN','ID','MINUS','ID','RPAREN'
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-More specifically, the input is broken into pairs of token types and values.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-('ID','x'), ('EQUALS','='), ('NUMBER','3'),
-('PLUS','+'), ('NUMBER','42), ('TIMES','*'),
-('LPAREN','('), ('ID','s'), ('MINUS','-'),
-('ID','t'), ('RPAREN',')'
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-The identification of tokens is typically done by writing a series of regular expression
-rules.  The next section shows how this is done using <tt>lex.py</tt>.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn4"></a>4.1 Lex Example</H3>
-The following example shows how <tt>lex.py</tt> is used to write a simple tokenizer.
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-# ------------------------------------------------------------
-# calclex.py
-#
-# tokenizer for a simple expression evaluator for
-# numbers and +,-,*,/
-# ------------------------------------------------------------
-import ply.lex as lex
-# List of token names.   This is always required
-tokens = (
-   'NUMBER',
-   'PLUS',
-   'MINUS',
-   'TIMES',
-   'DIVIDE',
-   'LPAREN',
-   'RPAREN',
-)
-# Regular expression rules for simple tokens
-t_PLUS    = r'\+'
-t_MINUS   = r'-'
-t_TIMES   = r'\*'
-t_DIVIDE  = r'/'
-t_LPAREN  = r'\('
-t_RPAREN  = r'\)'
-# A regular expression rule with some action code
-def t_NUMBER(t):
-    r'\d+'
-    t.value = int(t.value)
-    return t
-# Define a rule so we can track line numbers
-def t_newline(t):
-    r'\n+'
-    t.lexer.lineno += len(t.value)
-# A string containing ignored characters (spaces and tabs)
-t_ignore  = ' \t'
-# Error handling rule
-def t_error(t):
-    print "Illegal character '%s'" % t.value[0]
-    t.lexer.skip(1)
-# Build the lexer
-lexer = lex.lex()
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-To use the lexer, you first need to feed it some input text using
-its <tt>input()</tt> method.  After that, repeated calls
-to <tt>token()</tt> produce tokens.  The following code shows how this
-works:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-# Test it out
-data = '''
-3 + 4 * 10
-  + -20 *2
-'''
-# Give the lexer some input
-lexer.input(data)
-# Tokenize
-while True:
-    tok = lexer.token()
-    if not tok: break      # No more input
-    print tok
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-When executed, the example will produce the following output:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-$ python example.py
-LexToken(NUMBER,3,2,1)
-LexToken(PLUS,'+',2,3)
-LexToken(NUMBER,4,2,5)
-LexToken(TIMES,'*',2,7)
-LexToken(NUMBER,10,2,10)
-LexToken(PLUS,'+',3,14)
-LexToken(MINUS,'-',3,16)
-LexToken(NUMBER,20,3,18)
-LexToken(TIMES,'*',3,20)
-LexToken(NUMBER,2,3,21)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Lexers also support the iteration protocol.    So, you can write the above loop as follows:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-for tok in lexer:
-    print tok
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-The tokens returned by <tt>lexer.token()</tt> are instances
-of <tt>LexToken</tt>.  This object has
-attributes <tt>tok.type</tt>, <tt>tok.value</tt>,
-<tt>tok.lineno</tt>, and <tt>tok.lexpos</tt>.  The following code shows an example of
-accessing these attributes:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-# Tokenize
-while True:
-    tok = lexer.token()
-    if not tok: break      # No more input
-    print tok.type, tok.value, tok.line, tok.lexpos
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-The <tt>tok.type</tt> and <tt>tok.value</tt> attributes contain the
-type and value of the token itself.
-<tt>tok.line</tt> and <tt>tok.lexpos</tt> contain information about
-the location of the token.  <tt>tok.lexpos</tt> is the index of the
-token relative to the start of the input text.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn5"></a>4.2 The tokens list</H3>
-All lexers must provide a list <tt>tokens</tt> that defines all of the possible token
-names that can be produced by the lexer.  This list is always required
-and is used to perform a variety of validation checks.  The tokens list is also used by the
-<tt>yacc.py</tt> module to identify terminals.
-<p>
-In the example, the following code specified the token names:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-tokens = (
-   'NUMBER',
-   'PLUS',
-   'MINUS',
-   'TIMES',
-   'DIVIDE',
-   'LPAREN',
-   'RPAREN',
-)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<H3><a name="ply_nn6"></a>4.3 Specification of tokens</H3>
-Each token is specified by writing a regular expression rule.  Each of these rules are
-are defined by  making declarations with a special prefix <tt>t_</tt> to indicate that it
-defines a token.  For simple tokens, the regular expression can
-be specified as strings such as this (note: Python raw strings are used since they are the
-most convenient way to write regular expression strings):
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-t_PLUS = r'\+'
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In this case, the name following the <tt>t_</tt> must exactly match one of the
-names supplied in <tt>tokens</tt>.   If some kind of action needs to be performed,
-a token rule can be specified as a function.  For example, this rule matches numbers and
-converts the string into a Python integer.
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def t_NUMBER(t):
-    r'\d+'
-    t.value = int(t.value)
-    return t
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-When a function is used, the regular expression rule is specified in the function documentation string.
-The function always takes a single argument which is an instance of
-<tt>LexToken</tt>.   This object has attributes of <tt>t.type</tt> which is the token type (as a string),
-<tt>t.value</tt> which is the lexeme (the actual text matched), <tt>t.lineno</tt> which is the current line number, and <tt>t.lexpos</tt> which
-is the position of the token relative to the beginning of the input text.
-By default, <tt>t.type</tt> is set to the name following the <tt>t_</tt> prefix.  The action
-function can modify the contents of the <tt>LexToken</tt> object as appropriate.  However,
-when it is done, the resulting token should be returned.  If no value is returned by the action
-function, the token is simply discarded and the next token read.
-<p>
-Internally, <tt>lex.py</tt> uses the <tt>re</tt> module to do its patten matching.  When building the master regular expression,
-rules are added in the following order:
-<p>
-<ol>
-<li>All tokens defined by functions are added in the same order as they appear in the lexer file.
-<li>Tokens defined by strings are added next by sorting them in order of decreasing regular expression length (longer expressions
-are added first).
-</ol>
-<p>
-Without this ordering, it can be difficult to correctly match certain types of tokens.  For example, if you
-wanted to have separate tokens for "=" and "==", you need to make sure that "==" is checked first.  By sorting regular
-expressions in order of decreasing length, this problem is solved for rules defined as strings.  For functions,
-the order can be explicitly controlled since rules appearing first are checked first.
-<p>
-To handle reserved words, you should write a single rule to match an
-identifier and do a special name lookup in a function like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-reserved = {
-   'if' : 'IF',
-   'then' : 'THEN',
-   'else' : 'ELSE',
-   'while' : 'WHILE',
-   ...
-}
-tokens = ['LPAREN','RPAREN',...,'ID'] + list(reserved.values())
-def t_ID(t):
-    r'[a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z_0-9]*'
-    t.type = reserved.get(t.value,'ID')    # Check for reserved words
-    return t
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-This approach greatly reduces the number of regular expression rules and is likely to make things a little faster.
-<p>
-<b>Note:</b> You should avoid writing individual rules for reserved words.  For example, if you write rules like this,
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-t_FOR   = r'for'
-t_PRINT = r'print'
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-those rules will be triggered for identifiers that include those words as a prefix such as "forget" or "printed".  This is probably not
-what you want.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn7"></a>4.4 Token values</H3>
-When tokens are returned by lex, they have a value that is stored in the <tt>value</tt> attribute.    Normally, the value is the text
-that was matched.   However, the value can be assigned to any Python object.   For instance, when lexing identifiers, you may
-want to return both the identifier name and information from some sort of symbol table.  To do this, you might write a rule like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def t_ID(t):
-    ...
-    # Look up symbol table information and return a tuple
-    t.value = (t.value, symbol_lookup(t.value))
-    ...
-    return t
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-It is important to note that storing data in other attribute names is <em>not</em> recommended.  The <tt>yacc.py</tt> module only exposes the
-contents of the <tt>value</tt> attribute.  Thus, accessing other attributes may  be unnecessarily awkward.   If you
-need to store multiple values on a token, assign a tuple, dictionary, or instance to <tt>value</tt>.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn8"></a>4.5 Discarded tokens</H3>
-To discard a token, such as a comment, simply define a token rule that returns no value.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def t_COMMENT(t):
-    r'\#.*'
-    pass
-    # No return value. Token discarded
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Alternatively, you can include the prefix "ignore_" in the token declaration to force a token to be ignored.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-t_ignore_COMMENT = r'\#.*'
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Be advised that if you are ignoring many different kinds of text, you may still want to use functions since these provide more precise
-control over the order in which regular expressions are matched (i.e., functions are matched in order of specification whereas strings are
-sorted by regular expression length).
-<H3><a name="ply_nn9"></a>4.6 Line numbers and positional information</H3>
-<p>By default, <tt>lex.py</tt> knows nothing about line numbers.  This is because <tt>lex.py</tt> doesn't know anything
-about what constitutes a "line" of input (e.g., the newline character or even if the input is textual data).
-To update this information, you need to write a special rule.  In the example, the <tt>t_newline()</tt> rule shows how to do this.
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-# Define a rule so we can track line numbers
-def t_newline(t):
-    r'\n+'
-    t.lexer.lineno += len(t.value)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Within the rule, the <tt>lineno</tt> attribute of the underlying lexer <tt>t.lexer</tt> is updated.
-After the line number is updated, the token is simply discarded since nothing is returned.
-<p>
-<tt>lex.py</tt> does not perform and kind of automatic column tracking.  However, it does record positional
-information related to each token in the <tt>lexpos</tt> attribute.   Using this, it is usually possible to compute
-column information as a separate step.   For instance, just count backwards until you reach a newline.
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-# Compute column.
-#     input is the input text string
-#     token is a token instance
-def find_column(input,token):
-    last_cr = input.rfind('\n',0,token.lexpos)
-    if last_cr < 0:
-	last_cr = 0
-    column = (token.lexpos - last_cr) + 1
-    return column
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Since column information is often only useful in the context of error handling, calculating the column
-position can be performed when needed as opposed to doing it for each token.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn10"></a>4.7 Ignored characters</H3>
-<p>
-The special <tt>t_ignore</tt> rule is reserved by <tt>lex.py</tt> for characters
-that should be completely ignored in the input stream.
-Usually this is used to skip over whitespace and other non-essential characters.
-Although it is possible to define a regular expression rule for whitespace in a manner
-similar to <tt>t_newline()</tt>, the use of <tt>t_ignore</tt> provides substantially better
-lexing performance because it is handled as a special case and is checked in a much
-more efficient manner than the normal regular expression rules.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn11"></a>4.8 Literal characters</H3>
-<p>
-Literal characters can be specified by defining a variable <tt>literals</tt> in your lexing module.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-literals = [ '+','-','*','/' ]
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-or alternatively
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-literals = "+-*/"
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-A literal character is simply a single character that is returned "as is" when encountered by the lexer.  Literals are checked
-after all of the defined regular expression rules.  Thus, if a rule starts with one of the literal characters, it will always
-take precedence.
-<p>
-When a literal token is returned, both its <tt>type</tt> and <tt>value</tt> attributes are set to the character itself. For example, <tt>'+'</tt>.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn12"></a>4.9 Error handling</H3>
-<p>
-Finally, the <tt>t_error()</tt>
-function is used to handle lexing errors that occur when illegal
-characters are detected.  In this case, the <tt>t.value</tt> attribute contains the
-rest of the input string that has not been tokenized.  In the example, the error function
-was defined as follows:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-# Error handling rule
-def t_error(t):
-    print "Illegal character '%s'" % t.value[0]
-    t.lexer.skip(1)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In this case, we simply print the offending character and skip ahead one character by calling <tt>t.lexer.skip(1)</tt>.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn13"></a>4.10 Building and using the lexer</H3>
-<p>
-To build the lexer, the function <tt>lex.lex()</tt> is used.  This function
-uses Python reflection (or introspection) to read the the regular expression rules
-out of the calling context and build the lexer. Once the lexer has been built, two methods can
-be used to control the lexer.
-<ul>
-<li><tt>lexer.input(data)</tt>.   Reset the lexer and store a new input string.
-<li><tt>lexer.token()</tt>.  Return the next token.  Returns a special <tt>LexToken</tt> instance on success or
-None if the end of the input text has been reached.
-</ul>
-The preferred way to use PLY is to invoke the above methods directly on the lexer object returned by the
-<tt>lex()</tt> function.   The legacy interface to PLY involves module-level functions <tt>lex.input()</tt> and <tt>lex.token()</tt>.
-For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-lex.lex()
-lex.input(sometext)
-while 1:
-    tok = lex.token()
-    if not tok: break
-    print tok
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-In this example, the module-level functions <tt>lex.input()</tt> and <tt>lex.token()</tt> are bound to the <tt>input()</tt>
-and <tt>token()</tt> methods of the last lexer created by the lex module.    This interface may go away at some point so
-it's probably best not to use it.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn14"></a>4.11 The @TOKEN decorator</H3>
-In some applications, you may want to define build tokens from as a series of
-more complex regular expression rules.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-digit            = r'([0-9])'
-nondigit         = r'([_A-Za-z])'
-identifier       = r'(' + nondigit + r'(' + digit + r'|' + nondigit + r')*)'
-def t_ID(t):
-    # want docstring to be identifier above. ?????
-    ...
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In this case, we want the regular expression rule for <tt>ID</tt> to be one of the variables above. However, there is no
-way to directly specify this using a normal documentation string.   To solve this problem, you can use the <tt>@TOKEN</tt>
-decorator.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-from ply.lex import TOKEN
-@TOKEN(identifier)
-def t_ID(t):
-    ...
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-This will attach <tt>identifier</tt> to the docstring for <tt>t_ID()</tt> allowing <tt>lex.py</tt> to work normally.  An alternative
-approach this problem is to set the docstring directly like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def t_ID(t):
-    ...
-t_ID.__doc__ = identifier
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<b>NOTE:</b> Use of <tt>@TOKEN</tt> requires Python-2.4 or newer.  If you're concerned about backwards compatibility with older
-versions of Python, use the alternative approach of setting the docstring directly.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn15"></a>4.12 Optimized mode</H3>
-For improved performance, it may be desirable to use Python's
-optimized mode (e.g., running Python with the <tt>-O</tt>
-option). However, doing so causes Python to ignore documentation
-strings.  This presents special problems for <tt>lex.py</tt>.  To
-handle this case, you can create your lexer using
-the <tt>optimize</tt> option as follows:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-lexer = lex.lex(optimize=1)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Next, run Python in its normal operating mode.  When you do
-this, <tt>lex.py</tt> will write a file called <tt>lextab.py</tt> to
-the current directory.  This file contains all of the regular
-expression rules and tables used during lexing.  On subsequent
-executions,
-<tt>lextab.py</tt> will simply be imported to build the lexer.  This
-approach substantially improves the startup time of the lexer and it
-works in Python's optimized mode.
-<p>
-To change the name of the lexer-generated file, use the <tt>lextab</tt> keyword argument.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-lexer = lex.lex(optimize=1,lextab="footab")
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-When running in optimized mode, it is important to note that lex disables most error checking.  Thus, this is really only recommended
-if you're sure everything is working correctly and you're ready to start releasing production code.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn16"></a>4.13 Debugging</H3>
-For the purpose of debugging, you can run <tt>lex()</tt> in a debugging mode as follows:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-lexer = lex.lex(debug=1)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-This will produce various sorts of debugging information including all of the added rules,
-the master regular expressions used by the lexer, and tokens generating during lexing.
-</p>
-<p>
-In addition, <tt>lex.py</tt> comes with a simple main function which
-will either tokenize input read from standard input or from a file specified
-on the command line. To use it, simply put this in your lexer:
-</p>
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-if __name__ == '__main__':
-     lex.runmain()
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Please refer to the "Debugging" section near the end for some more advanced details
-of debugging.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn17"></a>4.14 Alternative specification of lexers</H3>
-As shown in the example, lexers are specified all within one Python module.   If you want to
-put token rules in a different module from the one in which you invoke <tt>lex()</tt>, use the
-<tt>module</tt> keyword argument.
-<p>
-For example, you might have a dedicated module that just contains
-the token rules:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-# module: tokrules.py
-# This module just contains the lexing rules
-# List of token names.   This is always required
-tokens = (
-   'NUMBER',
-   'PLUS',
-   'MINUS',
-   'TIMES',
-   'DIVIDE',
-   'LPAREN',
-   'RPAREN',
-)
-# Regular expression rules for simple tokens
-t_PLUS    = r'\+'
-t_MINUS   = r'-'
-t_TIMES   = r'\*'
-t_DIVIDE  = r'/'
-t_LPAREN  = r'\('
-t_RPAREN  = r'\)'
-# A regular expression rule with some action code
-def t_NUMBER(t):
-    r'\d+'
-    t.value = int(t.value)
-    return t
-# Define a rule so we can track line numbers
-def t_newline(t):
-    r'\n+'
-    t.lexer.lineno += len(t.value)
-# A string containing ignored characters (spaces and tabs)
-t_ignore  = ' \t'
-# Error handling rule
-def t_error(t):
-    print "Illegal character '%s'" % t.value[0]
-    t.lexer.skip(1)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Now, if you wanted to build a tokenizer from these rules from within a different module, you would do the following (shown for Python interactive mode):
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
->>> import tokrules
->>> <b>lexer = lex.lex(module=tokrules)</b>
->>> lexer.input("3 + 4")
->>> lexer.token()
-LexToken(NUMBER,3,1,1,0)
->>> lexer.token()
-LexToken(PLUS,'+',1,2)
->>> lexer.token()
-LexToken(NUMBER,4,1,4)
->>> lexer.token()
-None
->>>
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-The <tt>module</tt> option can also be used to define lexers from instances of a class.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-import ply.lex as lex
-class MyLexer:
-    # List of token names.   This is always required
-    tokens = (
-       'NUMBER',
-       'PLUS',
-       'MINUS',
-       'TIMES',
-       'DIVIDE',
-       'LPAREN',
-       'RPAREN',
-    )
-    # Regular expression rules for simple tokens
-    t_PLUS    = r'\+'
-    t_MINUS   = r'-'
-    t_TIMES   = r'\*'
-    t_DIVIDE  = r'/'
-    t_LPAREN  = r'\('
-    t_RPAREN  = r'\)'
-    # A regular expression rule with some action code
-    # Note addition of self parameter since we're in a class
-    def t_NUMBER(self,t):
-        r'\d+'
-        t.value = int(t.value)
-        return t
-    # Define a rule so we can track line numbers
-    def t_newline(self,t):
-        r'\n+'
-        t.lexer.lineno += len(t.value)
-    # A string containing ignored characters (spaces and tabs)
-    t_ignore  = ' \t'
-    # Error handling rule
-    def t_error(self,t):
-        print "Illegal character '%s'" % t.value[0]
-        t.lexer.skip(1)
-    <b># Build the lexer
-    def build(self,**kwargs):
-        self.lexer = lex.lex(module=self, **kwargs)</b>
-    # Test it output
-    def test(self,data):
-        self.lexer.input(data)
-        while True:
-             tok = lexer.token()
-             if not tok: break
-             print tok
-# Build the lexer and try it out
-m = MyLexer()
-m.build()           # Build the lexer
-m.test("3 + 4")     # Test it
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-When building a lexer from class, <em>you should construct the lexer from
-an instance of the class</em>, not the class object itself.  This is because
-PLY only works properly if the lexer actions are defined by bound-methods.
-<p>
-When using the <tt>module</tt> option to <tt>lex()</tt>, PLY collects symbols
-from the underlying object using the <tt>dir()</tt> function. There is no
-direct access to the <tt>__dict__</tt> attribute of the object supplied as a
-module value.
-<P>
-Finally, if you want to keep things nicely encapsulated, but don't want to use a
-full-fledged class definition, lexers can be defined using closures.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-import ply.lex as lex
-# List of token names.   This is always required
-tokens = (
-  'NUMBER',
-  'PLUS',
-  'MINUS',
-  'TIMES',
-  'DIVIDE',
-  'LPAREN',
-  'RPAREN',
-)
-def MyLexer():
-    # Regular expression rules for simple tokens
-    t_PLUS    = r'\+'
-    t_MINUS   = r'-'
-    t_TIMES   = r'\*'
-    t_DIVIDE  = r'/'
-    t_LPAREN  = r'\('
-    t_RPAREN  = r'\)'
-    # A regular expression rule with some action code
-    def t_NUMBER(t):
-        r'\d+'
-        t.value = int(t.value)
-        return t
-    # Define a rule so we can track line numbers
-    def t_newline(t):
-        r'\n+'
-        t.lexer.lineno += len(t.value)
-    # A string containing ignored characters (spaces and tabs)
-    t_ignore  = ' \t'
-    # Error handling rule
-    def t_error(t):
-        print "Illegal character '%s'" % t.value[0]
-        t.lexer.skip(1)
-    # Build the lexer from my environment and return it
-    return lex.lex()
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<H3><a name="ply_nn18"></a>4.15 Maintaining state</H3>
-In your lexer, you may want to maintain a variety of state
-information.  This might include mode settings, symbol tables, and
-other details.  As an example, suppose that you wanted to keep
-track of how many NUMBER tokens had been encountered.
-<p>
-One way to do this is to keep a set of global variables in the module
-where you created the lexer.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-num_count = 0
-def t_NUMBER(t):
-    r'\d+'
-    global num_count
-    num_count += 1
-    t.value = int(t.value)
-    return t
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-If you don't like the use of a global variable, another place to store
-information is inside the Lexer object created by <tt>lex()</tt>.
-To this, you can use the <tt>lexer</tt> attribute of tokens passed to
-the various rules. For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def t_NUMBER(t):
-    r'\d+'
-    t.lexer.num_count += 1     # Note use of lexer attribute
-    t.value = int(t.value)
-    return t
-lexer = lex.lex()
-lexer.num_count = 0            # Set the initial count
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-This latter approach has the advantage of being simple and working
-correctly in applications where multiple instantiations of a given
-lexer exist in the same application.   However, this might also feel
-like a gross violation of encapsulation to OO purists.
-Just to put your mind at some ease, all
-internal attributes of the lexer (with the exception of <tt>lineno</tt>) have names that are prefixed
-by <tt>lex</tt> (e.g., <tt>lexdata</tt>,<tt>lexpos</tt>, etc.).  Thus,
-it is perfectly safe to store attributes in the lexer that
-don't have names starting with that prefix or a name that conlicts with one of the
-predefined methods (e.g., <tt>input()</tt>, <tt>token()</tt>, etc.).
-<p>
-If you don't like assigning values on the lexer object, you can define your lexer as a class as
-shown in the previous section:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-class MyLexer:
-    ...
-    def t_NUMBER(self,t):
-        r'\d+'
-        self.num_count += 1
-        t.value = int(t.value)
-        return t
-    def build(self, **kwargs):
-        self.lexer = lex.lex(object=self,**kwargs)
-    def __init__(self):
-        self.num_count = 0
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-The class approach may be the easiest to manage if your application is
-going to be creating multiple instances of the same lexer and you need
-to manage a lot of state.
-<p>
-State can also be managed through closures.   For example, in Python 3:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def MyLexer():
-    num_count = 0
-    ...
-    def t_NUMBER(t):
-        r'\d+'
-        nonlocal num_count
-        num_count += 1
-        t.value = int(t.value)
-        return t
-    ...
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<H3><a name="ply_nn19"></a>4.16 Lexer cloning</H3>
-<p>
-If necessary, a lexer object can be duplicated by invoking its <tt>clone()</tt> method.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-lexer = lex.lex()
-...
-newlexer = lexer.clone()
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-When a lexer is cloned, the copy is exactly identical to the original lexer
-including any input text and internal state. However, the clone allows a
-different set of input text to be supplied which may be processed separately.
-This may be useful in situations when you are writing a parser/compiler that
-involves recursive or reentrant processing.  For instance, if you
-needed to scan ahead in the input for some reason, you could create a
-clone and use it to look ahead.  Or, if you were implementing some kind of preprocessor,
-cloned lexers could be used to handle different input files.
-<p>
-Creating a clone is different than calling <tt>lex.lex()</tt> in that
-PLY doesn't regenerate any of the internal tables or regular expressions.  So,
-<p>
-Special considerations need to be made when cloning lexers that also
-maintain their own internal state using classes or closures.  Namely,
-you need to be aware that the newly created lexers will share all of
-this state with the original lexer.  For example, if you defined a
-lexer as a class and did this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-m = MyLexer()
-a = lex.lex(object=m)      # Create a lexer
-b = a.clone()              # Clone the lexer
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Then both <tt>a</tt> and <tt>b</tt> are going to be bound to the same
-object <tt>m</tt> and any changes to <tt>m</tt> will be reflected in both lexers.  It's
-important to emphasize that <tt>clone()</tt> is only meant to create a new lexer
-that reuses the regular expressions and environment of another lexer.  If you
-need to make a totally new copy of a lexer, then call <tt>lex()</tt> again.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn20"></a>4.17 Internal lexer state</H3>
-A Lexer object <tt>lexer</tt> has a number of internal attributes that may be useful in certain
-situations.
-<p>
-<tt>lexer.lexpos</tt>
-<blockquote>
-This attribute is an integer that contains the current position within the input text.  If you modify
-the value, it will change the result of the next call to <tt>token()</tt>.  Within token rule functions, this points
-to the first character <em>after</em> the matched text.  If the value is modified within a rule, the next returned token will be
-matched at the new position.
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-<tt>lexer.lineno</tt>
-<blockquote>
-The current value of the line number attribute stored in the lexer.  PLY only specifies that the attribute
-exists---it never sets, updates, or performs any processing with it.  If you want to track line numbers,
-you will need to add code yourself (see the section on line numbers and positional information).
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-<tt>lexer.lexdata</tt>
-<blockquote>
-The current input text stored in the lexer.  This is the string passed with the <tt>input()</tt> method. It
-would probably be a bad idea to modify this unless you really know what you're doing.
-</blockquote>
-<P>
-<tt>lexer.lexmatch</tt>
-<blockquote>
-This is the raw <tt>Match</tt> object returned by the Python <tt>re.match()</tt> function (used internally by PLY) for the
-current token.  If you have written a regular expression that contains named groups, you can use this to retrieve those values.
-Note: This attribute is only updated when tokens are defined and processed by functions.
-</blockquote>
-<H3><a name="ply_nn21"></a>4.18 Conditional lexing and start conditions</H3>
-In advanced parsing applications, it may be useful to have different
-lexing states. For instance, you may want the occurrence of a certain
-token or syntactic construct to trigger a different kind of lexing.
-PLY supports a feature that allows the underlying lexer to be put into
-a series of different states.  Each state can have its own tokens,
-lexing rules, and so forth.  The implementation is based largely on
-the "start condition" feature of GNU flex.  Details of this can be found
-at <a
-href="http://www.gnu.org/software/flex/manual/html_chapter/flex_11.html">http://www.gnu.org/software/flex/manual/html_chapter/flex_11.html.</a>.
-<p>
-To define a new lexing state, it must first be declared.  This is done by including a "states" declaration in your
-lex file.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-states = (
-   ('foo','exclusive'),
-   ('bar','inclusive'),
-)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-This declaration declares two states, <tt>'foo'</tt>
-and <tt>'bar'</tt>.  States may be of two types; <tt>'exclusive'</tt>
-and <tt>'inclusive'</tt>.  An exclusive state completely overrides the
-default behavior of the lexer.  That is, lex will only return tokens
-and apply rules defined specifically for that state.  An inclusive
-state adds additional tokens and rules to the default set of rules.
-Thus, lex will return both the tokens defined by default in addition
-to those defined for the inclusive state.
-<p>
-Once a state has been declared, tokens and rules are declared by including the
-state name in token/rule declaration.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-t_foo_NUMBER = r'\d+'                      # Token 'NUMBER' in state 'foo'
-t_bar_ID     = r'[a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z0-9_]*'   # Token 'ID' in state 'bar'
-def t_foo_newline(t):
-    r'\n'
-    t.lexer.lineno += 1
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-A token can be declared in multiple states by including multiple state names in the declaration. For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-t_foo_bar_NUMBER = r'\d+'         # Defines token 'NUMBER' in both state 'foo' and 'bar'
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Alternative, a token can be declared in all states using the 'ANY' in the name.
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-t_ANY_NUMBER = r'\d+'         # Defines a token 'NUMBER' in all states
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-If no state name is supplied, as is normally the case, the token is associated with a special state <tt>'INITIAL'</tt>.  For example,
-these two declarations are identical:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-t_NUMBER = r'\d+'
-t_INITIAL_NUMBER = r'\d+'
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-States are also associated with the special <tt>t_ignore</tt> and <tt>t_error()</tt> declarations.  For example, if a state treats
-these differently, you can declare:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-t_foo_ignore = " \t\n"       # Ignored characters for state 'foo'
-def t_bar_error(t):          # Special error handler for state 'bar'
-    pass
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-By default, lexing operates in the <tt>'INITIAL'</tt> state.  This state includes all of the normally defined tokens.
-For users who aren't using different states, this fact is completely transparent.   If, during lexing or parsing, you want to change
-the lexing state, use the <tt>begin()</tt> method.   For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def t_begin_foo(t):
-    r'start_foo'
-    t.lexer.begin('foo')             # Starts 'foo' state
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-To get out of a state, you use <tt>begin()</tt> to switch back to the initial state.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def t_foo_end(t):
-    r'end_foo'
-    t.lexer.begin('INITIAL')        # Back to the initial state
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-The management of states can also be done with a stack.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def t_begin_foo(t):
-    r'start_foo'
-    t.lexer.push_state('foo')             # Starts 'foo' state
-def t_foo_end(t):
-    r'end_foo'
-    t.lexer.pop_state()                   # Back to the previous state
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-The use of a stack would be useful in situations where there are many ways of entering a new lexing state and you merely want to go back
-to the previous state afterwards.
-<P>
-An example might help clarify.  Suppose you were writing a parser and you wanted to grab sections of arbitrary C code enclosed by
-curly braces.  That is, whenever you encounter a starting brace '{', you want to read all of the enclosed code up to the ending brace '}'
-and return it as a string.   Doing this with a normal regular expression rule is nearly (if not actually) impossible.  This is because braces can
-be nested and can be included in comments and strings.  Thus, simply matching up to the first matching '}' character isn't good enough.  Here is how
-you might use lexer states to do this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-# Declare the state
-states = (
-  ('ccode','exclusive'),
-)
-# Match the first {. Enter ccode state.
-def t_ccode(t):
-    r'\{'
-    t.lexer.code_start = t.lexer.lexpos        # Record the starting position
-    t.lexer.level = 1                          # Initial brace level
-    t.lexer.begin('ccode')                     # Enter 'ccode' state
-# Rules for the ccode state
-def t_ccode_lbrace(t):
-    r'\{'
-    t.lexer.level +=1
-def t_ccode_rbrace(t):
-    r'\}'
-    t.lexer.level -=1
-    # If closing brace, return the code fragment
-    if t.lexer.level == 0:
-         t.value = t.lexer.lexdata[t.lexer.code_start:t.lexer.lexpos+1]
-         t.type = "CCODE"
-         t.lexer.lineno += t.value.count('\n')
-         t.lexer.begin('INITIAL')
-         return t
-# C or C++ comment (ignore)
-def t_ccode_comment(t):
-    r'(/\*(.|\n)*?*/)|(//.*)'
-    pass
-# C string
-def t_ccode_string(t):
-   r'\"([^\\\n]|(\\.))*?\"'
-# C character literal
-def t_ccode_char(t):
-   r'\'([^\\\n]|(\\.))*?\''
-# Any sequence of non-whitespace characters (not braces, strings)
-def t_ccode_nonspace(t):
-   r'[^\s\{\}\'\"]+'
-# Ignored characters (whitespace)
-t_ccode_ignore = " \t\n"
-# For bad characters, we just skip over it
-def t_ccode_error(t):
-    t.lexer.skip(1)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In this example, the occurrence of the first '{' causes the lexer to record the starting position and enter a new state <tt>'ccode'</tt>.  A collection of rules then match
-various parts of the input that follow (comments, strings, etc.).  All of these rules merely discard the token (by not returning a value).
-However, if the closing right brace is encountered, the rule <tt>t_ccode_rbrace</tt> collects all of the code (using the earlier recorded starting
-position), stores it, and returns a token 'CCODE' containing all of that text.  When returning the token, the lexing state is restored back to its
-initial state.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn21"></a>4.19 Miscellaneous Issues</H3>
-<P>
-<li>The lexer requires input to be supplied as a single input string.  Since most machines have more than enough memory, this
-rarely presents a performance concern.  However, it means that the lexer currently can't be used with streaming data
-such as open files or sockets.  This limitation is primarily a side-effect of using the <tt>re</tt> module.
-<p>
-<li>The lexer should work properly with both Unicode strings given as token and pattern matching rules as
-well as for input text.
-<p>
-<li>If you need to supply optional flags to the re.compile() function, use the reflags option to lex.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-lex.lex(reflags=re.UNICODE)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-<li>Since the lexer is written entirely in Python, its performance is
-largely determined by that of the Python <tt>re</tt> module.  Although
-the lexer has been written to be as efficient as possible, it's not
-blazingly fast when used on very large input files.  If
-performance is concern, you might consider upgrading to the most
-recent version of Python, creating a hand-written lexer, or offloading
-the lexer into a C extension module.
-<p>
-If you are going to create a hand-written lexer and you plan to use it with <tt>yacc.py</tt>,
-it only needs to conform to the following requirements:
-<ul>
-<li>It must provide a <tt>token()</tt> method that returns the next token or <tt>None</tt> if no more
-tokens are available.
-<li>The <tt>token()</tt> method must return an object <tt>tok</tt> that has <tt>type</tt> and <tt>value</tt> attributes.  If
-line number tracking is being used, then the token should also define a <tt>lineno</tt> attribute.
-</ul>
-<H2><a name="ply_nn22"></a>5. Parsing basics</H2>
-<tt>yacc.py</tt> is used to parse language syntax.  Before showing an
-example, there are a few important bits of background that must be
-mentioned.  First, <em>syntax</em> is usually specified in terms of a BNF grammar.
-For example, if you wanted to parse
-simple arithmetic expressions, you might first write an unambiguous
-grammar specification like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-expression : expression + term
-           | expression - term
-           | term
-term       : term * factor
-           | term / factor
-           | factor
-factor     : NUMBER
-           | ( expression )
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In the grammar, symbols such as <tt>NUMBER</tt>, <tt>+</tt>, <tt>-</tt>, <tt>*</tt>, and <tt>/</tt> are known
-as <em>terminals</em> and correspond to raw input tokens.  Identifiers such as <tt>term</tt> and <tt>factor</tt> refer to
-grammar rules comprised of a collection of terminals and other rules.  These identifiers are known as <em>non-terminals</em>.
-<P>
-The semantic behavior of a language is often specified using a
-technique known as syntax directed translation.  In syntax directed
-translation, attributes are attached to each symbol in a given grammar
-rule along with an action.  Whenever a particular grammar rule is
-recognized, the action describes what to do.  For example, given the
-expression grammar above, you might write the specification for a
-simple calculator like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-Grammar                             Action
---------------------------------    --------------------------------------------
-expression0 : expression1 + term    expression0.val = expression1.val + term.val
-            | expression1 - term    expression0.val = expression1.val - term.val
-            | term                  expression0.val = term.val
-term0       : term1 * factor        term0.val = term1.val * factor.val
-            | term1 / factor        term0.val = term1.val / factor.val
-            | factor                term0.val = factor.val
-factor      : NUMBER                factor.val = int(NUMBER.lexval)
-            | ( expression )        factor.val = expression.val
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-A good way to think about syntax directed translation is to
-view each symbol in the grammar as a kind of object. Associated
-with each symbol is a value representing its "state" (for example, the
-<tt>val</tt> attribute above).    Semantic
-actions are then expressed as a collection of functions or methods
-that operate on the symbols and associated values.
-<p>
-Yacc uses a parsing technique known as LR-parsing or shift-reduce parsing.  LR parsing is a
-bottom up technique that tries to recognize the right-hand-side of various grammar rules.
-Whenever a valid right-hand-side is found in the input, the appropriate action code is triggered and the
-grammar symbols are replaced by the grammar symbol on the left-hand-side.
-<p>
-LR parsing is commonly implemented by shifting grammar symbols onto a
-stack and looking at the stack and the next input token for patterns that
-match one of the grammar rules.
-The details of the algorithm can be found in a compiler textbook, but the
-following example illustrates the steps that are performed if you
-wanted to parse the expression
-<tt>3 + 5 * (10 - 20)</tt> using the grammar defined above.  In the example,
-the special symbol <tt>$</tt> represents the end of input.
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-Step Symbol Stack           Input Tokens            Action
----- ---------------------  ---------------------   -------------------------------
-1                           3 + 5 * ( 10 - 20 )$    Shift 3
-2    3                        + 5 * ( 10 - 20 )$    Reduce factor : NUMBER
-3    factor                   + 5 * ( 10 - 20 )$    Reduce term   : factor
-4    term                     + 5 * ( 10 - 20 )$    Reduce expr : term
-5    expr                     + 5 * ( 10 - 20 )$    Shift +
-6    expr +                     5 * ( 10 - 20 )$    Shift 5
-7    expr + 5                     * ( 10 - 20 )$    Reduce factor : NUMBER
-8    expr + factor                * ( 10 - 20 )$    Reduce term   : factor
-9    expr + term                  * ( 10 - 20 )$    Shift *
-10   expr + term *                  ( 10 - 20 )$    Shift (
-11   expr + term * (                  10 - 20 )$    Shift 10
-12   expr + term * ( 10                  - 20 )$    Reduce factor : NUMBER
-13   expr + term * ( factor              - 20 )$    Reduce term : factor
-14   expr + term * ( term                - 20 )$    Reduce expr : term
-15   expr + term * ( expr                - 20 )$    Shift -
-16   expr + term * ( expr -                20 )$    Shift 20
-17   expr + term * ( expr - 20                )$    Reduce factor : NUMBER
-18   expr + term * ( expr - factor            )$    Reduce term : factor
-19   expr + term * ( expr - term              )$    Reduce expr : expr - term
-20   expr + term * ( expr                     )$    Shift )
-21   expr + term * ( expr )                    $    Reduce factor : (expr)
-22   expr + term * factor                      $    Reduce term : term * factor
-23   expr + term                               $    Reduce expr : expr + term
-24   expr                                      $    Reduce expr
-25                                             $    Success!
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-When parsing the expression, an underlying state machine and the
-current input token determine what happens next.  If the next token
-looks like part of a valid grammar rule (based on other items on the
-stack), it is generally shifted onto the stack.  If the top of the
-stack contains a valid right-hand-side of a grammar rule, it is
-usually "reduced" and the symbols replaced with the symbol on the
-left-hand-side.  When this reduction occurs, the appropriate action is
-triggered (if defined).  If the input token can't be shifted and the
-top of stack doesn't match any grammar rules, a syntax error has
-occurred and the parser must take some kind of recovery step (or bail
-out).  A parse is only successful if the parser reaches a state where
-the symbol stack is empty and there are no more input tokens.
-<p>
-It is important to note that the underlying implementation is built
-around a large finite-state machine that is encoded in a collection of
-tables. The construction of these tables is non-trivial and
-beyond the scope of this discussion.  However, subtle details of this
-process explain why, in the example above, the parser chooses to shift
-a token onto the stack in step 9 rather than reducing the
-rule <tt>expr : expr + term</tt>.
-<H2><a name="ply_nn23"></a>6. Yacc</H2>
-The <tt>ply.yacc</tt> module implements the parsing component of PLY.
-The name "yacc" stands for "Yet Another Compiler Compiler" and is
-borrowed from the Unix tool of the same name.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn24"></a>6.1 An example</H3>
-Suppose you wanted to make a grammar for simple arithmetic expressions as previously described.   Here is
-how you would do it with <tt>yacc.py</tt>:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-# Yacc example
-import ply.yacc as yacc
-# Get the token map from the lexer.  This is required.
-from calclex import tokens
-def p_expression_plus(p):
-    'expression : expression PLUS term'
-    p[0] = p[1] + p[3]
-def p_expression_minus(p):
-    'expression : expression MINUS term'
-    p[0] = p[1] - p[3]
-def p_expression_term(p):
-    'expression : term'
-    p[0] = p[1]
-def p_term_times(p):
-    'term : term TIMES factor'
-    p[0] = p[1] * p[3]
-def p_term_div(p):
-    'term : term DIVIDE factor'
-    p[0] = p[1] / p[3]
-def p_term_factor(p):
-    'term : factor'
-    p[0] = p[1]
-def p_factor_num(p):
-    'factor : NUMBER'
-    p[0] = p[1]
-def p_factor_expr(p):
-    'factor : LPAREN expression RPAREN'
-    p[0] = p[2]
-# Error rule for syntax errors
-def p_error(p):
-    print "Syntax error in input!"
-# Build the parser
-parser = yacc.yacc()
-while True:
-   try:
-       s = raw_input('calc > ')
-   except EOFError:
-       break
-   if not s: continue
-   result = parser.parse(s)
-   print result
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In this example, each grammar rule is defined by a Python function
-where the docstring to that function contains the appropriate
-context-free grammar specification.  The statements that make up the
-function body implement the semantic actions of the rule. Each function
-accepts a single argument <tt>p</tt> that is a sequence containing the
-values of each grammar symbol in the corresponding rule.  The values
-of <tt>p[i]</tt> are mapped to grammar symbols as shown here:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_expression_plus(p):
-    'expression : expression PLUS term'
-    #   ^            ^        ^    ^
-    #  p[0]         p[1]     p[2] p[3]
-    p[0] = p[1] + p[3]
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-For tokens, the "value" of the corresponding <tt>p[i]</tt> is the
-<em>same</em> as the <tt>p.value</tt> attribute assigned in the lexer
-module.  For non-terminals, the value is determined by whatever is
-placed in <tt>p[0]</tt> when rules are reduced.  This value can be
-anything at all.  However, it probably most common for the value to be
-a simple Python type, a tuple, or an instance.  In this example, we
-are relying on the fact that the <tt>NUMBER</tt> token stores an
-integer value in its value field.  All of the other rules simply
-perform various types of integer operations and propagate the result.
-</p>
-<p>
-Note: The use of negative indices have a special meaning in
-yacc---specially <tt>p[-1]</tt> does not have the same value
-as <tt>p[3]</tt> in this example.  Please see the section on "Embedded
-Actions" for further details.
-</p>
-<p>
-The first rule defined in the yacc specification determines the
-starting grammar symbol (in this case, a rule for <tt>expression</tt>
-appears first).  Whenever the starting rule is reduced by the parser
-and no more input is available, parsing stops and the final value is
-returned (this value will be whatever the top-most rule placed
-in <tt>p[0]</tt>). Note: an alternative starting symbol can be
-specified using the <tt>start</tt> keyword argument to
-<tt>yacc()</tt>.
-<p>The <tt>p_error(p)</tt> rule is defined to catch syntax errors.
-See the error handling section below for more detail.
-<p>
-To build the parser, call the <tt>yacc.yacc()</tt> function.  This
-function looks at the module and attempts to construct all of the LR
-parsing tables for the grammar you have specified.  The first
-time <tt>yacc.yacc()</tt> is invoked, you will get a message such as
-this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-$ python calcparse.py
-Generating LALR tables
-calc >
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Since table construction is relatively expensive (especially for large
-grammars), the resulting parsing table is written to the current
-directory in a file called <tt>parsetab.py</tt>.  In addition, a
-debugging file called <tt>parser.out</tt> is created.  On subsequent
-executions, <tt>yacc</tt> will reload the table from
-<tt>parsetab.py</tt> unless it has detected a change in the underlying
-grammar (in which case the tables and <tt>parsetab.py</tt> file are
-regenerated).  Note: The names of parser output files can be changed
-if necessary.  See the <a href="reference.html">PLY Reference</a> for details.
-<p>
-If any errors are detected in your grammar specification, <tt>yacc.py</tt> will produce
-diagnostic messages and possibly raise an exception.  Some of the errors that can be detected include:
-<ul>
-<li>Duplicated function names (if more than one rule function have the same name in the grammar file).
-<li>Shift/reduce and reduce/reduce conflicts generated by ambiguous grammars.
-<li>Badly specified grammar rules.
-<li>Infinite recursion (rules that can never terminate).
-<li>Unused rules and tokens
-<li>Undefined rules and tokens
-</ul>
-The next few sections discuss grammar specification in more detail.
-<p>
-The final part of the example shows how to actually run the parser
-created by
-<tt>yacc()</tt>.  To run the parser, you simply have to call
-the <tt>parse()</tt> with a string of input text.  This will run all
-of the grammar rules and return the result of the entire parse.  This
-result return is the value assigned to <tt>p[0]</tt> in the starting
-grammar rule.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn25"></a>6.2 Combining Grammar Rule Functions</H3>
-When grammar rules are similar, they can be combined into a single function.
-For example, consider the two rules in our earlier example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_expression_plus(p):
-    'expression : expression PLUS term'
-    p[0] = p[1] + p[3]
-def p_expression_minus(t):
-    'expression : expression MINUS term'
-    p[0] = p[1] - p[3]
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Instead of writing two functions, you might write a single function like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_expression(p):
-    '''expression : expression PLUS term
-                  | expression MINUS term'''
-    if p[2] == '+':
-        p[0] = p[1] + p[3]
-    elif p[2] == '-':
-        p[0] = p[1] - p[3]
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In general, the doc string for any given function can contain multiple grammar rules.  So, it would
-have also been legal (although possibly confusing) to write this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_binary_operators(p):
-    '''expression : expression PLUS term
-                  | expression MINUS term
-       term       : term TIMES factor
-                  | term DIVIDE factor'''
-    if p[2] == '+':
-        p[0] = p[1] + p[3]
-    elif p[2] == '-':
-        p[0] = p[1] - p[3]
-    elif p[2] == '*':
-        p[0] = p[1] * p[3]
-    elif p[2] == '/':
-        p[0] = p[1] / p[3]
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-When combining grammar rules into a single function, it is usually a good idea for all of the rules to have
-a similar structure (e.g., the same number of terms).  Otherwise, the corresponding action code may be more
-complicated than necessary.  However, it is possible to handle simple cases using len().  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_expressions(p):
-    '''expression : expression MINUS expression
-                  | MINUS expression'''
-    if (len(p) == 4):
-        p[0] = p[1] - p[3]
-    elif (len(p) == 3):
-        p[0] = -p[2]
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-If parsing performance is a concern, you should resist the urge to put
-too much conditional processing into a single grammar rule as shown in
-these examples.  When you add checks to see which grammar rule is
-being handled, you are actually duplicating the work that the parser
-has already performed (i.e., the parser already knows exactly what rule it
-matched).  You can eliminate this overhead by using a
-separate <tt>p_rule()</tt> function for each grammar rule.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn26"></a>6.3 Character Literals</H3>
-If desired, a grammar may contain tokens defined as single character literals.   For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_binary_operators(p):
-    '''expression : expression '+' term
-                  | expression '-' term
-       term       : term '*' factor
-                  | term '/' factor'''
-    if p[2] == '+':
-        p[0] = p[1] + p[3]
-    elif p[2] == '-':
-        p[0] = p[1] - p[3]
-    elif p[2] == '*':
-        p[0] = p[1] * p[3]
-    elif p[2] == '/':
-        p[0] = p[1] / p[3]
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-A character literal must be enclosed in quotes such as <tt>'+'</tt>.  In addition, if literals are used, they must be declared in the
-corresponding <tt>lex</tt> file through the use of a special <tt>literals</tt> declaration.
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-# Literals.  Should be placed in module given to lex()
-literals = ['+','-','*','/' ]
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<b>Character literals are limited to a single character</b>.  Thus, it is not legal to specify literals such as <tt>'&lt;='</tt> or <tt>'=='</tt>.  For this, use
-the normal lexing rules (e.g., define a rule such as <tt>t_EQ = r'=='</tt>).
-<H3><a name="ply_nn26"></a>6.4 Empty Productions</H3>
-<tt>yacc.py</tt> can handle empty productions by defining a rule like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_empty(p):
-    'empty :'
-    pass
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Now to use the empty production, simply use 'empty' as a symbol.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_optitem(p):
-    'optitem : item'
-    '        | empty'
-    ...
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Note: You can write empty rules anywhere by simply specifying an empty
-right hand side.  However, I personally find that writing an "empty"
-rule and using "empty" to denote an empty production is easier to read
-and more clearly states your intentions.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn28"></a>6.5 Changing the starting symbol</H3>
-Normally, the first rule found in a yacc specification defines the starting grammar rule (top level rule).  To change this, simply
-supply a <tt>start</tt> specifier in your file.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-start = 'foo'
-def p_bar(p):
-    'bar : A B'
-# This is the starting rule due to the start specifier above
-def p_foo(p):
-    'foo : bar X'
-...
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-The use of a <tt>start</tt> specifier may be useful during debugging
-since you can use it to have yacc build a subset of a larger grammar.
-For this purpose, it is also possible to specify a starting symbol as
-an argument to <tt>yacc()</tt>. For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-yacc.yacc(start='foo')
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<H3><a name="ply_nn27"></a>6.6 Dealing With Ambiguous Grammars</H3>
-The expression grammar given in the earlier example has been written
-in a special format to eliminate ambiguity.  However, in many
-situations, it is extremely difficult or awkward to write grammars in
-this format.  A much more natural way to express the grammar is in a
-more compact form like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-expression : expression PLUS expression
-           | expression MINUS expression
-           | expression TIMES expression
-           | expression DIVIDE expression
-           | LPAREN expression RPAREN
-           | NUMBER
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Unfortunately, this grammar specification is ambiguous.  For example,
-if you are parsing the string "3 * 4 + 5", there is no way to tell how
-the operators are supposed to be grouped.  For example, does the
-expression mean "(3 * 4) + 5" or is it "3 * (4+5)"?
-<p>
-When an ambiguous grammar is given to <tt>yacc.py</tt> it will print
-messages about "shift/reduce conflicts" or "reduce/reduce conflicts".
-A shift/reduce conflict is caused when the parser generator can't
-decide whether or not to reduce a rule or shift a symbol on the
-parsing stack.  For example, consider the string "3 * 4 + 5" and the
-internal parsing stack:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-Step Symbol Stack           Input Tokens            Action
----- ---------------------  ---------------------   -------------------------------
-1    $                                3 * 4 + 5$    Shift 3
-2    $ 3                                * 4 + 5$    Reduce : expression : NUMBER
-3    $ expr                             * 4 + 5$    Shift *
-4    $ expr *                             4 + 5$    Shift 4
-5    $ expr * 4                             + 5$    Reduce: expression : NUMBER
-6    $ expr * expr                          + 5$    SHIFT/REDUCE CONFLICT ????
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In this case, when the parser reaches step 6, it has two options.  One
-is to reduce the rule <tt>expr : expr * expr</tt> on the stack.  The
-other option is to shift the token <tt>+</tt> on the stack.  Both
-options are perfectly legal from the rules of the
-context-free-grammar.
-<p>
-By default, all shift/reduce conflicts are resolved in favor of
-shifting.  Therefore, in the above example, the parser will always
-shift the <tt>+</tt> instead of reducing.  Although this strategy
-works in many cases (for example, the case of
-"if-then" versus "if-then-else"), it is not enough for arithmetic expressions.  In fact,
-in the above example, the decision to shift <tt>+</tt> is completely
-wrong---we should have reduced <tt>expr * expr</tt> since
-multiplication has higher mathematical precedence than addition.
-<p>To resolve ambiguity, especially in expression
-grammars, <tt>yacc.py</tt> allows individual tokens to be assigned a
-precedence level and associativity.  This is done by adding a variable
-<tt>precedence</tt> to the grammar file like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-precedence = (
-    ('left', 'PLUS', 'MINUS'),
-    ('left', 'TIMES', 'DIVIDE'),
-)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-This declaration specifies that <tt>PLUS</tt>/<tt>MINUS</tt> have the
-same precedence level and are left-associative and that
-<tt>TIMES</tt>/<tt>DIVIDE</tt> have the same precedence and are
-left-associative.  Within the <tt>precedence</tt> declaration, tokens
-are ordered from lowest to highest precedence. Thus, this declaration
-specifies that <tt>TIMES</tt>/<tt>DIVIDE</tt> have higher precedence
-than <tt>PLUS</tt>/<tt>MINUS</tt> (since they appear later in the
-precedence specification).
-<p>
-The precedence specification works by associating a numerical
-precedence level value and associativity direction to the listed
-tokens.  For example, in the above example you get:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-PLUS      : level = 1,  assoc = 'left'
-MINUS     : level = 1,  assoc = 'left'
-TIMES     : level = 2,  assoc = 'left'
-DIVIDE    : level = 2,  assoc = 'left'
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-These values are then used to attach a numerical precedence value and
-associativity direction to each grammar rule. <em>This is always
-determined by looking at the precedence of the right-most terminal
-symbol.</em>  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-expression : expression PLUS expression                 # level = 1, left
-           | expression MINUS expression                # level = 1, left
-           | expression TIMES expression                # level = 2, left
-           | expression DIVIDE expression               # level = 2, left
-           | LPAREN expression RPAREN                   # level = None (not specified)
-           | NUMBER                                     # level = None (not specified)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-When shift/reduce conflicts are encountered, the parser generator resolves the conflict by
-looking at the precedence rules and associativity specifiers.
-<p>
-<ol>
-<li>If the current token has higher precedence than the rule on the stack, it is shifted.
-<li>If the grammar rule on the stack has higher precedence, the rule is reduced.
-<li>If the current token and the grammar rule have the same precedence, the
-rule is reduced for left associativity, whereas the token is shifted for right associativity.
-<li>If nothing is known about the precedence, shift/reduce conflicts are resolved in
-favor of shifting (the default).
-</ol>
-For example, if "expression PLUS expression" has been parsed and the
-next token is "TIMES", the action is going to be a shift because
-"TIMES" has a higher precedence level than "PLUS".  On the other hand,
-if "expression TIMES expression" has been parsed and the next token is
-"PLUS", the action is going to be reduce because "PLUS" has a lower
-precedence than "TIMES."
-<p>
-When shift/reduce conflicts are resolved using the first three
-techniques (with the help of precedence rules), <tt>yacc.py</tt> will
-report no errors or conflicts in the grammar (although it will print
-some information in the <tt>parser.out</tt> debugging file).
-<p>
-One problem with the precedence specifier technique is that it is
-sometimes necessary to change the precedence of an operator in certain
-contexts.  For example, consider a unary-minus operator in "3 + 4 *
--5".  Mathematically, the unary minus is normally given a very high
-precedence--being evaluated before the multiply.  However, in our
-precedence specifier, MINUS has a lower precedence than TIMES.  To
-deal with this, precedence rules can be given for so-called "fictitious tokens"
-like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-precedence = (
-    ('left', 'PLUS', 'MINUS'),
-    ('left', 'TIMES', 'DIVIDE'),
-    ('right', 'UMINUS'),            # Unary minus operator
-)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Now, in the grammar file, we can write our unary minus rule like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_expr_uminus(p):
-    'expression : MINUS expression %prec UMINUS'
-    p[0] = -p[2]
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In this case, <tt>%prec UMINUS</tt> overrides the default rule precedence--setting it to that
-of UMINUS in the precedence specifier.
-<p>
-At first, the use of UMINUS in this example may appear very confusing.
-UMINUS is not an input token or a grammer rule.  Instead, you should
-think of it as the name of a special marker in the precedence table.   When you use the <tt>%prec</tt> qualifier, you're simply
-telling yacc that you want the precedence of the expression to be the same as for this special marker instead of the usual precedence.
-<p>
-It is also possible to specify non-associativity in the <tt>precedence</tt> table. This would
-be used when you <em>don't</em> want operations to chain together.  For example, suppose
-you wanted to support comparison operators like <tt>&lt;</tt> and <tt>&gt;</tt> but you didn't want to allow
-combinations like <tt>a &lt; b &lt; c</tt>.   To do this, simply specify a rule like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-precedence = (
-    ('nonassoc', 'LESSTHAN', 'GREATERTHAN'),  # Nonassociative operators
-    ('left', 'PLUS', 'MINUS'),
-    ('left', 'TIMES', 'DIVIDE'),
-    ('right', 'UMINUS'),            # Unary minus operator
-)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-If you do this, the occurrence of input text such as <tt> a &lt; b &lt; c</tt> will result in a syntax error.  However, simple
-expressions such as <tt>a &lt; b</tt> will still be fine.
-<p>
-Reduce/reduce conflicts are caused when there are multiple grammar
-rules that can be applied to a given set of symbols.  This kind of
-conflict is almost always bad and is always resolved by picking the
-rule that appears first in the grammar file.   Reduce/reduce conflicts
-are almost always caused when different sets of grammar rules somehow
-generate the same set of symbols.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-assignment :  ID EQUALS NUMBER
-           |  ID EQUALS expression
-expression : expression PLUS expression
-           | expression MINUS expression
-           | expression TIMES expression
-           | expression DIVIDE expression
-           | LPAREN expression RPAREN
-           | NUMBER
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In this case, a reduce/reduce conflict exists between these two rules:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-assignment  : ID EQUALS NUMBER
-expression  : NUMBER
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-For example, if you wrote "a = 5", the parser can't figure out if this
-is supposed to be reduced as <tt>assignment : ID EQUALS NUMBER</tt> or
-whether it's supposed to reduce the 5 as an expression and then reduce
-the rule <tt>assignment : ID EQUALS expression</tt>.
-<p>
-It should be noted that reduce/reduce conflicts are notoriously
-difficult to spot simply looking at the input grammer.  When a
-reduce/reduce conflict occurs, <tt>yacc()</tt> will try to help by
-printing a warning message such as this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-WARNING: 1 reduce/reduce conflict
-WARNING: reduce/reduce conflict in state 15 resolved using rule (assignment -> ID EQUALS NUMBER)
-WARNING: rejected rule (expression -> NUMBER)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-This message identifies the two rules that are in conflict.  However,
-it may not tell you how the parser arrived at such a state.  To try
-and figure it out, you'll probably have to look at your grammar and
-the contents of the
-<tt>parser.out</tt> debugging file with an appropriately high level of
-caffeination.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn28"></a>6.7 The parser.out file</H3>
-Tracking down shift/reduce and reduce/reduce conflicts is one of the finer pleasures of using an LR
-parsing algorithm.  To assist in debugging, <tt>yacc.py</tt> creates a debugging file called
-'parser.out' when it generates the parsing table.   The contents of this file look like the following:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-Unused terminals:
-Grammar
-Rule 1     expression -> expression PLUS expression
-Rule 2     expression -> expression MINUS expression
-Rule 3     expression -> expression TIMES expression
-Rule 4     expression -> expression DIVIDE expression
-Rule 5     expression -> NUMBER
-Rule 6     expression -> LPAREN expression RPAREN
-Terminals, with rules where they appear
-TIMES                : 3
-error                :
-MINUS                : 2
-RPAREN               : 6
-LPAREN               : 6
-DIVIDE               : 4
-PLUS                 : 1
-NUMBER               : 5
-Nonterminals, with rules where they appear
-expression           : 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 6 0
-Parsing method: LALR
-state 0
-    S' -> . expression
-    expression -> . expression PLUS expression
-    expression -> . expression MINUS expression
-    expression -> . expression TIMES expression
-    expression -> . expression DIVIDE expression
-    expression -> . NUMBER
-    expression -> . LPAREN expression RPAREN
-    NUMBER          shift and go to state 3
-    LPAREN          shift and go to state 2
-state 1
-    S' -> expression .
-    expression -> expression . PLUS expression
-    expression -> expression . MINUS expression
-    expression -> expression . TIMES expression
-    expression -> expression . DIVIDE expression
-    PLUS            shift and go to state 6
-    MINUS           shift and go to state 5
-    TIMES           shift and go to state 4
-    DIVIDE          shift and go to state 7
-state 2
-    expression -> LPAREN . expression RPAREN
-    expression -> . expression PLUS expression
-    expression -> . expression MINUS expression
-    expression -> . expression TIMES expression
-    expression -> . expression DIVIDE expression
-    expression -> . NUMBER
-    expression -> . LPAREN expression RPAREN
-    NUMBER          shift and go to state 3
-    LPAREN          shift and go to state 2
-state 3
-    expression -> NUMBER .
-    $               reduce using rule 5
-    PLUS            reduce using rule 5
-    MINUS           reduce using rule 5
-    TIMES           reduce using rule 5
-    DIVIDE          reduce using rule 5
-    RPAREN          reduce using rule 5
-state 4
-    expression -> expression TIMES . expression
-    expression -> . expression PLUS expression
-    expression -> . expression MINUS expression
-    expression -> . expression TIMES expression
-    expression -> . expression DIVIDE expression
-    expression -> . NUMBER
-    expression -> . LPAREN expression RPAREN
-    NUMBER          shift and go to state 3
-    LPAREN          shift and go to state 2
-state 5
-    expression -> expression MINUS . expression
-    expression -> . expression PLUS expression
-    expression -> . expression MINUS expression
-    expression -> . expression TIMES expression
-    expression -> . expression DIVIDE expression
-    expression -> . NUMBER
-    expression -> . LPAREN expression RPAREN
-    NUMBER          shift and go to state 3
-    LPAREN          shift and go to state 2
-state 6
-    expression -> expression PLUS . expression
-    expression -> . expression PLUS expression
-    expression -> . expression MINUS expression
-    expression -> . expression TIMES expression
-    expression -> . expression DIVIDE expression
-    expression -> . NUMBER
-    expression -> . LPAREN expression RPAREN
-    NUMBER          shift and go to state 3
-    LPAREN          shift and go to state 2
-state 7
-    expression -> expression DIVIDE . expression
-    expression -> . expression PLUS expression
-    expression -> . expression MINUS expression
-    expression -> . expression TIMES expression
-    expression -> . expression DIVIDE expression
-    expression -> . NUMBER
-    expression -> . LPAREN expression RPAREN
-    NUMBER          shift and go to state 3
-    LPAREN          shift and go to state 2
-state 8
-    expression -> LPAREN expression . RPAREN
-    expression -> expression . PLUS expression
-    expression -> expression . MINUS expression
-    expression -> expression . TIMES expression
-    expression -> expression . DIVIDE expression
-    RPAREN          shift and go to state 13
-    PLUS            shift and go to state 6
-    MINUS           shift and go to state 5
-    TIMES           shift and go to state 4
-    DIVIDE          shift and go to state 7
-state 9
-    expression -> expression TIMES expression .
-    expression -> expression . PLUS expression
-    expression -> expression . MINUS expression
-    expression -> expression . TIMES expression
-    expression -> expression . DIVIDE expression
-    $               reduce using rule 3
-    PLUS            reduce using rule 3
-    MINUS           reduce using rule 3
-    TIMES           reduce using rule 3
-    DIVIDE          reduce using rule 3
-    RPAREN          reduce using rule 3
-  ! PLUS            [ shift and go to state 6 ]
-  ! MINUS           [ shift and go to state 5 ]
-  ! TIMES           [ shift and go to state 4 ]
-  ! DIVIDE          [ shift and go to state 7 ]
-state 10
-    expression -> expression MINUS expression .
-    expression -> expression . PLUS expression
-    expression -> expression . MINUS expression
-    expression -> expression . TIMES expression
-    expression -> expression . DIVIDE expression
-    $               reduce using rule 2
-    PLUS            reduce using rule 2
-    MINUS           reduce using rule 2
-    RPAREN          reduce using rule 2
-    TIMES           shift and go to state 4
-    DIVIDE          shift and go to state 7
-  ! TIMES           [ reduce using rule 2 ]
-  ! DIVIDE          [ reduce using rule 2 ]
-  ! PLUS            [ shift and go to state 6 ]
-  ! MINUS           [ shift and go to state 5 ]
-state 11
-    expression -> expression PLUS expression .
-    expression -> expression . PLUS expression
-    expression -> expression . MINUS expression
-    expression -> expression . TIMES expression
-    expression -> expression . DIVIDE expression
-    $               reduce using rule 1
-    PLUS            reduce using rule 1
-    MINUS           reduce using rule 1
-    RPAREN          reduce using rule 1
-    TIMES           shift and go to state 4
-    DIVIDE          shift and go to state 7
-  ! TIMES           [ reduce using rule 1 ]
-  ! DIVIDE          [ reduce using rule 1 ]
-  ! PLUS            [ shift and go to state 6 ]
-  ! MINUS           [ shift and go to state 5 ]
-state 12
-    expression -> expression DIVIDE expression .
-    expression -> expression . PLUS expression
-    expression -> expression . MINUS expression
-    expression -> expression . TIMES expression
-    expression -> expression . DIVIDE expression
-    $               reduce using rule 4
-    PLUS            reduce using rule 4
-    MINUS           reduce using rule 4
-    TIMES           reduce using rule 4
-    DIVIDE          reduce using rule 4
-    RPAREN          reduce using rule 4
-  ! PLUS            [ shift and go to state 6 ]
-  ! MINUS           [ shift and go to state 5 ]
-  ! TIMES           [ shift and go to state 4 ]
-  ! DIVIDE          [ shift and go to state 7 ]
-state 13
-    expression -> LPAREN expression RPAREN .
-    $               reduce using rule 6
-    PLUS            reduce using rule 6
-    MINUS           reduce using rule 6
-    TIMES           reduce using rule 6
-    DIVIDE          reduce using rule 6
-    RPAREN          reduce using rule 6
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-The different states that appear in this file are a representation of
-every possible sequence of valid input tokens allowed by the grammar.
-When receiving input tokens, the parser is building up a stack and
-looking for matching rules.  Each state keeps track of the grammar
-rules that might be in the process of being matched at that point.  Within each
-rule, the "." character indicates the current location of the parse
-within that rule.  In addition, the actions for each valid input token
-are listed.  When a shift/reduce or reduce/reduce conflict arises,
-rules <em>not</em> selected are prefixed with an !.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-  ! TIMES           [ reduce using rule 2 ]
-  ! DIVIDE          [ reduce using rule 2 ]
-  ! PLUS            [ shift and go to state 6 ]
-  ! MINUS           [ shift and go to state 5 ]
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-By looking at these rules (and with a little practice), you can usually track down the source
-of most parsing conflicts.  It should also be stressed that not all shift-reduce conflicts are
-bad.  However, the only way to be sure that they are resolved correctly is to look at <tt>parser.out</tt>.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn29"></a>6.8 Syntax Error Handling</H3>
-If you are creating a parser for production use, the handling of
-syntax errors is important.  As a general rule, you don't want a
-parser to simply throw up its hands and stop at the first sign of
-trouble.  Instead, you want it to report the error, recover if possible, and
-continue parsing so that all of the errors in the input get reported
-to the user at once.   This is the standard behavior found in compilers
-for languages such as C, C++, and Java.
-In PLY, when a syntax error occurs during parsing, the error is immediately
-detected (i.e., the parser does not read any more tokens beyond the
-source of the error).  However, at this point, the parser enters a
-recovery mode that can be used to try and continue further parsing.
-As a general rule, error recovery in LR parsers is a delicate
-topic that involves ancient rituals and black-magic.   The recovery mechanism
-provided by <tt>yacc.py</tt> is comparable to Unix yacc so you may want
-consult a book like O'Reilly's "Lex and Yacc" for some of the finer details.
-<p>
-When a syntax error occurs, <tt>yacc.py</tt> performs the following steps:
-<ol>
-<li>On the first occurrence of an error, the user-defined <tt>p_error()</tt> function
-is called with the offending token as an argument.  However, if the syntax error is due to
-reaching the end-of-file, <tt>p_error()</tt> is called with an argument of <tt>None</tt>.
-Afterwards, the parser enters
-an "error-recovery" mode in which it will not make future calls to <tt>p_error()</tt> until it
-has successfully shifted at least 3 tokens onto the parsing stack.
-<p>
-<li>If no recovery action is taken in <tt>p_error()</tt>, the offending lookahead token is replaced
-with a special <tt>error</tt> token.
-<p>
-<li>If the offending lookahead token is already set to <tt>error</tt>, the top item of the parsing stack is
-deleted.
-<p>
-<li>If the entire parsing stack is unwound, the parser enters a restart state and attempts to start
-parsing from its initial state.
-<p>
-<li>If a grammar rule accepts <tt>error</tt> as a token, it will be
-shifted onto the parsing stack.
-<p>
-<li>If the top item of the parsing stack is <tt>error</tt>, lookahead tokens will be discarded until the
-parser can successfully shift a new symbol or reduce a rule involving <tt>error</tt>.
-</ol>
-<H4><a name="ply_nn30"></a>6.8.1 Recovery and resynchronization with error rules</H4>
-The most well-behaved approach for handling syntax errors is to write grammar rules that include the <tt>error</tt>
-token.  For example, suppose your language had a grammar rule for a print statement like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_statement_print(p):
-     'statement : PRINT expr SEMI'
-     ...
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-To account for the possibility of a bad expression, you might write an additional grammar rule like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_statement_print_error(p):
-     'statement : PRINT error SEMI'
-     print "Syntax error in print statement. Bad expression"
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In this case, the <tt>error</tt> token will match any sequence of
-tokens that might appear up to the first semicolon that is
-encountered.  Once the semicolon is reached, the rule will be
-invoked and the <tt>error</tt> token will go away.
-<p>
-This type of recovery is sometimes known as parser resynchronization.
-The <tt>error</tt> token acts as a wildcard for any bad input text and
-the token immediately following <tt>error</tt> acts as a
-synchronization token.
-<p>
-It is important to note that the <tt>error</tt> token usually does not appear as the last token
-on the right in an error rule.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_statement_print_error(p):
-    'statement : PRINT error'
-    print "Syntax error in print statement. Bad expression"
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-This is because the first bad token encountered will cause the rule to
-be reduced--which may make it difficult to recover if more bad tokens
-immediately follow.
-<H4><a name="ply_nn31"></a>6.8.2 Panic mode recovery</H4>
-An alternative error recovery scheme is to enter a panic mode recovery in which tokens are
-discarded to a point where the parser might be able to recover in some sensible manner.
-<p>
-Panic mode recovery is implemented entirely in the <tt>p_error()</tt> function.  For example, this
-function starts discarding tokens until it reaches a closing '}'.  Then, it restarts the
-parser in its initial state.
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_error(p):
-    print "Whoa. You are seriously hosed."
-    # Read ahead looking for a closing '}'
-    while 1:
-        tok = yacc.token()             # Get the next token
-        if not tok or tok.type == 'RBRACE': break
-    yacc.restart()
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-This function simply discards the bad token and tells the parser that the error was ok.
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_error(p):
-    print "Syntax error at token", p.type
-    # Just discard the token and tell the parser it's okay.
-    yacc.errok()
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<P>
-Within the <tt>p_error()</tt> function, three functions are available to control the behavior
-of the parser:
-<p>
-<ul>
-<li><tt>yacc.errok()</tt>.  This resets the parser state so it doesn't think it's in error-recovery
-mode.   This will prevent an <tt>error</tt> token from being generated and will reset the internal
-error counters so that the next syntax error will call <tt>p_error()</tt> again.
-<p>
-<li><tt>yacc.token()</tt>.  This returns the next token on the input stream.
-<p>
-<li><tt>yacc.restart()</tt>.  This discards the entire parsing stack and resets the parser
-to its initial state.
-</ul>
-Note: these functions are only available when invoking <tt>p_error()</tt> and are not available
-at any other time.
-<p>
-To supply the next lookahead token to the parser, <tt>p_error()</tt> can return a token.  This might be
-useful if trying to synchronize on special characters.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_error(p):
-    # Read ahead looking for a terminating ";"
-    while 1:
-        tok = yacc.token()             # Get the next token
-        if not tok or tok.type == 'SEMI': break
-    yacc.errok()
-    # Return SEMI to the parser as the next lookahead token
-    return tok
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<H4><a name="ply_nn35"></a>6.8.3 Signaling an error from a production</H4>
-If necessary, a production rule can manually force the parser to enter error recovery.  This
-is done by raising the <tt>SyntaxError</tt> exception like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_production(p):
-    'production : some production ...'
-    raise SyntaxError
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-The effect of raising <tt>SyntaxError</tt> is the same as if the last symbol shifted onto the
-parsing stack was actually a syntax error.  Thus, when you do this, the last symbol shifted is popped off
-of the parsing stack and the current lookahead token is set to an <tt>error</tt> token.   The parser
-then enters error-recovery mode where it tries to reduce rules that can accept <tt>error</tt> tokens.
-The steps that follow from this point are exactly the same as if a syntax error were detected and
-<tt>p_error()</tt> were called.
-<P>
-One important aspect of manually setting an error is that the <tt>p_error()</tt> function will <b>NOT</b> be
-called in this case.   If you need to issue an error message, make sure you do it in the production that
-raises <tt>SyntaxError</tt>.
-<P>
-Note: This feature of PLY is meant to mimic the behavior of the YYERROR macro in yacc.
-<H4><a name="ply_nn32"></a>6.8.4 General comments on error handling</H4>
-For normal types of languages, error recovery with error rules and resynchronization characters is probably the most reliable
-technique. This is because you can instrument the grammar to catch errors at selected places where it is relatively easy
-to recover and continue parsing.  Panic mode recovery is really only useful in certain specialized applications where you might want
-to discard huge portions of the input text to find a valid restart point.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn33"></a>6.9 Line Number and Position Tracking</H3>
-Position tracking is often a tricky problem when writing compilers.
-By default, PLY tracks the line number and position of all tokens.
-This information is available using the following functions:
-<ul>
-<li><tt>p.lineno(num)</tt>. Return the line number for symbol <em>num</em>
-<li><tt>p.lexpos(num)</tt>. Return the lexing position for symbol <em>num</em>
-</ul>
-For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_expression(p):
-    'expression : expression PLUS expression'
-    line   = p.lineno(2)        # line number of the PLUS token
-    index  = p.lexpos(2)        # Position of the PLUS token
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-As an optional feature, <tt>yacc.py</tt> can automatically track line
-numbers and positions for all of the grammar symbols as well.
-However, this extra tracking requires extra processing and can
-significantly slow down parsing.  Therefore, it must be enabled by
-passing the
-<tt>tracking=True</tt> option to <tt>yacc.parse()</tt>.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-yacc.parse(data,tracking=True)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Once enabled, the <tt>lineno()</tt> and <tt>lexpos()</tt> methods work
-for all grammar symbols.  In addition, two additional methods can be
-used:
-<ul>
-<li><tt>p.linespan(num)</tt>. Return a tuple (startline,endline) with the starting and ending line number for symbol <em>num</em>.
-<li><tt>p.lexspan(num)</tt>. Return a tuple (start,end) with the starting and ending positions for symbol <em>num</em>.
-</ul>
-For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_expression(p):
-    'expression : expression PLUS expression'
-    p.lineno(1)        # Line number of the left expression
-    p.lineno(2)        # line number of the PLUS operator
-    p.lineno(3)        # line number of the right expression
-    ...
-    start,end = p.linespan(3)    # Start,end lines of the right expression
-    starti,endi = p.lexspan(3)   # Start,end positions of right expression
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Note: The <tt>lexspan()</tt> function only returns the range of values up to the start of the last grammar symbol.
-<p>
-Although it may be convenient for PLY to track position information on
-all grammar symbols, this is often unnecessary.  For example, if you
-are merely using line number information in an error message, you can
-often just key off of a specific token in the grammar rule.  For
-example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_bad_func(p):
-    'funccall : fname LPAREN error RPAREN'
-    # Line number reported from LPAREN token
-    print "Bad function call at line", p.lineno(2)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-Similarly, you may get better parsing performance if you only
-selectively propagate line number information where it's needed using
-the <tt>p.set_lineno()</tt> method.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_fname(p):
-    'fname : ID'
-    p[0] = p[1]
-    p.set_lineno(0,p.lineno(1))
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-PLY doesn't retain line number information from rules that have already been
-parsed.   If you are building an abstract syntax tree and need to have line numbers,
-you should make sure that the line numbers appear in the tree itself.
-<H3><a name="ply_nn34"></a>6.10 AST Construction</H3>
-<tt>yacc.py</tt> provides no special functions for constructing an
-abstract syntax tree.  However, such construction is easy enough to do
-on your own.
-<p>A minimal way to construct a tree is to simply create and
-propagate a tuple or list in each grammar rule function.   There
-are many possible ways to do this, but one example would be something
-like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_expression_binop(p):
-    '''expression : expression PLUS expression
-                  | expression MINUS expression
-                  | expression TIMES expression
-                  | expression DIVIDE expression'''
-    p[0] = ('binary-expression',p[2],p[1],p[3])
-def p_expression_group(p):
-    'expression : LPAREN expression RPAREN'
-    p[0] = ('group-expression',p[2])
-def p_expression_number(p):
-    'expression : NUMBER'
-    p[0] = ('number-expression',p[1])
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-Another approach is to create a set of data structure for different
-kinds of abstract syntax tree nodes and assign nodes to <tt>p[0]</tt>
-in each rule.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-class Expr: pass
-class BinOp(Expr):
-    def __init__(self,left,op,right):
-        self.type = "binop"
-        self.left = left
-        self.right = right
-        self.op = op
-class Number(Expr):
-    def __init__(self,value):
-        self.type = "number"
-        self.value = value
-def p_expression_binop(p):
-    '''expression : expression PLUS expression
-                  | expression MINUS expression
-                  | expression TIMES expression
-                  | expression DIVIDE expression'''
-    p[0] = BinOp(p[1],p[2],p[3])
-def p_expression_group(p):
-    'expression : LPAREN expression RPAREN'
-    p[0] = p[2]
-def p_expression_number(p):
-    'expression : NUMBER'
-    p[0] = Number(p[1])
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-The advantage to this approach is that it may make it easier to attach more complicated
-semantics, type checking, code generation, and other features to the node classes.
-<p>
-To simplify tree traversal, it may make sense to pick a very generic
-tree structure for your parse tree nodes.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-class Node:
-    def __init__(self,type,children=None,leaf=None):
-         self.type = type
-         if children:
-              self.children = children
-         else:
-              self.children = [ ]
-         self.leaf = leaf
-def p_expression_binop(p):
-    '''expression : expression PLUS expression
-                  | expression MINUS expression
-                  | expression TIMES expression
-                  | expression DIVIDE expression'''
-    p[0] = Node("binop", [p[1],p[3]], p[2])
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<H3><a name="ply_nn35"></a>6.11 Embedded Actions</H3>
-The parsing technique used by yacc only allows actions to be executed at the end of a rule.  For example,
-suppose you have a rule like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_foo(p):
-    "foo : A B C D"
-    print "Parsed a foo", p[1],p[2],p[3],p[4]
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-In this case, the supplied action code only executes after all of the
-symbols <tt>A</tt>, <tt>B</tt>, <tt>C</tt>, and <tt>D</tt> have been
-parsed. Sometimes, however, it is useful to execute small code
-fragments during intermediate stages of parsing.  For example, suppose
-you wanted to perform some action immediately after <tt>A</tt> has
-been parsed. To do this, write an empty rule like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_foo(p):
-    "foo : A seen_A B C D"
-    print "Parsed a foo", p[1],p[3],p[4],p[5]
-    print "seen_A returned", p[2]
-def p_seen_A(p):
-    "seen_A :"
-    print "Saw an A = ", p[-1]   # Access grammar symbol to left
-    p[0] = some_value            # Assign value to seen_A
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-In this example, the empty <tt>seen_A</tt> rule executes immediately
-after <tt>A</tt> is shifted onto the parsing stack.  Within this
-rule, <tt>p[-1]</tt> refers to the symbol on the stack that appears
-immediately to the left of the <tt>seen_A</tt> symbol.  In this case,
-it would be the value of <tt>A</tt> in the <tt>foo</tt> rule
-immediately above.  Like other rules, a value can be returned from an
-embedded action by simply assigning it to <tt>p[0]</tt>
-<p>
-The use of embedded actions can sometimes introduce extra shift/reduce conflicts.  For example,
-this grammar has no conflicts:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_foo(p):
-    """foo : abcd
-           | abcx"""
-def p_abcd(p):
-    "abcd : A B C D"
-def p_abcx(p):
-    "abcx : A B C X"
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-However, if you insert an embedded action into one of the rules like this,
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_foo(p):
-    """foo : abcd
-           | abcx"""
-def p_abcd(p):
-    "abcd : A B C D"
-def p_abcx(p):
-    "abcx : A B seen_AB C X"
-def p_seen_AB(p):
-    "seen_AB :"
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-an extra shift-reduce conflict will be introduced.  This conflict is
-caused by the fact that the same symbol <tt>C</tt> appears next in
-both the <tt>abcd</tt> and <tt>abcx</tt> rules.  The parser can either
-shift the symbol (<tt>abcd</tt> rule) or reduce the empty
-rule <tt>seen_AB</tt> (<tt>abcx</tt> rule).
-<p>
-A common use of embedded rules is to control other aspects of parsing
-such as scoping of local variables.  For example, if you were parsing C code, you might
-write code like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_statements_block(p):
-    "statements: LBRACE new_scope statements RBRACE"""
-    # Action code
-    ...
-    pop_scope()        # Return to previous scope
-def p_new_scope(p):
-    "new_scope :"
-    # Create a new scope for local variables
-    s = new_scope()
-    push_scope(s)
-    ...
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In this case, the embedded action <tt>new_scope</tt> executes
-immediately after a <tt>LBRACE</tt> (<tt>{</tt>) symbol is parsed.
-This might adjust internal symbol tables and other aspects of the
-parser.  Upon completion of the rule <tt>statements_block</tt>, code
-might undo the operations performed in the embedded action
-(e.g., <tt>pop_scope()</tt>).
-<H3><a name="ply_nn36"></a>6.12 Miscellaneous Yacc Notes</H3>
-<ul>
-<li>The default parsing method is LALR. To use SLR instead, run yacc() as follows:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-yacc.yacc(method="SLR")
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Note: LALR table generation takes approximately twice as long as SLR table generation.   There is no
-difference in actual parsing performance---the same code is used in both cases.   LALR is preferred when working
-with more complicated grammars since it is more powerful.
-<p>
-<li>By default, <tt>yacc.py</tt> relies on <tt>lex.py</tt> for tokenizing.  However, an alternative tokenizer
-can be supplied as follows:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-yacc.parse(lexer=x)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-in this case, <tt>x</tt> must be a Lexer object that minimally has a <tt>x.token()</tt> method for retrieving the next
-token.   If an input string is given to <tt>yacc.parse()</tt>, the lexer must also have an <tt>x.input()</tt> method.
-<p>
-<li>By default, the yacc generates tables in debugging mode (which produces the parser.out file and other output).
-To disable this, use
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-yacc.yacc(debug=0)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-<li>To change the name of the <tt>parsetab.py</tt> file,  use:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-yacc.yacc(tabmodule="foo")
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-<li>To change the directory in which the <tt>parsetab.py</tt> file (and other output files) are written, use:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-yacc.yacc(tabmodule="foo",outputdir="somedirectory")
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-<li>To prevent yacc from generating any kind of parser table file, use:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-yacc.yacc(write_tables=0)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Note: If you disable table generation, yacc() will regenerate the parsing tables
-each time it runs (which may take awhile depending on how large your grammar is).
-<P>
-<li>To print copious amounts of debugging during parsing, use:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-yacc.parse(debug=1)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<p>
-<li>The <tt>yacc.yacc()</tt> function really returns a parser object.  If you want to support multiple
-parsers in the same application, do this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-p = yacc.yacc()
-...
-p.parse()
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Note: The function <tt>yacc.parse()</tt> is bound to the last parser that was generated.
-<p>
-<li>Since the generation of the LALR tables is relatively expensive, previously generated tables are
-cached and reused if possible.  The decision to regenerate the tables is determined by taking an MD5
-checksum of all grammar rules and precedence rules.  Only in the event of a mismatch are the tables regenerated.
-<p>
-It should be noted that table generation is reasonably efficient, even for grammars that involve around a 100 rules
-and several hundred states.  For more complex languages such as C, table generation may take 30-60 seconds on a slow
-machine.  Please be patient.
-<p>
-<li>Since LR parsing is driven by tables, the performance of the parser is largely independent of the
-size of the grammar.   The biggest bottlenecks will be the lexer and the complexity of the code in your grammar rules.
-</ul>
-<H2><a name="ply_nn37"></a>7. Multiple Parsers and Lexers</H2>
-In advanced parsing applications, you may want to have multiple
-parsers and lexers.
-<p>
-As a general rules this isn't a problem.   However, to make it work,
-you need to carefully make sure everything gets hooked up correctly.
-First, make sure you save the objects returned by <tt>lex()</tt> and
-<tt>yacc()</tt>.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-lexer  = lex.lex()       # Return lexer object
-parser = yacc.yacc()     # Return parser object
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Next, when parsing, make sure you give the <tt>parse()</tt> function a reference to the lexer it
-should be using.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-parser.parse(text,lexer=lexer)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-If you forget to do this, the parser will use the last lexer
-created--which is not always what you want.
-<p>
-Within lexer and parser rule functions, these objects are also
-available.  In the lexer, the "lexer" attribute of a token refers to
-the lexer object that triggered the rule. For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def t_NUMBER(t):
-   r'\d+'
-   ...
-   print t.lexer           # Show lexer object
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-In the parser, the "lexer" and "parser" attributes refer to the lexer
-and parser objects respectively.
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-def p_expr_plus(p):
-   'expr : expr PLUS expr'
-   ...
-   print p.parser          # Show parser object
-   print p.lexer           # Show lexer object
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-If necessary, arbitrary attributes can be attached to the lexer or parser object.
-For example, if you wanted to have different parsing modes, you could attach a mode
-attribute to the parser object and look at it later.
-<H2><a name="ply_nn38"></a>8. Using Python's Optimized Mode</H2>
-Because PLY uses information from doc-strings, parsing and lexing
-information must be gathered while running the Python interpreter in
-normal mode (i.e., not with the -O or -OO options).  However, if you
-specify optimized mode like this:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-lex.lex(optimize=1)
-yacc.yacc(optimize=1)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-then PLY can later be used when Python runs in optimized mode. To make this work,
-make sure you first run Python in normal mode.  Once the lexing and parsing tables
-have been generated the first time, run Python in optimized mode. PLY will use
-the tables without the need for doc strings.
-<p>
-Beware: running PLY in optimized mode disables a lot of error
-checking.  You should only do this when your project has stabilized
-and you don't need to do any debugging.   One of the purposes of
-optimized mode is to substantially decrease the startup time of
-your compiler (by assuming that everything is already properly
-specified and works).
-<H2><a name="ply_nn44"></a>9. Advanced Debugging</H2>
-<p>
-Debugging a compiler is typically not an easy task. PLY provides some
-advanced diagonistic capabilities through the use of Python's
-<tt>logging</tt> module.   The next two sections describe this:
-<H3><a name="ply_nn45"></a>9.1 Debugging the lex() and yacc() commands</H3>
-<p>
-Both the <tt>lex()</tt> and <tt>yacc()</tt> commands have a debugging
-mode that can be enabled using the <tt>debug</tt> flag.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-lex.lex(debug=True)
-yacc.yacc(debug=True)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-Normally, the output produced by debugging is routed to either
-standard error or, in the case of <tt>yacc()</tt>, to a file
-<tt>parser.out</tt>.  This output can be more carefully controlled
-by supplying a logging object.  Here is an example that adds
-information about where different debugging messages are coming from:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-# Set up a logging object
-import logging
-logging.basicConfig(
-    level = logging.DEBUG,
-    filename = "parselog.txt",
-    filemode = "w",
-    format = "%(filename)10s:%(lineno)4d:%(message)s"
-)
-log = logging.getLogger()
-lex.lex(debug=True,debuglog=log)
-yacc.yacc(debug=True,debuglog=log)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-If you supply a custom logger, the amount of debugging
-information produced can be controlled by setting the logging level.
-Typically, debugging messages are either issued at the <tt>DEBUG</tt>,
-<tt>INFO</tt>, or <tt>WARNING</tt> levels.
-<p>
-PLY's error messages and warnings are also produced using the logging
-interface.  This can be controlled by passing a logging object
-using the <tt>errorlog</tt> parameter.
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-lex.lex(errorlog=log)
-yacc.yacc(errorlog=log)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-If you want to completely silence warnings, you can either pass in a
-logging object with an appropriate filter level or use the <tt>NullLogger</tt>
-object defined in either <tt>lex</tt> or <tt>yacc</tt>.  For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-yacc.yacc(errorlog=yacc.NullLogger())
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-<H3><a name="ply_nn46"></a>9.2 Run-time Debugging</H3>
-<p>
-To enable run-time debugging of a parser, use the <tt>debug</tt> option to parse. This
-option can either be an integer (which simply turns debugging on or off) or an instance
-of a logger object. For example:
-<blockquote>
-<pre>
-log = logging.getLogger()
-parser.parse(input,debug=log)
-</pre>
-</blockquote>
-If a logging object is passed, you can use its filtering level to control how much
-output gets generated.   The <tt>INFO</tt> level is used to produce information
-about rule reductions.  The <tt>DEBUG</tt> level will show information about the
-parsing stack, token shifts, and other details.  The <tt>ERROR</tt> level shows information
-related to parsing errors.
-<p>
-For very complicated problems, you should pass in a logging object that
-redirects to a file where you can more easily inspect the output after
-execution.
-<H2><a name="ply_nn39"></a>10. Where to go from here?</H2>
-The <tt>examples</tt> directory of the PLY distribution contains several simple examples.   Please consult a
-compilers textbook for the theory and underlying implementation details or LR parsing.
-</body>
-</html>