wasmtime 9.0.4 → 10.0.0

data/ext/cargo-vendor/cranelift-codegen-0.97.1/src/machinst/lower.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,1388 @@
+//! This module implements lowering (instruction selection) from Cranelift IR
+//! to machine instructions with virtual registers. This is *almost* the final
+//! machine code, except for register allocation.
+
+// TODO: separate the IR-query core of `Lower` from the lowering logic built on
+// top of it, e.g. the side-effect/coloring analysis and the scan support.
+
+use crate::entity::SecondaryMap;
+use crate::fx::{FxHashMap, FxHashSet};
+use crate::inst_predicates::{has_lowering_side_effect, is_constant_64bit};
+use crate::ir::{
+    ArgumentPurpose, Block, Constant, ConstantData, DataFlowGraph, ExternalName, Function,
+    GlobalValue, GlobalValueData, Immediate, Inst, InstructionData, MemFlags, RelSourceLoc, Type,
+    Value, ValueDef, ValueLabelAssignments, ValueLabelStart,
+};
+use crate::machinst::{
+    writable_value_regs, BlockIndex, BlockLoweringOrder, Callee, LoweredBlock, MachLabel, Reg,
+    SigSet, VCode, VCodeBuilder, VCodeConstant, VCodeConstantData, VCodeConstants, VCodeInst,
+    ValueRegs, Writable,
+};
+use crate::{trace, CodegenResult};
+use alloc::vec::Vec;
+use cranelift_control::ControlPlane;
+use regalloc2::{MachineEnv, PRegSet};
+use smallvec::{smallvec, SmallVec};
+use std::fmt::Debug;
+
+use super::{VCodeBuildDirection, VRegAllocator};
+
+/// A vector of ValueRegs, used to represent the outputs of an instruction.
+pub type InstOutput = SmallVec<[ValueRegs<Reg>; 2]>;
+
+/// An "instruction color" partitions CLIF instructions by side-effecting ops.
+/// All instructions with the same "color" are guaranteed not to be separated by
+/// any side-effecting op (for this purpose, loads are also considered
+/// side-effecting, to avoid subtle questions w.r.t. the memory model), and
+/// furthermore, it is guaranteed that for any two instructions A and B such
+/// that color(A) == color(B), either A dominates B and B postdominates A, or
+/// vice-versa. (For now, in practice, only ops in the same basic block can ever
+/// have the same color, trivially providing the second condition.) Intuitively,
+/// this means that the ops of the same color must always execute "together", as
+/// part of one atomic contiguous section of the dynamic execution trace, and
+/// they can be freely permuted (modulo true dataflow dependencies) without
+/// affecting program behavior.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+struct InstColor(u32);
+impl InstColor {
+    fn new(n: u32) -> InstColor {
+        InstColor(n)
+    }
+
+    /// Get an arbitrary index representing this color. The index is unique
+    /// *within a single function compilation*, but indices may be reused across
+    /// functions.
+    pub fn get(self) -> u32 {
+        self.0
+    }
+}
+
+/// A representation of all of the ways in which a value is available, aside
+/// from as a direct register.
+///
+/// - An instruction, if it would be allowed to occur at the current location
+///   instead (see [Lower::get_input_as_source_or_const()] for more details).
+///
+/// - A constant, if the value is known to be a constant.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+pub struct NonRegInput {
+    /// An instruction produces this value (as the given output), and its
+    /// computation (and side-effect if applicable) could occur at the
+    /// current instruction's location instead.
+    ///
+    /// If this instruction's operation is merged into the current instruction,
+    /// the backend must call [Lower::sink_inst()].
+    ///
+    /// This enum indicates whether this use of the source instruction
+    /// is unique or not.
+    pub inst: InputSourceInst,
+    /// The value is a known constant.
+    pub constant: Option<u64>,
+}
+
+/// When examining an input to an instruction, this enum provides one
+/// of several options: there is or isn't a single instruction (that
+/// we can see and merge with) that produces that input's value, and
+/// we are or aren't the single user of that instruction.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+pub enum InputSourceInst {
+    /// The input in question is the single, unique use of the given
+    /// instruction and output index, and it can be sunk to the
+    /// location of this input.
+    UniqueUse(Inst, usize),
+    /// The input in question is one of multiple uses of the given
+    /// instruction. It can still be sunk to the location of this
+    /// input.
+    Use(Inst, usize),
+    /// We cannot determine which instruction produced the input, or
+    /// it is one of several instructions (e.g., due to a control-flow
+    /// merge and blockparam), or the source instruction cannot be
+    /// allowed to sink to the current location due to side-effects.
+    None,
+}
+
+impl InputSourceInst {
+    /// Get the instruction and output index for this source, whether
+    /// we are its single or one of many users.
+    pub fn as_inst(&self) -> Option<(Inst, usize)> {
+        match self {
+            &InputSourceInst::UniqueUse(inst, output_idx)
+            | &InputSourceInst::Use(inst, output_idx) => Some((inst, output_idx)),
+            &InputSourceInst::None => None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A machine backend.
+pub trait LowerBackend {
+    /// The machine instruction type.
+    type MInst: VCodeInst;
+
+    /// Lower a single instruction.
+    ///
+    /// For a branch, this function should not generate the actual branch
+    /// instruction. However, it must force any values it needs for the branch
+    /// edge (block-param actuals) into registers, because the actual branch
+    /// generation (`lower_branch()`) happens *after* any possible merged
+    /// out-edge.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` if no lowering for the instruction was found.
+    fn lower(&self, ctx: &mut Lower<Self::MInst>, inst: Inst) -> Option<InstOutput>;
+
+    /// Lower a block-terminating group of branches (which together can be seen
+    /// as one N-way branch), given a vcode MachLabel for each target.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` if no lowering for the branch was found.
+    fn lower_branch(
+        &self,
+        ctx: &mut Lower<Self::MInst>,
+        inst: Inst,
+        targets: &[MachLabel],
+    ) -> Option<()>;
+
+    /// A bit of a hack: give a fixed register that always holds the result of a
+    /// `get_pinned_reg` instruction, if known.  This allows elision of moves
+    /// into the associated vreg, instead using the real reg directly.
+    fn maybe_pinned_reg(&self) -> Option<Reg> {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+/// Machine-independent lowering driver / machine-instruction container. Maintains a correspondence
+/// from original Inst to MachInsts.
+pub struct Lower<'func, I: VCodeInst> {
+    /// The function to lower.
+    f: &'func Function,
+
+    /// The set of allocatable registers.
+    allocatable: PRegSet,
+
+    /// Lowered machine instructions.
+    vcode: VCodeBuilder<I>,
+
+    /// VReg allocation context, given to the vcode field at build time to finalize the vcode.
+    vregs: VRegAllocator<I>,
+
+    /// Mapping from `Value` (SSA value in IR) to virtual register.
+    value_regs: SecondaryMap<Value, ValueRegs<Reg>>,
+
+    /// sret registers, if needed.
+    sret_reg: Option<ValueRegs<Reg>>,
+
+    /// Instruction colors at block exits. From this map, we can recover all
+    /// instruction colors by scanning backward from the block end and
+    /// decrementing on any color-changing (side-effecting) instruction.
+    block_end_colors: SecondaryMap<Block, InstColor>,
+
+    /// Instruction colors at side-effecting ops. This is the *entry* color,
+    /// i.e., the version of global state that exists before an instruction
+    /// executes.  For each side-effecting instruction, the *exit* color is its
+    /// entry color plus one.
+    side_effect_inst_entry_colors: FxHashMap<Inst, InstColor>,
+
+    /// Current color as we scan during lowering. While we are lowering an
+    /// instruction, this is equal to the color *at entry to* the instruction.
+    cur_scan_entry_color: Option<InstColor>,
+
+    /// Current instruction as we scan during lowering.
+    cur_inst: Option<Inst>,
+
+    /// Instruction constant values, if known.
+    inst_constants: FxHashMap<Inst, u64>,
+
+    /// Use-counts per SSA value, as counted in the input IR. These
+    /// are "coarsened", in the abstract-interpretation sense: we only
+    /// care about "0, 1, many" states, as this is all we need and
+    /// this lets us do an efficient fixpoint analysis.
+    ///
+    /// See doc comment on `ValueUseState` for more details.
+    value_ir_uses: SecondaryMap<Value, ValueUseState>,
+
+    /// Actual uses of each SSA value so far, incremented while lowering.
+    value_lowered_uses: SecondaryMap<Value, u32>,
+
+    /// Effectful instructions that have been sunk; they are not codegen'd at
+    /// their original locations.
+    inst_sunk: FxHashSet<Inst>,
+
+    /// Instructions collected for the CLIF inst in progress, in forward order.
+    ir_insts: Vec<I>,
+
+    /// The register to use for GetPinnedReg, if any, on this architecture.
+    pinned_reg: Option<Reg>,
+}
+
+/// How is a value used in the IR?
+///
+/// This can be seen as a coarsening of an integer count. We only need
+/// distinct states for zero, one, or many.
+///
+/// This analysis deserves further explanation. The basic idea is that
+/// we want to allow instruction lowering to know whether a value that
+/// an instruction references is *only* referenced by that one use, or
+/// by others as well. This is necessary to know when we might want to
+/// move a side-effect: we cannot, for example, duplicate a load, so
+/// we cannot let instruction lowering match a load as part of a
+/// subpattern and potentially incorporate it.
+///
+/// Note that a lot of subtlety comes into play once we have
+/// *indirect* uses. The classical example of this in our development
+/// history was the x86 compare instruction, which is incorporated
+/// into flags users (e.g. `selectif`, `trueif`, branches) and can
+/// subsequently incorporate loads, or at least we would like it
+/// to. However, danger awaits: the compare might be the only user of
+/// a load, so we might think we can just move the load (and nothing
+/// is duplicated -- success!), except that the compare itself is
+/// codegen'd in multiple places, where it is incorporated as a
+/// subpattern itself.
+///
+/// So we really want a notion of "unique all the way along the
+/// matching path". Rust's `&T` and `&mut T` offer a partial analogy
+/// to the semantics that we want here: we want to know when we've
+/// matched a unique use of an instruction, and that instruction's
+/// unique use of another instruction, etc, just as `&mut T` can only
+/// be obtained by going through a chain of `&mut T`. If one has a
+/// `&T` to a struct containing `&mut T` (one of several uses of an
+/// instruction that itself has a unique use of an instruction), one
+/// can only get a `&T` (one can only get a "I am one of several users
+/// of this instruction" result).
+///
+/// We could track these paths, either dynamically as one "looks up the operand
+/// tree" or precomputed. But the former requires state and means that the
+/// `Lower` API carries that state implicitly, which we'd like to avoid if we
+/// can. And the latter implies O(n^2) storage: it is an all-pairs property (is
+/// inst `i` unique from the point of view of `j`).
+///
+/// To make matters even a little more complex still, a value that is
+/// not uniquely used when initially viewing the IR can *become*
+/// uniquely used, at least as a root allowing further unique uses of
+/// e.g. loads to merge, if no other instruction actually merges
+/// it. To be more concrete, if we have `v1 := load; v2 := op v1; v3
+/// := op v2; v4 := op v2` then `v2` is non-uniquely used, so from the
+/// point of view of lowering `v4` or `v3`, we cannot merge the load
+/// at `v1`. But if we decide just to use the assigned register for
+/// `v2` at both `v3` and `v4`, then we only actually codegen `v2`
+/// once, so it *is* a unique root at that point and we *can* merge
+/// the load.
+///
+/// Note also that the color scheme is not sufficient to give us this
+/// information, for various reasons: reasoning about side-effects
+/// does not tell us about potential duplication of uses through pure
+/// ops.
+///
+/// To keep things simple and avoid error-prone lowering APIs that
+/// would extract more information about whether instruction merging
+/// happens or not (we don't have that info now, and it would be
+/// difficult to refactor to get it and make that refactor 100%
+/// correct), we give up on the above "can become unique if not
+/// actually merged" point. Instead, we compute a
+/// transitive-uniqueness. That is what this enum represents.
+///
+/// To define it plainly: a value is `Unused` if no references exist
+/// to it; `Once` if only one other op refers to it, *and* that other
+/// op is `Unused` or `Once`; and `Multiple` otherwise. In other
+/// words, `Multiple` is contagious: even if an op's result value is
+/// directly used only once in the CLIF, that value is `Multiple` if
+/// the op that uses it is itself used multiple times (hence could be
+/// codegen'd multiple times). In brief, this analysis tells us
+/// whether, if every op merged all of its operand tree, a given op
+/// could be codegen'd in more than one place.
+///
+/// To compute this, we first consider direct uses. At this point
+/// `Unused` answers are correct, `Multiple` answers are correct, but
+/// some `Once`s may change to `Multiple`s. Then we propagate
+/// `Multiple` transitively using a workqueue/fixpoint algorithm.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+enum ValueUseState {
+    /// Not used at all.
+    Unused,
+    /// Used exactly once.
+    Once,
+    /// Used multiple times.
+    Multiple,
+}
+
+impl ValueUseState {
+    /// Add one use.
+    fn inc(&mut self) {
+        let new = match self {
+            Self::Unused => Self::Once,
+            Self::Once | Self::Multiple => Self::Multiple,
+        };
+        *self = new;
+    }
+}
+
+/// Notion of "relocation distance". This gives an estimate of how far away a symbol will be from a
+/// reference.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum RelocDistance {
+    /// Target of relocation is "nearby". The threshold for this is fuzzy but should be interpreted
+    /// as approximately "within the compiled output of one module"; e.g., within AArch64's +/-
+    /// 128MB offset. If unsure, use `Far` instead.
+    Near,
+    /// Target of relocation could be anywhere in the address space.
+    Far,
+}
+
+impl<'func, I: VCodeInst> Lower<'func, I> {
+    /// Prepare a new lowering context for the given IR function.
+    pub fn new(
+        f: &'func Function,
+        machine_env: &MachineEnv,
+        abi: Callee<I::ABIMachineSpec>,
+        emit_info: I::Info,
+        block_order: BlockLoweringOrder,
+        sigs: SigSet,
+    ) -> CodegenResult<Self> {
+        let constants = VCodeConstants::with_capacity(f.dfg.constants.len());
+        let vcode = VCodeBuilder::new(
+            sigs,
+            abi,
+            emit_info,
+            block_order,
+            constants,
+            VCodeBuildDirection::Backward,
+        );
+
+        let mut vregs = VRegAllocator::new();
+
+        let mut value_regs = SecondaryMap::with_default(ValueRegs::invalid());
+
+        // Assign a vreg to each block param and each inst result.
+        for bb in f.layout.blocks() {
+            for &param in f.dfg.block_params(bb) {
+                let ty = f.dfg.value_type(param);
+                if value_regs[param].is_invalid() {
+                    let regs = vregs.alloc(ty)?;
+                    value_regs[param] = regs;
+                    trace!("bb {} param {}: regs {:?}", bb, param, regs);
+                }
+            }
+            for inst in f.layout.block_insts(bb) {
+                for &result in f.dfg.inst_results(inst) {
+                    let ty = f.dfg.value_type(result);
+                    if value_regs[result].is_invalid() && !ty.is_invalid() {
+                        let regs = vregs.alloc(ty)?;
+                        value_regs[result] = regs;
+                        trace!(
+                            "bb {} inst {} ({:?}): result {} regs {:?}",
+                            bb,
+                            inst,
+                            f.dfg.insts[inst],
+                            result,
+                            regs,
+                        );
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Find the sret register, if it's used.
+        let mut sret_reg = None;
+        for ret in vcode.abi().signature().returns.iter() {
+            if ret.purpose == ArgumentPurpose::StructReturn {
+                let entry_bb = f.stencil.layout.entry_block().unwrap();
+                for (&param, sig_param) in f
+                    .dfg
+                    .block_params(entry_bb)
+                    .iter()
+                    .zip(vcode.abi().signature().params.iter())
+                {
+                    if sig_param.purpose == ArgumentPurpose::StructReturn {
+                        let regs = value_regs[param];
+                        assert!(regs.len() == 1);
+
+                        assert!(sret_reg.is_none());
+                        sret_reg = Some(regs);
+                    }
+                }
+
+                assert!(sret_reg.is_some());
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Compute instruction colors, find constant instructions, and find instructions with
+        // side-effects, in one combined pass.
+        let mut cur_color = 0;
+        let mut block_end_colors = SecondaryMap::with_default(InstColor::new(0));
+        let mut side_effect_inst_entry_colors = FxHashMap::default();
+        let mut inst_constants = FxHashMap::default();
+        for bb in f.layout.blocks() {
+            cur_color += 1;
+            for inst in f.layout.block_insts(bb) {
+                let side_effect = has_lowering_side_effect(f, inst);
+
+                trace!("bb {} inst {} has color {}", bb, inst, cur_color);
+                if side_effect {
+                    side_effect_inst_entry_colors.insert(inst, InstColor::new(cur_color));
+                    trace!(" -> side-effecting; incrementing color for next inst");
+                    cur_color += 1;
+                }
+
+                // Determine if this is a constant; if so, add to the table.
+                if let Some(c) = is_constant_64bit(f, inst) {
+                    trace!(" -> constant: {}", c);
+                    inst_constants.insert(inst, c);
+                }
+            }
+
+            block_end_colors[bb] = InstColor::new(cur_color);
+        }
+
+        let value_ir_uses = Self::compute_use_states(f);
+
+        Ok(Lower {
+            f,
+            allocatable: PRegSet::from(machine_env),
+            vcode,
+            vregs,
+            value_regs,
+            sret_reg,
+            block_end_colors,
+            side_effect_inst_entry_colors,
+            inst_constants,
+            value_ir_uses,
+            value_lowered_uses: SecondaryMap::default(),
+            inst_sunk: FxHashSet::default(),
+            cur_scan_entry_color: None,
+            cur_inst: None,
+            ir_insts: vec![],
+            pinned_reg: None,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn sigs(&self) -> &SigSet {
+        self.vcode.sigs()
+    }
+
+    pub fn sigs_mut(&mut self) -> &mut SigSet {
+        self.vcode.sigs_mut()
+    }
+
+    /// Pre-analysis: compute `value_ir_uses`. See comment on
+    /// `ValueUseState` for a description of what this analysis
+    /// computes.
+    fn compute_use_states<'a>(f: &'a Function) -> SecondaryMap<Value, ValueUseState> {
+        // We perform the analysis without recursion, so we don't
+        // overflow the stack on long chains of ops in the input.
+        //
+        // This is sort of a hybrid of a "shallow use-count" pass and
+        // a DFS. We iterate over all instructions and mark their args
+        // as used. However when we increment a use-count to
+        // "Multiple" we push its args onto the stack and do a DFS,
+        // immediately marking the whole dependency tree as
+        // Multiple. Doing both (shallow use-counting over all insts,
+        // and deep Multiple propagation) lets us trim both
+        // traversals, stopping recursion when a node is already at
+        // the appropriate state.
+        //
+        // In particular, note that the *coarsening* into {Unused,
+        // Once, Multiple} is part of what makes this pass more
+        // efficient than a full indirect-use-counting pass.
+
+        let mut value_ir_uses = SecondaryMap::with_default(ValueUseState::Unused);
+
+        // Stack of iterators over Values as we do DFS to mark
+        // Multiple-state subtrees. The iterator type is whatever is
+        // returned by `uses` below.
+        let mut stack: SmallVec<[_; 16]> = smallvec![];
+
+        // Find the args for the inst corresponding to the given value.
+        let uses = |value| {
+            trace!(" -> pushing args for {} onto stack", value);
+            if let ValueDef::Result(src_inst, _) = f.dfg.value_def(value) {
+                Some(f.dfg.inst_values(src_inst))
+            } else {
+                None
+            }
+        };
+
+        // Do a DFS through `value_ir_uses` to mark a subtree as
+        // Multiple.
+        for inst in f
+            .layout
+            .blocks()
+            .flat_map(|block| f.layout.block_insts(block))
+        {
+            // If this inst produces multiple values, we must mark all
+            // of its args as Multiple, because otherwise two uses
+            // could come in as Once on our two different results.
+            let force_multiple = f.dfg.inst_results(inst).len() > 1;
+
+            // Iterate over all values used by all instructions, noting an
+            // additional use on each operand.
+            for arg in f.dfg.inst_values(inst) {
+                let arg = f.dfg.resolve_aliases(arg);
+                let old = value_ir_uses[arg];
+                if force_multiple {
+                    trace!(
+                        "forcing arg {} to Multiple because of multiple results of user inst",
+                        arg
+                    );
+                    value_ir_uses[arg] = ValueUseState::Multiple;
+                } else {
+                    value_ir_uses[arg].inc();
+                }
+                let new = value_ir_uses[arg];
+                trace!("arg {} used, old state {:?}, new {:?}", arg, old, new);
+
+                // On transition to Multiple, do DFS.
+                if old == ValueUseState::Multiple || new != ValueUseState::Multiple {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if let Some(iter) = uses(arg) {
+                    stack.push(iter);
+                }
+                while let Some(iter) = stack.last_mut() {
+                    if let Some(value) = iter.next() {
+                        let value = f.dfg.resolve_aliases(value);
+                        trace!(" -> DFS reaches {}", value);
+                        if value_ir_uses[value] == ValueUseState::Multiple {
+                            // Truncate DFS here: no need to go further,
+                            // as whole subtree must already be Multiple.
+                            // With debug asserts, check one level of
+                            // that invariant at least.
+                            debug_assert!(uses(value).into_iter().flatten().all(|arg| {
+                                let arg = f.dfg.resolve_aliases(arg);
+                                value_ir_uses[arg] == ValueUseState::Multiple
+                            }));
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        value_ir_uses[value] = ValueUseState::Multiple;
+                        trace!(" -> became Multiple");
+                        if let Some(iter) = uses(value) {
+                            stack.push(iter);
+                        }
+                    } else {
+                        // Empty iterator, discard.
+                        stack.pop();
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        value_ir_uses
+    }
+
+    fn gen_arg_setup(&mut self) {
+        if let Some(entry_bb) = self.f.layout.entry_block() {
+            trace!(
+                "gen_arg_setup: entry BB {} args are:\n{:?}",
+                entry_bb,
+                self.f.dfg.block_params(entry_bb)
+            );
+
+            // Make the vmctx available in debuginfo.
+            if let Some(vmctx_val) = self.f.special_param(ArgumentPurpose::VMContext) {
+                self.emit_value_label_marks_for_value(vmctx_val);
+            }
+
+            for (i, param) in self.f.dfg.block_params(entry_bb).iter().enumerate() {
+                if !self.vcode.abi().arg_is_needed_in_body(i) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let regs = writable_value_regs(self.value_regs[*param]);
+                for insn in self
+                    .vcode
+                    .vcode
+                    .abi
+                    .gen_copy_arg_to_regs(&self.vcode.vcode.sigs, i, regs, &mut self.vregs)
+                    .into_iter()
+                {
+                    self.emit(insn);
+                }
+            }
+            if let Some(insn) = self
+                .vcode
+                .vcode
+                .abi
+                .gen_retval_area_setup(&self.vcode.vcode.sigs, &mut self.vregs)
+            {
+                self.emit(insn);
+            }
+
+            // The `args` instruction below must come first. Finish
+            // the current "IR inst" (with a default source location,
+            // as for other special instructions inserted during
+            // lowering) and continue the scan backward.
+            self.finish_ir_inst(Default::default());
+
+            if let Some(insn) = self.vcode.vcode.abi.take_args() {
+                self.emit(insn);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Generate the return instruction.
+    pub fn gen_return(&mut self, rets: Vec<ValueRegs<Reg>>) {
+        let mut out_rets = vec![];
+
+        let mut rets = rets.into_iter();
+        for (i, ret) in self
+            .abi()
+            .signature()
+            .returns
+            .clone()
+            .into_iter()
+            .enumerate()
+        {
+            let regs = if ret.purpose == ArgumentPurpose::StructReturn {
+                self.sret_reg.unwrap().clone()
+            } else {
+                rets.next().unwrap()
+            };
+
+            let (regs, insns) = self.vcode.abi().gen_copy_regs_to_retval(
+                self.vcode.sigs(),
+                i,
+                regs,
+                &mut self.vregs,
+            );
+            out_rets.extend(regs);
+            for insn in insns {
+                self.emit(insn);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Hack: generate a virtual instruction that uses vmctx in
+        // order to keep it alive for the duration of the function,
+        // for the benefit of debuginfo.
+        if self.f.dfg.values_labels.is_some() {
+            if let Some(vmctx_val) = self.f.special_param(ArgumentPurpose::VMContext) {
+                let vmctx_reg = self.value_regs[vmctx_val].only_reg().unwrap();
+                self.emit(I::gen_dummy_use(vmctx_reg));
+            }
+        }
+
+        let inst = self.abi().gen_ret(&self.sigs(), out_rets);
+        self.emit(inst);
+    }
+
+    /// Has this instruction been sunk to a use-site (i.e., away from its
+    /// original location)?
+    fn is_inst_sunk(&self, inst: Inst) -> bool {
+        self.inst_sunk.contains(&inst)
+    }
+
+    // Is any result of this instruction needed?
+    fn is_any_inst_result_needed(&self, inst: Inst) -> bool {
+        self.f
+            .dfg
+            .inst_results(inst)
+            .iter()
+            .any(|&result| self.value_lowered_uses[result] > 0)
+    }
+
+    fn lower_clif_block<B: LowerBackend<MInst = I>>(
+        &mut self,
+        backend: &B,
+        block: Block,
+        ctrl_plane: &mut ControlPlane,
+    ) -> CodegenResult<()> {
+        self.cur_scan_entry_color = Some(self.block_end_colors[block]);
+        // Lowering loop:
+        // - For each non-branch instruction, in reverse order:
+        //   - If side-effecting (load, store, branch/call/return,
+        //     possible trap), or if used outside of this block, or if
+        //     demanded by another inst, then lower.
+        //
+        // That's it! Lowering of side-effecting ops will force all *needed*
+        // (live) non-side-effecting ops to be lowered at the right places, via
+        // the `use_input_reg()` callback on the `Lower` (that's us). That's
+        // because `use_input_reg()` sets the eager/demand bit for any insts
+        // whose result registers are used.
+        //
+        // We set the VCodeBuilder to "backward" mode, so we emit
+        // blocks in reverse order wrt the BlockIndex sequence, and
+        // emit instructions in reverse order within blocks.  Because
+        // the machine backend calls `ctx.emit()` in forward order, we
+        // collect per-IR-inst lowered instructions in `ir_insts`,
+        // then reverse these and append to the VCode at the end of
+        // each IR instruction.
+        for inst in self.f.layout.block_insts(block).rev() {
+            let data = &self.f.dfg.insts[inst];
+            let has_side_effect = has_lowering_side_effect(self.f, inst);
+            // If  inst has been sunk to another location, skip it.
+            if self.is_inst_sunk(inst) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            // Are any outputs used at least once?
+            let value_needed = self.is_any_inst_result_needed(inst);
+            trace!(
+                "lower_clif_block: block {} inst {} ({:?}) is_branch {} side_effect {} value_needed {}",
+                block,
+                inst,
+                data,
+                data.opcode().is_branch(),
+                has_side_effect,
+                value_needed,
+            );
+
+            // Update scan state to color prior to this inst (as we are scanning
+            // backward).
+            self.cur_inst = Some(inst);
+            if has_side_effect {
+                let entry_color = *self
+                    .side_effect_inst_entry_colors
+                    .get(&inst)
+                    .expect("every side-effecting inst should have a color-map entry");
+                self.cur_scan_entry_color = Some(entry_color);
+            }
+
+            // Skip lowering branches; these are handled separately
+            // (see `lower_clif_branches()` below).
+            if self.f.dfg.insts[inst].opcode().is_branch() {
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // Normal instruction: codegen if the instruction is side-effecting
+            // or any of its outputs its used.
+            if has_side_effect || value_needed {
+                trace!("lowering: inst {}: {:?}", inst, self.f.dfg.insts[inst]);
+                let temp_regs = backend.lower(self, inst).unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                    let ty = if self.num_outputs(inst) > 0 {
+                        Some(self.output_ty(inst, 0))
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    };
+                    panic!(
+                        "should be implemented in ISLE: inst = `{}`, type = `{:?}`",
+                        self.f.dfg.display_inst(inst),
+                        ty
+                    )
+                });
+
+                // The ISLE generated code emits its own registers to define the
+                // instruction's lowered values in. However, other instructions
+                // that use this SSA value will be lowered assuming that the value
+                // is generated into a pre-assigned, different, register.
+                //
+                // To connect the two, we set up "aliases" in the VCodeBuilder
+                // that apply when it is building the Operand table for the
+                // regalloc to use. These aliases effectively rewrite any use of
+                // the pre-assigned register to the register that was returned by
+                // the ISLE lowering logic.
+                debug_assert_eq!(temp_regs.len(), self.num_outputs(inst));
+                for i in 0..self.num_outputs(inst) {
+                    let regs = temp_regs[i];
+                    let dsts = self.value_regs[self.f.dfg.inst_results(inst)[i]];
+                    debug_assert_eq!(regs.len(), dsts.len());
+                    for (dst, temp) in dsts.regs().iter().zip(regs.regs().iter()) {
+                        self.set_vreg_alias(*dst, *temp);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            let loc = self.srcloc(inst);
+            self.finish_ir_inst(loc);
+
+            // maybe insert random instruction
+            if ctrl_plane.get_decision() {
+                if ctrl_plane.get_decision() {
+                    let imm: u64 = ctrl_plane.get_arbitrary();
+                    let reg = self.alloc_tmp(crate::ir::types::I64).regs()[0];
+                    I::gen_imm_u64(imm, reg).map(|inst| self.emit(inst));
+                } else {
+                    let imm: f64 = ctrl_plane.get_arbitrary();
+                    let tmp = self.alloc_tmp(crate::ir::types::I64).regs()[0];
+                    let reg = self.alloc_tmp(crate::ir::types::F64).regs()[0];
+                    for inst in I::gen_imm_f64(imm, tmp, reg) {
+                        self.emit(inst);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Emit value-label markers if needed, to later recover
+            // debug mappings. This must happen before the instruction
+            // (so after we emit, in bottom-to-top pass).
+            self.emit_value_label_markers_for_inst(inst);
+        }
+
+        // Add the block params to this block.
+        self.add_block_params(block)?;
+
+        self.cur_scan_entry_color = None;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn add_block_params(&mut self, block: Block) -> CodegenResult<()> {
+        for &param in self.f.dfg.block_params(block) {
+            let ty = self.f.dfg.value_type(param);
+            let (_reg_rcs, reg_tys) = I::rc_for_type(ty)?;
+            debug_assert_eq!(reg_tys.len(), self.value_regs[param].len());
+            for (&reg, &rty) in self.value_regs[param].regs().iter().zip(reg_tys.iter()) {
+                let vreg = reg.to_virtual_reg().unwrap();
+                self.vregs.set_vreg_type(vreg, rty);
+                self.vcode.add_block_param(vreg);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn get_value_labels<'a>(&'a self, val: Value, depth: usize) -> Option<&'a [ValueLabelStart]> {
+        if let Some(ref values_labels) = self.f.dfg.values_labels {
+            trace!(
+                "get_value_labels: val {} -> {} -> {:?}",
+                val,
+                self.f.dfg.resolve_aliases(val),
+                values_labels.get(&self.f.dfg.resolve_aliases(val))
+            );
+            let val = self.f.dfg.resolve_aliases(val);
+            match values_labels.get(&val) {
+                Some(&ValueLabelAssignments::Starts(ref list)) => Some(&list[..]),
+                Some(&ValueLabelAssignments::Alias { value, .. }) if depth < 10 => {
+                    self.get_value_labels(value, depth + 1)
+                }
+                _ => None,
+            }
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn emit_value_label_marks_for_value(&mut self, val: Value) {
+        let regs = self.value_regs[val];
+        if regs.len() > 1 {
+            return;
+        }
+        let reg = regs.only_reg().unwrap();
+
+        if let Some(label_starts) = self.get_value_labels(val, 0) {
+            let labels = label_starts
+                .iter()
+                .map(|&ValueLabelStart { label, .. }| label)
+                .collect::<FxHashSet<_>>();
+            for label in labels {
+                trace!(
+                    "value labeling: defines val {:?} -> reg {:?} -> label {:?}",
+                    val,
+                    reg,
+                    label,
+                );
+                self.vcode.add_value_label(reg, label);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn emit_value_label_markers_for_inst(&mut self, inst: Inst) {
+        if self.f.dfg.values_labels.is_none() {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        trace!(
+            "value labeling: srcloc {}: inst {}",
+            self.srcloc(inst),
+            inst
+        );
+        for &val in self.f.dfg.inst_results(inst) {
+            self.emit_value_label_marks_for_value(val);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn emit_value_label_markers_for_block_args(&mut self, block: Block) {
+        if self.f.dfg.values_labels.is_none() {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        trace!("value labeling: block {}", block);
+        for &arg in self.f.dfg.block_params(block) {
+            self.emit_value_label_marks_for_value(arg);
+        }
+        self.finish_ir_inst(Default::default());
+    }
+
+    fn finish_ir_inst(&mut self, loc: RelSourceLoc) {
+        self.vcode.set_srcloc(loc);
+        // The VCodeBuilder builds in reverse order (and reverses at
+        // the end), but `ir_insts` is in forward order, so reverse
+        // it.
+        for inst in self.ir_insts.drain(..).rev() {
+            self.vcode.push(inst);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn finish_bb(&mut self) {
+        self.vcode.end_bb();
+    }
+
+    fn lower_clif_branches<B: LowerBackend<MInst = I>>(
+        &mut self,
+        backend: &B,
+        // Lowered block index:
+        bindex: BlockIndex,
+        // Original CLIF block:
+        block: Block,
+        branch: Inst,
+        targets: &[MachLabel],
+    ) -> CodegenResult<()> {
+        trace!(
+            "lower_clif_branches: block {} branch {:?} targets {:?}",
+            block,
+            branch,
+            targets,
+        );
+        // When considering code-motion opportunities, consider the current
+        // program point to be this branch.
+        self.cur_inst = Some(branch);
+
+        // Lower the branch in ISLE.
+        backend
+            .lower_branch(self, branch, targets)
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| {
+                panic!(
+                    "should be implemented in ISLE: branch = `{}`",
+                    self.f.dfg.display_inst(branch),
+                )
+            });
+        let loc = self.srcloc(branch);
+        self.finish_ir_inst(loc);
+        // Add block param outputs for current block.
+        self.lower_branch_blockparam_args(bindex);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn lower_branch_blockparam_args(&mut self, block: BlockIndex) {
+        // TODO: why not make `block_order` public?
+        for succ_idx in 0..self.vcode.block_order().succ_indices(block).1.len() {
+            // Avoid immutable borrow by explicitly indexing.
+            let (opt_inst, succs) = self.vcode.block_order().succ_indices(block);
+            let inst = opt_inst.expect("lower_branch_blockparam_args called on a critical edge!");
+            let succ = succs[succ_idx];
+
+            // The use of `succ_idx` to index `branch_destination` is valid on the assumption that
+            // the traversal order defined in `visit_block_succs` mirrors the order returned by
+            // `branch_destination`. If that assumption is violated, the branch targets returned
+            // here will not match the clif.
+            let branches = self.f.dfg.insts[inst].branch_destination(&self.f.dfg.jump_tables);
+            let branch_args = branches[succ_idx].args_slice(&self.f.dfg.value_lists);
+
+            let mut branch_arg_vregs: SmallVec<[Reg; 16]> = smallvec![];
+            for &arg in branch_args {
+                let arg = self.f.dfg.resolve_aliases(arg);
+                let regs = self.put_value_in_regs(arg);
+                for &vreg in regs.regs() {
+                    let vreg = self.vcode.resolve_vreg_alias(vreg.into());
+                    branch_arg_vregs.push(vreg.into());
+                }
+            }
+            self.vcode.add_succ(succ, &branch_arg_vregs[..]);
+        }
+        self.finish_ir_inst(Default::default());
+    }
+
+    fn collect_branches_and_targets(
+        &self,
+        bindex: BlockIndex,
+        _bb: Block,
+        targets: &mut SmallVec<[MachLabel; 2]>,
+    ) -> Option<Inst> {
+        targets.clear();
+        let (opt_inst, succs) = self.vcode.block_order().succ_indices(bindex);
+        targets.extend(succs.iter().map(|succ| MachLabel::from_block(*succ)));
+        opt_inst
+    }
+
+    /// Lower the function.
+    pub fn lower<B: LowerBackend<MInst = I>>(
+        mut self,
+        backend: &B,
+        ctrl_plane: &mut ControlPlane,
+    ) -> CodegenResult<VCode<I>> {
+        trace!("about to lower function: {:?}", self.f);
+
+        // Initialize the ABI object, giving it temps if requested.
+        let temps = self
+            .vcode
+            .abi()
+            .temps_needed(self.sigs())
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|temp_ty| self.alloc_tmp(temp_ty).only_reg().unwrap())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        self.vcode.init_abi(temps);
+
+        // Get the pinned reg here (we only parameterize this function on `B`,
+        // not the whole `Lower` impl).
+        self.pinned_reg = backend.maybe_pinned_reg();
+
+        self.vcode.set_entry(BlockIndex::new(0));
+
+        // Reused vectors for branch lowering.
+        let mut targets: SmallVec<[MachLabel; 2]> = SmallVec::new();
+
+        // get a copy of the lowered order; we hold this separately because we
+        // need a mut ref to the vcode to mutate it below.
+        let lowered_order: SmallVec<[LoweredBlock; 64]> = self
+            .vcode
+            .block_order()
+            .lowered_order()
+            .iter()
+            .cloned()
+            .collect();
+
+        // Main lowering loop over lowered blocks.
+        for (bindex, lb) in lowered_order.iter().enumerate().rev() {
+            let bindex = BlockIndex::new(bindex);
+
+            // Lower the block body in reverse order (see comment in
+            // `lower_clif_block()` for rationale).
+
+            // End branches.
+            if let Some(bb) = lb.orig_block() {
+                if let Some(branch) = self.collect_branches_and_targets(bindex, bb, &mut targets) {
+                    self.lower_clif_branches(backend, bindex, bb, branch, &targets)?;
+                    self.finish_ir_inst(self.srcloc(branch));
+                }
+            } else {
+                // If no orig block, this must be a pure edge block;
+                // get the successor and emit a jump. Add block params
+                // according to the one successor, and pass them
+                // through; note that the successor must have an
+                // original block.
+                let (_, succs) = self.vcode.block_order().succ_indices(bindex);
+                let succ = succs[0];
+
+                let orig_succ = lowered_order[succ.index()];
+                let orig_succ = orig_succ
+                    .orig_block()
+                    .expect("Edge block succ must be body block");
+
+                let mut branch_arg_vregs: SmallVec<[Reg; 16]> = smallvec![];
+                for ty in self.f.dfg.block_param_types(orig_succ) {
+                    let regs = self.vregs.alloc(ty)?;
+                    for &reg in regs.regs() {
+                        branch_arg_vregs.push(reg);
+                        let vreg = reg.to_virtual_reg().unwrap();
+                        self.vcode.add_block_param(vreg);
+                    }
+                }
+                self.vcode.add_succ(succ, &branch_arg_vregs[..]);
+
+                self.emit(I::gen_jump(MachLabel::from_block(succ)));
+                self.finish_ir_inst(Default::default());
+            }
+
+            // Original block body.
+            if let Some(bb) = lb.orig_block() {
+                self.lower_clif_block(backend, bb, ctrl_plane)?;
+                self.emit_value_label_markers_for_block_args(bb);
+            }
+
+            if bindex.index() == 0 {
+                // Set up the function with arg vreg inits.
+                self.gen_arg_setup();
+                self.finish_ir_inst(Default::default());
+            }
+
+            self.finish_bb();
+        }
+
+        // Now that we've emitted all instructions into the
+        // VCodeBuilder, let's build the VCode.
+        let vcode = self.vcode.build(self.allocatable, self.vregs);
+        trace!("built vcode: {:?}", vcode);
+
+        Ok(vcode)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Function-level queries.
+impl<'func, I: VCodeInst> Lower<'func, I> {
+    pub fn dfg(&self) -> &DataFlowGraph {
+        &self.f.dfg
+    }
+
+    /// Get the `Callee`.
+    pub fn abi(&self) -> &Callee<I::ABIMachineSpec> {
+        self.vcode.abi()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the `Callee`.
+    pub fn abi_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Callee<I::ABIMachineSpec> {
+        self.vcode.abi_mut()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Instruction input/output queries.
+impl<'func, I: VCodeInst> Lower<'func, I> {
+    /// Get the instdata for a given IR instruction.
+    pub fn data(&self, ir_inst: Inst) -> &InstructionData {
+        &self.f.dfg.insts[ir_inst]
+    }
+
+    /// Likewise, but starting with a GlobalValue identifier.
+    pub fn symbol_value_data<'b>(
+        &'b self,
+        global_value: GlobalValue,
+    ) -> Option<(&'b ExternalName, RelocDistance, i64)> {
+        let gvdata = &self.f.global_values[global_value];
+        match gvdata {
+            &GlobalValueData::Symbol {
+                ref name,
+                ref offset,
+                ..
+            } => {
+                let offset = offset.bits();
+                let dist = gvdata.maybe_reloc_distance().unwrap();
+                Some((name, dist, offset))
+            }
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the memory flags of a given memory access.
+    pub fn memflags(&self, ir_inst: Inst) -> Option<MemFlags> {
+        match &self.f.dfg.insts[ir_inst] {
+            &InstructionData::AtomicCas { flags, .. } => Some(flags),
+            &InstructionData::AtomicRmw { flags, .. } => Some(flags),
+            &InstructionData::Load { flags, .. }
+            | &InstructionData::LoadNoOffset { flags, .. }
+            | &InstructionData::Store { flags, .. } => Some(flags),
+            &InstructionData::StoreNoOffset { flags, .. } => Some(flags),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the source location for a given instruction.
+    pub fn srcloc(&self, ir_inst: Inst) -> RelSourceLoc {
+        self.f.rel_srclocs()[ir_inst]
+    }
+
+    /// Get the number of inputs to the given IR instruction. This is a count only of the Value
+    /// arguments to the instruction: block arguments will not be included in this count.
+    pub fn num_inputs(&self, ir_inst: Inst) -> usize {
+        self.f.dfg.inst_args(ir_inst).len()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the number of outputs to the given IR instruction.
+    pub fn num_outputs(&self, ir_inst: Inst) -> usize {
+        self.f.dfg.inst_results(ir_inst).len()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the type for an instruction's input.
+    pub fn input_ty(&self, ir_inst: Inst, idx: usize) -> Type {
+        self.value_ty(self.input_as_value(ir_inst, idx))
+    }
+
+    /// Get the type for a value.
+    pub fn value_ty(&self, val: Value) -> Type {
+        self.f.dfg.value_type(val)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the type for an instruction's output.
+    pub fn output_ty(&self, ir_inst: Inst, idx: usize) -> Type {
+        self.f.dfg.value_type(self.f.dfg.inst_results(ir_inst)[idx])
+    }
+
+    /// Get the value of a constant instruction (`iconst`, etc.) as a 64-bit
+    /// value, if possible.
+    pub fn get_constant(&self, ir_inst: Inst) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.inst_constants.get(&ir_inst).cloned()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the input as one of two options other than a direct register:
+    ///
+    /// - An instruction, given that it is effect-free or able to sink its
+    ///   effect to the current instruction being lowered, and given it has only
+    ///   one output, and if effect-ful, given that this is the only use;
+    /// - A constant, if the value is a constant.
+    ///
+    /// The instruction input may be available in either of these forms.  It may
+    /// be available in neither form, if the conditions are not met; if so, use
+    /// `put_input_in_regs()` instead to get it in a register.
+    ///
+    /// If the backend merges the effect of a side-effecting instruction, it
+    /// must call `sink_inst()`. When this is called, it indicates that the
+    /// effect has been sunk to the current scan location. The sunk
+    /// instruction's result(s) must have *no* uses remaining, because it will
+    /// not be codegen'd (it has been integrated into the current instruction).
+    pub fn input_as_value(&self, ir_inst: Inst, idx: usize) -> Value {
+        let val = self.f.dfg.inst_args(ir_inst)[idx];
+        self.f.dfg.resolve_aliases(val)
+    }
+
+    /// Like `get_input_as_source_or_const` but with a `Value`.
+    pub fn get_input_as_source_or_const(&self, ir_inst: Inst, idx: usize) -> NonRegInput {
+        let val = self.input_as_value(ir_inst, idx);
+        self.get_value_as_source_or_const(val)
+    }
+
+    /// Resolves a particular input of an instruction to the `Value` that it is
+    /// represented with.
+    pub fn get_value_as_source_or_const(&self, val: Value) -> NonRegInput {
+        trace!(
+            "get_input_for_val: val {} at cur_inst {:?} cur_scan_entry_color {:?}",
+            val,
+            self.cur_inst,
+            self.cur_scan_entry_color,
+        );
+        let inst = match self.f.dfg.value_def(val) {
+            // OK to merge source instruction if (i) we have a source
+            // instruction, and:
+            // - It has no side-effects, OR
+            // - It has a side-effect, has one output value, that one
+            //   output has only one use, directly or indirectly (so
+            //   cannot be duplicated -- see comment on
+            //   `ValueUseState`), and the instruction's color is *one
+            //   less than* the current scan color.
+            //
+            //   This latter set of conditions is testing whether a
+            //   side-effecting instruction can sink to the current scan
+            //   location; this is possible if the in-color of this inst is
+            //   equal to the out-color of the producing inst, so no other
+            //   side-effecting ops occur between them (which will only be true
+            //   if they are in the same BB, because color increments at each BB
+            //   start).
+            //
+            //   If it is actually sunk, then in `merge_inst()`, we update the
+            //   scan color so that as we scan over the range past which the
+            //   instruction was sunk, we allow other instructions (that came
+            //   prior to the sunk instruction) to sink.
+            ValueDef::Result(src_inst, result_idx) => {
+                let src_side_effect = has_lowering_side_effect(self.f, src_inst);
+                trace!(" -> src inst {}", src_inst);
+                trace!(" -> has lowering side effect: {}", src_side_effect);
+                if !src_side_effect {
+                    // Pure instruction: always possible to
+                    // sink. Let's determine whether we are the only
+                    // user or not.
+                    if self.value_ir_uses[val] == ValueUseState::Once {
+                        InputSourceInst::UniqueUse(src_inst, result_idx)
+                    } else {
+                        InputSourceInst::Use(src_inst, result_idx)
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    // Side-effect: test whether this is the only use of the
+                    // only result of the instruction, and whether colors allow
+                    // the code-motion.
+                    trace!(
+                        " -> side-effecting op {} for val {}: use state {:?}",
+                        src_inst,
+                        val,
+                        self.value_ir_uses[val]
+                    );
+                    if self.cur_scan_entry_color.is_some()
+                        && self.value_ir_uses[val] == ValueUseState::Once
+                        && self.num_outputs(src_inst) == 1
+                        && self
+                            .side_effect_inst_entry_colors
+                            .get(&src_inst)
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .get()
+                            + 1
+                            == self.cur_scan_entry_color.unwrap().get()
+                    {
+                        InputSourceInst::UniqueUse(src_inst, 0)
+                    } else {
+                        InputSourceInst::None
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            _ => InputSourceInst::None,
+        };
+        let constant = inst.as_inst().and_then(|(inst, _)| self.get_constant(inst));
+
+        NonRegInput { inst, constant }
+    }
+
+    /// Increment the reference count for the Value, ensuring that it gets lowered.
+    pub fn increment_lowered_uses(&mut self, val: Value) {
+        self.value_lowered_uses[val] += 1
+    }
+
+    /// Put the `idx`th input into register(s) and return the assigned register.
+    pub fn put_input_in_regs(&mut self, ir_inst: Inst, idx: usize) -> ValueRegs<Reg> {
+        let val = self.f.dfg.inst_args(ir_inst)[idx];
+        self.put_value_in_regs(val)
+    }
+
+    /// Put the given value into register(s) and return the assigned register.
+    pub fn put_value_in_regs(&mut self, val: Value) -> ValueRegs<Reg> {
+        let val = self.f.dfg.resolve_aliases(val);
+        trace!("put_value_in_regs: val {}", val);
+
+        if let Some(inst) = self.f.dfg.value_def(val).inst() {
+            assert!(!self.inst_sunk.contains(&inst));
+        }
+
+        let regs = self.value_regs[val];
+        trace!(" -> regs {:?}", regs);
+        assert!(regs.is_valid());
+
+        self.value_lowered_uses[val] += 1;
+
+        regs
+    }
+}
+
+/// Codegen primitives: allocate temps, emit instructions, set result registers,
+/// ask for an input to be gen'd into a register.
+impl<'func, I: VCodeInst> Lower<'func, I> {
+    /// Get a new temp.
+    pub fn alloc_tmp(&mut self, ty: Type) -> ValueRegs<Writable<Reg>> {
+        writable_value_regs(self.vregs.alloc(ty).unwrap())
+    }
+
+    /// Emit a machine instruction.
+    pub fn emit(&mut self, mach_inst: I) {
+        trace!("emit: {:?}", mach_inst);
+        self.ir_insts.push(mach_inst);
+    }
+
+    /// Indicate that the side-effect of an instruction has been sunk to the
+    /// current scan location. This should only be done with the instruction's
+    /// original results are not used (i.e., `put_input_in_regs` is not invoked
+    /// for the input produced by the sunk instruction), otherwise the
+    /// side-effect will occur twice.
+    pub fn sink_inst(&mut self, ir_inst: Inst) {
+        assert!(has_lowering_side_effect(self.f, ir_inst));
+        assert!(self.cur_scan_entry_color.is_some());
+
+        for result in self.dfg().inst_results(ir_inst) {
+            assert!(self.value_lowered_uses[*result] == 0);
+        }
+
+        let sunk_inst_entry_color = self
+            .side_effect_inst_entry_colors
+            .get(&ir_inst)
+            .cloned()
+            .unwrap();
+        let sunk_inst_exit_color = InstColor::new(sunk_inst_entry_color.get() + 1);
+        assert!(sunk_inst_exit_color == self.cur_scan_entry_color.unwrap());
+        self.cur_scan_entry_color = Some(sunk_inst_entry_color);
+        self.inst_sunk.insert(ir_inst);
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieve immediate data given a handle.
+    pub fn get_immediate_data(&self, imm: Immediate) -> &ConstantData {
+        self.f.dfg.immediates.get(imm).unwrap()
+    }
+
+    /// Retrieve constant data given a handle.
+    pub fn get_constant_data(&self, constant_handle: Constant) -> &ConstantData {
+        self.f.dfg.constants.get(constant_handle)
+    }
+
+    /// Indicate that a constant should be emitted.
+    pub fn use_constant(&mut self, constant: VCodeConstantData) -> VCodeConstant {
+        self.vcode.constants().insert(constant)
+    }
+
+    /// Cause the value in `reg` to be in a virtual reg, by copying it into a new virtual reg
+    /// if `reg` is a real reg.  `ty` describes the type of the value in `reg`.
+    pub fn ensure_in_vreg(&mut self, reg: Reg, ty: Type) -> Reg {
+        if reg.to_virtual_reg().is_some() {
+            reg
+        } else {
+            let new_reg = self.alloc_tmp(ty).only_reg().unwrap();
+            self.emit(I::gen_move(new_reg, reg, ty));
+            new_reg.to_reg()
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Note that one vreg is to be treated as an alias of another.
+    pub fn set_vreg_alias(&mut self, from: Reg, to: Reg) {
+        trace!("set vreg alias: from {:?} to {:?}", from, to);
+        self.vcode.set_vreg_alias(from, to);
+    }
+}