wasmtime 9.0.4 → 10.0.0

data/ext/cargo-vendor/wasmtime-10.0.0/src/func.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,2355 @@
+use crate::store::{StoreData, StoreOpaque, Stored};
+use crate::{
+    AsContext, AsContextMut, CallHook, Engine, Extern, FuncType, Instance, Module, StoreContext,
+    StoreContextMut, Val, ValRaw, ValType,
+};
+use anyhow::{bail, Context as _, Error, Result};
+use std::ffi::c_void;
+use std::future::Future;
+use std::mem;
+use std::panic::{self, AssertUnwindSafe};
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::ptr::{self, NonNull};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use wasmtime_runtime::{
+    ExportFunction, SendSyncPtr, StoreBox, VMArrayCallHostFuncContext, VMContext, VMFuncRef,
+    VMFunctionImport, VMNativeCallHostFuncContext, VMOpaqueContext, VMSharedSignatureIndex,
+};
+
+/// A WebAssembly function which can be called.
+///
+/// This type can represent either an exported function from a WebAssembly
+/// module or a host-defined function which can be used to satisfy an import of
+/// a module. [`Func`] and can be used to both instantiate an [`Instance`] as
+/// well as be extracted from an [`Instance`].
+///
+/// [`Instance`]: crate::Instance
+///
+/// A [`Func`] "belongs" to the store that it was originally created within.
+/// Operations on a [`Func`] only work with the store it belongs to, and if
+/// another store is passed in by accident then methods will panic.
+///
+/// # `Func` and `async`
+///
+/// Functions from the perspective of WebAssembly are always synchronous. You
+/// might have an `async` function in Rust, however, which you'd like to make
+/// available from WebAssembly. Wasmtime supports asynchronously calling
+/// WebAssembly through native stack switching. You can get some more
+/// information about [asynchronous configs](crate::Config::async_support), but
+/// from the perspective of `Func` it's important to know that whether or not
+/// your [`Store`](crate::Store) is asynchronous will dictate whether you call
+/// functions through [`Func::call`] or [`Func::call_async`] (or the typed
+/// wrappers such as [`TypedFunc::call`] vs [`TypedFunc::call_async`]).
+///
+/// # To `Func::call` or to `Func::typed().call()`
+///
+/// There's a 2x2 matrix of methods to call [`Func`]. Invocations can either be
+/// asynchronous or synchronous. They can also be statically typed or not.
+/// Whether or not an invocation is asynchronous is indicated via the method
+/// being `async` and [`call_async`](Func::call_async) being the entry point.
+/// Otherwise for statically typed or not your options are:
+///
+/// * Dynamically typed - if you don't statically know the signature of the
+///   function that you're calling you'll be using [`Func::call`] or
+///   [`Func::call_async`]. These functions take a variable-length slice of
+///   "boxed" arguments in their [`Val`] representation. Additionally the
+///   results are returned as an owned slice of [`Val`]. These methods are not
+///   optimized due to the dynamic type checks that must occur, in addition to
+///   some dynamic allocations for where to put all the arguments. While this
+///   allows you to call all possible wasm function signatures, if you're
+///   looking for a speedier alternative you can also use...
+///
+/// * Statically typed - if you statically know the type signature of the wasm
+///   function you're calling, then you'll want to use the [`Func::typed`]
+///   method to acquire an instance of [`TypedFunc`]. This structure is static proof
+///   that the underlying wasm function has the ascripted type, and type
+///   validation is only done once up-front. The [`TypedFunc::call`] and
+///   [`TypedFunc::call_async`] methods are much more efficient than [`Func::call`]
+///   and [`Func::call_async`] because the type signature is statically known.
+///   This eschews runtime checks as much as possible to get into wasm as fast
+///   as possible.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// One way to get a `Func` is from an [`Instance`] after you've instantiated
+/// it:
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use wasmtime::*;
+/// # fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+/// let engine = Engine::default();
+/// let module = Module::new(&engine, r#"(module (func (export "foo")))"#)?;
+/// let mut store = Store::new(&engine, ());
+/// let instance = Instance::new(&mut store, &module, &[])?;
+/// let foo = instance.get_func(&mut store, "foo").expect("export wasn't a function");
+///
+/// // Work with `foo` as a `Func` at this point, such as calling it
+/// // dynamically...
+/// match foo.call(&mut store, &[], &mut []) {
+///     Ok(()) => { /* ... */ }
+///     Err(trap) => {
+///         panic!("execution of `foo` resulted in a wasm trap: {}", trap);
+///     }
+/// }
+/// foo.call(&mut store, &[], &mut [])?;
+///
+/// // ... or we can make a static assertion about its signature and call it.
+/// // Our first call here can fail if the signatures don't match, and then the
+/// // second call can fail if the function traps (like the `match` above).
+/// let foo = foo.typed::<(), ()>(&store)?;
+/// foo.call(&mut store, ())?;
+/// # Ok(())
+/// # }
+/// ```
+///
+/// You can also use the [`wrap` function](Func::wrap) to create a
+/// `Func`
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use wasmtime::*;
+/// # fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+/// let mut store = Store::<()>::default();
+///
+/// // Create a custom `Func` which can execute arbitrary code inside of the
+/// // closure.
+/// let add = Func::wrap(&mut store, |a: i32, b: i32| -> i32 { a + b });
+///
+/// // Next we can hook that up to a wasm module which uses it.
+/// let module = Module::new(
+///     store.engine(),
+///     r#"
+///         (module
+///             (import "" "" (func $add (param i32 i32) (result i32)))
+///             (func (export "call_add_twice") (result i32)
+///                 i32.const 1
+///                 i32.const 2
+///                 call $add
+///                 i32.const 3
+///                 i32.const 4
+///                 call $add
+///                 i32.add))
+///     "#,
+/// )?;
+/// let instance = Instance::new(&mut store, &module, &[add.into()])?;
+/// let call_add_twice = instance.get_typed_func::<(), i32>(&mut store, "call_add_twice")?;
+///
+/// assert_eq!(call_add_twice.call(&mut store, ())?, 10);
+/// # Ok(())
+/// # }
+/// ```
+///
+/// Or you could also create an entirely dynamic `Func`!
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use wasmtime::*;
+/// # fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+/// let mut store = Store::<()>::default();
+///
+/// // Here we need to define the type signature of our `Double` function and
+/// // then wrap it up in a `Func`
+/// let double_type = wasmtime::FuncType::new(
+///     [wasmtime::ValType::I32].iter().cloned(),
+///     [wasmtime::ValType::I32].iter().cloned(),
+/// );
+/// let double = Func::new(&mut store, double_type, |_, params, results| {
+///     let mut value = params[0].unwrap_i32();
+///     value *= 2;
+///     results[0] = value.into();
+///     Ok(())
+/// });
+///
+/// let module = Module::new(
+///     store.engine(),
+///     r#"
+///         (module
+///             (import "" "" (func $double (param i32) (result i32)))
+///             (func $start
+///                 i32.const 1
+///                 call $double
+///                 drop)
+///             (start $start))
+///     "#,
+/// )?;
+/// let instance = Instance::new(&mut store, &module, &[double.into()])?;
+/// // .. work with `instance` if necessary
+/// # Ok(())
+/// # }
+/// ```
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug)]
+#[repr(transparent)] // here for the C API
+pub struct Func(Stored<FuncData>);
+
+pub(crate) struct FuncData {
+    kind: FuncKind,
+
+    // A pointer to the in-store `VMFuncRef` for this function, if
+    // any.
+    //
+    // When a function is passed to Wasm but doesn't have a Wasm-to-native
+    // trampoline, we have to patch it in. But that requires mutating the
+    // `VMFuncRef`, and this function could be shared across
+    // threads. So we instead copy and pin the `VMFuncRef` into
+    // `StoreOpaque::func_refs`, where we can safely patch the field without
+    // worrying about synchronization and we hold a pointer to it here so we can
+    // reuse it rather than re-copy if it is passed to Wasm again.
+    in_store_func_ref: Option<SendSyncPtr<VMFuncRef>>,
+
+    // This is somewhat expensive to load from the `Engine` and in most
+    // optimized use cases (e.g. `TypedFunc`) it's not actually needed or it's
+    // only needed rarely. To handle that this is an optionally-contained field
+    // which is lazily loaded into as part of `Func::call`.
+    //
+    // Also note that this is intentionally placed behind a pointer to keep it
+    // small as `FuncData` instances are often inserted into a `Store`.
+    ty: Option<Box<FuncType>>,
+}
+
+/// The three ways that a function can be created and referenced from within a
+/// store.
+enum FuncKind {
+    /// A function already owned by the store via some other means. This is
+    /// used, for example, when creating a `Func` from an instance's exported
+    /// function. The instance's `InstanceHandle` is already owned by the store
+    /// and we just have some pointers into that which represent how to call the
+    /// function.
+    StoreOwned { export: ExportFunction },
+
+    /// A function is shared across possibly other stores, hence the `Arc`. This
+    /// variant happens when a `Linker`-defined function is instantiated within
+    /// a `Store` (e.g. via `Linker::get` or similar APIs). The `Arc` here
+    /// indicates that there's some number of other stores holding this function
+    /// too, so dropping this may not deallocate the underlying
+    /// `InstanceHandle`.
+    SharedHost(Arc<HostFunc>),
+
+    /// A uniquely-owned host function within a `Store`. This comes about with
+    /// `Func::new` or similar APIs. The `HostFunc` internally owns the
+    /// `InstanceHandle` and that will get dropped when this `HostFunc` itself
+    /// is dropped.
+    ///
+    /// Note that this is intentionally placed behind a `Box` to minimize the
+    /// size of this enum since the most common variant for high-peformance
+    /// situations is `SharedHost` and `StoreOwned`, so this ideally isn't
+    /// larger than those two.
+    Host(Box<HostFunc>),
+
+    /// A reference to a `HostFunc`, but one that's "rooted" in the `Store`
+    /// itself.
+    ///
+    /// This variant is created when an `InstancePre<T>` is instantiated in to a
+    /// `Store<T>`. In that situation the `InstancePre<T>` already has a list of
+    /// host functions that are packaged up in an `Arc`, so the `Arc<[T]>` is
+    /// cloned once into the `Store` to avoid each individual function requiring
+    /// an `Arc::clone`.
+    ///
+    /// The lifetime management of this type is `unsafe` because
+    /// `RootedHostFunc` is a small wrapper around `NonNull<HostFunc>`. To be
+    /// safe this is required that the memory of the host function is pinned
+    /// elsewhere (e.g. the `Arc` in the `Store`).
+    RootedHost(RootedHostFunc),
+}
+
+macro_rules! for_each_function_signature {
+    ($mac:ident) => {
+        $mac!(0);
+        $mac!(1 A1);
+        $mac!(2 A1 A2);
+        $mac!(3 A1 A2 A3);
+        $mac!(4 A1 A2 A3 A4);
+        $mac!(5 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5);
+        $mac!(6 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6);
+        $mac!(7 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7);
+        $mac!(8 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8);
+        $mac!(9 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9);
+        $mac!(10 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10);
+        $mac!(11 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11);
+        $mac!(12 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12);
+        $mac!(13 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13);
+        $mac!(14 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14);
+        $mac!(15 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15);
+        $mac!(16 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16);
+    };
+}
+
+mod typed;
+pub use typed::*;
+
+macro_rules! generate_wrap_async_func {
+    ($num:tt $($args:ident)*) => (paste::paste!{
+        /// Same as [`Func::wrap`], except the closure asynchronously produces
+        /// its result. For more information see the [`Func`] documentation.
+        ///
+        /// # Panics
+        ///
+        /// This function will panic if called with a non-asynchronous store.
+        #[allow(non_snake_case)]
+        #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+        #[cfg_attr(nightlydoc, doc(cfg(feature = "async")))]
+        pub fn [<wrap $num _async>]<T, $($args,)* R>(
+            store: impl AsContextMut<Data = T>,
+            func: impl for<'a> Fn(Caller<'a, T>, $($args),*) -> Box<dyn Future<Output = R> + Send + 'a> + Send + Sync + 'static,
+        ) -> Func
+        where
+            $($args: WasmTy,)*
+            R: WasmRet,
+        {
+            assert!(store.as_context().async_support(), concat!("cannot use `wrap", $num, "_async` without enabling async support on the config"));
+            Func::wrap(store, move |mut caller: Caller<'_, T>, $($args: $args),*| {
+                let async_cx = caller.store.as_context_mut().0.async_cx().expect("Attempt to start async function on dying fiber");
+                let mut future = Pin::from(func(caller, $($args),*));
+
+                match unsafe { async_cx.block_on(future.as_mut()) } {
+                    Ok(ret) => ret.into_fallible(),
+                    Err(e) => R::fallible_from_error(e),
+                }
+            })
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+impl Func {
+    /// Creates a new `Func` with the given arguments, typically to create a
+    /// host-defined function to pass as an import to a module.
+    ///
+    /// * `store` - the store in which to create this [`Func`], which will own
+    ///   the return value.
+    ///
+    /// * `ty` - the signature of this function, used to indicate what the
+    ///   inputs and outputs are.
+    ///
+    /// * `func` - the native code invoked whenever this `Func` will be called.
+    ///   This closure is provided a [`Caller`] as its first argument to learn
+    ///   information about the caller, and then it's passed a list of
+    ///   parameters as a slice along with a mutable slice of where to write
+    ///   results.
+    ///
+    /// Note that the implementation of `func` must adhere to the `ty` signature
+    /// given, error or traps may occur if it does not respect the `ty`
+    /// signature. For example if the function type declares that it returns one
+    /// i32 but the `func` closures does not write anything into the results
+    /// slice then a trap may be generated.
+    ///
+    /// Additionally note that this is quite a dynamic function since signatures
+    /// are not statically known. For a more performant and ergonomic `Func`
+    /// it's recommended to use [`Func::wrap`] if you can because with
+    /// statically known signatures Wasmtime can optimize the implementation
+    /// much more.
+    ///
+    /// For more information about `Send + Sync + 'static` requirements on the
+    /// `func`, see [`Func::wrap`](#why-send--sync--static).
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// The host-provided function here returns a
+    /// [`Result<()>`](anyhow::Result). If the function returns `Ok(())` then
+    /// that indicates that the host function completed successfully and wrote
+    /// the result into the `&mut [Val]` argument.
+    ///
+    /// If the function returns `Err(e)`, however, then this is equivalent to
+    /// the host function triggering a trap for wasm. WebAssembly execution is
+    /// immediately halted and the original caller of [`Func::call`], for
+    /// example, will receive the error returned here (possibly with
+    /// [`WasmBacktrace`](crate::WasmBacktrace) context information attached).
+    ///
+    /// For more information about errors in Wasmtime see the [`Trap`]
+    /// documentation.
+    ///
+    /// [`Trap`]: crate::Trap
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "cranelift", feature = "winch"))]
+    #[cfg_attr(nightlydoc, doc(cfg(any(feature = "cranelift", feature = "winch"))))]
+    pub fn new<T>(
+        store: impl AsContextMut<Data = T>,
+        ty: FuncType,
+        func: impl Fn(Caller<'_, T>, &[Val], &mut [Val]) -> Result<()> + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let ty_clone = ty.clone();
+        unsafe {
+            Func::new_unchecked(store, ty, move |caller, values| {
+                Func::invoke(caller, &ty_clone, values, &func)
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a new [`Func`] with the given arguments, although has fewer
+    /// runtime checks than [`Func::new`].
+    ///
+    /// This function takes a callback of a different signature than
+    /// [`Func::new`], instead receiving a raw pointer with a list of [`ValRaw`]
+    /// structures. These values have no type information associated with them
+    /// so it's up to the caller to provide a function that will correctly
+    /// interpret the list of values as those coming from the `ty` specified.
+    ///
+    /// If you're calling this from Rust it's recommended to either instead use
+    /// [`Func::new`] or [`Func::wrap`]. The [`Func::wrap`] API, in particular,
+    /// is both safer and faster than this API.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// See [`Func::new`] for the behavior of returning an error from the host
+    /// function provided here.
+    ///
+    /// # Unsafety
+    ///
+    /// This function is not safe because it's not known at compile time that
+    /// the `func` provided correctly interprets the argument types provided to
+    /// it, or that the results it produces will be of the correct type.
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "cranelift", feature = "winch"))]
+    #[cfg_attr(nightlydoc, doc(cfg(any(feature = "cranelift", feature = "winch"))))]
+    pub unsafe fn new_unchecked<T>(
+        mut store: impl AsContextMut<Data = T>,
+        ty: FuncType,
+        func: impl Fn(Caller<'_, T>, &mut [ValRaw]) -> Result<()> + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let store = store.as_context_mut().0;
+        let host = HostFunc::new_unchecked(store.engine(), ty, func);
+        host.into_func(store)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a new host-defined WebAssembly function which, when called,
+    /// will run the asynchronous computation defined by `func` to completion
+    /// and then return the result to WebAssembly.
+    ///
+    /// This function is the asynchronous analogue of [`Func::new`] and much of
+    /// that documentation applies to this as well. The key difference is that
+    /// `func` returns a future instead of simply a `Result`. Note that the
+    /// returned future can close over any of the arguments, but it cannot close
+    /// over the state of the closure itself. It's recommended to store any
+    /// necessary async state in the `T` of the [`Store<T>`](crate::Store) which
+    /// can be accessed through [`Caller::data`] or [`Caller::data_mut`].
+    ///
+    /// For more information on `Send + Sync + 'static`, see
+    /// [`Func::wrap`](#why-send--sync--static).
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// This function will panic if `store` is not associated with an [async
+    /// config](crate::Config::async_support).
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// See [`Func::new`] for the behavior of returning an error from the host
+    /// function provided here.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use wasmtime::*;
+    /// # fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    /// // Simulate some application-specific state as well as asynchronous
+    /// // functions to query that state.
+    /// struct MyDatabase {
+    ///     // ...
+    /// }
+    ///
+    /// impl MyDatabase {
+    ///     async fn get_row_count(&self) -> u32 {
+    ///         // ...
+    /// #       100
+    ///     }
+    /// }
+    ///
+    /// let my_database = MyDatabase {
+    ///     // ...
+    /// };
+    ///
+    /// // Using `new_async` we can hook up into calling our async
+    /// // `get_row_count` function.
+    /// let engine = Engine::new(Config::new().async_support(true))?;
+    /// let mut store = Store::new(&engine, MyDatabase {
+    ///     // ...
+    /// });
+    /// let get_row_count_type = wasmtime::FuncType::new(
+    ///     None,
+    ///     Some(wasmtime::ValType::I32),
+    /// );
+    /// let get = Func::new_async(&mut store, get_row_count_type, |caller, _params, results| {
+    ///     Box::new(async move {
+    ///         let count = caller.data().get_row_count().await;
+    ///         results[0] = Val::I32(count as i32);
+    ///         Ok(())
+    ///     })
+    /// });
+    /// // ...
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    #[cfg(all(feature = "async", feature = "cranelift"))]
+    #[cfg_attr(nightlydoc, doc(cfg(all(feature = "async", feature = "cranelift"))))]
+    pub fn new_async<T, F>(store: impl AsContextMut<Data = T>, ty: FuncType, func: F) -> Func
+    where
+        F: for<'a> Fn(
+                Caller<'a, T>,
+                &'a [Val],
+                &'a mut [Val],
+            ) -> Box<dyn Future<Output = Result<()>> + Send + 'a>
+            + Send
+            + Sync
+            + 'static,
+    {
+        assert!(
+            store.as_context().async_support(),
+            "cannot use `new_async` without enabling async support in the config"
+        );
+        Func::new(store, ty, move |mut caller, params, results| {
+            let async_cx = caller
+                .store
+                .as_context_mut()
+                .0
+                .async_cx()
+                .expect("Attempt to spawn new action on dying fiber");
+            let mut future = Pin::from(func(caller, params, results));
+            match unsafe { async_cx.block_on(future.as_mut()) } {
+                Ok(Ok(())) => Ok(()),
+                Ok(Err(trap)) | Err(trap) => Err(trap),
+            }
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) unsafe fn from_caller_checked_func_ref(
+        store: &mut StoreOpaque,
+        raw: *mut VMFuncRef,
+    ) -> Option<Func> {
+        let func_ref = NonNull::new(raw)?;
+        debug_assert!(func_ref.as_ref().type_index != VMSharedSignatureIndex::default());
+        let export = ExportFunction { func_ref };
+        Some(Func::from_wasmtime_function(export, store))
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a new `Func` from the given Rust closure.
+    ///
+    /// This function will create a new `Func` which, when called, will
+    /// execute the given Rust closure. Unlike [`Func::new`] the target
+    /// function being called is known statically so the type signature can
+    /// be inferred. Rust types will map to WebAssembly types as follows:
+    ///
+    /// | Rust Argument Type  | WebAssembly Type |
+    /// |---------------------|------------------|
+    /// | `i32`               | `i32`            |
+    /// | `u32`               | `i32`            |
+    /// | `i64`               | `i64`            |
+    /// | `u64`               | `i64`            |
+    /// | `f32`               | `f32`            |
+    /// | `f64`               | `f64`            |
+    /// | (not supported)     | `v128`           |
+    /// | `Option<Func>`      | `funcref`        |
+    /// | `Option<ExternRef>` | `externref`      |
+    ///
+    /// Any of the Rust types can be returned from the closure as well, in
+    /// addition to some extra types
+    ///
+    /// | Rust Return Type  | WebAssembly Return Type | Meaning               |
+    /// |-------------------|-------------------------|-----------------------|
+    /// | `()`              | nothing                 | no return value       |
+    /// | `T`               | `T`                     | a single return value |
+    /// | `(T1, T2, ...)`   | `T1 T2 ...`             | multiple returns      |
+    ///
+    /// Note that all return types can also be wrapped in `Result<_>` to
+    /// indicate that the host function can generate a trap as well as possibly
+    /// returning a value.
+    ///
+    /// Finally you can also optionally take [`Caller`] as the first argument of
+    /// your closure. If inserted then you're able to inspect the caller's
+    /// state, for example the [`Memory`](crate::Memory) it has exported so you
+    /// can read what pointers point to.
+    ///
+    /// Note that when using this API, the intention is to create as thin of a
+    /// layer as possible for when WebAssembly calls the function provided. With
+    /// sufficient inlining and optimization the WebAssembly will call straight
+    /// into `func` provided, with no extra fluff entailed.
+    ///
+    /// # Why `Send + Sync + 'static`?
+    ///
+    /// All host functions defined in a [`Store`](crate::Store) (including
+    /// those from [`Func::new`] and other constructors) require that the
+    /// `func` provided is `Send + Sync + 'static`. Additionally host functions
+    /// always are `Fn` as opposed to `FnMut` or `FnOnce`. This can at-a-glance
+    /// feel restrictive since the closure cannot close over as many types as
+    /// before. The reason for this, though, is to ensure that
+    /// [`Store<T>`](crate::Store) can implement both the `Send` and `Sync`
+    /// traits.
+    ///
+    /// Fear not, however, because this isn't as restrictive as it seems! Host
+    /// functions are provided a [`Caller<'_, T>`](crate::Caller) argument which
+    /// allows access to the host-defined data within the
+    /// [`Store`](crate::Store). The `T` type is not required to be any of
+    /// `Send`, `Sync`, or `'static`! This means that you can store whatever
+    /// you'd like in `T` and have it accessible by all host functions.
+    /// Additionally mutable access to `T` is allowed through
+    /// [`Caller::data_mut`].
+    ///
+    /// Most host-defined [`Func`] values provide closures that end up not
+    /// actually closing over any values. These zero-sized types will use the
+    /// context from [`Caller`] for host-defined information.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// The closure provided here to `wrap` can optionally return a
+    /// [`Result<T>`](anyhow::Result). Returning `Ok(t)` represents the host
+    /// function successfully completing with the `t` result. Returning
+    /// `Err(e)`, however, is equivalent to raising a custom wasm trap.
+    /// Execution of WebAssembly does not resume and the stack is unwound to the
+    /// original caller of the function where the error is returned.
+    ///
+    /// For more information about errors in Wasmtime see the [`Trap`]
+    /// documentation.
+    ///
+    /// [`Trap`]: crate::Trap
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// First up we can see how simple wasm imports can be implemented, such
+    /// as a function that adds its two arguments and returns the result.
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use wasmtime::*;
+    /// # fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    /// # let mut store = Store::<()>::default();
+    /// let add = Func::wrap(&mut store, |a: i32, b: i32| a + b);
+    /// let module = Module::new(
+    ///     store.engine(),
+    ///     r#"
+    ///         (module
+    ///             (import "" "" (func $add (param i32 i32) (result i32)))
+    ///             (func (export "foo") (param i32 i32) (result i32)
+    ///                 local.get 0
+    ///                 local.get 1
+    ///                 call $add))
+    ///     "#,
+    /// )?;
+    /// let instance = Instance::new(&mut store, &module, &[add.into()])?;
+    /// let foo = instance.get_typed_func::<(i32, i32), i32>(&mut store, "foo")?;
+    /// assert_eq!(foo.call(&mut store, (1, 2))?, 3);
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    ///
+    /// We can also do the same thing, but generate a trap if the addition
+    /// overflows:
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use wasmtime::*;
+    /// # fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    /// # let mut store = Store::<()>::default();
+    /// let add = Func::wrap(&mut store, |a: i32, b: i32| {
+    ///     match a.checked_add(b) {
+    ///         Some(i) => Ok(i),
+    ///         None => anyhow::bail!("overflow"),
+    ///     }
+    /// });
+    /// let module = Module::new(
+    ///     store.engine(),
+    ///     r#"
+    ///         (module
+    ///             (import "" "" (func $add (param i32 i32) (result i32)))
+    ///             (func (export "foo") (param i32 i32) (result i32)
+    ///                 local.get 0
+    ///                 local.get 1
+    ///                 call $add))
+    ///     "#,
+    /// )?;
+    /// let instance = Instance::new(&mut store, &module, &[add.into()])?;
+    /// let foo = instance.get_typed_func::<(i32, i32), i32>(&mut store, "foo")?;
+    /// assert_eq!(foo.call(&mut store, (1, 2))?, 3);
+    /// assert!(foo.call(&mut store, (i32::max_value(), 1)).is_err());
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    ///
+    /// And don't forget all the wasm types are supported!
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use wasmtime::*;
+    /// # fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    /// # let mut store = Store::<()>::default();
+    /// let debug = Func::wrap(&mut store, |a: i32, b: u32, c: f32, d: i64, e: u64, f: f64| {
+    ///
+    ///     println!("a={}", a);
+    ///     println!("b={}", b);
+    ///     println!("c={}", c);
+    ///     println!("d={}", d);
+    ///     println!("e={}", e);
+    ///     println!("f={}", f);
+    /// });
+    /// let module = Module::new(
+    ///     store.engine(),
+    ///     r#"
+    ///         (module
+    ///             (import "" "" (func $debug (param i32 i32 f32 i64 i64 f64)))
+    ///             (func (export "foo")
+    ///                 i32.const -1
+    ///                 i32.const 1
+    ///                 f32.const 2
+    ///                 i64.const -3
+    ///                 i64.const 3
+    ///                 f64.const 4
+    ///                 call $debug))
+    ///     "#,
+    /// )?;
+    /// let instance = Instance::new(&mut store, &module, &[debug.into()])?;
+    /// let foo = instance.get_typed_func::<(), ()>(&mut store, "foo")?;
+    /// foo.call(&mut store, ())?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    ///
+    /// Finally if you want to get really fancy you can also implement
+    /// imports that read/write wasm module's memory
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use std::str;
+    ///
+    /// # use wasmtime::*;
+    /// # fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    /// # let mut store = Store::default();
+    /// let log_str = Func::wrap(&mut store, |mut caller: Caller<'_, ()>, ptr: i32, len: i32| {
+    ///     let mem = match caller.get_export("memory") {
+    ///         Some(Extern::Memory(mem)) => mem,
+    ///         _ => anyhow::bail!("failed to find host memory"),
+    ///     };
+    ///     let data = mem.data(&caller)
+    ///         .get(ptr as u32 as usize..)
+    ///         .and_then(|arr| arr.get(..len as u32 as usize));
+    ///     let string = match data {
+    ///         Some(data) => match str::from_utf8(data) {
+    ///             Ok(s) => s,
+    ///             Err(_) => anyhow::bail!("invalid utf-8"),
+    ///         },
+    ///         None => anyhow::bail!("pointer/length out of bounds"),
+    ///     };
+    ///     assert_eq!(string, "Hello, world!");
+    ///     println!("{}", string);
+    ///     Ok(())
+    /// });
+    /// let module = Module::new(
+    ///     store.engine(),
+    ///     r#"
+    ///         (module
+    ///             (import "" "" (func $log_str (param i32 i32)))
+    ///             (func (export "foo")
+    ///                 i32.const 4   ;; ptr
+    ///                 i32.const 13  ;; len
+    ///                 call $log_str)
+    ///             (memory (export "memory") 1)
+    ///             (data (i32.const 4) "Hello, world!"))
+    ///     "#,
+    /// )?;
+    /// let instance = Instance::new(&mut store, &module, &[log_str.into()])?;
+    /// let foo = instance.get_typed_func::<(), ()>(&mut store, "foo")?;
+    /// foo.call(&mut store, ())?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn wrap<T, Params, Results>(
+        mut store: impl AsContextMut<Data = T>,
+        func: impl IntoFunc<T, Params, Results>,
+    ) -> Func {
+        let store = store.as_context_mut().0;
+        // part of this unsafety is about matching the `T` to a `Store<T>`,
+        // which is done through the `AsContextMut` bound above.
+        unsafe {
+            let host = HostFunc::wrap(store.engine(), func);
+            host.into_func(store)
+        }
+    }
+
+    for_each_function_signature!(generate_wrap_async_func);
+
+    /// Returns the underlying wasm type that this `Func` has.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `store` does not own this function.
+    pub fn ty(&self, store: impl AsContext) -> FuncType {
+        self.load_ty(&store.as_context().0)
+    }
+
+    /// Forcibly loads the type of this function from the `Engine`.
+    ///
+    /// Note that this is a somewhat expensive method since it requires taking a
+    /// lock as well as cloning a type.
+    fn load_ty(&self, store: &StoreOpaque) -> FuncType {
+        FuncType::from_wasm_func_type(
+            store
+                .engine()
+                .signatures()
+                .lookup_type(self.sig_index(store.store_data()))
+                .expect("signature should be registered"),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Gets a reference to the `FuncType` for this function.
+    ///
+    /// Note that this returns both a reference to the type of this function as
+    /// well as a reference back to the store itself. This enables using the
+    /// `StoreOpaque` while the `FuncType` is also being used (from the
+    /// perspective of the borrow-checker) because otherwise the signature would
+    /// consider `StoreOpaque` borrowed mutable while `FuncType` is in use.
+    fn ty_ref<'a>(&self, store: &'a mut StoreOpaque) -> (&'a FuncType, &'a StoreOpaque) {
+        // If we haven't loaded our type into the store yet then do so lazily at
+        // this time.
+        if store.store_data()[self.0].ty.is_none() {
+            let ty = self.load_ty(store);
+            store.store_data_mut()[self.0].ty = Some(Box::new(ty));
+        }
+
+        (store.store_data()[self.0].ty.as_ref().unwrap(), store)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn sig_index(&self, data: &StoreData) -> VMSharedSignatureIndex {
+        data[self.0].sig_index()
+    }
+
+    /// Invokes this function with the `params` given and writes returned values
+    /// to `results`.
+    ///
+    /// The `params` here must match the type signature of this `Func`, or an
+    /// error will occur. Additionally `results` must have the same
+    /// length as the number of results for this function. Calling this function
+    /// will synchronously execute the WebAssembly function referenced to get
+    /// the results.
+    ///
+    /// This function will return `Ok(())` if execution completed without a trap
+    /// or error of any kind. In this situation the results will be written to
+    /// the provided `results` array.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Any error which occurs throughout the execution of the function will be
+    /// returned as `Err(e)`. The [`Error`](anyhow::Error) type can be inspected
+    /// for the precise error cause such as:
+    ///
+    /// * [`Trap`] - indicates that a wasm trap happened and execution was
+    ///   halted.
+    /// * [`WasmBacktrace`] - optionally included on errors for backtrace
+    ///   information of the trap/error.
+    /// * Other string-based errors to indicate issues such as type errors with
+    ///   `params`.
+    /// * Any host-originating error originally returned from a function defined
+    ///   via [`Func::new`], for example.
+    ///
+    /// Errors typically indicate that execution of WebAssembly was halted
+    /// mid-way and did not complete after the error condition happened.
+    ///
+    /// [`Trap`]: crate::Trap
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// This function will panic if called on a function belonging to an async
+    /// store. Asynchronous stores must always use `call_async`.
+    /// initiates a panic. Also panics if `store` does not own this function.
+    ///
+    /// [`WasmBacktrace`]: crate::WasmBacktrace
+    pub fn call(
+        &self,
+        mut store: impl AsContextMut,
+        params: &[Val],
+        results: &mut [Val],
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        assert!(
+            !store.as_context().async_support(),
+            "must use `call_async` when async support is enabled on the config",
+        );
+        self.call_impl(&mut store.as_context_mut(), params, results)
+    }
+
+    /// Invokes this function in an "unchecked" fashion, reading parameters and
+    /// writing results to `params_and_returns`.
+    ///
+    /// This function is the same as [`Func::call`] except that the arguments
+    /// and results both use a different representation. If possible it's
+    /// recommended to use [`Func::call`] if safety isn't necessary or to use
+    /// [`Func::typed`] in conjunction with [`TypedFunc::call`] since that's
+    /// both safer and faster than this method of invoking a function.
+    ///
+    /// Note that if this function takes `externref` arguments then it will
+    /// **not** automatically GC unlike the [`Func::call`] and
+    /// [`TypedFunc::call`] functions. This means that if this function is
+    /// invoked many times with new `ExternRef` values and no other GC happens
+    /// via any other means then no values will get collected.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// For more information about errors see the [`Func::call`] documentation.
+    ///
+    /// # Unsafety
+    ///
+    /// This function is unsafe because the `params_and_returns` argument is not
+    /// validated at all. It must uphold invariants such as:
+    ///
+    /// * It's a valid pointer to an array
+    /// * It has enough space to store all parameters
+    /// * It has enough space to store all results (not at the same time as
+    ///   parameters)
+    /// * Parameters are initially written to the array and have the correct
+    ///   types and such.
+    /// * Reference types like `externref` and `funcref` are valid at the
+    ///   time of this call and for the `store` specified.
+    ///
+    /// These invariants are all upheld for you with [`Func::call`] and
+    /// [`TypedFunc::call`].
+    pub unsafe fn call_unchecked(
+        &self,
+        mut store: impl AsContextMut,
+        params_and_returns: *mut ValRaw,
+        params_and_returns_capacity: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut store = store.as_context_mut();
+        let data = &store.0.store_data()[self.0];
+        let func_ref = data.export().func_ref;
+        Self::call_unchecked_raw(
+            &mut store,
+            func_ref,
+            params_and_returns,
+            params_and_returns_capacity,
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) unsafe fn call_unchecked_raw<T>(
+        store: &mut StoreContextMut<'_, T>,
+        func_ref: NonNull<VMFuncRef>,
+        params_and_returns: *mut ValRaw,
+        params_and_returns_capacity: usize,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        invoke_wasm_and_catch_traps(store, |caller| {
+            let func_ref = func_ref.as_ref();
+            (func_ref.array_call)(
+                func_ref.vmctx,
+                caller.cast::<VMOpaqueContext>(),
+                params_and_returns,
+                params_and_returns_capacity,
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Converts the raw representation of a `funcref` into an `Option<Func>`
+    ///
+    /// This is intended to be used in conjunction with [`Func::new_unchecked`],
+    /// [`Func::call_unchecked`], and [`ValRaw`] with its `funcref` field.
+    ///
+    /// # Unsafety
+    ///
+    /// This function is not safe because `raw` is not validated at all. The
+    /// caller must guarantee that `raw` is owned by the `store` provided and is
+    /// valid within the `store`.
+    pub unsafe fn from_raw(mut store: impl AsContextMut, raw: *mut c_void) -> Option<Func> {
+        Func::from_caller_checked_func_ref(store.as_context_mut().0, raw.cast())
+    }
+
+    /// Extracts the raw value of this `Func`, which is owned by `store`.
+    ///
+    /// This function returns a value that's suitable for writing into the
+    /// `funcref` field of the [`ValRaw`] structure.
+    ///
+    /// # Unsafety
+    ///
+    /// The returned value is only valid for as long as the store is alive and
+    /// this function is properly rooted within it. Additionally this function
+    /// should not be liberally used since it's a very low-level knob.
+    pub unsafe fn to_raw(&self, mut store: impl AsContextMut) -> *mut c_void {
+        self.caller_checked_func_ref(store.as_context_mut().0)
+            .as_ptr()
+            .cast()
+    }
+
+    /// Invokes this function with the `params` given, returning the results
+    /// asynchronously.
+    ///
+    /// This function is the same as [`Func::call`] except that it is
+    /// asynchronous. This is only compatible with stores associated with an
+    /// [asynchronous config](crate::Config::async_support).
+    ///
+    /// It's important to note that the execution of WebAssembly will happen
+    /// synchronously in the `poll` method of the future returned from this
+    /// function. Wasmtime does not manage its own thread pool or similar to
+    /// execute WebAssembly in. Future `poll` methods are generally expected to
+    /// resolve quickly, so it's recommended that you run or poll this future
+    /// in a "blocking context".
+    ///
+    /// For more information see the documentation on [asynchronous
+    /// configs](crate::Config::async_support).
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// For more information on errors see the [`Func::call`] documentation.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if this is called on a function in a synchronous store. This
+    /// only works with functions defined within an asynchronous store. Also
+    /// panics if `store` does not own this function.
+    #[cfg(feature = "async")]
+    #[cfg_attr(nightlydoc, doc(cfg(feature = "async")))]
+    pub async fn call_async<T>(
+        &self,
+        mut store: impl AsContextMut<Data = T>,
+        params: &[Val],
+        results: &mut [Val],
+    ) -> Result<()>
+    where
+        T: Send,
+    {
+        let mut store = store.as_context_mut();
+        assert!(
+            store.0.async_support(),
+            "cannot use `call_async` without enabling async support in the config",
+        );
+        let result = store
+            .on_fiber(|store| self.call_impl(store, params, results))
+            .await??;
+        Ok(result)
+    }
+
+    fn call_impl<T>(
+        &self,
+        store: &mut StoreContextMut<'_, T>,
+        params: &[Val],
+        results: &mut [Val],
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        // We need to perform a dynamic check that the arguments given to us
+        // match the signature of this function and are appropriate to pass to
+        // this function. This involves checking to make sure we have the right
+        // number and types of arguments as well as making sure everything is
+        // from the same `Store`.
+        let (ty, opaque) = self.ty_ref(store.0);
+        if ty.params().len() != params.len() {
+            bail!(
+                "expected {} arguments, got {}",
+                ty.params().len(),
+                params.len()
+            );
+        }
+        if ty.results().len() != results.len() {
+            bail!(
+                "expected {} results, got {}",
+                ty.results().len(),
+                results.len()
+            );
+        }
+        for (ty, arg) in ty.params().zip(params) {
+            if arg.ty() != ty {
+                bail!(
+                    "argument type mismatch: found {} but expected {}",
+                    arg.ty(),
+                    ty
+                );
+            }
+            if !arg.comes_from_same_store(opaque) {
+                bail!("cross-`Store` values are not currently supported");
+            }
+        }
+
+        let values_vec_size = params.len().max(ty.results().len());
+
+        // Whenever we pass `externref`s from host code to Wasm code, they
+        // go into the `VMExternRefActivationsTable`. But the table might be
+        // at capacity already, so check for that. If it is at capacity
+        // (unlikely) then do a GC to free up space. This is necessary
+        // because otherwise we would either keep filling up the bump chunk
+        // and making it larger and larger or we would always take the slow
+        // path when inserting references into the table.
+        if ty.as_wasm_func_type().externref_params_count()
+            > store
+                .0
+                .externref_activations_table()
+                .bump_capacity_remaining()
+        {
+            store.gc();
+        }
+
+        // Store the argument values into `values_vec`.
+        let mut values_vec = store.0.take_wasm_val_raw_storage();
+        debug_assert!(values_vec.is_empty());
+        values_vec.resize_with(values_vec_size, || ValRaw::i32(0));
+        for (arg, slot) in params.iter().cloned().zip(&mut values_vec) {
+            unsafe {
+                *slot = arg.to_raw(&mut *store);
+            }
+        }
+
+        unsafe {
+            self.call_unchecked(&mut *store, values_vec.as_mut_ptr(), values_vec_size)?;
+        }
+
+        for ((i, slot), val) in results.iter_mut().enumerate().zip(&values_vec) {
+            let ty = self.ty_ref(store.0).0.results().nth(i).unwrap();
+            *slot = unsafe { Val::from_raw(&mut *store, *val, ty) };
+        }
+        values_vec.truncate(0);
+        store.0.save_wasm_val_raw_storage(values_vec);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) fn caller_checked_func_ref(&self, store: &mut StoreOpaque) -> NonNull<VMFuncRef> {
+        let func_data = &mut store.store_data_mut()[self.0];
+        if let Some(in_store) = func_data.in_store_func_ref {
+            in_store.as_non_null()
+        } else {
+            let func_ref = func_data.export().func_ref;
+            unsafe {
+                if func_ref.as_ref().wasm_call.is_none() {
+                    let func_ref = store.func_refs().push(func_ref.as_ref().clone());
+                    store.store_data_mut()[self.0].in_store_func_ref =
+                        Some(SendSyncPtr::new(func_ref));
+                    store.fill_func_refs();
+                    func_ref
+                } else {
+                    func_ref
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) unsafe fn from_wasmtime_function(
+        export: ExportFunction,
+        store: &mut StoreOpaque,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Func::from_func_kind(FuncKind::StoreOwned { export }, store)
+    }
+
+    fn from_func_kind(kind: FuncKind, store: &mut StoreOpaque) -> Self {
+        Func(store.store_data_mut().insert(FuncData {
+            kind,
+            in_store_func_ref: None,
+            ty: None,
+        }))
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn vmimport(&self, store: &mut StoreOpaque, module: &Module) -> VMFunctionImport {
+        unsafe {
+            let f = {
+                let func_data = &mut store.store_data_mut()[self.0];
+                // If we already patched this `funcref.wasm_call` and saved a
+                // copy in the store, use the patched version. Otherwise, use
+                // the potentially un-patched version.
+                if let Some(func_ref) = func_data.in_store_func_ref {
+                    func_ref.as_non_null()
+                } else {
+                    func_data.export().func_ref
+                }
+            };
+            VMFunctionImport {
+                wasm_call: if let Some(wasm_call) = f.as_ref().wasm_call {
+                    wasm_call
+                } else {
+                    // Assert that this is a native-call function, since those
+                    // are the only ones that could be missing a `wasm_call`
+                    // trampoline.
+                    let _ = VMNativeCallHostFuncContext::from_opaque(f.as_ref().vmctx);
+
+                    let sig = self.sig_index(store.store_data());
+                    module.runtime_info().wasm_to_native_trampoline(sig).expect(
+                        "must have a wasm-to-native trampoline for this signature if the Wasm \
+                         module is importing a function of this signature",
+                    )
+                },
+                native_call: f.as_ref().native_call,
+                array_call: f.as_ref().array_call,
+                vmctx: f.as_ref().vmctx,
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn comes_from_same_store(&self, store: &StoreOpaque) -> bool {
+        store.store_data().contains(self.0)
+    }
+
+    fn invoke<T>(
+        mut caller: Caller<'_, T>,
+        ty: &FuncType,
+        values_vec: &mut [ValRaw],
+        func: &dyn Fn(Caller<'_, T>, &[Val], &mut [Val]) -> Result<()>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        // Translate the raw JIT arguments in `values_vec` into a `Val` which
+        // we'll be passing as a slice. The storage for our slice-of-`Val` we'll
+        // be taking from the `Store`. We preserve our slice back into the
+        // `Store` after the hostcall, ideally amortizing the cost of allocating
+        // the storage across wasm->host calls.
+        //
+        // Note that we have a dynamic guarantee that `values_vec` is the
+        // appropriate length to both read all arguments from as well as store
+        // all results into.
+        let mut val_vec = caller.store.0.take_hostcall_val_storage();
+        debug_assert!(val_vec.is_empty());
+        let nparams = ty.params().len();
+        val_vec.reserve(nparams + ty.results().len());
+        for (i, ty) in ty.params().enumerate() {
+            val_vec.push(unsafe { Val::from_raw(&mut caller.store, values_vec[i], ty) })
+        }
+
+        val_vec.extend((0..ty.results().len()).map(|_| Val::null()));
+        let (params, results) = val_vec.split_at_mut(nparams);
+        func(caller.sub_caller(), params, results)?;
+
+        // See the comment in `Func::call_impl`'s `write_params` function.
+        if ty.as_wasm_func_type().externref_returns_count()
+            > caller
+                .store
+                .0
+                .externref_activations_table()
+                .bump_capacity_remaining()
+        {
+            caller.store.gc();
+        }
+
+        // Unlike our arguments we need to dynamically check that the return
+        // values produced are correct. There could be a bug in `func` that
+        // produces the wrong number, wrong types, or wrong stores of
+        // values, and we need to catch that here.
+        for (i, (ret, ty)) in results.iter().zip(ty.results()).enumerate() {
+            if ret.ty() != ty {
+                bail!("function attempted to return an incompatible value");
+            }
+            if !ret.comes_from_same_store(caller.store.0) {
+                bail!("cross-`Store` values are not currently supported");
+            }
+            unsafe {
+                values_vec[i] = ret.to_raw(&mut caller.store);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Restore our `val_vec` back into the store so it's usable for the next
+        // hostcall to reuse our own storage.
+        val_vec.truncate(0);
+        caller.store.0.save_hostcall_val_storage(val_vec);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Attempts to extract a typed object from this `Func` through which the
+    /// function can be called.
+    ///
+    /// This function serves as an alternative to [`Func::call`] and
+    /// [`Func::call_async`]. This method performs a static type check (using
+    /// the `Params` and `Results` type parameters on the underlying wasm
+    /// function. If the type check passes then a `TypedFunc` object is returned,
+    /// otherwise an error is returned describing the typecheck failure.
+    ///
+    /// The purpose of this relative to [`Func::call`] is that it's much more
+    /// efficient when used to invoke WebAssembly functions. With the types
+    /// statically known far less setup/teardown is required when invoking
+    /// WebAssembly. If speed is desired then this function is recommended to be
+    /// used instead of [`Func::call`] (which is more general, hence its
+    /// slowdown).
+    ///
+    /// The `Params` type parameter is used to describe the parameters of the
+    /// WebAssembly function. This can either be a single type (like `i32`), or
+    /// a tuple of types representing the list of parameters (like `(i32, f32,
+    /// f64)`). Additionally you can use `()` to represent that the function has
+    /// no parameters.
+    ///
+    /// The `Results` type parameter is used to describe the results of the
+    /// function. This behaves the same way as `Params`, but just for the
+    /// results of the function.
+    ///
+    /// Translation between Rust types and WebAssembly types looks like:
+    ///
+    /// | WebAssembly | Rust                |
+    /// |-------------|---------------------|
+    /// | `i32`       | `i32` or `u32`      |
+    /// | `i64`       | `i64` or `u64`      |
+    /// | `f32`       | `f32`               |
+    /// | `f64`       | `f64`               |
+    /// | `externref` | `Option<ExternRef>` |
+    /// | `funcref`   | `Option<Func>`      |
+    /// | `v128`      | not supported       |
+    ///
+    /// (note that this mapping is the same as that of [`Func::wrap`]).
+    ///
+    /// Note that once the [`TypedFunc`] return value is acquired you'll use either
+    /// [`TypedFunc::call`] or [`TypedFunc::call_async`] as necessary to actually invoke
+    /// the function. This method does not invoke any WebAssembly code, it
+    /// simply performs a typecheck before returning the [`TypedFunc`] value.
+    ///
+    /// This method also has a convenience wrapper as
+    /// [`Instance::get_typed_func`](crate::Instance::get_typed_func) to
+    /// directly get a typed function value from an
+    /// [`Instance`](crate::Instance).
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// This function will return an error if `Params` or `Results` does not
+    /// match the native type of this WebAssembly function.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// This method will panic if `store` does not own this function.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// An end-to-end example of calling a function which takes no parameters
+    /// and has no results:
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use wasmtime::*;
+    /// # fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    /// let engine = Engine::default();
+    /// let mut store = Store::new(&engine, ());
+    /// let module = Module::new(&engine, r#"(module (func (export "foo")))"#)?;
+    /// let instance = Instance::new(&mut store, &module, &[])?;
+    /// let foo = instance.get_func(&mut store, "foo").expect("export wasn't a function");
+    ///
+    /// // Note that this call can fail due to the typecheck not passing, but
+    /// // in our case we statically know the module so we know this should
+    /// // pass.
+    /// let typed = foo.typed::<(), ()>(&store)?;
+    ///
+    /// // Note that this can fail if the wasm traps at runtime.
+    /// typed.call(&mut store, ())?;
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    ///
+    /// You can also pass in multiple parameters and get a result back
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use wasmtime::*;
+    /// # fn foo(add: &Func, mut store: Store<()>) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    /// let typed = add.typed::<(i32, i64), f32>(&store)?;
+    /// assert_eq!(typed.call(&mut store, (1, 2))?, 3.0);
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    ///
+    /// and similarly if a function has multiple results you can bind that too
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// # use wasmtime::*;
+    /// # fn foo(add_with_overflow: &Func, mut store: Store<()>) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    /// let typed = add_with_overflow.typed::<(u32, u32), (u32, i32)>(&store)?;
+    /// let (result, overflow) = typed.call(&mut store, (u32::max_value(), 2))?;
+    /// assert_eq!(result, 1);
+    /// assert_eq!(overflow, 1);
+    /// # Ok(())
+    /// # }
+    /// ```
+    pub fn typed<Params, Results>(
+        &self,
+        store: impl AsContext,
+    ) -> Result<TypedFunc<Params, Results>>
+    where
+        Params: WasmParams,
+        Results: WasmResults,
+    {
+        // Type-check that the params/results are all valid
+        let ty = self.ty(store);
+        Params::typecheck(ty.params()).context("type mismatch with parameters")?;
+        Results::typecheck(ty.results()).context("type mismatch with results")?;
+
+        // and then we can construct the typed version of this function
+        // (unsafely), which should be safe since we just did the type check above.
+        unsafe { Ok(TypedFunc::new_unchecked(*self)) }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Prepares for entrance into WebAssembly.
+///
+/// This function will set up context such that `closure` is allowed to call a
+/// raw trampoline or a raw WebAssembly function. This *must* be called to do
+/// things like catch traps and set up GC properly.
+///
+/// The `closure` provided receives a default "caller" `VMContext` parameter it
+/// can pass to the called wasm function, if desired.
+pub(crate) fn invoke_wasm_and_catch_traps<T>(
+    store: &mut StoreContextMut<'_, T>,
+    closure: impl FnMut(*mut VMContext),
+) -> Result<()> {
+    unsafe {
+        let exit = enter_wasm(store);
+
+        if let Err(trap) = store.0.call_hook(CallHook::CallingWasm) {
+            exit_wasm(store, exit);
+            return Err(trap);
+        }
+        let result = wasmtime_runtime::catch_traps(
+            store.0.signal_handler(),
+            store.0.engine().config().wasm_backtrace,
+            store.0.default_caller(),
+            closure,
+        );
+        exit_wasm(store, exit);
+        store.0.call_hook(CallHook::ReturningFromWasm)?;
+        result.map_err(|t| crate::trap::from_runtime_box(store.0, t))
+    }
+}
+
+/// This function is called to register state within `Store` whenever
+/// WebAssembly is entered within the `Store`.
+///
+/// This function sets up various limits such as:
+///
+/// * The stack limit. This is what ensures that we limit the stack space
+///   allocated by WebAssembly code and it's relative to the initial stack
+///   pointer that called into wasm.
+///
+/// This function may fail if the the stack limit can't be set because an
+/// interrupt already happened.
+fn enter_wasm<T>(store: &mut StoreContextMut<'_, T>) -> Option<usize> {
+    // If this is a recursive call, e.g. our stack limit is already set, then
+    // we may be able to skip this function.
+    //
+    // For synchronous stores there's nothing else to do because all wasm calls
+    // happen synchronously and on the same stack. This means that the previous
+    // stack limit will suffice for the next recursive call.
+    //
+    // For asynchronous stores then each call happens on a separate native
+    // stack. This means that the previous stack limit is no longer relevant
+    // because we're on a separate stack.
+    if unsafe { *store.0.runtime_limits().stack_limit.get() } != usize::MAX
+        && !store.0.async_support()
+    {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    // Ignore this stack pointer business on miri since we can't execute wasm
+    // anyway and the concept of a stack pointer on miri is a bit nebulous
+    // regardless.
+    if cfg!(miri) {
+        return None;
+    }
+
+    let stack_pointer = psm::stack_pointer() as usize;
+
+    // Determine the stack pointer where, after which, any wasm code will
+    // immediately trap. This is checked on the entry to all wasm functions.
+    //
+    // Note that this isn't 100% precise. We are requested to give wasm
+    // `max_wasm_stack` bytes, but what we're actually doing is giving wasm
+    // probably a little less than `max_wasm_stack` because we're
+    // calculating the limit relative to this function's approximate stack
+    // pointer. Wasm will be executed on a frame beneath this one (or next
+    // to it). In any case it's expected to be at most a few hundred bytes
+    // of slop one way or another. When wasm is typically given a MB or so
+    // (a million bytes) the slop shouldn't matter too much.
+    //
+    // After we've got the stack limit then we store it into the `stack_limit`
+    // variable.
+    let wasm_stack_limit = stack_pointer - store.engine().config().max_wasm_stack;
+    let prev_stack = unsafe {
+        mem::replace(
+            &mut *store.0.runtime_limits().stack_limit.get(),
+            wasm_stack_limit,
+        )
+    };
+
+    Some(prev_stack)
+}
+
+fn exit_wasm<T>(store: &mut StoreContextMut<'_, T>, prev_stack: Option<usize>) {
+    // If we don't have a previous stack pointer to restore, then there's no
+    // cleanup we need to perform here.
+    let prev_stack = match prev_stack {
+        Some(stack) => stack,
+        None => return,
+    };
+
+    unsafe {
+        *store.0.runtime_limits().stack_limit.get() = prev_stack;
+    }
+}
+
+/// A trait implemented for types which can be returned from closures passed to
+/// [`Func::wrap`] and friends.
+///
+/// This trait should not be implemented by user types. This trait may change at
+/// any time internally. The types which implement this trait, however, are
+/// stable over time.
+///
+/// For more information see [`Func::wrap`]
+pub unsafe trait WasmRet {
+    // Same as `WasmTy::Abi`.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    type Abi: Copy;
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    type Retptr: Copy;
+
+    // Same as `WasmTy::compatible_with_store`.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    fn compatible_with_store(&self, store: &StoreOpaque) -> bool;
+
+    // Similar to `WasmTy::into_abi_for_arg` but used when host code is
+    // returning a value into Wasm, rather than host code passing an argument to
+    // a Wasm call. Unlike `into_abi_for_arg`, implementors of this method can
+    // raise traps, which means that callers must ensure that
+    // `invoke_wasm_and_catch_traps` is on the stack, and therefore this method
+    // is unsafe.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    unsafe fn into_abi_for_ret(
+        self,
+        store: &mut StoreOpaque,
+        ptr: Self::Retptr,
+    ) -> Result<Self::Abi>;
+
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    fn func_type(params: impl Iterator<Item = ValType>) -> FuncType;
+
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    unsafe fn wrap_trampoline(ptr: *mut ValRaw, f: impl FnOnce(Self::Retptr) -> Self::Abi);
+
+    // Utilities used to convert an instance of this type to a `Result`
+    // explicitly, used when wrapping async functions which always bottom-out
+    // in a function that returns a trap because futures can be cancelled.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    type Fallible: WasmRet<Abi = Self::Abi, Retptr = Self::Retptr>;
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    fn into_fallible(self) -> Self::Fallible;
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    fn fallible_from_error(error: Error) -> Self::Fallible;
+}
+
+unsafe impl<T> WasmRet for T
+where
+    T: WasmTy,
+{
+    type Abi = <T as WasmTy>::Abi;
+    type Retptr = ();
+    type Fallible = Result<T>;
+
+    fn compatible_with_store(&self, store: &StoreOpaque) -> bool {
+        <Self as WasmTy>::compatible_with_store(self, store)
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn into_abi_for_ret(self, store: &mut StoreOpaque, _retptr: ()) -> Result<Self::Abi> {
+        Ok(<Self as WasmTy>::into_abi(self, store))
+    }
+
+    fn func_type(params: impl Iterator<Item = ValType>) -> FuncType {
+        FuncType::new(params, Some(<Self as WasmTy>::valtype()))
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn wrap_trampoline(ptr: *mut ValRaw, f: impl FnOnce(Self::Retptr) -> Self::Abi) {
+        T::abi_into_raw(f(()), ptr);
+    }
+
+    fn into_fallible(self) -> Result<T> {
+        Ok(self)
+    }
+
+    fn fallible_from_error(error: Error) -> Result<T> {
+        Err(error)
+    }
+}
+
+unsafe impl<T> WasmRet for Result<T>
+where
+    T: WasmRet,
+{
+    type Abi = <T as WasmRet>::Abi;
+    type Retptr = <T as WasmRet>::Retptr;
+    type Fallible = Self;
+
+    fn compatible_with_store(&self, store: &StoreOpaque) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Ok(x) => <T as WasmRet>::compatible_with_store(x, store),
+            Err(_) => true,
+        }
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn into_abi_for_ret(
+        self,
+        store: &mut StoreOpaque,
+        retptr: Self::Retptr,
+    ) -> Result<Self::Abi> {
+        self.and_then(|val| val.into_abi_for_ret(store, retptr))
+    }
+
+    fn func_type(params: impl Iterator<Item = ValType>) -> FuncType {
+        T::func_type(params)
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn wrap_trampoline(ptr: *mut ValRaw, f: impl FnOnce(Self::Retptr) -> Self::Abi) {
+        T::wrap_trampoline(ptr, f)
+    }
+
+    fn into_fallible(self) -> Result<T> {
+        self
+    }
+
+    fn fallible_from_error(error: Error) -> Result<T> {
+        Err(error)
+    }
+}
+
+macro_rules! impl_wasm_host_results {
+    ($n:tt $($t:ident)*) => (
+        #[allow(non_snake_case)]
+        unsafe impl<$($t),*> WasmRet for ($($t,)*)
+        where
+            $($t: WasmTy,)*
+            ($($t::Abi,)*): HostAbi,
+        {
+            type Abi = <($($t::Abi,)*) as HostAbi>::Abi;
+            type Retptr = <($($t::Abi,)*) as HostAbi>::Retptr;
+            type Fallible = Result<Self>;
+
+            #[inline]
+            fn compatible_with_store(&self, _store: &StoreOpaque) -> bool {
+                let ($($t,)*) = self;
+                $( $t.compatible_with_store(_store) && )* true
+            }
+
+            #[inline]
+            unsafe fn into_abi_for_ret(self, _store: &mut StoreOpaque, ptr: Self::Retptr) -> Result<Self::Abi> {
+                let ($($t,)*) = self;
+                let abi = ($($t.into_abi(_store),)*);
+                Ok(<($($t::Abi,)*) as HostAbi>::into_abi(abi, ptr))
+            }
+
+            fn func_type(params: impl Iterator<Item = ValType>) -> FuncType {
+                FuncType::new(
+                    params,
+                    IntoIterator::into_iter([$($t::valtype(),)*]),
+                )
+            }
+
+            #[allow(unused_assignments)]
+            unsafe fn wrap_trampoline(mut _ptr: *mut ValRaw, f: impl FnOnce(Self::Retptr) -> Self::Abi) {
+                let ($($t,)*) = <($($t::Abi,)*) as HostAbi>::call(f);
+                $(
+                    $t::abi_into_raw($t, _ptr);
+                    _ptr = _ptr.add(1);
+                )*
+            }
+
+            #[inline]
+            fn into_fallible(self) -> Result<Self> {
+                Ok(self)
+            }
+
+            #[inline]
+            fn fallible_from_error(error: Error) -> Result<Self> {
+                Err(error)
+            }
+        }
+    )
+}
+
+for_each_function_signature!(impl_wasm_host_results);
+
+// Internal trait representing how to communicate tuples of return values across
+// an ABI boundary. This internally corresponds to the "wasmtime" ABI inside of
+// cranelift itself. Notably the first element of each tuple is returned via the
+// typical system ABI (e.g. systemv or fastcall depending on platform) and all
+// other values are returned packed via the stack.
+//
+// This trait helps to encapsulate all the details of that.
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub trait HostAbi {
+    // A value returned from native functions which return `Self`
+    type Abi: Copy;
+    // A return pointer, added to the end of the argument list, for native
+    // functions that return `Self`. Note that a 0-sized type here should get
+    // elided at the ABI level.
+    type Retptr: Copy;
+
+    // Converts a value of `self` into its components. Stores necessary values
+    // into `ptr` and then returns whatever needs to be returned from the
+    // function.
+    unsafe fn into_abi(self, ptr: Self::Retptr) -> Self::Abi;
+
+    // Calls `f` with a suitably sized return area and requires `f` to return
+    // the raw abi value of the first element of our tuple. This will then
+    // unpack the `Retptr` and assemble it with `Self::Abi` to return an
+    // instance of the whole tuple.
+    unsafe fn call(f: impl FnOnce(Self::Retptr) -> Self::Abi) -> Self;
+}
+
+macro_rules! impl_host_abi {
+    // Base case, everything is `()`
+    (0) => {
+        impl HostAbi for () {
+            type Abi = ();
+            type Retptr = ();
+
+            #[inline]
+            unsafe fn into_abi(self, _ptr: Self::Retptr) -> Self::Abi {}
+
+            #[inline]
+            unsafe fn call(f: impl FnOnce(Self::Retptr) -> Self::Abi) -> Self {
+                f(())
+            }
+        }
+    };
+
+    // In the 1-case the retptr is not present, so it's a 0-sized value.
+    (1 $a:ident) => {
+        impl<$a: Copy> HostAbi for ($a,) {
+            type Abi = $a;
+            type Retptr = ();
+
+            unsafe fn into_abi(self, _ptr: Self::Retptr) -> Self::Abi {
+                self.0
+            }
+
+            unsafe fn call(f: impl FnOnce(Self::Retptr) -> Self::Abi) -> Self {
+                (f(()),)
+            }
+        }
+    };
+
+    // This is where the more interesting case happens. The first element of the
+    // tuple is returned via `Abi` and all other elements are returned via
+    // `Retptr`. We create a `TupleRetNN` structure to represent all of the
+    // return values here.
+    //
+    // Also note that this isn't implemented for the old backend right now due
+    // to the original author not really being sure how to implement this in the
+    // old backend.
+    ($n:tt $t:ident $($u:ident)*) => {paste::paste!{
+        #[doc(hidden)]
+        #[allow(non_snake_case)]
+        #[repr(C)]
+        pub struct [<TupleRet $n>]<$($u,)*> {
+            $($u: $u,)*
+        }
+
+        #[allow(non_snake_case, unused_assignments)]
+        impl<$t: Copy, $($u: Copy,)*> HostAbi for ($t, $($u,)*) {
+            type Abi = $t;
+            type Retptr = *mut [<TupleRet $n>]<$($u,)*>;
+
+            unsafe fn into_abi(self, ptr: Self::Retptr) -> Self::Abi {
+                let ($t, $($u,)*) = self;
+                // Store the tail of our tuple into the return pointer...
+                $((*ptr).$u = $u;)*
+                // ... and return the head raw.
+                $t
+            }
+
+            unsafe fn call(f: impl FnOnce(Self::Retptr) -> Self::Abi) -> Self {
+                // Create space to store all the return values and then invoke
+                // the function.
+                let mut space = std::mem::MaybeUninit::uninit();
+                let t = f(space.as_mut_ptr());
+                let space = space.assume_init();
+
+                // Use the return value as the head of the tuple and unpack our
+                // return area to get the rest of the tuple.
+                (t, $(space.$u,)*)
+            }
+        }
+    }};
+}
+
+for_each_function_signature!(impl_host_abi);
+
+/// Internal trait implemented for all arguments that can be passed to
+/// [`Func::wrap`] and [`Linker::func_wrap`](crate::Linker::func_wrap).
+///
+/// This trait should not be implemented by external users, it's only intended
+/// as an implementation detail of this crate.
+pub trait IntoFunc<T, Params, Results>: Send + Sync + 'static {
+    /// Convert this function into a `VM{Array,Native}CallHostFuncContext` and
+    /// internal `VMFuncRef`.
+    #[doc(hidden)]
+    fn into_func(self, engine: &Engine) -> HostContext;
+}
+
+/// A structure representing the caller's context when creating a function
+/// via [`Func::wrap`].
+///
+/// This structure can be taken as the first parameter of a closure passed to
+/// [`Func::wrap`] or other constructors, and serves two purposes:
+///
+/// * First consumers can use [`Caller<'_, T>`](crate::Caller) to get access to
+///   [`StoreContextMut<'_, T>`](crate::StoreContextMut) and/or get access to
+///   `T` itself. This means that the [`Caller`] type can serve as a proxy to
+///   the original [`Store`](crate::Store) itself and is used to satisfy
+///   [`AsContext`] and [`AsContextMut`] bounds.
+///
+/// * Second a [`Caller`] can be used as the name implies, learning about the
+///   caller's context, namely it's exported memory and exported functions. This
+///   allows functions which take pointers as arguments to easily read the
+///   memory the pointers point into, or if a function is expected to call
+///   malloc in the wasm module to reserve space for the output you can do that.
+///
+/// Host functions which want access to [`Store`](crate::Store)-level state are
+/// recommended to use this type.
+pub struct Caller<'a, T> {
+    pub(crate) store: StoreContextMut<'a, T>,
+    caller: &'a wasmtime_runtime::Instance,
+}
+
+impl<T> Caller<'_, T> {
+    unsafe fn with<R>(caller: *mut VMContext, f: impl FnOnce(Caller<'_, T>) -> R) -> R {
+        assert!(!caller.is_null());
+        wasmtime_runtime::Instance::from_vmctx(caller, |instance| {
+            let store = StoreContextMut::from_raw(instance.store());
+            f(Caller {
+                store,
+                caller: &instance,
+            })
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn sub_caller(&mut self) -> Caller<'_, T> {
+        Caller {
+            store: self.store.as_context_mut(),
+            caller: self.caller,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Looks up an export from the caller's module by the `name` given.
+    ///
+    /// This is a low-level function that's typically used to implement passing
+    /// of pointers or indices between core Wasm instances, where the callee
+    /// needs to consult the caller's exports to perform memory management and
+    /// resolve the references.
+    ///
+    /// For comparison, in components, the component model handles translating
+    /// arguments from one component instance to another and managing memory, so
+    /// that callees don't need to be aware of their callers, which promotes
+    /// virtualizability of APIs.
+    ///
+    /// # Return
+    ///
+    /// If an export with the `name` provided was found, then it is returned as an
+    /// `Extern`. There are a number of situations, however, where the export may not
+    /// be available:
+    ///
+    /// * The caller instance may not have an export named `name`
+    /// * There may not be a caller available, for example if `Func` was called
+    ///   directly from host code.
+    ///
+    /// It's recommended to take care when calling this API and gracefully
+    /// handling a `None` return value.
+    pub fn get_export(&mut self, name: &str) -> Option<Extern> {
+        // All instances created have a `host_state` with a pointer pointing
+        // back to themselves. If this caller doesn't have that `host_state`
+        // then it probably means it was a host-created object like `Func::new`
+        // which doesn't have any exports we want to return anyway.
+        self.caller
+            .host_state()
+            .downcast_ref::<Instance>()?
+            .get_export(&mut self.store, name)
+    }
+
+    /// Access the underlying data owned by this `Store`.
+    ///
+    /// Same as [`Store::data`](crate::Store::data)
+    pub fn data(&self) -> &T {
+        self.store.data()
+    }
+
+    /// Access the underlying data owned by this `Store`.
+    ///
+    /// Same as [`Store::data_mut`](crate::Store::data_mut)
+    pub fn data_mut(&mut self) -> &mut T {
+        self.store.data_mut()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the underlying [`Engine`] this store is connected to.
+    pub fn engine(&self) -> &Engine {
+        self.store.engine()
+    }
+
+    /// Perform garbage collection of `ExternRef`s.
+    ///
+    /// Same as [`Store::gc`](crate::Store::gc).
+    pub fn gc(&mut self) {
+        self.store.gc()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the fuel consumed by this store.
+    ///
+    /// For more information see [`Store::fuel_consumed`](crate::Store::fuel_consumed)
+    pub fn fuel_consumed(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        self.store.fuel_consumed()
+    }
+
+    /// Inject more fuel into this store to be consumed when executing wasm code.
+    ///
+    /// For more information see [`Store::add_fuel`](crate::Store::add_fuel)
+    pub fn add_fuel(&mut self, fuel: u64) -> Result<()> {
+        self.store.add_fuel(fuel)
+    }
+
+    /// Synthetically consumes fuel from the store.
+    ///
+    /// For more information see [`Store::consume_fuel`](crate::Store::consume_fuel)
+    pub fn consume_fuel(&mut self, fuel: u64) -> Result<u64> {
+        self.store.consume_fuel(fuel)
+    }
+
+    /// Configures this `Store` to trap whenever fuel runs out.
+    ///
+    /// For more information see
+    /// [`Store::out_of_fuel_trap`](crate::Store::out_of_fuel_trap)
+    pub fn out_of_fuel_trap(&mut self) {
+        self.store.out_of_fuel_trap()
+    }
+
+    /// Configures this `Store` to yield while executing futures whenever fuel
+    /// runs out.
+    ///
+    /// For more information see
+    /// [`Store::out_of_fuel_async_yield`](crate::Store::out_of_fuel_async_yield)
+    pub fn out_of_fuel_async_yield(&mut self, injection_count: u64, fuel_to_inject: u64) {
+        self.store
+            .out_of_fuel_async_yield(injection_count, fuel_to_inject)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> AsContext for Caller<'_, T> {
+    type Data = T;
+    fn as_context(&self) -> StoreContext<'_, T> {
+        self.store.as_context()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> AsContextMut for Caller<'_, T> {
+    fn as_context_mut(&mut self) -> StoreContextMut<'_, T> {
+        self.store.as_context_mut()
+    }
+}
+
+macro_rules! impl_into_func {
+    ($num:tt $($args:ident)*) => {
+        // Implement for functions without a leading `&Caller` parameter,
+        // delegating to the implementation below which does have the leading
+        // `Caller` parameter.
+        #[allow(non_snake_case)]
+        impl<T, F, $($args,)* R> IntoFunc<T, ($($args,)*), R> for F
+        where
+            F: Fn($($args),*) -> R + Send + Sync + 'static,
+            $($args: WasmTy,)*
+            R: WasmRet,
+        {
+            fn into_func(self, engine: &Engine) -> HostContext {
+                let f = move |_: Caller<'_, T>, $($args:$args),*| {
+                    self($($args),*)
+                };
+
+                f.into_func(engine)
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[allow(non_snake_case)]
+        impl<T, F, $($args,)* R> IntoFunc<T, (Caller<'_, T>, $($args,)*), R> for F
+        where
+            F: Fn(Caller<'_, T>, $($args),*) -> R + Send + Sync + 'static,
+            $($args: WasmTy,)*
+            R: WasmRet,
+        {
+            fn into_func(self, engine: &Engine) -> HostContext {
+                /// This shim is a regular, non-closure function we can stuff
+                /// inside `VMFuncRef::native_call`.
+                ///
+                /// It reads the actual callee closure out of
+                /// `VMNativeCallHostFuncContext::host_state`, forwards
+                /// arguments to that function, and finally forwards the results
+                /// back out to the caller. It also handles traps and panics
+                /// along the way.
+                unsafe extern "C" fn native_call_shim<T, F, $($args,)* R>(
+                    vmctx: *mut VMOpaqueContext,
+                    caller_vmctx: *mut VMOpaqueContext,
+                    $( $args: $args::Abi, )*
+                    retptr: R::Retptr,
+                ) -> R::Abi
+                where
+                    F: Fn(Caller<'_, T>, $( $args ),*) -> R + 'static,
+                    $( $args: WasmTy, )*
+                    R: WasmRet,
+                {
+                    enum CallResult<U> {
+                        Ok(U),
+                        Trap(anyhow::Error),
+                        Panic(Box<dyn std::any::Any + Send>),
+                    }
+
+                    // Note that this `result` is intentionally scoped into a
+                    // separate block. Handling traps and panics will involve
+                    // longjmp-ing from this function which means we won't run
+                    // destructors. As a result anything requiring a destructor
+                    // should be part of this block, and the long-jmp-ing
+                    // happens after the block in handling `CallResult`.
+                    let caller_vmctx = VMContext::from_opaque(caller_vmctx);
+                    let result = Caller::with(caller_vmctx, |mut caller| {
+                        let vmctx = VMNativeCallHostFuncContext::from_opaque(vmctx);
+                        let state = (*vmctx).host_state();
+
+                        // Double-check ourselves in debug mode, but we control
+                        // the `Any` here so an unsafe downcast should also
+                        // work.
+                        debug_assert!(state.is::<F>());
+                        let func = &*(state as *const _ as *const F);
+
+                        let ret = {
+                            panic::catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(|| {
+                                if let Err(trap) = caller.store.0.call_hook(CallHook::CallingHost) {
+                                    return R::fallible_from_error(trap);
+                                }
+                                $(let $args = $args::from_abi($args, caller.store.0);)*
+                                let r = func(
+                                    caller.sub_caller(),
+                                    $( $args, )*
+                                );
+                                if let Err(trap) = caller.store.0.call_hook(CallHook::ReturningFromHost) {
+                                    return R::fallible_from_error(trap);
+                                }
+                                r.into_fallible()
+                            }))
+                        };
+
+                        // Note that we need to be careful when dealing with traps
+                        // here. Traps are implemented with longjmp/setjmp meaning
+                        // that it's not unwinding and consequently no Rust
+                        // destructors are run. We need to be careful to ensure that
+                        // nothing on the stack needs a destructor when we exit
+                        // abnormally from this `match`, e.g. on `Err`, on
+                        // cross-store-issues, or if `Ok(Err)` is raised.
+                        match ret {
+                            Err(panic) => CallResult::Panic(panic),
+                            Ok(ret) => {
+                                // Because the wrapped function is not `unsafe`, we
+                                // can't assume it returned a value that is
+                                // compatible with this store.
+                                if !ret.compatible_with_store(caller.store.0) {
+                                    CallResult::Trap(anyhow::anyhow!("host function attempted to return cross-`Store` value to Wasm"))
+                                } else {
+                                    match ret.into_abi_for_ret(caller.store.0, retptr) {
+                                        Ok(val) => CallResult::Ok(val),
+                                        Err(trap) => CallResult::Trap(trap.into()),
+                                    }
+                                }
+
+                            }
+                        }
+                    });
+
+                    match result {
+                        CallResult::Ok(val) => val,
+                        CallResult::Trap(err) => crate::trap::raise(err),
+                        CallResult::Panic(panic) => wasmtime_runtime::resume_panic(panic),
+                    }
+                }
+
+                /// This trampoline allows host code to indirectly call the
+                /// wrapped function (e.g. via `Func::call` on a `funcref` that
+                /// happens to reference our wrapped function).
+                ///
+                /// It reads the arguments out of the incoming `args` array,
+                /// calls the given function pointer, and then stores the result
+                /// back into the `args` array.
+                unsafe extern "C" fn array_call_trampoline<T, F, $($args,)* R>(
+                    callee_vmctx: *mut VMOpaqueContext,
+                    caller_vmctx: *mut VMOpaqueContext,
+                    args: *mut ValRaw,
+                    _args_len: usize
+                )
+                where
+                    F: Fn(Caller<'_, T>, $( $args ),*) -> R + 'static,
+                    $($args: WasmTy,)*
+                    R: WasmRet,
+                {
+                    let mut _n = 0;
+                    $(
+                        debug_assert!(_n < _args_len);
+                        let $args = $args::abi_from_raw(args.add(_n));
+                        _n += 1;
+                    )*
+
+                    R::wrap_trampoline(args, |retptr| {
+                        native_call_shim::<T, F, $( $args, )* R>(callee_vmctx, caller_vmctx, $( $args, )* retptr)
+                    });
+                }
+
+                let ty = R::func_type(
+                    None::<ValType>.into_iter()
+                        $(.chain(Some($args::valtype())))*
+                );
+
+                let shared_signature_id = engine.signatures().register(ty.as_wasm_func_type());
+
+                let array_call = array_call_trampoline::<T, F, $($args,)* R>;
+                let native_call = NonNull::new(native_call_shim::<T, F, $($args,)* R> as *mut _).unwrap();
+
+                let ctx = unsafe {
+                    VMNativeCallHostFuncContext::new(
+                        VMFuncRef {
+                            native_call,
+                            array_call,
+                            wasm_call: None,
+                            type_index: shared_signature_id,
+                            vmctx: ptr::null_mut(),
+                        },
+                        Box::new(self),
+                    )
+                };
+
+                ctx.into()
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+for_each_function_signature!(impl_into_func);
+
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub enum HostContext {
+    Native(StoreBox<VMNativeCallHostFuncContext>),
+    Array(StoreBox<VMArrayCallHostFuncContext>),
+}
+
+impl From<StoreBox<VMNativeCallHostFuncContext>> for HostContext {
+    fn from(ctx: StoreBox<VMNativeCallHostFuncContext>) -> Self {
+        HostContext::Native(ctx)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<StoreBox<VMArrayCallHostFuncContext>> for HostContext {
+    fn from(ctx: StoreBox<VMArrayCallHostFuncContext>) -> Self {
+        HostContext::Array(ctx)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Representation of a host-defined function.
+///
+/// This is used for `Func::new` but also for `Linker`-defined functions. For
+/// `Func::new` this is stored within a `Store`, and for `Linker`-defined
+/// functions they wrap this up in `Arc` to enable shared ownership of this
+/// across many stores.
+///
+/// Technically this structure needs a `<T>` type parameter to connect to the
+/// `Store<T>` itself, but that's an unsafe contract of using this for now
+/// rather than part of the struct type (to avoid `Func<T>` in the API).
+pub(crate) struct HostFunc {
+    ctx: HostContext,
+
+    // Stored to unregister this function's signature with the engine when this
+    // is dropped.
+    engine: Engine,
+}
+
+impl HostFunc {
+    /// Analog of [`Func::new`]
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "cranelift", feature = "winch"))]
+    pub fn new<T>(
+        engine: &Engine,
+        ty: FuncType,
+        func: impl Fn(Caller<'_, T>, &[Val], &mut [Val]) -> Result<()> + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let ty_clone = ty.clone();
+        unsafe {
+            HostFunc::new_unchecked(engine, ty, move |caller, values| {
+                Func::invoke(caller, &ty_clone, values, &func)
+            })
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Analog of [`Func::new_unchecked`]
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "cranelift", feature = "winch"))]
+    pub unsafe fn new_unchecked<T>(
+        engine: &Engine,
+        ty: FuncType,
+        func: impl Fn(Caller<'_, T>, &mut [ValRaw]) -> Result<()> + Send + Sync + 'static,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let func = move |caller_vmctx, values: &mut [ValRaw]| {
+            Caller::<T>::with(caller_vmctx, |mut caller| {
+                caller.store.0.call_hook(CallHook::CallingHost)?;
+                let result = func(caller.sub_caller(), values)?;
+                caller.store.0.call_hook(CallHook::ReturningFromHost)?;
+                Ok(result)
+            })
+        };
+        let ctx = crate::trampoline::create_array_call_function(&ty, func, engine)
+            .expect("failed to create function");
+        HostFunc::_new(engine, ctx.into())
+    }
+
+    /// Analog of [`Func::wrap`]
+    pub fn wrap<T, Params, Results>(
+        engine: &Engine,
+        func: impl IntoFunc<T, Params, Results>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        let ctx = func.into_func(engine);
+        HostFunc::_new(engine, ctx)
+    }
+
+    /// Requires that this function's signature is already registered within
+    /// `Engine`. This happens automatically during the above two constructors.
+    fn _new(engine: &Engine, ctx: HostContext) -> Self {
+        HostFunc {
+            ctx,
+            engine: engine.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Inserts this `HostFunc` into a `Store`, returning the `Func` pointing to
+    /// it.
+    ///
+    /// # Unsafety
+    ///
+    /// Can only be inserted into stores with a matching `T` relative to when
+    /// this `HostFunc` was first created.
+    pub unsafe fn to_func(self: &Arc<Self>, store: &mut StoreOpaque) -> Func {
+        self.validate_store(store);
+        let me = self.clone();
+        Func::from_func_kind(FuncKind::SharedHost(me), store)
+    }
+
+    /// Inserts this `HostFunc` into a `Store`, returning the `Func` pointing to
+    /// it.
+    ///
+    /// This function is similar to, but not equivalent, to `HostFunc::to_func`.
+    /// Notably this function requires that the `Arc<Self>` pointer is otherwise
+    /// rooted within the `StoreOpaque` via another means. When in doubt use
+    /// `to_func` above as it's safer.
+    ///
+    /// # Unsafety
+    ///
+    /// Can only be inserted into stores with a matching `T` relative to when
+    /// this `HostFunc` was first created.
+    ///
+    /// Additionally the `&Arc<Self>` is not cloned in this function. Instead a
+    /// raw pointer to `Self` is stored within the `Store` for this function.
+    /// The caller must arrange for the `Arc<Self>` to be "rooted" in the store
+    /// provided via another means, probably by pushing to
+    /// `StoreOpaque::rooted_host_funcs`.
+    ///
+    /// Similarly, the caller must arrange for `rooted_func_ref` to be rooted in
+    /// the same store.
+    pub unsafe fn to_func_store_rooted(
+        self: &Arc<Self>,
+        store: &mut StoreOpaque,
+        rooted_func_ref: Option<NonNull<VMFuncRef>>,
+    ) -> Func {
+        self.validate_store(store);
+
+        if rooted_func_ref.is_some() {
+            debug_assert!(self.func_ref().wasm_call.is_none());
+            debug_assert!(matches!(self.ctx, HostContext::Native(_)));
+        }
+
+        Func::from_func_kind(
+            FuncKind::RootedHost(RootedHostFunc::new(self, rooted_func_ref)),
+            store,
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Same as [`HostFunc::to_func`], different ownership.
+    unsafe fn into_func(self, store: &mut StoreOpaque) -> Func {
+        self.validate_store(store);
+        Func::from_func_kind(FuncKind::Host(Box::new(self)), store)
+    }
+
+    fn validate_store(&self, store: &mut StoreOpaque) {
+        // This assert is required to ensure that we can indeed safely insert
+        // `self` into the `store` provided, otherwise the type information we
+        // have listed won't be correct. This is possible to hit with the public
+        // API of Wasmtime, and should be documented in relevant functions.
+        assert!(
+            Engine::same(&self.engine, store.engine()),
+            "cannot use a store with a different engine than a linker was created with",
+        );
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn sig_index(&self) -> VMSharedSignatureIndex {
+        self.func_ref().type_index
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn func_ref(&self) -> &VMFuncRef {
+        match &self.ctx {
+            HostContext::Native(ctx) => unsafe { (*ctx.get()).func_ref() },
+            HostContext::Array(ctx) => unsafe { (*ctx.get()).func_ref() },
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn host_ctx(&self) -> &HostContext {
+        &self.ctx
+    }
+
+    fn export_func(&self) -> ExportFunction {
+        ExportFunction {
+            func_ref: NonNull::from(self.func_ref()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for HostFunc {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        unsafe {
+            self.engine.signatures().unregister(self.sig_index());
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl FuncData {
+    #[inline]
+    fn export(&self) -> ExportFunction {
+        self.kind.export()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn sig_index(&self) -> VMSharedSignatureIndex {
+        unsafe { self.export().func_ref.as_ref().type_index }
+    }
+}
+
+impl FuncKind {
+    #[inline]
+    fn export(&self) -> ExportFunction {
+        match self {
+            FuncKind::StoreOwned { export, .. } => *export,
+            FuncKind::SharedHost(host) => host.export_func(),
+            FuncKind::RootedHost(rooted) => ExportFunction {
+                func_ref: NonNull::from(rooted.func_ref()),
+            },
+            FuncKind::Host(host) => host.export_func(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+use self::rooted::*;
+
+/// An inner module is used here to force unsafe construction of
+/// `RootedHostFunc` instead of accidentally safely allowing access to its
+/// constructor.
+mod rooted {
+    use wasmtime_runtime::{SendSyncPtr, VMFuncRef};
+
+    use super::HostFunc;
+    use std::ptr::NonNull;
+    use std::sync::Arc;
+
+    /// A variant of a pointer-to-a-host-function used in `FuncKind::RootedHost`
+    /// above.
+    ///
+    /// For more documentation see `FuncKind::RootedHost`, `InstancePre`, and
+    /// `HostFunc::to_func_store_rooted`.
+    pub(crate) struct RootedHostFunc {
+        func: SendSyncPtr<HostFunc>,
+        func_ref: Option<SendSyncPtr<VMFuncRef>>,
+    }
+
+    impl RootedHostFunc {
+        /// Note that this is `unsafe` because this wrapper type allows safe
+        /// access to the pointer given at any time, including outside the
+        /// window of validity of `func`, so callers must not use the return
+        /// value past the lifetime of the provided `func`.
+        ///
+        /// Similarly, callers must ensure that the given `func_ref` is valid
+        /// for the liftime of the return value.
+        pub(crate) unsafe fn new(
+            func: &Arc<HostFunc>,
+            func_ref: Option<NonNull<VMFuncRef>>,
+        ) -> RootedHostFunc {
+            RootedHostFunc {
+                func: NonNull::from(&**func).into(),
+                func_ref: func_ref.map(|p| p.into()),
+            }
+        }
+
+        pub(crate) fn func(&self) -> &HostFunc {
+            // Safety invariants are upheld by the `RootedHostFunc::new` caller.
+            unsafe { self.func.as_ref() }
+        }
+
+        pub(crate) fn func_ref(&self) -> &VMFuncRef {
+            if let Some(f) = self.func_ref {
+                // Safety invariants are upheld by the `RootedHostFunc::new` caller.
+                unsafe { f.as_ref() }
+            } else {
+                self.func().func_ref()
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}