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data/lib/studium/exam_topics/evolution_and_evolutionary_genetics

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+# === Evolution tag                                                 (Evo tag)
+#
+# This file also includes molecular evolution and some parts related to
+# taxonomy.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- How was the phylogenetic tree of the three main domains of life rooted? By comparing the 16S rRNA.
+- Did the first eukaryotic common ancestor have a nucleus? No, not yet.
+- Name a very important <one>signature event</one> in eukaryote evolution. A: The <one>development of the organelle called mitochondria</one>.
+- Briefly stated: <one>what are phylogenetic studies</one>? This basically refers to a comparison of DNA sequences.
+- Eukaryotes have genes derived from eubacteria and from archaebacteria. Which of these two contributed more to eukaryotic genes? The contribution by eubacteria appears to be more abundant than from archaea. 
+- We know the LUCA - but what is the LECA? This abbreviation is short for <one>last eukaryotic common ancestor</one>. 
+- The <one>ADAR enzymes</one> have evolved from enzymes that ... ? From enzymes that <one>deaminate adenosines in tRNAs</one>.
+- The <one>Argonaute proteins</one> have a role in regards to various small RNAs. What could be assumed about their evolutionary origin? These proteins may have had <one>originated as an RNA-based mechanism for defense against viruses</one>.
+- Can we <one>resolve</one> the tree in <two>hard polytomy</two> with additional data? <one>No</one>. []
+- Modern <one>DNA methyltransferases</one> most likely evolved from an ancient ... ? <one>RNA methyltransferase</one>.
+- Anderer Begriff für einen <one>phylogenetischen Baum</one>? <one>Kladogramm</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistik
+- Nenne <one>zwei Vertreter</one> der <two>Carnosauria</two>. A: (1) <one>Tyrannosaurus</one> (2) <one>Albertosaurus</one> URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertosaurus []
+- Which <one>domains of life</one> do possess <two>Histones</two>? A: (1) <one>Archaea</one> (2) <one>Eukarya</one> []
+- <one>When</one> did <two>the great oxidation event</two> occur? <one>2.4 billion years ago</one>.
+- <one>Wann</one> lebte <two>Archaeopteryx</two>? Der Archaeopteryx lebte im <one>Jura</one>.
+- Was spricht <one>gegen RNA</one> als ursprüngliche Erbsubstanz? Die <one>geringe Stabilität von RNA Molekülen</one>. []
+- Nenne ein konkretes Beispiel für <one>convergent evolution</one>. A: <one>Adlerschwingen</one> und <one>Bienenflügel</one>. []
+- What does the <one>neutral-mutation hypothesis</one> by <two>Motoo Kimura</two> suggest? It suggests that most variations in DNA and protein sequences are functionally equivalent, thus adaptively neutral - individuals with different molecular variants have equal fitness.
+- Certain environments contribute to <one>the loss of genes</one>, such as <two>a parasite living in a human host, losing genes related to metabolic pathways</two>. Why is this selection called 'positive', though? Because organisms save energy by avoiding replication and expresison of unneeded genes.
+- Some microorganisms lose genes during evolution which is also called <one>'reductive evolution'</one>. Name two groups of microorganisms where this can be observed. A: (1) <one>intracellular pathogens</one> (2) <one>obligate symbionts</one>
+- Gab es <one>marine Dinosaurier</one>? <one>Nein</one>. (Die <two>Plesiosaurier</two> sind eine separate Gruppe).
+- Nenne <one>zwei</one> <two>Möglichkeiten wie Arten</two> entstehen können. A: (1) <one>allopatrisch</one> (2) <one>sympatrisch</one>
+- In der <one>molekularen Evolution</one>: was heisst <two>DDC Modell</two>? Duplication, <two>Degeneration</two>, <one>Complementation</one>.
+- Ein <one>Dendrogramm</one> besteht aus welchen <two>zwei Komponenten</two>? (1) <one>Knoten</one>  (<two>nodes</two>) (2) <one>Ästen</one> (<two>branches</two>)
+- In <one>molecular evolution</one> we can see the neutral theory. Why the name <two>neutral</two> here? This refers to the fact that <one>most amino acid substitutions in proteins</one> would be <two>neutral</two> or <two>nearly neutral</two>. They would nto change the function of the protein at hand whatsoever.
+- Give another name for <one>highly conserved</one>. A: <one>slowly changing</one>.
+- Name <one>four ways</one> how <two>gene duplication</two> can occur. A: (1) Unequal crossing-over (2) Unequal sister chromatid exchange (3) DNA amplification (4) <one>Replication slippage</one>
+- <one>Welche Person</one> isolierte im Jahre 1983 <two>RNAse P</two>? <one>Sidney Altman</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Altman
+- Of the <one>rock-derived elements essential for life</one>, which element is the most concentrated in organisms relative to the lithosphere? <one>Phosphor</one>.
+- <one>Woraus</one> bestehen eigentlich die <two>Stromatoliten</two>? Aus <one>fossilisierten Cyanobakterien</one>.
+- <one>Wann</one> entstanden <two>die ersten Walarten</two>? Vor etwa <one>60 Millionen Jahren</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wale#Systematik
+- Name an organism that plays a role in <one>cryptic speciation</one>. A: Endosymbiotic bacteria like <one>Wolbachia</one>. They <two>can manipulate host reproduction</two>.
+- Bei <one>Maximum Parsimony</one>: <two>welcher Baum wird hier generell gesucht</two>? Den <one>kürzesten Baum</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_parsimony_%28phylogenetics%29
+- From the point of view of biology: arguably the most important event in the geochemical evolution of the Earth has been ... ? The <one>rise of oxygen</one>.
+- Name <one>three methods</one> mit denen wir <two>das Alter von Fossilien bestimmen können</two>. A: (1) Radiometric dating (2) <one>Stratigraphy</one> (3) <one>Molecular clocks</one>
+- <one>Polytomy</one> is a part of phylogenetics and depicting relations therein. <two>Name an impressive example of polytomy that may appear in such a drawing</two>. A: A <one>star tree</one>.
+- In der Evolution: was ist <one>LCA</one>? <one>Last common ancestor</one>. []
+- Die <one>Sequenz</one> des <two>eyeless-Gens</two> ähnelt welch anderem Gen? <one>Pax6</one> (im <two>Maus-Genom</two>).
+- Was ist die <one>biologische Fitness</one>? Der unterschiedliche Fortpflanzungserfolg.
+- According to the <one>Ohno model</one>, a view pioneered by Susumu Ohno, <two>gene duplication creates ... </two>? <one>Redundancy</one>.
+- <one>Günter Wächtershäuser</one> hatte eine Theorie in der Evolution vorgeschlagen. <two>Was besagte diese Theorie</two>? Das Metallsulfid-Oberflächen wie etwa Pyrit (FeS) eine wichtige katalytisch wirksame Oberfläche lieferte - dies mag bei der Entstehung von Leben wichtig gewesen sein.
+- Wie heißt <one>Ursuppe</one> auf englisch? <one>Primordial soup</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primordial_soup []
+- Have <one>extinct species</one> been <two>removed from the gene pool</two>? <one>Yes</one>, by definition. []
+- Name an advantage of <one>gene duplication events</one>. A: <one>Gene duplication events</one> <two>provide backups</two>.
+- A premise of <one>taxonomy</one> is that it <two>should represent</two> ... ? <one>Phylogeny</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy
+- In a <one>phylogenetic tree</one>: <two>different branch lengths</two> typically reflect ... ? The <one>evolutionary time</one>.
+- <one>Simultaneous divergence</one> can be seen in <two>soft polytomy</two> or in <two>hard polytomy</two>? In <one>hard polytomy</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytomy []
+- Nenne den <one>Begründer der Paläontologie</one>. A: <one>Georges Cuvier</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier []
+- Ist die <one>Substitutionsrate</one> <two>abhängig von der Funktion des Gens</two>? <one>Ja</one>: <two>je wichtiger ein Gen</two> für den Organismus ist, <three>desto geringer ist die Substitutionsrate</three>.
+- From an evolutionary point of view in biology: <one>what was the single most important point in evolution of life on Earth</one>? The <one>evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis</one>. This allowed the organisms on life an evolutionary transition towards oxygenic photosynthesis.
+- Was heißt <one>Parsimony</one> und welche Bedeutung hat dieses Prinzip in der Evolutionsforschung? Habe ich konkurrende Möglichkeiten so entscheide ich mich für die Option, bei der ich weniger Annahmen machen muss. Dies ist das Prinzip der <one>sparsamsten Erklärung</one>.
+- What did <one>Georges Cuvier's theory</one> state? Many species that had once existed were now extinct.
+- Die <one>durchschnittliche Schnabeldicke</one> des Mittleren Grundfinks verändert sich mit ... ? Mit den <one>Bedingungen der Umwelt</one> (zum Beispiel <two>trockene Jahre</two> bevorzugen Vögel mit <royalblue>dickeren Schnäbeln</royalblue>).
+- In <one>phylogenetics</one>: what do we mean with a <two>dichotomy</two>? This is a (rooted) tree with sets of <one>bifurcating branches</one>.
+- Andere Bezeichnung für <one>Artaufspaltung</one>? <one>Diversifikation</one>.
+- <one>Evolutionary forces</one> <two>can change variation within a population</two> in which two different ways? (1) it can <one>increase variation</one> (2) it can <one>decrease variation</one>
+- Was waren die entscheidenden Veränderungen im Laufe der letzten Millionen Jahre, die uns Menschen kennzeichnen? (1) der <one>aufrechte Gang</one> (2) <one>Gehirnvergrößerung</one> (3) <one>Sprachentwicklung</one> (4) <one>Werkzeugentwicklung</one>
+- Do members of a <one>polyphyletic group</one> share <two>an immediate common ancestor</two>? <one>Yes</one>. []
+- Nenne <one>zwei Beispiele</one> für <two>Brückentiere</two>. A: (1) Der <one>Archaeopteryx</one> (2) Der <one>Quastenflosser</one>
+- Was heißt <one>Microraptor</one> wörtlich? <one>Kleiner Räuber</one>.
+- Allgemein formuliert: wie können wir <one>ein Alter zu einem Fossil</one> zuweisen? Mittels <one>radiometrischer Datierung</one> (<two>radiometric dating</two>).
+- Nenne die <one>drei Kingdoms bei den Archaea</one>. A: Merkslogan <one>Creuko</one> (1) Kingdom <two>Crenarchaeota</two> (2) Kingdom <two>Euryarchaeota</two> (3) Kingdom <two>Korarchaeota</two>
+- Was sagte <one>Aristoteles</one> über die Arten? Aristoteles meinte das die Arten <one>unveränderlich</one> sind. []
+- What is the <one>double-psi barrel</one> and why is it important in evolution? <one>RNA-Polymerases</one> <two>evolved from this ancient double-psi barrel</two>. This may be important to explain RNA molecules of today.
+- <one>Wann</one> (<two>vor n Jahren</two>) gab es <three>die ersten Dinosaurier</three>? Vor 245 Millionen Jahren.
+- Kann die <one>natürliche Selektion</one> zu <two>neuen Anpassungen</two> führen? <one>Ja</one>. []
+- <one>Wer</one> war der bedeutendste Evolutionsbiologe der vordarwinistischen Ära? <one>Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck
+- Who are <one>the closest relatives of vertebrates</one>? The <one>Tunicates</one> (<two>Ascidians</two>).
+- <one>The fundamental basis of a phylogenetic tree</one> is ... ? a <one>multiple sequence alignment</one>. []
+- Give another term for <one>line of descent</one>. A: <one>Lineage</one>. []
+- Welche <one>Tiergruppe</one> kann als <two>die ersten Fische</two> bezeichnet werden? Die <one>Agnatha</one>.
+- <one>Womit</one> korreliert die <two>Färbung von Guppymännchen</two>? Mit dem <one>Feinddruck</one>. []
+- What is the opposite of <one>convergent evolution</one>? <one>Divergent evolution</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergent_evolution []
+- Give an example for <one>the concept of overdominance</one> in genetics, that has also influenced evolution of mankind. A: The genetic resistance found through <one>sickle cell anemia</one>.
+- Is <one>Overdominance</one> <two>a balancing selection</two>? <one>Yes</one>.
+- The <one>sickle-cell allele</one> <two>is maintained in which populations</two>? In <one>populations exposed to malaria</one>.
+- <one>Charles Darwin</one> is very renowned in <two>evolutionary biology</two> due to his famous <three>theory of natural selection</three>. <four>Was he the first to have proposed the concept that organisms evolve</four>/<four>change</four>? <one>No</one>. For example, Jean-Baptise Lamarck suggested that <two>the environment</two> could act to change organisms directly.
+- Bei der <one>Uran-Blei-Datierung</one>: <two>welche Verbindung setzt man bei dieser Analyse ein</two>? Das <one>Zirkon</one>, <two>ZrSiO4</two>.
+- Humans discovered a hybrid human in the <one>Denisova cave</one>, consisting of ... ? A <one>female Neandertal mother</one> and a <two>male Denisovan father</two>.
+- Is the amount of <one>GC content in a genome</one> important for evolution? Yes. <one>Lateral gene transfer may be handicapped by a very different composition of GC content between two different genomes</one>, which might make it hard to transcribe these sequences when they relocated in a new organism.
+- <one>Wie</one> können wir nachweisen das eine <two>Evolution der Organismen</two> stattgefunden hat? Mittels <one>Fossil-Funde</one>.
+- In general: is <one>the substitution rate of neutral nonsynonymous substitutions</one> lower than that of <one>synonymous neutral substitutions</one>? <one>Yes</one>. []
+- Was war <one>das erste fast vielzellige Gebilde in der Evolution</one>? <one>Volvox</one> (<two>die erste Leiche in der Evolution</two>). URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volvox []
+- <one>Experimental evolution</one> usually refers to ... ? <one>evolution in the laboratory</one>. []
+- Was wird mit dem Begriff <one>opportunistische Evolution</one> bezeichnet? Bereits existierende Prozesse werden umgewidmet, statt der Entwicklung eines völlig neuen Prozesses.
+- Definiere <one>sexuelle Selektion</one>. A: <one>Sexuelle Selektion</one> fördert jegliches Verhalten und das Herausbilden von Strukturen, die für ein Individuum die Wahrscheinlichkeit erhöht, einen Geschlechtspartner für die Kopulation zu finden.
+- The <one>sickle cell anemia</one> is a so-called <two>balanced polymorphism</two>. What is meant with this term here? That <one>the heterozygote has an advantage over either homozygote</one>.
+- Andere Bezeichnung für <one>Katastrophentheorie</one>? <one>Kataklysmentheorie</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kataklysmentheorie []
+- Wie können wir <one>biologisch</one> die Dauer der Evolution abschätzen? Durch die <one>Anzahl von Mutationen zwischen Genen</one>. Dies dient als <two>ein Maß für die evolutionäre Distanz</two>.
+- The <one>nucleobase ribosylation problem</one> is circumvented by the assembly proceeding through ... <two>which interesting molecule</two>? <one>2-aminooxazole</one>.
+- Haben <one>lebende Fossilien</one> <two>auf etwas vergessen</two>? Ja: <one>sie haben vergessen auszusterben</one>. []
+- What do we mean with the term <one>Evo-Devo</one>? <one>Evolutionary developmental biology</one>.
+- Jablonka & Lamb's interpretative mutations model mentions <one>induced local mutations</one>. <two>What does this mean</two>? The more a gene is transcribed, the higher its mutation rate.
+- <one>Hypermutations</one> may be beneficial to a species. <two>How so</two>? <one>Hypermutations</one> will enable some cells to rapidly adapt to changing conditions in order to <two>avoid the entire population from becoming extinct</two>.
+- <one>Which human subgroup</one> <two>that is extinct</two> was known from their genome rather than their bones? The <one>Denisovans</one>.
+- Does <one>evolution repeat itself</one>? <one>Yes</one>. []
+- Give another name for <one>earth's original atmosphere</one>. A: The <one>primary atmosphere</one>.
+- In an <one>additive tree</one>, what do the lengths of the branches measure? They measure <one>divergence</one>. []
+- Was ist eine <one>Apomorphie</one>? Ein <one>abgeleitetes Merkmal</one>. Es handelt sich hier um ein Merkmal, das im Vergleich zum Vorfahren der jeweils betrachteten Stammlinie neu erworben wurde, also <two>eine innovative Neuentwicklung darstellt</two>.
+- At a <one>branch point</one> <two>lineages</two> <three>d</three> ... ? <one>Diverge</one>. []
+- <one>In welchem Zeitalter</one> traten die ersten <two>echten Säugetiere</two> erstmals auf? In der <one>Jura</one>. []
+- The <one>ability to change phenotypes</one> through <two>selective breeding</two> indicates that ... ? That <one>traits have a genetic basis</one>.
+- The <one>molecular clock theory</one> in evolution can also be mockingly called ... how? The <one>sloppy clock</one>.
+- Give <one>two examples</one> how the gene number can be increased during molecular evolution. A: (1) due to the formation of <one>polyploids</one> (2) due to <one>gene duplication</one>
+- <one>Since when</one> do we have the earliest (indirect) evidence of <two>stone tools</two> in mankind? At around <one>3.4 million years ago</one>. Cut marks from stone tools were found at Dikika, Ethiopia.
+- Die <one>Zweigspitzen</one> des Stammbaums den Darwin ursprünglich gezeichnet hat, stellen was dar? Die Artenvielfalt der <one>Organismen, die heute leben</one> (rezent sind).
+- <one>Who</one> is the <two>most basal chordate</two>? <one>Amphioxus</one>.
+- <one>How fast</one> does the SSU rRNA evolve? It <one>evolves very slowly</one> - which explains why it is such a good <two>phylogenetic marker</two>.
+- Give <one>two evidence</one> for the <two>RNA World</two>. A: (1) the <one>discovery of ribozymes</one> (2) rRNAs can self-splice, without the need for a protein
+- Nenne <one>3 Methoden</one> das Alter von Fossilien zu bestimmen. A: (1) "Radiometrische Altersbestimmung" (2) <one>Stratigraphische Altersbestimmung</one> (3) <one>Altersbestimmung durch Leitfossilien</one>
+- <one>Wann</one> wurde die <two>molecular clock</two> postuliert? <one>1962</one>, <two>von Zuckerkandl und Pauling</two>.
+- Phylogenetic trees are based on ... ? Sequence analysis.
+- <one>Phylogenetic trees</one> consist of <two>...</two> and <two>...</two>. A: <one>edges</one> and <one>nodes</one>.
+- In <one>molecular phylogeny</one>: <two>rooting a tree requires comparison with ... </two>? an <one>outgroup</one>.
+- <one>Molecular clocks</one> are based on ... ? <one>mutation rate</one>.
+- <one>Charles Darwin</one> <two>studied finches</two>. These finches illustrated which process in (natural) evolution? <one>Adaptation</one>, which means that a species becomes modified to suit the environments in which they live.
+- Was ist die <one>sympatrische Artbildung</one> und <two>wer</two> hat den Begriff geprägt? Dies bezeichnet <one>das Entstehen neuer Arten im Gebiet der Ursprungsart</one>. Der Begriff wurde durch <two>Ernst Mayr</two> geprägt. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympatrische_Artbildung
+- What is <one>Ribotyping</one>? Ribotyping is a technique for <one>bacterial identification based on rRNA</one>.
+- Was ist der Unterschied zwischen einem <one>Geweih</one> und einem <one>Gehörn</one>? (1) <one>Geweihe</one> sind Knochenbildungen, die auch abgewerfen können. (2) <one>Gehörne</one> sind eine Bildung der Haut, die zeitlebens wachsen und niemals abgeworfen werden.
+- Was heißt <one>LUCA</one>? A: <one>Last Universal Common Ancestor</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor []
+- In der Evolutionsbiologie: in einem <one>Dendrogramm</one>, was sind die <two>OTUs</two>? <one>Operational taxonomic units</one>.
+- Was ist <one>Apomixis</one> und bei wem tritt sie auf? A: <one>Apomixis</one> ist eine Form der Fortpflanzung, bei der keine Meiose und keine Verschmelzung von Gameten vorkommen. Es ist also eine "ungeschlechtliche Fortpflanzung" die vor allem <two>bei polyploiden Formen</two> auftritt. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apomixis
+- The <one>three stages of prebiotic evolution</one> include ... ? (1) the geophysical stage (2) the chemical stage (3) the biological stage
+- <one>Why</one> is the evolution of new gene families important? The evolution of enw gene familes may lead to entirely novel functions that open up new ways of living.
+- <one>Welche Theorie</one> führte <one>John Maynard Smith</one> in die Evolutionslehre ein? <royalblue>ESS</royalblue>: <two>Evolutionäre stabile Strategie</two>.
+- Nenne ein anderes Wort für <one>Homologues</one>. A: <royalblue>ERE</royalblue>: <two>Evolutionary Related Equivalents</two>.
+- <one>Welches Experiment</one> erweiterte das <two>Millerexperiment</two>? Das <one>Yanagawa-Experiment</one>.
+- Anderer Begriff für einen <one>Stammbaum</one>? <one>Dendrogramm</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchische_Clusteranalyse#Dendrogramm []
+- Der Kontinent <one>Pangea</one> <two>entstand aus welchem Superkontinent</two>? Aus <one>Rodinia</one>. URL: http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/images/Rodinia.gif
+- Andere Bezeichnung für <one>Genealogie</one>? <one>Ahnenforschung</one>.
+- <one>Welche Person</one> entwickelte die alte <two>Kataklysmentheorie</two> (Katastrophentheorie)? <one>Georges Cuvier</one>.
+- <one>Parasitic plants</one> lost ... ? <one>chloroplasts</one>.
+- A molecular tree of life is best done via ... ? <one>16S rRNA phylogeny</one>.
+- Was sind die <one>Prosimia</one>, was sind die <two>Anthropoidea</two>, und was hat das mit den Lemuren zu tun? Die Prosimia sind die "Halbaffen", die Anthropoidea sind die menschenähnlichen Affen. Die Lemuren gehören zu den Prosimia.
+- Andere Bezeichnung für den Begriff <one>apopmorphes Merkmal</one>? <one>Abgeleitetes Merkmal</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apomorphie []
+- What is meant with <one>ghost introgression</one>? This refers to detecting the gene flow between different genomes without having a source population (such as the Neanderthal genome as reference point).
+- <one>Out of Africa I</one> came about by <i>Homo ...</i>, about two million years ago. A: <one>Homo erectus</one>.
+- Andere Bezeichnung für einen <one>plesiomorphen Merkmalszustand</one>? <one>Ursprünglicher Merkmalszustand</one>. URL: https://www.bionity.com/de/lexikon/Plesiomorphie.html []
+- Wirkt <one>Selektion</one> auf den Genotyp? Nein, nur auf den <one>Phänotyp</one>. []
+- Name one drawback of <three>Ernst Mayr's</three> original <one>biological species concept</one> from <two>1942</two>. A: It <one>can not be applied to bacteria</one> and other asexually reproducing organisms, as it states that a species is a group of organisms whose members are capable of interbreeding with one another but are reproductively isolated from the members of other species.
+- Welcher <one>Dinosaurier</one> war der größte? Der <one>Argentinosaurus</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentinosaurus
+- Postuliert <one>die natürliche Selektionstheorie</one> (nach Darwin) einen <two>ungleichen Fortpflanzungserfolg</two>? Ja. []
+- Das Stanley Miller <one>Ursuppenexperiment</one> fand wann statt? <one>1953</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller-Urey-Experiment []
+- What did the theory of the <one>fixity of species</one> claim? That animal and plant groups <one>have remained unchanged in form</one> since the moment of their appearance on Earth.
+- The universal tree of life is based ... ? On <one>rRNA gene sequences</one>.
+- <one>Prachtkleider</one> dienen der ... ? <one>Fitnessindikation</one>.
+- Welche zwei Typen an Sexualdimorphismen können durch die sexuelle Selektion entstehen? (1) Männliche Prachtkleider (2) <one>Männliche Kampfstrukturen</one>
+- Andere Bezeichnung für <one>anthropogene Selektion</one>? <one>Künstliche Selektion</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selektion_(Evolution) []
+- What is <one>the deepest branch of life</one>, aka <two>oldest branch</two>? The <one>thermophiles</one>.
+- Ist es einfach in der <one>Paläobiologie</one> die Richtung der Evolution abzulesen? Nein. Manchmal ist es schwierig zu entscheiden in welche Richtung gefundene Veränderungsreihen in der Stammesgeschichte gelesen werden müssen. []
+- Will <one>gene conversion</one> compromise <two>phylogenetic analysis</two>? Yes. []
+- Will <one>gene conversion</one> display an <two>incorrect evolutionary age</two>? Yes. []
+- A <one>graphical representation of a phylogeny</one> is called ... ? A <one>phylogenetic tree</one>.
+- Do all <one>eukaryotic organisms</one> have a <two>gene for cytochrome c</two>? Yes.
+- In der <one>Evolution der Lebewesen</one>: wie nennen wir, auf Englisch, die Abstammungstheorie? <one>Descent with modification</one>.
+- Give one example of <one>a gene that arose through gene duplications</one>. A: The diversity of the <one>odor receptors</one>.
+- Nenne eine wichtige Neuentwicklung bei den <one>Sauropsiden</one>. A: Das <one>amniotische Ei</one>.
+- Was ist der <one>Cro-Magnon-Mensch</one>? Der <one>anatomisch moderne Mensch</one> (Homo sapiens) der letzten Kaltzeit.
+- The <one>smallest animal genome</one>, with <two>75 Mb</two> in size, can be found in ...? The <one>Oikopleura dioica</one>, a <two>Tunicata</two>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oikopleura
+- Welcher <one>Baum</one> (<peru>Pflanze</peru>) ist ein <two>missing link</two> (Lateinischen Namen angeben)? <one>Ginkgo biloba</one>.
+- Welche Person entwickelte zuert die <one>Evolutionstheorie</one>? <one>Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</one>, <peru>1809</peru>.
+- Ist die <one>ökologische Nische</one> ein Ort? Nein - sie ist <one>ein Beziehungsgefüge</one>. Sie kann nicht besitzt, sondern nur <two>gebildet werden</two>.
+- Name <one>a large-scale process for the expansion (and thus evolution) of gene number in genomes</one>. A: The formation of <one>polyploids</one> - thus, <one>polyploidy</one>.
+- Is polyploidy in plants more common than in animals, in the context of molecular evolution? Yes.
+- Does <one>an individual organism</one> evolve? No - what evolves is <one>the gene pool common to a group of organisms</one>.
+- <one>Wolbachia</one> maximize their spread, also by making use of <two>male killing</two>. What does this mean? Male killing means that <one>infected males die during larval development</one>, which thus <two>increase the rate of born, infected, females</two>.
+- Wozu führt die <one>Anagenese</one>? Zur <one>Artneubildung</one>.
+- Nenne eine Theorie die <one>Thomas Malthus</one> vertreten hat. A: Ein grosser Teil des menschlichen Leids (z. Bsp Krieg) sei die unausweisliche Folge des raschen Wachstums der Bevölkerung, rascher als die Ressourcen.
+- Main problem of a <one>molecular clock</one>? <one>DNA sequences could change at different rates</one>.
+- The <one>most pervasive influence of natural selection on DNA</one> is ... ? To conserve gene function and sequence.
+- Give an example for where <one>humans</one> have used <two>artificial selection</two> in somewhat early history. A: Humans produced numerous different <one>dog breeds</one>.
+- We can draw <one>a phylogenetic tree</one>, based on ... what kind of <two>matrix</two>? Based on <one>a distance matrix</one>.
+- Can <one>genetic variation</one> <two>be maintained by natural selection</two>? Yes, at the least some: an example is <one>overdominance</one> maintaining heterozygous individuals.
+- How do we call the selection that is found in the <one>sickle-cell mutation</one>? <one>Balancing selection</one>.
+- Warum ist <one>mtDNA</one> als <two>evolutionärer Marker</two> so geeignet? <one>mtDNA</one> <two>rekombiniert nicht</two>.
+- Name one of the long standing goals of evuolutionary biolgy following Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. A: To <one>understand the genetic basis of adaptation</one>.
+- Name a general reason as to why natural selection may work on coat colour specifically, in animals. A: The appropriate <one>coat colour</one> in particular, such as for <two>mice</two>, has the advantage of being less visible to predators.
+- Give another expression for <one>evolutionary history of a group of organisms</one>? <one>Phylogeny</one>.
+- When we refer to <one>hybrid alleles</one>, what do we mean, essentially? This refers to alleles that can or have recombined. 
+- Was besagt <one>Lamarck's Theorie</one> des <two>Gebrauch und Nicht-Gebrauch</two>? Intensiv genutzte Tel des Körpers werden größer und stärker.
+- Gib ein Beispiel für <one>Agamospezies</one>. A: Autogame Sippen (=Selbstbestäuber).
+- Wo genau lebten die <one>Denisova-Menschen</one>? Im <one>südlichen Sibirien</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denisovan
+- Gib ein ganz konkretes Beispiel für <one>grossflächige, anthropogene Selektion in der Natur</one>. A: Der Kabeljau in der Barents See. Die Fischereiflotte selektiert gegen grosse Kabeljau-Fische.
+- Evolutionär betrachtet: was bringt <one>exon shuffling</one>? Wir erzeugen so <one>neue Exons</one>.
+- Was ist <one>molekulare Evolution</one>? Evolution ist die Veränderung des Eigenschaftsgefüge der Organismen (phänotypische Änderung) in der Zeit, verursacht durch Selektion.
+- Gibt es eine bessere Bezeichnung für <one>missing links</one>? Ja, und zwar <one>connecting links</one>.
+- Was wurde aus den <one>Synapsiden</one>? Die <one>Säugetiere</one>.
+- The <one>largest group of Bacteria</one> are ... ? The <one>Proteobacteria</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteobacteria
+- Nenne ein prominentes Beispiel für <one>adaptive Evolution</one> beim Menschen. A: Die <one>Pigmentierung von Menschen</one>.
+- Whether a mutation is <one>advantageous</one> or <one>disadvantageous</one>, or neither, depends very much on ... ? <one>Environmental conditions</one>.
+- What is meant with the term <one>phylotypic stage</one>? This is a phase during development where species within a phylum are particularly similar to each other.
+- In <one>molecular evolution</one>, what is <two>WGD</two>? <one>WGD</one> refers to <one>Whole-genome duplication</one>.
+- Wie gross wurde der <one>Homo rudolfensis</one>? Etwa <one>1.5 Meter</one> (<two>150cm</two>).
+- Name <one>the three main principles</one> of the theory of evolution by natural selection. A: (1) <one>Principle of variation</one> (2) <one>Principle of heredity</one> (3) <one>Principle of selection</one>
+- Anderer Begriff für <one>eine spezifische Anpassung</one>? <one>Adaptation</one>.
+- <one>Wann</one> gab es eine plötzliche Zunahme in der Vielfalt vieler Tierstämme? Im Zuge der <one>kambrischen Explosion</one>.
+- Name <one>a gene that evolves fairly slowly</one>, from an evolutionary point of view. A: The gene for the <one>16S rRNA</one>. This allows the historical record preserved in its gene sequences to be kept relatively intact.
+- The <one>neutral theory of molecular evolution</one> was proposed by Motoo Kimura in which year? It was proposed in the year <one>1968</one>.
+- Was sind die <one>Cetacea</one>? <one>Ursprüngliche Walarten</one>.
+- Unterscheide zwischen den beiden Begriffen <one>prägamen Isolationsmechanismus</one> und <one>postgamen Isolationsmechanismus</one>. A: Dies ist in der Evolution eine genetische Trennung (Isolation) die vor dem sexuellen Kontakt wirksam sein können (prägamer Mechanismus) oder nach sexuellem Kontakt (postgamer Mechanismus).
+- <one>Charles Darwin</one> stated that there are three <two>critical ingredients to evolutionary change</two>, which are... ? (1) <one>Variation</one> (2) <one>Selection</one> (3) <one>Time</one>
+- <one>Plant breeders</one> are an example for <two>artifical selection</two>. They typically select for ... ? The <one>highest-yielding plants</one>.
+- Das Protein <one>Ovomucin</one> (<three>Ovomucoid</three>) gilt als ein Beispiel für <two>domain duplication</two>. Was kann dieses Protein normalerweise? Es <one>kann Trypsin inhibieren</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovomucin
+- Why are there no phylogenetic analysis for parasitic plants based on chloroplasts? Because <one>they have lost chloroplast sequences</one>.
+- Warum benötigen wir <one>Gaps</one> bei einem <two>Sequenzvergleich</two>? Damit wir <one>das optimale Alignment homologer Nukleotidpositionen</one> finden können.
+- In general, on a molecular level: an <one>imprecise excision</one> may lead to ...? <one>Deletion of genes</one>.
+- Give an example for a <one>polyphyletic group</one>. A: <one>Carnivorous plants</one>.
+- Allgemein finden wir <one>endemische Arten</one> häufig ... wo? Auf <one>Inseln</one>.
+- What was <one>Darwin's first key insight</one>? That <one>species might</one>/<one>could change</one>.
+- Was ist <one>Neopilina</one>? Eine <one>Muschel</one>.
+- Are <one>orthologs</one> related by <two>linear descent</two>? Yes.
+- Nenne ein einfaches Beispiel, das gegen die Theorie "<one>erworbene Eigenschaften sind vererbbar</one>" spricht. A: Die <one>Bonsaibäumchen</one>. Samen dieses Baumes wachsen zu ganz normalen Bäumen heran.
+- <one>Darwin</one> schlussfolgerte etwas aus seiner eigenen Theorie, und zwar in bezug auf die Tatsache das nicht alle Nachkommen überleben können, da ... ? Da die Tragekapazität eines Lebensraumes begrenzt ist.
+- Was ist <one>Cryogenium</one>? <one>Snowball Earth</one>. Die Vereisung der Erde im <two>Neoproterozoikum</two> (also <three>vor etwa 630-850 Millionen Jahren</three>).
+- Name a famous slogan said by <one>Theodosius Dobzhansky</one>. A: "<one>Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.</one>"
+- Was bewirkt die <one>adaptive Radiation</one>? Das <one>die Artenvielfalt ansteigt</one>.
+- In evolution: what may happen when <one>an exon</one> is <two>inserted</two> into <one>an intron</one>? A <one>frameshift</one> may occur.
+- Bei einem <one>phylogenetischen Stammbaum</one>, ähnlich dem der von Darwin verwendet wurde: was stellen die Gabelungen dar? Diese repräsentieren jeweils einen <one>gemeinsamen Vorfahren</one>.
+- The key to <one>species differences</one> under the biological species concept is ... ? <one>Reproductive isolation</one>.
+- What is meant with the term <one>gametic isolation</one>? This refers to a case where mating between individuals of different species may take place, but <two>their gametes fail to form zygotes</two>.
+- <one>Wann</one> begann Darwin seine Reise an Bord der HMS Beagle (Angabe des Jahres reicht)? Im Dezember <one>1831</one>.
+- Was bedeutet <one>Evolution</one>? <one>Veränderung in der Zeit</one>.
+- What is meant with the term <one>behavioural isolation</one>? This is the case <one>when differences in behaviour</one> <two>prevent interbreeding between two species</two>. It can be found in some frogs where male frogs attract only those females that are responding to those calls. If they do not respond then these male frogs can not breed a new generation.
+- <one>Cladogenesis</one> occurs through ... ? <one>Speciation</one>.
+- Was ist der <one>Limulus</one>? Ein <one>Pfeilschwanzkrebs</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfeilschwanzkrebse
+- Was ist <one>molekulare Evolution</one>? Das ist die Veränderung des Eigenschaftsgefüge der Organismen in der Zeit, verursacht durch Selektion.
+- What is <one>microevolution</one>? This is evolutionary change within "populations of a species".
+- How can we define the term <one>species</one> in an evolutionary context? A species is an evolutionarily independent group of organisms.
+- Name the <one>three ways</one> to <two>generate homoplasy</two>. A: (1) <one>parallel evolution</one> (2) <one>convergent evolution</one> (3) <one>secondary loss</one>, aka a reversion to an ancestral condition
+- Give another name for the term <one>phylogeny</one>. A: <one>Evolutionary history</one>.
+- What is meant with the term <one>hybrid sterility</one>? This refers to the fact that hybrid embryos complete development, but are stilere - so their genes can not be passed between two parental species. An example for this are <one>the mules</one>, offspring between <two>donkeys</two> and <two>horses</two>.
+- How does the <one>phylogenetic species concept</one> define a species? A species is the smallest recognizable group that has a unique evolutionary history.
+- In evolutionary genetics: <one>genetic evidence</one> in general comes from which two main sources? (1) The genomes of living individuals that must have been passed down from ancestors. (2) Ancient DNA from well-preserved organic remains, which may or may not be represented now in living descendants.
+- What is meant with the term <one>Balancing selection</one>? This is <one>selection that maintains variation</one>.
+- <one>Selection that maintains variation</one> is called ... ? <one>Balancing selection</one>.
+- <one>Overdominance</one> is one type of balancing selection. How does the <two>heterozygote</two> relate to the <two>homzygotes</two> here? The heterozygote will have a higher fitness than either homozygote.
+- Name a curious reason as to <one>the causative agent of selective pressure on (some) bighorn sheep</one>. A: <one>Trophy hunting</one> by men.
+- Was ist mit dem Begriff <one>Koprolith</one> gemeint? <royalblue>Koprolith</royalblue> bezeichnet <one>versteinerten Kot von Fischen</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koprolith
+- How can we define an <one>ultrametric tree</one>? In an <one>ultrametric tree</one>, the number of mutations is assumed to be proportional to the temporal distance of a node to the ancestor.
+- What are <one>teleosts</one>? A: Teleosts are ray-finned fish.
+- What key insight did <one>Alexander Oparin</one> have? Life evolved before there was any oxygen in the air.
+- Wie wird eine Gruppe bezeichnet, die eine Stammart enthält, aber nicht alle Nachkommen? <one>Paraphyletisch</one>.
+- What means the term <one>Exaptation</one>? This is <one>the shift in function of a trait during evolution</one>.
+- Was ist mit dem Begriff <one>Mikroevolution</one> gemeint? Dies bezeichnet <one>die Veränderung der genetischen Zusammensetzung einer Population von einer Generation zur nächsten</one>.
+- Wie entstehen <one>analoge Merkmale</one>? Durch <one>konvergente Evolution</one>.
+- The evolutionary events that are part of <one>macroevolution</one>, can lead to ... ? To the <one>emergence of new species</one>.
+- <one>Coacervates</one> are derived from ... ? <one>Colloids</one>.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel eines Lebewesens mit <one>balanciertem Polymorphismus</one>. A: Der <one>Zweipunkt-Marienkäfer</one>.
+- Name the <one>four evolutionary forces</one> that bring about change in the allelic frequencies of a population. A: (1) <one>Mutation</one> (2) <one>Migration</one> (3) <one>Genetic drift</one> (4) <one>Selection</one>
+- Why are, in <one>overdominance</one>, both alleles maintained in a population? Because the heterozygous individuals have the highest fitness while possessing botha lleles. Thus, neither allele becomes fixed in a population.
+- Nenne ein Projekt der NASA, bei dem Projektmanagementkenntnisse notwendig waren. A: Das <one>Apollo Project</one>.
+- Give an example for <one>overdominance in mankind</one>. A: The <one>variation in the beta-globin gene</one>, resulting in <one>sickle-cell anemia</one>.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel für eine <one>phylogenetische Analyse</one>. A: Die <one>Stammbaumanalyse</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stammbaumanalyse
+- A. W. für <one>die drei Ur-Königreiche</one>? Die <one>Dreifaltigkeit des Lebens</one>.
+- Wieso wendet man das <one>Hardy-Weinberg Gesetz</one> an? Um zu prüfen ob in einer Population (messbare) Evolution stattfindet oder nicht.
+- Are the <one>Archaea</one> more closely related to the <two>Bacteria</two> or more closely related to the <two>Eukaryotes</two>? Archaea are more closely related to the Eukaryotes.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel für eine <one>Großgruppe</one>, die ausgestorben ist. A: Die <one>Trilobiten</one>.
+- To study genetic variation, early evolutionary geneticists were forced to rely on ... ? <one>Phenotypic traits that had a simple genetic basis</one>.
+- What is meant with the term <one>Co-Evolution</one>? <royalblue>Coevolution</royalblue> occurs when two or more species <one>reciprocally affect each other's evolution</one>.
+- Wenn <one>mehr als zwei Äste von einem Knoten in einem Dendrogramm ausgehen</one>, dann sprechen wir von ...? <one>Polytomie</one>.
+- What is meant with the term <one>anagenesis</one>? This refers to <one>the evolution taking place in a single lineage</one>.
+- What is meant with the term <one>cladogenesis</one>? This refers to <one>the splitting of one lineage into two</one>.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel für <one>ein evolutionär sehr gut konserviertes Protein</one>. A: <one>Cytochrom c</one>.
+- Wann entwickelten sich <one>invasive Plazenten</one> im gemeinsamen Vorfahren von Orangutans, Gorillas, Schimpansen und Mensch? Vor ca. <one>15 Mio. Jahren</one>.
+- <one>Wann entstand der moderne Mensch</one>, der von uns anatomisch kaum zu unterscheiden ist? Vor <one>200.000 Jahren</one>.
+- Wie heissen die <one>Ornithischia</one> mit ihrer deutschen Bezeichnung? <one>Vogelbeckensaurier</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vogelbeckensaurier
+- Nenne <one>ein homologes Merkmal</one> das <two>von allen Lebewesen geteilt wird</two>. A: Der <one>genetische Code</one>.
+- Wieso benötigen wir <one>Gaps</one> bei einem Sequenzvergleich zwischen Genomsequenzen aus der freien Natur verschiedener Art? Gaps erlauben uns ein optimales Alignment zu erreichen, indem wir auch Lücken berücksichtigen um ein möglichst optimales Ergebnis erzielen zu können.
+- <one>Wie lang</one> wurden die <two>Stosszähne von Mammuts</two>? <one>5 Meter</one>.
+- Give a specific example for <one>coevolution</one>. A: The <one>evolutionary interactions between flowering plants and insects</one>.
+- The <one>Kringle structure</one> can be found in which gene? <one>Plasminogen</one>.
+- <one>Wale</one> sind eine Teilgruppe der ... ? <one>Paarhufer</one>.
+- What does the <one>McDonald-Kreitman test</one> show? It shows <one>if a gene is under positive selection</one>.
+- Was sind <one>Homologien</one>? Dies sind grundsätzliche Übereinstimmungen von Körperstrukturen, die auf einem <one>gemeinsamen evolutiven Ursprung</one> beruhen.
+- Which <one>two classes of pseudogenes</one> can we distinguish in molecular evolution? (1) Intron-containing (2) Intron-less
+- <one>Phylogenies</one> can be depicted as ... ? <one>Trees</one>.
+- Wie hiess der <one>Urozean</one> auf der Erde? <one>Panthalassa</one>.
+- Definiere <one>Teleologie</one>. A: Die Auffassung von der Zielgerichtetheit und der Zweckbestimmtheit von Ereignissen.
+- Andere Bezeichnung für die <one>phyletische Evolution</one>? <one>Anagenese</one>.
+- Was sind <one>Rassen</one>? <one>Teilpopulationen</one> ein und derselben Art.
+- <one>Disruptive selection</one> can <two>drive evolutionary branching</two>. Give an example for this. A: An example for disruptive selection would be the rise of birds with large and small beaks, well adapted to crack seeds of certain size, whereas the birds with intermediately sized beaks have a disadvantage, as they can not find perfectly matching seeds.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel für eine gegenwärtig stattfindende natürliche Selektion, die das Leben der Menschen stark beeinflusst. A: Die Entwicklung von <one>medikamentenresistenten Krankheitserregern</one>.
+- Name one big problem of the <one>RNA world</one>-theory? RNA is more reactive than DNA, thus it is also <one>less stable</one>.
+- Was ist <one>Speziation</one>? <one>Artbildung</one>.
+- Was bezeichnet der Begriff <one>Mikroevolution</one>? Mikroevolution bezeichnet die Veränderung der Allelfrequenz in einer Population im Laufe der Zeit.
+- Was ist <one>Biogeografie</one>? Die Wissenschaft, die <one>geographische Verbreitungsmuster von Arten</one> untersucht.
+- Für den Nachweis das es <one>Evolution in der RNA-Welt</one> gibt hatte Spiegelmann einen Versuch mit dem <two>Coliphagen Q-Beta</two> durchgeführt, in-vitro, einem RNA-Phage. In welchem Jahr hat er dies getan? <one>1965</one>.
+- Was meinen wir mit dem Begriff <one>De-Extinction</one>? Zum Beispiel <one>das Mammut wieder zum Leben erwecken</one>.
+- Haben es <one>bunte Fischmännche</one> einfacher? Kaum - zwar wirken sie stärker auf die Weibchen, sind jedoch auch <one>anfälliger gegenüber Prädatoren</one>.
+- <one>Domain duplications</one> can do what on the molecular level? Domain duplication can produce long molecules with repetitive domains, e.g. Immunoglobulins or Cadherins.
+- Do <one>polyphyletic groups</one> include a common ancestor? No.
+- What are <one>adaptive mutations</one>? These are <one>mutations that improve the fitness of an organism</one>.
+- The <one>ultrametric tree</one> is plotted against ... ? <one>Time scale</one>.
+- What means the term <one>inclusive fitness</one>? Ones genetic contribution to future generations should be measured in terms of the survival and reproductive success of kin, other than just ones immediate offspring.
+- Was ist mit dem Begriff <one>EvoDev</one> gemeint? Dies bezeichnet die <one>evolutionäre Entwicklungsbiologie</one>.
+- Andere Bezeichnung für <one>phyletische Evolution</one>? <one>Anagenese</one>.
+- <one>Chloroplasts</one> descended from ... ? <one>Cyanobacteria</one>.
+- Was ist <one>neutrale Evolution</one>? Eine funktionell unwirksame Umwandlung in der Aminosäuresequenz.
+- Die <one>Seelilien</one> gehören zu den ... ? <one>Echinodermata</one>.
+- In Biology: what is <one>divergent evolution</one>? This is classical, <one>branch-like evolution</one>, where there is one common ancestor, and different new subtypes/species.
+- What is <one>Abiogenesis</one>? The emergence of biological life from inorganic matter.
+- Unterschied zwischen direkter und indirekter Nachweis bei der Evolutionsforschung? (1) Direkter Nachweise sind zum Beispiel Fossilien oder Selektionsexperimente im Labor. (2) Indirekte Nachweise sind Homologien- und Analogienforschung anhand rezenter und fossiler Organismen.
+- We can say that <one>Molecular Evolution</one> combines four fields - <two>Biology</two>, <two>Computer Science</two>, <two>Mathematics</two> and ... ? <one>Evolutionary Biology</one>.
+- Wer war der <one>führende Geologe</one> zu Darwin's Zeiten? <one>Charles Lyell</one>.
+- Welche für die Evolution wichtige Idee pionierte <one>Lamarck</one>? <one>Arten können sich verändern</one>.
+- Was ist <one>Syntopie</one>? Lagebeziehung eines Organs zu benachbarten Organen.
+- Give another name for an <one>ultrametric tree</one>. A: A <one>dendrogram</one>.
+- Nenne die vier <one>direkten Nachweise</one> in der Evolutionsforschung. A: (1) <one>Fossilfunde</one> (2) Selektionsexperimente im Labor (3) Kurzzeitbeobachtungen in Populationen (4) Langzeitbeobachtungen in Populationen
+- A. W. für <one>common ancestor</one>? <one>Founding organism</one>.
+- Was sind <one>Strata</one>? Übereinanderliegende Gesteinsschichten.
+- Was sind die <one>Pterosaurier</one>? Dies sind die <one>Flugsaurier</one>.
+- The number of rRNA and tRNA genes correlates with ...? It <one>correlates with genome size</one>.
+- Was war <one>das erste bekannte Landwirbeltier</one>? Der <one>Ichthyostega</one>.
+- Was ist eine <one>Homoiologie</one>? Ein Spezialfall, bei dem sich die Wissenschaftler nicht sicher sind, und deshalb auch keine eindeutige Analogie möglich ist.
+- In general: what is <one>the root of a phylogenetic tree</one>? The <one>most recent common ancestor of all the sequences</one>.
+- Was ist der Unterschied zwischen <one>Umgebung</one> und <one>Umwelt</one>? (1) Umgebung ist ein neutraler Begriff (gesamter Lebensraum einer Art). (2) Umwelt ist der Anteil einer Art, der die für sie lebensnotwendigen Faktoren enthält.
+- Was ist die <one>Evolutionsökologie</one>? Eine Mischung aus Evolution und Ökologie.
+- In der Phylogenie: welcher Punkt hat keine <one>outgroup</one>? Der Baum aller Organismen, sprich - <one>der Ursprung des tree of life</one>.
+- Was ist eine <one>Cladogenese</one>? Wenn eine Spezies sich in <one>zwei verschiedene Tochterspezies</one> umwandelt.
+- What does the <one>Muller's ratchet</one> postulate? Small, asexual populations decline in fitness over time if the mutation rate is high. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muller's_ratchet
+- Exon insertions into introns often leads to...? It can lead to <one>frameshifts</one>.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel für eine <one>innerartliche Selektion</one>. A: Die <one>sexuelle Selektion</one>.
+- The number of rRNA genes correlates with ...? It <one>correlates with genome size</one>.
+- Was verstehen wir unter einer <one>homologen Sequenz</one>? Dies ist eine Sequenz, die aus einer <one>gemeinsamen Stammsequenz</one> entstanden ist, wie zum Beispiel das Cytochrom-b-Gen verschiedener Tierarten.
+- Wer war der Begründer der modernen Geologie? <one>Charles Lyell</one>.
+- Wieso brauchen Männchen <one>männliche Kampfstrukturen</one>? Diese dienen dazu andere Männchen zu besiegen und dadurch Zugang zu den Weibchen zu erlangen, um sich fortpflanzen zu können.
+- What are the <one>Fusulinida</one>? An extinct order within the <one>Foraminifera</one>.
+- In bioinformatics: a <one>phylogram</one> contains informative ... ? <one>Branch lengths</one>.
+- Was sind die nächsten Verwandte der Wale? Die <one>Flusspferde</one>.
+- Was besagt die <one>Theorie des Gradualismus</one>? Die Arten verändern sich allmählich, in kleinen Schritten.
+- What do we mean with <one>The Great Oxygenation Event</one>? This is the biologically induced appearance of dioxygen (O2) in the atmosphere of the earth. It happened around 2.3 billion years ago.
+- Wieviel % aller Arten die jemals gelebt haben, sind heute ausgestorben? <one>99%</one>.
+- Was meinen wir mit <one>adaptiver Radiation</one>? Dies ist die Entstehung vieler Arten aus einer einzigen, phylogenetischen Linie.
+- Was ist das <one>Sphenodon</one>? Eine <one>Brückenechse</one>.
+- Was besagt der <one>Punktualismus</one>? Wichtige Ereignisse in der Evolution gingen mit sehr kurzen Phasen ausgeprägter Artbildung einher.
+- A. W. für <one>whole genome duplication</one>? <one>Polyploidy</one>.
+- <one>Water on earth</one> came from ...? (1) <one>Comets</one> and (2) <one>volcanic outgasing</one>
+- Was sind <one>Brückentiere</one>? Zwischenformen in der Evolution, die stammesgeschichtliche Verwandtschaft zweier Tiergruppen zeigen.
+- Welche drei <one>Homologie-Kriterien</one> gibt es? (1) Kriterium der <one>Lage</one> (2) Kriterium der <one>spezifischen Qualität</one> (3) Kriterium der Kontinuität (mittels Übergangsreihen)
+- Was ist <one>Koprolit</one>? <one>Versteinerter Kot</one> (meistens von <royalblue>Fischen</royalblue>).
+- Andere Bezeichnung für <one>Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse</one> in der Biologie? <one>Phylogenie</one>.
+- <one>Sloth phylogeny</one> revealed that they are quite closely related to ... which other animal group? The <one>anteaters</one>.
+- Give an example for <one>homoplasy</one> at the molecular level. A: Proteases, such as the serine proteases, have a catalytic site with a similar environment, which has <one>evolved independently</one>.
+- Bei Evolution ist <one>welcher Faktor</one> extrem wichtig? Der Faktor <one>Zeit</one>.
+- Give 4 reasons why SSU rRNA genes are excellent candidates for <one>phylogenetic analysis</one>. A: (1) universally distributed (2) functionally constant (3) sufficiently conserved (4) of adequate length to provide a deep view of evolutionary relationships
+- Was besagt der "Gradualismus"? Änderung durch kleinste Schritte.
+- When did the "great oxidation event" occur? About 2.4 billion years ago.
+- Nenne 4 Ansätze wie wir das Evolutionsgeschehen dokumentieren können. A: (1) Fossilbelege (2) direkte Beobachtungen des Evolutionsgeschehens (3) Homologien (4) biogegraphische Hinweise
+- Letzter lebender Verwandter der Dinosaurier? Die Brückenechse in Neuseeland.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/excel

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Excel
+#
+# This is for excel-related stuff, the software.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Wie nennen wir ein Stabdiagramm in excel, auf Englisch? <one>Bar chart</one>.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/fish

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+# =========================================================================== #
+# Fluorescence in-situ hybridization
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Was heisst <one>M-FISH</one>? <one>Multicolor Fluoreszenz In Situ Hybridisierung</one>.
+- Nenne einen Nachteil von "FISH" in der mikrobiellen Ökologie. A: Das Detektionslimit liegt bei nur etwa 10 ** 3 Zellen pro ml.
+- What means "FISH" Technique? Fluorescence in situ hybridization.
+- Nenne ein Problem von "FISH" in der mikrobiellen Ökologie. A: Die Hintergrundfluoreszenz vieler Proben erschwert den Nachweis.
+- What does the abbreviation "MAR-FISH" stand for? This is the combination of "microautoradiography" and "fluorescence in situ hybridization".
+- Was heisst "GISH"? genomic in-situ hybridization
+- What does "Q-FISH" stand for? Quantitative FISH.
+- Why is "Fiber FISH" useful in Cytogenetics? Because it allows us to assess the length of DNA probes; Fibre-FISH can distinguish two probes separated by 1 kb on a DNA fibre.
+- In FISH we need a "target-specific probe". How long are these oligonucleotides typically? About 20 oligonucleotide pairs.
+- In FISH, when we design a probe, we have two competing constraints to consider. Which ones? (a) The probe must be large enough to hybridize specifically with its target. (b) The probe must not be so large as to impede the hybridization process.
+- In FISH, when may we wish to use probes that hybridize along an entire chromosome? This can be used to count how often a certain chromosome appears.
+- Was heisst "M-FISH"? Multicolor Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization.
+- What means "CARD-FISH"? Catalyzed reporter deposition.
+- How long does FISH take in order to complete? About 3 days.
+- What is the advantage of using Flow-FISH? We can quantify the copy number of specific repetitive elements in genomic DNA. It is a combination of flow cytometry and cytogenetic fluorescent in situ hybridization staining protocols.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/fluorescence_microscopy

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Fluorescence Microscopy
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- <one>Jablonski diagrams</one> may show the <tomato>vibrational state</tomato>, and what more (on the right side of the diagram)? The <one>electronic energy levels</one>.
+- Die <one>Fluoreszenz-Mikroskopie</one> kann auch benutzt werden aus Sicht der Biochemie, wenn Proteine untersucht werden. Nenne ein Anwendungsbeispiel hierzu. A: Man kann mit Hilfe der Fluoreszenz-Mikroskopie bestimmen, ob zwei Proteine in einer Zelle co-lokalisieren.
+- The <one>Stokes shift</one> is quite important in fluorescence microscopy. Sir Stokes found this in which year? <one>1852</one>.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/food_microbiology_and_food_biotechnology

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+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Food Microbiology and Food Biotechnology
+#
+# The questions stored here may be shuffled into different files after
+# the exam.
+#
+# For now this file also contains information about toxigenic algae
+# and associated illnesses.
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Das am weitesten verbreitete alkoholische Getränk ist ... ? <one>Bier</one>.
+- Trivialname für <one>Sake</one>? <one>Reiswein</one>.
+- What problem may result from supplying too much sugar (in malt) while trying to produce beer? The sugar will be convertes into CO₂ gas by yeast, which can create problems, including unpredictable explosions.
+- In <one>commercial winemaking</one> the must (aka juice) resulting from the crushed grapes is treated with ... in order to kill the natural microflora. A: With <one>sulphur dioxide</one>.
+- <one>Acidic foods</one>, such as fruits, tend to favour the growth of ... ? <one>fungi</one> (rather than bacteria).
+- <one>Quorn</one> is used in food industry as ... ? <one>a meat substitute</one>.
+- Give an <one>example</one> for <two>a heterolactic fermenter</two>. A: <one>Leuconostoc</one>.
+- <one>Silage</one> is animal fodder made from the fermentation of ... ? <one>grass</one>.
+- The biological agent responsible for <one>bread production</one> is ... ? <one>yeast</one>.
+- Beers typically have an alcohol content of around ...%? Around <one>4%</one>.
+- Let's compare <i>S. carlsbergensis</i> with <i>S. cerevisiae</i>. Which of these two prefers a lower temperature for its growth? <one>S. carslbergensis</one>.
+- Most wines have an alcohol content of around m to n%? <one>10-12%</one>.
+- Welche <one>drei grundlegenden Stadien beim Brauen</one> können unterschieden werden? (1) Würze herstellen (2) Gärung durchführen (3) in Flaschen füllen und altern lassen
+- For the production of <one>Tempeh</one>: <two>which filamentous fungus</two> is typically employed? <one>Rhizopus spp. molds</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizopus []
+- Why is <one>Nisin</one> used in food biotechnology? Because Nisin can act as a food biopreservative, due to its antimicrobial properties.
+- <one>Animal feed</one> (corn, wheat, barley) <two>lacks which four aminoacids typically</two>? (1) <one>Lys</one> (<two>K</two>) (2) <one>Met</one> (<two>M</two>) (3) <one>Thr</one> (<two>T</two>) (4) <one>Trp</one> (<two>W</two>)
+- <one>The active enzyme in rennet</one> is called ... ? <one>Chymosin</one> (or rennin). URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chymosin []
+- Warum können wir <one>Pflanzenmaterial</one> zur <two>Alkohol-Herstellung</two> verwenden? <one>Alkohol</one> entsteht <two>aus Zucker</two> - er hat ja OH-Gruppen. []
+- Warum wird <one>Essigsäure</one> in der Nahrungsmittelindustrie verwendet? Essigsäure wird zwecks <one>Essigherstellung</one> verwendet.
+- The <one>two main starter cultures</one> in the <two>production of yogurt</two> are ... ? (1) <one>Lactobacillus bulgaricus</one> (2) <one>Streptococcus thermophilus</one>
+- <one>Ethanol for beverages</one> is typically formed by ... ? By <one>yeasts</one>, mainly <two>Saccharomyces spp</two>. In a few instances also by bacteria, such as Zymomonas mobilis in African palm wines of pulque. []
+- <one>Nisin</one> is a bacteriocin produced by ... which gram-group? <one>Nisin</one> is produced by <two>gram-positive bacteria</two>. []
+- What is <one>rennet</one>? <one>Rennet</one> is <two>a collective name given for commercial preparations containing several enzymes</two>, including acidic proteases extracted from animal tissue (from the stomach).
+- The <one>ethanol concentration can be increased by ... </one>? <one>distillation</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation
+- <one>Casein</one> <two>forms micelles</two>; the individual sub-micelles have what diameter? A diameter between 10 to 15 nm. []
+- Was sind <one>trockene Weine</one>? Weine in denen <one>praktisch der gesamte Zucker vergoren wurde</one>. []
+- <one>Sauermilcherzeugnisse</one> gewinnt man unter Verwendung von (allgemein) ...? <one>Milchsäurebakterien</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milchs%C3%A4urebakterien []
+- The <one>largest non-food application for starches</one> is ... ? <one>Papermaking</one>. []
+- <one>Sake</one> hat <two>n%</two> <three>Alkoholgehalt</three> (von, bis)? <one>16-18%</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sake []
+- Name a <one>hepatotoxin</one> <two>produced by toxigenic algae</two>. A: The <one>yessotoxin</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yessotoxin []
+- <one>Saccharomyces ellipsoideus</one> wird zur Herstellung von ... genutzt. A: <one>Wein</one>. []
+- <one>Ethanol concentration</one> <two>is limited by sugar concentration and ... </two>? By the <one>ethanol tolerance of yeast</one>. []
+- <one>Alkoholgehalt</one> von <two>Reiswein</two>? <one>20%</one>. []
+- How are <one>toxins from algae</one> called? <one>Phycotoxins</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phycotoxin []
+- <one>L-cystein</one> <two>can be extracted from hair and from ... </two>? <one>Feathers</one>. []
+- <one>Which three core sciences</one> may form the very basis of <two>food biotechnology</two>? (1) <one>Microbiology</one> (2) <one>(Bio)chemistry</one> (3) <one>(Reaction) engineering</one> []
+- Name a <one>low-caloric sweetener</one> used in food biotechnology. A: <one>Aspartame</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame []
+- Say that we have <one>casein micelles</one> and then apply the enzyme <two>rennet</two> to these micelles. What will happen? These micelles will slowly form a so-called <two>rennet coagulum</two>.
+- <one>LAB</one> refers to which bacteria? To the <one>Lactic Acid Bacteria</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acid_bacteria []
+- <one>Tempeh</one> is made from ... ? <one>fermented soybeans</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempeh []
+- <one>Aspartam</one> wurde in welchem Jahr entdeckt? Im Jahre <one>1965</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartam#Entdeckung_und_Zulassung []
+- <one>Lactococcus lactis</one> produce cheese such as the <two>C</two> ... ? The <one>Camembert</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camembert []
+- <one>Chymosin</one> is <two>an enzyme used in the dairy industry</two>. It belongs to which enzyme group? <one>Chymosin</one> belongs to the <two>aspartic, acidic proteases</two>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chymosin
+- Is <one>chymosin</one> a stronger protease than pepsin? <one>No</one> - <two>pepsin is a much stronger protease</two>. []
+- <one>Chymosin</one> <two>has how many amino acids</two>, approximately? About <one>323 amino acids</one>.
+- Die <one>Untergärung von Bier</one> erfolgt typischerweise <two>bei wieviel Grad Celsius</two>? <one>0-2° Celsius</one>. []
+- <one>Warum</one> kann die <two>Alkoholdestillation</two> funktionieren? <one>Ethanol</one> verdampt bei <two>78° Celsius</two>, <one>Wasser</one> hingegen erst bei <two>100° Celsius</two>.
+- The <one>fifth taste</one> is ... ? <one>Umami</one>. []
+- Beim <one>Brauen von Bier</one>: <two>woher stammt typischerweise das Malz</two>? Aus der <one>Gerste</one>, nach der Keimung der Gerste. []
+- <one>Erythritol</one> is what kind of molecule? <one>Erythritol</one> is a <two>sugar alcohol</two>. []
+- In Food Biotechnology: <one>which aminoacid</one> is the one that is produced the most, in tons, per year? <one>L-Glutamate</one>. []
+- <one>Amino acids</one> in food biotechnology are typically used as ... ? <one>Flavor enhancers</one>. []
+- Name an advantage that the polymer <one>Gellan</one> has, as it is used for foods. A: One advantage is that <one>Gellan is stable at fairly high temperature</one>.
+- Is <one>chymosin</one> <two>kept in an inactive form</two>? Normally <one>yes</one>; <two>via an autocatalytic process it is activated</two>.
+- Das <one>Orleans-Verfahren</one> ist eine Methode zur ... ? <one>Essigherstellung</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essig#Orl%C3%A9ans-Verfahren_(Oberfl%C3%A4chenverfahren) []
+- For the production of <one>L-serine</one> in food biotechnology: what is the immediate predecessor of <one>L-serine</one>? <one>Phosphoserine</one>.
+- Aus <one>Alkohol</one> stellt man wie <two>Essigsäure</two> her? Unter <one>Verwendung eines Oxidationsmittels</one>.
+- For aminoacid production: <one>why</one> do we wish we avoid <two>chemical procedures</two> here? Because they may lead up to <one>racemic mixtures</one>, in particular <two>methionine</two>.
+- <one>Welcher Alkohol</one> führte zur <two>Gründung Israels</two>? <one>Butanol</one>. []
+- <one>Unterschied in der Reifung</one> zwischem rotem und weissem Wein? <crimson>Roter Wein</crimson> muss gereift werden, weisser Wein nicht.
+- <two>Unterschied</two> zwischen <one>Rotwein</one> und <one>Rosewein</one>? Rotwein gärt mit Trester (Schalen, Kerne, Stiele), <two>Rosewein ohne Schalen</two>.
+- Give an example for <one>a nutritionally enhanced food</one>. A: <one>Golden Rice</one>. It may offer <two>beta-carotene</two>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_rice []
+- Anderer Begriff für das <one>Butteraroma</one>? <one>Diacetyl</one>. []
+- <one>Erythritol</one> contains how many C atoms? <one>Four</one>. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythritol []
+- <one>Erythritol</one> became a commercial success in the 1990s in which country? In <one>Japan</one>. []
+- Wie lange (in Tagen, von-bis) reift <one>Camembert</one>? <one>9-11 Tage</one>. []
+- What is the difference between <one>dark beer</one> and <one>light beer</one>? <one>Dark beer</one> <one>contains more alcohol</one>. []
+- <one>Waxy corn starch</one> is considered useful because it has a high content of <two>amylopectin</two>. But why is <two>amylopectin</two> useful? It is <one>relatively easy to gelatinise</one>.
+- Woraus wird <one>Malz</one> hergestellt? Aus <one>Getreide</one>, genauer gesagt aus <two>Gerste</two>. []
+- Im Jahr <one>2012</one> konnte eine <two>produktive Milchkuh</two> mindestens <three>wieviel Liter Milch pro Jahr</three> liefert? Mindestens <one>8.000 Liter</one>. []
+- Welches <one>Volk</one> entdeckte das <two>Flaschenbier</two>? Die alten <one>Ägypter</one>. URL: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_des_Bieres#%C3%84gypten []
+- <two>Welche Milch</two> wird bei <one>Roquefort</one> verwendet? <one>Schafsmilch</one>. []
+- <one>Toxigenic algae</one> may <two>bioaccumulate toxins</two> in ... which other species? <one>Large fish</one>.

data/lib/studium/exam_topics/forensik

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === Forensik (forensik tag)
+# =========================================================================== #
+
+- Die <one>Totenstarre</one> an einer menschlichen Leiche tritt <two>zuerst</two> wo auf, anatomisch betrachtet? Im <one>Kieferbereich</one>. []
+- Die Schlüssel zur Erkennung spurenarmer Tötungsdelikte sind Fehler, die dem Täter unterlaufen. Wie nennen wir dies noch? <one>Situationsfehler</one>.
+- Nenne zwei <one>späte Leichenerscheinungen</one>. A: (1) <one>Verwesung</one> (2) <one>Mumifikation</one>
+- Welche <one>Berufsgruppe</one> ist mitunter häufig als <two>Salzleiche</two> zu finden? <one>Verunglückte Bergleute</one>.
+- Die Liegezeitschätzung einer Leiche erfolgt häufig nach welcher Regel? Nach der <one>Casper'schen Regel</one>.
+- Nenne ein Beispiel für eine konservierende Leichenveränderung. A: <one>Fettwachsbildung</one>.
+- Fördert eine zentrale Lage im Massengrab die Skelettierung? Nein, im Gegenteil - sie verzögert die Skelettierung.