RubyGems - sm-transcript - Versions diffs - 0.0.4 → 0.0.6 - Mend

sm-transcript 0.0.4 → 0.0.6

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+<p begin="0:00:00.766" dur="0:00:01.267">I'm Walter Lewin.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:02.033" dur="0:00:02.733">I will be your lecturer<br/>this term.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:04.766" dur="0:00:05.734">In physics, we explore the<br/>very small to the very large.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:10.500" dur="0:00:03.233">The very small is a small<br/>fraction of a proton</p>
+<p begin="0:00:13.733" dur="0:00:02.867">and the very large is<br/>the universe itself.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:16.600" dur="0:00:03.366">They span 45 orders<br/>of magnitude--</p>
+<p begin="0:00:19.966" dur="0:00:04.300">a 1 with 45 zeroes.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:24.266" dur="0:00:04.100">To express measurements<br/>quantitatively</p>
+<p begin="0:00:28.366" dur="0:00:03.067">we have to introduce units.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:31.433" dur="0:00:06.200">And we introduce for the unit<br/>of length, the meter;</p>
+<p begin="0:00:37.633" dur="0:00:04.333">for the unit of time,<br/>the second;</p>
+<p begin="0:00:41.966" dur="0:00:04.734">and for the unit of mass,<br/>the kilogram.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:46.700" dur="0:00:03.100">Now, you can read in your book<br/>how these are defined</p>
+<p begin="0:00:49.800" dur="0:00:03.800">and how the definition<br/>evolved historically.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:53.600" dur="0:00:02.333">Now, there are<br/>many derived units</p>
+<p begin="0:00:55.933" dur="0:00:03.633">which we use in our daily life<br/>for convenience</p>
+<p begin="0:00:59.566" dur="0:00:02.934">and some are tailored<br/>toward specific fields.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:02.500" dur="0:00:02.533">We have centimeters,<br/>we have millimeters</p>
+<p begin="0:01:05.033" dur="0:00:01.467">kilometers.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:06.500" dur="0:00:03.100">We have inches, feet, miles.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:09.600" dur="0:00:03.200">Astronomers even use<br/>the astronomical unit</p>
+<p begin="0:01:12.800" dur="0:00:02.800">which is the mean distance<br/>between the Earth and the sun</p>
+<p begin="0:01:15.600" dur="0:00:01.500">and they use light-years</p>
+<p begin="0:01:17.100" dur="0:00:04.266">which is the distance that<br/>light travels in one year.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:21.366" dur="0:00:02.334">We have milliseconds,<br/>we have microseconds</p>
+<p begin="0:01:23.700" dur="0:00:04.066">we have days, weeks, hours,<br/>centuries, months--</p>
+<p begin="0:01:27.766" dur="0:00:02.000">all derived units.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:29.766" dur="0:00:04.100">For the mass, we have<br/>milligrams, we have pounds</p>
+<p begin="0:01:33.866" dur="0:00:02.500">we have metric tons.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:36.366" dur="0:00:04.800">So lots of derived units exist.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:41.166" dur="0:00:03.000">Not all of them are<br/>very easy to work with.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:44.166" dur="0:00:03.600">I find it extremely difficult<br/>to work with inches and feet.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:47.766" dur="0:00:02.667">It's an extremely<br/>uncivilized system.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:50.433" dur="0:00:02.467">I don't mean to insult you,<br/>but think about it--</p>
+<p begin="0:01:52.900" dur="0:00:03.533">12 inches in a foot,<br/>three feet in a yard.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:56.433" dur="0:00:01.567">Could drive you nuts.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:58.000" dur="0:00:03.133">I work almost<br/>exclusively decimal,</p>
+<p begin="0:02:01.133" dur="0:00:02.667">and I hope you will do the same<br/>during this course</p>
+<p begin="0:02:03.800" dur="0:00:02.366">but we may make some exceptions.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:06.166" dur="0:00:02.434">I will now first show you<br/>a movie,</p>
+<p begin="0:02:08.600" dur="0:00:02.533">which is called<br/><i>The Powers of Ten.</i></p>
+<p begin="0:02:11.133" dur="0:00:02.533">It covers 40 orders<br/>of magnitude.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:13.666" dur="0:00:03.700">It was originally conceived<br/>by a Dutchman named Kees Boeke</p>
+<p begin="0:02:17.366" dur="0:00:01.867">in the early '50s.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:19.233" dur="0:00:04.167">This is the second-generation<br/>movie, and you will hear</p>
+<p begin="0:02:23.400" dur="0:00:07.166">the voice of Professor Morrison,<br/>who is a professor at MIT.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:30.566" dur="0:00:06.834"><i>The Power of Ten--</i><br/><i>40 Orders of Magnitude.</i></p>
+<p begin="0:02:37.400" dur="0:00:08.000">Here we go.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:48.066" dur="0:00:02.634">I already introduced,<br/>as you see there</p>
+<p begin="0:02:50.700" dur="0:00:02.833">length, time and mass</p>
+<p begin="0:02:53.533" dur="0:00:01.667">and we call these</p>
+<p begin="0:02:55.200" dur="0:00:04.700">the three fundamental quantities<br/>in physics.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:59.900" dur="0:00:03.766">I will give this the symbol<br/>capital L for length</p>
+<p begin="0:03:03.666" dur="0:00:03.267">capital T for time,<br/>and capital M for mass.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:06.933" dur="0:00:03.567">All other quantities in physics<br/>can be derived</p>
+<p begin="0:03:10.500" dur="0:00:02.833">from these fundamental<br/>quantities.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:13.333" dur="0:00:02.700">I'll give you an example.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:16.033" dur="0:00:02.500">I put a bracket around here.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:18.533" dur="0:00:03.667">I say [speed] and that means<br/>the dimensions of speed.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:22.200" dur="0:00:02.733">The dimensions of speed is<br/>the dimension of length</p>
+<p begin="0:03:24.933" dur="0:00:02.233">divided by the dimension<br/>of time.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:27.166" dur="0:00:05.567">So I can write for that:<br/>[L] divided by [T].</p>
+<p begin="0:03:32.733" dur="0:00:02.733">Whether it's meters per second<br/>or inches per year</p>
+<p begin="0:03:35.466" dur="0:00:01.000">that's not what matters.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:36.466" dur="0:00:03.434">It has the dimension<br/>length per time.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:39.900" dur="0:00:04.533">Volume would have<br/>the dimension</p>
+<p begin="0:03:44.433" dur="0:00:06.033">of length to the power three.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:50.466" dur="0:00:03.967">Density would have<br/>the dimension</p>
+<p begin="0:03:54.433" dur="0:00:04.833">of mass per unit volume</p>
+<p begin="0:03:59.266" dur="0:00:04.000">so that means<br/>length to the power three.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:03.266" dur="0:00:04.167">All-important in our course<br/>is acceleration.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:07.433" dur="0:00:02.800">We will deal a lot<br/>with acceleration.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:10.233" dur="0:00:03.967">Acceleration, as you will see,<br/>is length per time squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:14.200" dur="0:00:02.833">The unit is meters<br/>per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:17.033" dur="0:00:08.333">So you get length<br/>divided by time squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:25.366" dur="0:00:02.334">So all other quantities<br/>can be derived</p>
+<p begin="0:04:27.700" dur="0:00:02.900">from these three fundamental.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:30.600" dur="0:00:03.300">So now that we have agreed<br/>on the units--</p>
+<p begin="0:04:33.900" dur="0:00:02.101">we have the meter,<br/>the second and the kilogram--</p>
+<p begin="0:04:36.001" dur="0:00:02.799">we can start making<br/>measurements.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:38.800" dur="0:00:02.833">Now, all-important<br/>in making measurements</p>
+<p begin="0:04:41.633" dur="0:00:03.133">which is always ignored<br/>in every college book</p>
+<p begin="0:04:44.766" dur="0:00:03.367">is the uncertainty<br/>in your measurement.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:48.133" dur="0:00:02.333">Any measurement that you make</p>
+<p begin="0:04:50.466" dur="0:00:03.167">without any knowledge<br/>of the uncertainty</p>
+<p begin="0:04:53.633" dur="0:00:02.267">is meaningless.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:55.900" dur="0:00:01.966">I will repeat this.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:57.866" dur="0:00:02.934">I want you to hear it tonight<br/>at 3:00 when you wake up.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:00.800" dur="0:00:01.566">Any measurement that you make</p>
+<p begin="0:05:02.366" dur="0:00:02.900">without the knowledge<br/>of its uncertainty</p>
+<p begin="0:05:05.266" dur="0:00:03.267">is completely meaningless.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:08.533" dur="0:00:05.000">My grandmother used<br/>to tell me that...</p>
+<p begin="0:05:13.533" dur="0:00:02.200">at least she believed it...</p>
+<p begin="0:05:15.733" dur="0:00:02.300">that someone who is lying in bed</p>
+<p begin="0:05:18.033" dur="0:00:03.200">is longer than<br/>someone who stands up.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:21.233" dur="0:00:01.733">And in honor of my grandmother</p>
+<p begin="0:05:22.966" dur="0:00:04.000">I'm going to bring<br/>this today to a test.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:26.966" dur="0:00:04.100">I have here a setup where I can<br/>measure a person standing up</p>
+<p begin="0:05:31.066" dur="0:00:03.634">and a person lying down.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:34.700" dur="0:00:02.866">It's not the greatest bed,<br/>but lying down.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:37.566" dur="0:00:01.334">I have to convince you</p>
+<p begin="0:05:38.900" dur="0:00:02.333">about the uncertainty<br/>in my measurement</p>
+<p begin="0:05:41.233" dur="0:00:02.633">because a measurement without<br/>knowledge of the uncertainty</p>
+<p begin="0:05:43.866" dur="0:00:01.234">is meaningless.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:45.100" dur="0:00:02.800">And therefore, what I will do<br/>is the following.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:47.900" dur="0:00:02.300">I have here an aluminum bar</p>
+<p begin="0:05:50.200" dur="0:00:03.300">and I make the reasonable,<br/>plausible assumption</p>
+<p begin="0:05:53.500" dur="0:00:02.501">that when this aluminum bar<br/>is sleeping--</p>
+<p begin="0:05:56.001" dur="0:00:01.399">when it is horizontal--</p>
+<p begin="0:05:57.400" dur="0:00:03.033">that it is not longer than<br/>when it is standing up.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:00.433" dur="0:00:02.333">If you accept that,<br/>we can compare</p>
+<p begin="0:06:02.766" dur="0:00:03.267">the length of this aluminum bar<br/>with this setup</p>
+<p begin="0:06:06.033" dur="0:00:01.267">and with this setup.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:07.300" dur="0:00:03.600">At least we have some kind<br/>of calibration to start with.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:10.900" dur="0:00:01.266">I will measure it.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:12.166" dur="0:00:01.634">You have to trust me.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:13.800" dur="0:00:03.000">During these three months,<br/>we have to trust each other.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:16.800" dur="0:00:08.166">So I measure here,<br/>149.9 centimeters.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:24.966" dur="0:00:02.967">However, I would think<br/>that the...</p>
+<p begin="0:06:27.933" dur="0:00:01.933">so this is the aluminum bar.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:29.866" dur="0:00:02.200">This is in vertical position.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:32.066" dur="0:00:03.867">149.9.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:35.933" dur="0:00:03.133">But I would think that the<br/>uncertainty of my measurement</p>
+<p begin="0:06:39.066" dur="0:00:01.434">is probably 1 millimeter.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:40.500" dur="0:00:01.366">I can't really guarantee you</p>
+<p begin="0:06:41.866" dur="0:00:02.334">that I did it accurately<br/>any better.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:44.200" dur="0:00:02.366">So that's the vertical one.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:46.566" dur="0:00:03.734">Now we're going to measure<br/>the bar horizontally</p>
+<p begin="0:06:50.300" dur="0:00:01.500">for which we have a setup here.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:51.800" dur="0:00:01.000">Oop!</p>
+<p begin="0:06:52.800" dur="0:00:02.133">The scale is on your side.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:54.933" dur="0:00:03.000">So now I measure<br/>the length of this bar.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:57.933" dur="0:00:06.833">150.0 horizontally.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:04.766" dur="0:00:04.834">150.0, again, plus or minus<br/>0.1 centimeter.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:09.600" dur="0:00:04.066">So you would agree with me<br/>that I am capable of measuring</p>
+<p begin="0:07:13.666" dur="0:00:01.500">plus or minus 1 millimeter.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:15.166" dur="0:00:02.167">That's the uncertainty<br/>of my measurement.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:17.333" dur="0:00:04.833">Now, if the difference<br/>in lengths</p>
+<p begin="0:07:22.166" dur="0:00:02.600">between lying down<br/>and standing up</p>
+<p begin="0:07:24.766" dur="0:00:02.034">if that were one foot</p>
+<p begin="0:07:26.800" dur="0:00:01.366">we would all know it,<br/>wouldn't we?</p>
+<p begin="0:07:28.166" dur="0:00:01.367">You get out of bed<br/>in the morning</p>
+<p begin="0:07:29.533" dur="0:00:01.900">you lie down and you get up<br/>and you go, clunk!</p>
+<p begin="0:07:31.433" dur="0:00:01.300">And you're one foot shorter.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:32.733" dur="0:00:02.200">And we know that that's<br/>not the case.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:34.933" dur="0:00:02.300">If the difference were<br/>only one millimeter</p>
+<p begin="0:07:37.233" dur="0:00:02.200">we would never know.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:39.433" dur="0:00:03.600">Therefore, I suspect that<br/>if my grandmother was right</p>
+<p begin="0:07:43.033" dur="0:00:02.833">then it's probably only<br/>a few centimeters,</p>
+<p begin="0:07:45.866" dur="0:00:01.000">maybe an inch.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:46.866" dur="0:00:02.934">And so I would argue that<br/>if I can measure</p>
+<p begin="0:07:49.800" dur="0:00:03.600">the length of a student<br/>to one millimeter accuracy</p>
+<p begin="0:07:53.400" dur="0:00:02.166">that should settle the issue.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:55.566" dur="0:00:02.867">So I need a volunteer.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:58.433" dur="0:00:02.000">You want to volunteer?</p>
+<p begin="0:08:00.433" dur="0:00:01.533">You look like you're very tall.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:01.966" dur="0:00:04.367">I hope that... yeah, I hope that<br/>we don't run out of, uh...</p>
+<p begin="0:08:06.333" dur="0:00:04.367">You're not taller<br/>than 178 or so?</p>
+<p begin="0:08:10.700" dur="0:00:01.000">What is your name?</p>
+<p begin="0:08:11.700" dur="0:00:00.800">STUDENT:<br/>Rick Ryder.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:12.500" dur="0:00:01.433">LEWIN:<br/>Rick-- Rick Ryder.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:13.933" dur="0:00:01.200">You're not nervous, right?</p>
+<p begin="0:08:15.133" dur="0:00:01.367">RICK:<br/>No!</p>
+<p begin="0:08:16.500" dur="0:00:01.000">LEWIN:<br/>Man!</p>
+<p begin="0:08:17.500" dur="0:00:02.600">(<i>class laughs</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:08:20.100" dur="0:00:01.000">Sit down.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:21.100" dur="0:00:02.666">(<i>class laughs</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:08:23.766" dur="0:00:01.200">I can't have tall guys here.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:24.966" dur="0:00:01.000">Come on.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:25.966" dur="0:00:03.667">We need someone<br/>more modest in size.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:29.633" dur="0:00:03.300">Don't take it personal, Rick.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:32.933" dur="0:00:02.500">Okay, what is your name?</p>
+<p begin="0:08:35.433" dur="0:00:00.667">STUDENT:<br/>Zach.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:36.100" dur="0:00:02.333">LEWIN:<br/>Zach.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:38.433" dur="0:00:02.200">Nice day today, Zach, yeah?</p>
+<p begin="0:08:40.633" dur="0:00:01.800">You feel all right?</p>
+<p begin="0:08:42.433" dur="0:00:01.467">Your first lecture at MIT?</p>
+<p begin="0:08:43.900" dur="0:00:03.500">I don't.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:47.400" dur="0:00:01.433">Okay, man.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:48.833" dur="0:00:03.733">Stand there, yeah.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:52.566" dur="0:00:05.000">Okay, 183.2.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:57.566" dur="0:00:00.667">Stay there, stay there.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:58.233" dur="0:00:01.567">Don't move.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:59.800" dur="0:00:03.766">Zach...</p>
+<p begin="0:09:03.566" dur="0:00:02.700">This is vertical.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:06.266" dur="0:00:00.567">What did I say?</p>
+<p begin="0:09:06.833" dur="0:00:02.433">180?</p>
+<p begin="0:09:09.266" dur="0:00:01.334">Only one person.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:10.600" dur="0:00:04.401">183?</p>
+<p begin="0:09:15.001" dur="0:00:01.365">Come on.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:16.366" dur="0:00:02.000">.2--</p>
+<p begin="0:09:18.366" dur="0:00:02.967">Okay, 183.2.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:21.333" dur="0:00:01.533">Yeah.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:22.866" dur="0:00:05.334">And an uncertainty<br/>of about one...</p>
+<p begin="0:09:28.200" dur="0:00:04.300">Oh, this is centimeters--<br/>0.1 centimeters.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:32.500" dur="0:00:05.333">And now we're going to measure<br/>him horizontally.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:37.833" dur="0:00:01.767">Zach, I don't want you<br/>to break your bones</p>
+<p begin="0:09:39.600" dur="0:00:04.401">so we have a little step<br/>for you here.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:44.001" dur="0:00:01.465">Put your feet there.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:45.466" dur="0:00:01.500">Oh, let me remove<br/>the aluminum bar.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:46.966" dur="0:00:01.634">Watch out for the scale.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:48.600" dur="0:00:03.633">That you don't break that,<br/>because then it's all over.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:52.233" dur="0:00:01.933">Okay, I'll come on your side.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:54.166" dur="0:00:02.634">I have to do that-- yeah, yeah.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:56.800" dur="0:00:02.600">Relax.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:59.400" dur="0:00:01.733">Think of this<br/>as a small sacrifice</p>
+<p begin="0:10:01.133" dur="0:00:02.367">for the sake of science, right?</p>
+<p begin="0:10:03.500" dur="0:00:01.466">Okay, you good?</p>
+<p begin="0:10:04.966" dur="0:00:01.000">ZACH:<br/>Yeah.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:05.966" dur="0:00:01.767">LEWIN:<br/>You comfortable?</p>
+<p begin="0:10:07.733" dur="0:00:01.700">(<i>students laugh</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:10:09.433" dur="0:00:01.333">You're really comfortable,<br/>right?</p>
+<p begin="0:10:10.766" dur="0:00:01.034">ZACH:<br/>Wonderful.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:11.800" dur="0:00:02.233">LEWIN:<br/>Okay.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:14.033" dur="0:00:00.567">You ready?</p>
+<p begin="0:10:14.600" dur="0:00:01.500">ZACH:<br/>Yes.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:16.100" dur="0:00:02.666">LEWIN:<br/>Okay.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:18.766" dur="0:00:03.200">Okay.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:21.966" dur="0:00:02.035">185.7.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:24.001" dur="0:00:00.832">Stay where you are.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:24.833" dur="0:00:02.467">185.7.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:27.300" dur="0:00:03.133">I'm sure... I want to first<br/>make the subtraction, right?</p>
+<p begin="0:10:30.433" dur="0:00:05.467">185.7, plus or minus<br/>0.1 centimeter.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:35.900" dur="0:00:03.000">Oh, that is five...</p>
+<p begin="0:10:38.900" dur="0:00:04.466">that is 2.5 plus or minus<br/>0.2 centimeters.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:43.366" dur="0:00:02.067">You're about one inch taller<br/>when you sleep</p>
+<p begin="0:10:45.433" dur="0:00:01.000">than when you stand up.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:46.433" dur="0:00:01.133">My grandmother was right.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:47.566" dur="0:00:01.300">She's always right.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:48.866" dur="0:00:02.467">Can you get off here?</p>
+<p begin="0:10:51.333" dur="0:00:02.300">I want you to appreciate<br/>that the accuracy...</p>
+<p begin="0:10:53.633" dur="0:00:01.500">Thank you very much, Zach.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:55.133" dur="0:00:01.533">That the accuracy<br/>of one millimeter</p>
+<p begin="0:10:56.666" dur="0:00:03.200">was more than sufficient<br/>to make the case.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:59.866" dur="0:00:01.800">If the accuracy<br/>of my measurements</p>
+<p begin="0:11:01.666" dur="0:00:01.467">would have been much less</p>
+<p begin="0:11:03.133" dur="0:00:04.300">this measurement would not<br/>have been convincing at all.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:07.433" dur="0:00:02.200">So whenever you make<br/>a measurement</p>
+<p begin="0:11:09.633" dur="0:00:02.000">you must know the uncertainty.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:11.633" dur="0:00:01.967">Otherwise, it is meaningless.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:13.600" dur="0:00:03.800">Galileo Galilei asked himself<br/>the question:</p>
+<p begin="0:11:17.400" dur="0:00:07.066">Why are mammals as large as<br/>they are and not much larger?</p>
+<p begin="0:11:24.466" dur="0:00:04.634">He had a very clever reasoning<br/>which I've never seen in print.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:29.100" dur="0:00:02.233">But it comes down to the fact<br/>that he argued</p>
+<p begin="0:11:31.333" dur="0:00:03.900">that if the mammal<br/>becomes too massive</p>
+<p begin="0:11:35.233" dur="0:00:02.233">that the bones will break</p>
+<p begin="0:11:37.466" dur="0:00:02.567">and he thought that that<br/>was a limiting factor.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:40.033" dur="0:00:03.267">Even though I've never<br/>seen his reasoning in print</p>
+<p begin="0:11:43.300" dur="0:00:02.000">I will try to reconstruct it</p>
+<p begin="0:11:45.300" dur="0:00:01.966">what could have gone<br/>through his head.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:47.266" dur="0:00:05.000">Here is a mammal.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:52.266" dur="0:00:04.800">And this is one of the<br/>four legs of the mammal.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:57.066" dur="0:00:05.500">And this mammal has a size S.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:02.566" dur="0:00:03.067">And what I mean by that is</p>
+<p begin="0:12:05.633" dur="0:00:04.100">a mouse is yay big<br/>and a cat is yay big.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:09.733" dur="0:00:05.033">That's what I mean by size--<br/>very crudely defined.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:14.766" dur="0:00:03.134">The mass of the mammal is M</p>
+<p begin="0:12:17.900" dur="0:00:03.766">and this mammal has<br/>a thigh bone</p>
+<p begin="0:12:21.666" dur="0:00:03.900">which we call the femur,<br/>which is here.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:25.566" dur="0:00:04.634">And the femur of course carries<br/>the body, to a large extent.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:30.200" dur="0:00:03.233">And let's assume that the femur<br/>has a length l</p>
+<p begin="0:12:33.433" dur="0:00:02.367">and has a thickness d.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:35.800" dur="0:00:07.466">Here is a femur.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:43.266" dur="0:00:02.867">This is what a femur<br/>approximately looks like.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:46.133" dur="0:00:07.600">So this will be the length<br/>of the femur...</p>
+<p begin="0:12:53.733" dur="0:00:04.067">and this will be<br/>the thickness, d</p>
+<p begin="0:12:57.800" dur="0:00:03.333">and this will be<br/>the cross-sectional area A.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:05.266" dur="0:00:04.167">I'm now going to take you<br/>through what we call in physics</p>
+<p begin="0:13:09.433" dur="0:00:03.733">a scaling argument.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:13.166" dur="0:00:02.767">I would argue that the length<br/>of the femur</p>
+<p begin="0:13:15.933" dur="0:00:02.400">must be proportional<br/>to the size of the animal.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:18.333" dur="0:00:01.567">That's completely plausible.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:19.900" dur="0:00:02.433">If an animal is four times<br/>larger than another</p>
+<p begin="0:13:22.333" dur="0:00:02.000">you would need four times<br/>longer legs.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:24.333" dur="0:00:01.867">And that's all this is saying.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:26.200" dur="0:00:03.366">It's very reasonable.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:29.566" dur="0:00:03.234">It is also very reasonable<br/>that the mass of an animal</p>
+<p begin="0:13:32.800" dur="0:00:04.166">is proportional<br/>to the third power of the size</p>
+<p begin="0:13:36.966" dur="0:00:02.367">because that's related<br/>to its volume.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:39.333" dur="0:00:03.533">And so if it's related<br/>to the third power of the size</p>
+<p begin="0:13:42.866" dur="0:00:02.100">it must also be proportional</p>
+<p begin="0:13:44.966" dur="0:00:02.934">to the third power of the length<br/>of the femur</p>
+<p begin="0:13:47.900" dur="0:00:01.933">because of this relationship.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:49.833" dur="0:00:02.933">Okay, that's one.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:52.766" dur="0:00:03.400">Now comes the argument.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:56.166" dur="0:00:05.667">Pressure on the femur<br/>is proportional</p>
+<p begin="0:14:01.833" dur="0:00:05.300">to the weight of the animal<br/>divided by the cross-section A</p>
+<p begin="0:14:07.133" dur="0:00:02.133">of the femur.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:09.266" dur="0:00:02.667">That's what pressure is.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:11.933" dur="0:00:01.500">And that is the mass<br/>of the animal</p>
+<p begin="0:14:13.433" dur="0:00:01.000">that's proportional</p>
+<p begin="0:14:14.433" dur="0:00:03.667">to the mass of the animal<br/>divided by d squared</p>
+<p begin="0:14:18.100" dur="0:00:04.666">because we want the area here,<br/>it's proportional to d squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:22.766" dur="0:00:02.600">Now follow me closely.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:25.366" dur="0:00:05.067">If the pressure is higher<br/>than a certain level</p>
+<p begin="0:14:30.433" dur="0:00:03.133">the bones will break.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:33.566" dur="0:00:03.800">Therefore, for an animal<br/>not to break its bones</p>
+<p begin="0:14:37.366" dur="0:00:02.500">when the mass goes up<br/>by a certain factor</p>
+<p begin="0:14:39.866" dur="0:00:01.667">let's say a factor of four</p>
+<p begin="0:14:41.533" dur="0:00:01.967">in order for the bones<br/>not to break</p>
+<p begin="0:14:43.500" dur="0:00:03.166">d squared must also go up<br/>by a factor of four.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:46.666" dur="0:00:02.200">That's a key argument<br/>in the scaling here.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:48.866" dur="0:00:02.334">You really have to think<br/>that through carefully.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:51.200" dur="0:00:01.866">Therefore, I would argue</p>
+<p begin="0:14:53.066" dur="0:00:03.800">that the mass must be<br/>proportional to d squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:56.866" dur="0:00:02.200">This is the breaking argument.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:59.066" dur="0:00:02.300">Now compare these two.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:01.366" dur="0:00:03.000">The mass is proportional<br/>to the length of the femur</p>
+<p begin="0:15:04.366" dur="0:00:01.200">to the power three</p>
+<p begin="0:15:05.566" dur="0:00:03.567">and to the thickness of<br/>the femur to the power two.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:09.133" dur="0:00:04.033">Therefore, the thickness of<br/>the femur to the power two</p>
+<p begin="0:15:13.166" dur="0:00:02.467">must be proportional<br/>to the length l</p>
+<p begin="0:15:15.633" dur="0:00:03.267">and therefore the thickness of<br/>the femur must be proportional</p>
+<p begin="0:15:18.900" dur="0:00:03.200">to l to the power three-halfs.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:22.100" dur="0:00:03.300">A very interesting result.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:25.400" dur="0:00:02.800">What is this result telling you?</p>
+<p begin="0:15:28.200" dur="0:00:03.366">It tells you that if<br/>I have two animals</p>
+<p begin="0:15:31.566" dur="0:00:02.700">and one is ten times larger<br/>than the other</p>
+<p begin="0:15:34.266" dur="0:00:02.500">then S is ten times larger</p>
+<p begin="0:15:36.766" dur="0:00:03.467">that the lengths of the legs<br/>are ten times larger</p>
+<p begin="0:15:40.233" dur="0:00:05.967">but that the thickness<br/>of the femur is 30 times larger</p>
+<p begin="0:15:46.200" dur="0:00:02.133">because it is l to the power<br/>three halves.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:48.333" dur="0:00:02.567">If I were to compare<br/>a mouse with an elephant</p>
+<p begin="0:15:50.900" dur="0:00:03.166">an elephant is about a hundred<br/>times larger in size</p>
+<p begin="0:15:54.066" dur="0:00:02.500">so the length of the femur<br/>of the elephant</p>
+<p begin="0:15:56.566" dur="0:00:02.200">would be a hundred times larger<br/>than that of a mouse</p>
+<p begin="0:15:58.766" dur="0:00:01.934">but the thickness of the femur</p>
+<p begin="0:16:00.700" dur="0:00:05.100">would have to be<br/>1,000 times larger.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:05.800" dur="0:00:03.800">And that may have convinced<br/>Galileo Galilei</p>
+<p begin="0:16:09.600" dur="0:00:01.600">that that's the reason</p>
+<p begin="0:16:11.200" dur="0:00:03.533">why the largest animals are<br/>as large as they are.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:14.733" dur="0:00:02.867">Because clearly,<br/>if you increase the mass</p>
+<p begin="0:16:17.600" dur="0:00:03.200">there comes a time that<br/>the thickness of the bones</p>
+<p begin="0:16:20.800" dur="0:00:02.166">is the same as the length<br/>of the bones.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:22.966" dur="0:00:01.400">You're all made of bones</p>
+<p begin="0:16:24.366" dur="0:00:03.267">and that is biologically<br/>not feasible.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:27.633" dur="0:00:01.500">And so there is<br/>a limit somewhere</p>
+<p begin="0:16:29.133" dur="0:00:04.433">set by this scaling law.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:33.566" dur="0:00:03.067">Well, I wanted to bring<br/>this to a test.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:36.633" dur="0:00:01.000">After all</p>
+<p begin="0:16:37.633" dur="0:00:02.300">I brought my grandmother's<br/>statement to a test</p>
+<p begin="0:16:39.933" dur="0:00:03.167">so why not bring Galileo<br/>Galilei's statement to a test?</p>
+<p begin="0:16:43.100" dur="0:00:04.000">And so I went to Harvard</p>
+<p begin="0:16:47.100" dur="0:00:03.200">where they have a beautiful<br/>collection of femurs</p>
+<p begin="0:16:50.300" dur="0:00:06.266">and I asked them for the femur<br/>of a raccoon and a horse.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:56.566" dur="0:00:02.167">A raccoon is this big</p>
+<p begin="0:16:58.733" dur="0:00:03.567">a horse is about<br/>four times bigger</p>
+<p begin="0:17:02.300" dur="0:00:03.100">so the length of the femur<br/>of a horse</p>
+<p begin="0:17:05.400" dur="0:00:03.700">must be about four times<br/>the length of the raccoon.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:09.100" dur="0:00:02.433">Close.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:11.533" dur="0:00:02.667">So I was not surprised.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:14.200" dur="0:00:05.666">Then I measured the thickness,<br/>and I said to myself, "Aha!"</p>
+<p begin="0:17:19.866" dur="0:00:03.100">If the length is<br/>four times higher</p>
+<p begin="0:17:22.966" dur="0:00:03.700">then the thickness has<br/>to be eight times higher</p>
+<p begin="0:17:26.666" dur="0:00:01.667">if this holds.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:28.333" dur="0:00:01.500">And what I'm going<br/>to plot for you</p>
+<p begin="0:17:29.833" dur="0:00:05.433">you will see that shortly<br/>is d divided by l, versus l</p>
+<p begin="0:17:35.266" dur="0:00:01.867">and that, of course,<br/>must be proportional</p>
+<p begin="0:17:37.133" dur="0:00:01.300">to l to the power one-half.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:38.433" dur="0:00:02.200">I bring one l here.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:40.633" dur="0:00:03.567">So, if I compare the horse<br/>and I compare the raccoon</p>
+<p begin="0:17:44.200" dur="0:00:02.300">I would argue that the thickness</p>
+<p begin="0:17:46.500" dur="0:00:03.400">divided by the length<br/>of the femur for the horse</p>
+<p begin="0:17:49.900" dur="0:00:03.533">must be the square root of four,<br/>twice as much</p>
+<p begin="0:17:53.433" dur="0:00:02.568">as that of the raccoon.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:56.001" dur="0:00:04.232">And so I was very anxious<br/>to plot that, and I did that</p>
+<p begin="0:18:00.233" dur="0:00:03.200">and I'll show you the result.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:03.433" dur="0:00:06.267">Here is my first result.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:09.700" dur="0:00:02.533">So we see there, d over l.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:12.233" dur="0:00:02.367">I explained to you why<br/>I prefer that.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:14.600" dur="0:00:02.401">And here you see the length.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:17.001" dur="0:00:02.632">You see here the raccoon<br/>and you see the horse.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:19.633" dur="0:00:03.033">And if you look carefully,<br/>then the d over l for the horse</p>
+<p begin="0:18:22.666" dur="0:00:03.000">is only about one and a half<br/>times larger than the raccoon.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:25.666" dur="0:00:02.800">Well, I wasn't too disappointed.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:28.466" dur="0:00:02.500">One and a half is not two, but<br/>it is in the right direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:30.966" dur="0:00:02.667">The horse clearly has a larger<br/>value for d over l</p>
+<p begin="0:18:33.633" dur="0:00:02.700">than the raccoon.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:36.333" dur="0:00:03.400">I realized I needed more data,<br/>so I went back to Harvard.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:39.733" dur="0:00:03.533">I said, "Look, I need a smaller<br/>animal, an opossum maybe</p>
+<p begin="0:18:43.266" dur="0:00:03.967">maybe a rat, maybe a mouse,"<br/>and they said, "okay."</p>
+<p begin="0:18:47.233" dur="0:00:03.800">They gave me three more bones.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:51.033" dur="0:00:01.167">They gave me an antelope</p>
+<p begin="0:18:52.200" dur="0:00:02.433">which is actually a little<br/>larger than a raccoon</p>
+<p begin="0:18:54.633" dur="0:00:05.433">and they gave me an opossum<br/>and they gave me a mouse.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:00.066" dur="0:00:08.267">Here is the bone<br/>of the antelope.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:08.333" dur="0:00:06.233">Here is the one of the raccoon.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:14.566" dur="0:00:03.634">Here is the one of the opossum.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:18.200" dur="0:00:02.300">And now you won't believe this.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:20.500" dur="0:00:05.566">This is so wonderful,<br/>so romantic.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:26.066" dur="0:00:01.134">There is the mouse.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:27.200" dur="0:00:01.133">(<i>students laugh</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:19:28.333" dur="0:00:01.300">Isn't that beautiful?</p>
+<p begin="0:19:29.633" dur="0:00:01.833">Teeny, weeny little mouse?</p>
+<p begin="0:19:31.466" dur="0:00:04.167">That's only a teeny,<br/>weeny little femur.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:35.633" dur="0:00:02.500">And there it is.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:38.133" dur="0:00:03.200">And I made the plot.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:41.333" dur="0:00:02.900">I was very curious<br/>what that plot would look like.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:44.233" dur="0:00:06.833">And...</p>
+<p begin="0:19:51.066" dur="0:00:02.667">here it is.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:53.733" dur="0:00:03.268">Whew! I was shocked.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:57.001" dur="0:00:02.465">I was really shocked.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:59.466" dur="0:00:04.167">Because look-- the horse<br/>is 50 times larger in size</p>
+<p begin="0:20:03.633" dur="0:00:01.400">than the mouse.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:05.033" dur="0:00:03.600">The difference in d over l<br/>is only a factor of two.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:08.633" dur="0:00:05.767">And I expected something more<br/>like a factor of seven.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:14.400" dur="0:00:03.300">And so, in d over l, where<br/>I expect a factor of seven</p>
+<p begin="0:20:17.700" dur="0:00:02.000">I only see a factor of two.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:19.700" dur="0:00:08.000">So I said to myself,<br/>"Oh, my goodness."</p>
+<p begin="0:28:27.900" dur="-1:51:57.033">"Why didn't I ask them<br/>for an elephant?"</p>
+<p begin="0:20:24.933" dur="0:00:02.133">The real clincher<br/>would be the elephant</p>
+<p begin="0:20:27.066" dur="0:00:02.267">because if that goes<br/>way off scale</p>
+<p begin="0:20:29.333" dur="0:00:04.000">maybe we can still rescue the<br/>statement by Galileo Galilei</p>
+<p begin="0:20:33.333" dur="0:00:02.033">and so I went back<br/>and they said</p>
+<p begin="0:20:35.366" dur="0:00:03.134">"Okay, we'll give you<br/>the femur of an elephant.<br/>"</p>
+<p begin="0:20:38.500" dur="0:00:02.400">They also gave me one<br/>of a moose, believe it or not.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:40.900" dur="0:00:02.300">I think they wanted to get<br/>rid of me by that time</p>
+<p begin="0:20:43.200" dur="0:00:01.000">to be frank with you.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:44.200" dur="0:00:05.133">And here is the femur<br/>of an elephant.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:49.333" dur="0:00:01.400">And I measured it.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:50.733" dur="0:00:02.867">The length and the thickness.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:53.600" dur="0:00:02.900">And it is very heavy.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:56.500" dur="0:00:02.333">It weighs a ton.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:58.833" dur="0:00:03.867">I plotted it, I was<br/>full of expectation.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:02.700" dur="0:00:02.301">I couldn't sleep all night.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:05.001" dur="0:00:02.499">And there's the elephant.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:07.500" dur="0:00:03.600">There is no evidence whatsoever<br/>that d over l is really larger</p>
+<p begin="0:21:11.100" dur="0:00:02.166">for the elephant<br/>than for the mouse.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:13.266" dur="0:00:02.500">These vertical bars indicate<br/>my uncertainty</p>
+<p begin="0:21:15.766" dur="0:00:01.667">in measurements of thickness</p>
+<p begin="0:21:17.433" dur="0:00:03.367">and the horizontal scale,<br/>which is a logarithmic scale...</p>
+<p begin="0:21:20.800" dur="0:00:02.233">the uncertainty<br/>of the length measurements</p>
+<p begin="0:21:23.033" dur="0:00:01.800">is in the thickness<br/>of the red pen</p>
+<p begin="0:21:24.833" dur="0:00:03.667">so there's no need for me<br/>to indicate that any further.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:28.500" dur="0:00:02.166">And here you have<br/>your measurements</p>
+<p begin="0:21:30.666" dur="0:00:02.400">in case you want to check them.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:33.066" dur="0:00:03.300">And look again at the mouse<br/>and look at the elephant.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:36.366" dur="0:00:06.900">The mouse has indeed only one<br/>centimeter length of the femur</p>
+<p begin="0:21:43.266" dur="0:00:02.234">and the elephant is, indeed,<br/>hundred times longer.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:45.500" dur="0:00:04.133">So the first scaling argument<br/>that S is proportional to l</p>
+<p begin="0:21:49.633" dur="0:00:01.867">that is certainly<br/>what you would expect</p>
+<p begin="0:21:51.500" dur="0:00:03.100">because an elephant is about<br/>a hundred times larger in size.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:54.600" dur="0:00:03.401">But when you go to d over l,<br/>you see it's all over.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:58.001" dur="0:00:01.599">The d over l for the mouse</p>
+<p begin="0:21:59.600" dur="0:00:02.466">is really not all that<br/>different from the elephant</p>
+<p begin="0:22:02.066" dur="0:00:02.800">and you would have expected<br/>that number to be</p>
+<p begin="0:22:04.866" dur="0:00:04.600">with the square root of 100</p>
+<p begin="0:22:09.466" dur="0:00:02.267">so you expect it to be<br/>ten times larger</p>
+<p begin="0:22:11.733" dur="0:00:03.000">instead of about the same.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:14.733" dur="0:00:02.667">I now want to discuss with you</p>
+<p begin="0:22:17.400" dur="0:00:07.500">what we call in physics<br/>dimensional analysis.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:24.900" dur="0:00:02.500">I want to ask myself<br/>the question:</p>
+<p begin="0:22:27.400" dur="0:00:04.100">If I drop an apple<br/>from a certain height</p>
+<p begin="0:22:31.500" dur="0:00:02.966">and I change that height</p>
+<p begin="0:22:34.466" dur="0:00:06.300">what will happen with the time<br/>for the apple to fall?</p>
+<p begin="0:22:40.766" dur="0:00:06.800">Well, I drop the apple<br/>from a height h</p>
+<p begin="0:22:47.566" dur="0:00:03.634">and I want to know what happened<br/>with the time when it falls.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:51.200" dur="0:00:03.133">And I change h.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:54.333" dur="0:00:08.000">So I said to myself,<br/>"Well, the time that it takes</p>
+<p begin="0:31:02.666" dur="-1:51:57.500">"must be proportional to the<br/>height to some power alpha."</p>
+<p begin="0:23:00.166" dur="0:00:01.400">Completely reasonable.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:01.566" dur="0:00:01.734">If I make the height larger</p>
+<p begin="0:23:03.300" dur="0:00:03.466">we all know that it takes longer<br/>for the apple to fall.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:06.766" dur="0:00:01.600">That's a safe thing.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:08.366" dur="0:00:04.000">I said to myself, "Well,<br/>if the apple has a mass m</p>
+<p begin="0:23:12.366" dur="0:00:08.000">"it probably is<br/>also proportional</p>
+<p begin="0:31:20.666" dur="-1:51:57.167">"to the mass of that apple<br/>to the power beta."</p>
+<p begin="0:23:17.833" dur="0:00:03.333">I said to myself, "Gee, yeah,<br/>if something is more massive</p>
+<p begin="0:23:21.166" dur="0:00:02.000">it will probably<br/>take less time."</p>
+<p begin="0:23:23.166" dur="0:00:02.934">So maybe m to some power beta.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:26.100" dur="0:00:02.800">I don't know alpha,<br/>I don't know beta.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:28.900" dur="0:00:02.633">And then I said, "Gee, there's<br/>also something like gravity</p>
+<p begin="0:23:31.533" dur="0:00:02.233">that is the Earth's<br/>gravitational pull--</p>
+<p begin="0:23:33.766" dur="0:00:02.500">the gravitational acceleration<br/>of the Earth."</p>
+<p begin="0:23:36.266" dur="0:00:02.267">So let's introduce that, too</p>
+<p begin="0:23:38.533" dur="0:00:02.533">and let's assume that that time<br/>is also proportional</p>
+<p begin="0:23:41.066" dur="0:00:02.600">to the gravitational<br/>acceleration--</p>
+<p begin="0:23:43.666" dur="0:00:02.567">this is an acceleration; we will learn a lot more about that--</p>
+<p begin="0:23:46.233" dur="0:00:02.867">to the power gamma.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:49.100" dur="0:00:04.133">Having said this, we can now do<br/>what's called in physics</p>
+<p begin="0:23:53.233" dur="0:00:04.200">a dimensional analysis.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:59.900" dur="0:00:03.400">On the left we have a time</p>
+<p begin="0:24:03.300" dur="0:00:02.566">and if we have a left...<br/>on the left side a time</p>
+<p begin="0:24:05.866" dur="0:00:02.700">on the right side<br/>we must also have time.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:08.566" dur="0:00:04.034">You cannot have coconuts on one<br/>side and oranges on the other.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:12.600" dur="0:00:01.866">You cannot have seconds<br/>on one side</p>
+<p begin="0:24:14.466" dur="0:00:02.867">and meters per second<br/>on the other.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:17.333" dur="0:00:03.167">So the dimensions left and right<br/>have to be the same.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:20.500" dur="0:00:02.200">What is the dimension here?</p>
+<p begin="0:24:22.700" dur="0:00:02.500">That is [T] to the power one.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:25.200" dur="0:00:08.266">That T... that must be the same<br/>as length to the power alpha</p>
+<p begin="0:24:33.466" dur="0:00:08.667">times mass to the power beta,<br/>times acceleration--</p>
+<p begin="0:24:42.133" dur="0:00:02.400">remember, it is still there<br/>on the blackboard--</p>
+<p begin="0:24:44.533" dur="0:00:04.633">that's dimension [L]<br/>divided by time squared</p>
+<p begin="0:24:49.166" dur="0:00:02.734">and the whole thing<br/>to the power gamma</p>
+<p begin="0:24:51.900" dur="0:00:02.633">so I have a gamma here<br/>and I have a gamma there.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:54.533" dur="0:00:02.667">This side must have the same<br/>dimension as that side.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:57.200" dur="0:00:02.933">That is nonnegotiable<br/>in physics.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:00.133" dur="0:00:01.233">Okay, there we go.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:01.366" dur="0:00:02.667">There is no M here,<br/>there is only one M here</p>
+<p begin="0:25:04.033" dur="0:00:04.133">so beta must be zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:08.166" dur="0:00:03.967">There is here [L] to the power<br/>alpha, [L] to the power gamma</p>
+<p begin="0:25:12.133" dur="0:00:01.500">there is no [L] here.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:13.633" dur="0:00:01.800">So [L] must disappear.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:15.433" dur="0:00:04.033">So alpha plus gamma<br/>must be zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:19.466" dur="0:00:02.834">There is [T]<br/>to the power one here</p>
+<p begin="0:25:22.300" dur="0:00:03.166">and there is here<br/>[T] to the power -2 gamma.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:25.466" dur="0:00:02.100">It's minus because<br/>it's downstairs.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:27.566" dur="0:00:04.334">So one must be equal<br/>to -2 gamma.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:31.900" dur="0:00:03.700">That means gamma must be<br/>minus one half.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:35.600" dur="0:00:07.566">That if gamma is minus one half,<br/>then alpha equals plus one half.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:43.166" dur="0:00:02.667">End of my dimensional analysis.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:45.833" dur="0:00:03.800">I therefore conclude that<br/>the time that it takes</p>
+<p begin="0:25:49.633" dur="0:00:02.233">for an object to fall</p>
+<p begin="0:25:51.866" dur="0:00:03.534">equals some constant,<br/>which I do not know</p>
+<p begin="0:25:55.400" dur="0:00:01.800">but that constant<br/>has no dimension--</p>
+<p begin="0:25:57.200" dur="0:00:02.166">I don't know what it is--</p>
+<p begin="0:25:59.366" dur="0:00:08.134">times the square root<br/>of h divided by g.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:07.500" dur="0:00:03.033">Beta is zero,<br/>there is no mass</p>
+<p begin="0:26:10.533" dur="0:00:02.700">h to the power one half--<br/>you see that here--</p>
+<p begin="0:26:13.233" dur="0:00:02.300">and g to the power<br/>minus one half.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:15.533" dur="0:00:03.767">This is proportional<br/>to the square root of h</p>
+<p begin="0:26:19.300" dur="0:00:01.701">because g is a given<br/>and c is a given</p>
+<p begin="0:26:21.001" dur="0:00:01.465">even though I don't know c.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:22.466" dur="0:00:03.800">I make no pretense that I can<br/>predict how long it will take</p>
+<p begin="0:26:26.266" dur="0:00:01.700">for the apple to fall.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:27.966" dur="0:00:03.800">All I'm saying is, I can compare<br/>two different heights.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:31.766" dur="0:00:01.967">I can drop an apple<br/>from eight meters</p>
+<p begin="0:26:33.733" dur="0:00:02.033">and another one from two meters</p>
+<p begin="0:26:35.766" dur="0:00:03.634">and the one from eight meters<br/>will take two times longer</p>
+<p begin="0:26:39.400" dur="0:00:01.933">than the one from two meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:41.333" dur="0:00:04.133">The square root of h to two,<br/>four over two</p>
+<p begin="0:26:45.466" dur="0:00:01.535">will take two times longer,<br/>right?</p>
+<p begin="0:26:47.001" dur="0:00:02.365">If I drop one from eight meters</p>
+<p begin="0:26:49.366" dur="0:00:02.867">and I drop another one<br/>from two meters</p>
+<p begin="0:26:52.233" dur="0:00:04.067">then the difference in time will<br/>be the square root of the ratio.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:56.300" dur="0:00:01.533">It will be twice as long.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:57.833" dur="0:00:05.433">And that I want to bring<br/>to a test today.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:03.266" dur="0:00:01.867">We have a setup here.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:05.133" dur="0:00:03.300">We have an apple there<br/>at a height of three meters</p>
+<p begin="0:27:08.433" dur="0:00:03.400">and we know the length to an<br/>accuracy... the height</p>
+<p begin="0:27:11.833" dur="0:00:02.433">of about three millimeters,<br/>no better.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:14.266" dur="0:00:02.134">And here we have a setup<br/>whereby the apple</p>
+<p begin="0:27:16.400" dur="0:00:02.500">is about one and a half meters<br/>above the ground.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:18.900" dur="0:00:02.433">And we know that to about<br/>also an accuracy</p>
+<p begin="0:27:21.333" dur="0:00:04.900">of no better than<br/>about three millimeters.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:26.233" dur="0:00:03.233">So, let's set it up.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:29.466" dur="0:00:05.300">I have here...</p>
+<p begin="0:27:34.766" dur="0:00:02.900">something that's going<br/>to be a prediction--</p>
+<p begin="0:27:37.666" dur="0:00:05.567">a prediction of the time that<br/>it takes for one apple to fall</p>
+<p begin="0:27:43.233" dur="0:00:01.533">divided by the time<br/>that it takes</p>
+<p begin="0:27:44.766" dur="0:00:03.134">for the other apple to fall.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:47.900" dur="0:00:04.000">H one is three meters</p>
+<p begin="0:27:51.900" dur="0:00:02.400">but I claim there is<br/>an uncertainty</p>
+<p begin="0:27:54.300" dur="0:00:01.866">of about three millimeters.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:56.166" dur="0:00:01.500">Can't do any better.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:57.666" dur="0:00:04.500">And h 2 equals 1.5 meters</p>
+<p begin="0:28:02.166" dur="0:00:06.967">again with an uncertainty<br/>of about three millimeters.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:09.133" dur="0:00:05.567">So the ratio h one over h two...</p>
+<p begin="0:28:14.700" dur="0:00:01.166">is 2.000</p>
+<p begin="0:28:15.866" dur="0:00:04.400">and now I have to come up<br/>with an uncertainty</p>
+<p begin="0:28:20.266" dur="0:00:03.200">which physicists sometimes call<br/>an error in their measurements</p>
+<p begin="0:28:23.466" dur="0:00:01.634">but it's really an uncertainty.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:25.100" dur="0:00:02.600">And the way you find<br/>your uncertainty is</p>
+<p begin="0:28:27.700" dur="0:00:03.900">that you add the three here<br/>and you subtract the three here</p>
+<p begin="0:28:31.600" dur="0:00:02.300">and you get the largest value<br/>possible.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:33.900" dur="0:00:01.666">You can never get<br/>a larger value.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:35.566" dur="0:00:03.200">And you'll find<br/>that you get 2.006.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:38.766" dur="0:00:06.200">And so I would say<br/>the uncertainty is then .006.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:44.966" dur="0:00:01.767">This is a dimensionless number</p>
+<p begin="0:28:46.733" dur="0:00:03.467">because it's length<br/>divided by length.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:50.200" dur="0:00:05.801">And so the time t1<br/>divided by t2</p>
+<p begin="0:28:56.001" dur="0:00:03.565">would be the square root<br/>of h1 divided by h2.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:59.566" dur="0:00:03.134">That is the dimensional<br/>analysis argument</p>
+<p begin="0:29:02.700" dur="0:00:01.500">that we have there.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:04.200" dur="0:00:02.833">And we find if we take<br/>the square root of this number</p>
+<p begin="0:29:07.033" dur="0:00:05.500">we find 1.414,<br/>plus or minus 0.0</p>
+<p begin="0:29:12.533" dur="0:00:02.600">and I think that is a two.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:15.133" dur="0:00:01.633">That is correct.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:16.766" dur="0:00:06.034">So here is a firm prediction.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:22.800" dur="0:00:02.766">This is a prediction.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:25.566" dur="0:00:05.900">And now we're going to make<br/>an observation.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:31.466" dur="0:00:06.034">So we're going to measure t1<br/>and there's going to be a number</p>
+<p begin="0:29:37.500" dur="0:00:02.833">and then we're going<br/>to measure t2</p>
+<p begin="0:29:40.333" dur="0:00:01.967">and there's going<br/>to be a number.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:42.300" dur="0:00:02.666">I have done this experiment<br/>ten times</p>
+<p begin="0:29:44.966" dur="0:00:04.300">and the numbers always reproduce<br/>within about one millisecond.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:49.266" dur="0:00:02.700">So I could just adopt an<br/>uncertainty of one millisecond.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:51.966" dur="0:00:02.267">I want to be a little bit<br/>on the safe side.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:54.233" dur="0:00:02.267">Occasionally it differs<br/>by two milliseconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:56.500" dur="0:00:02.633">So let us be conservative</p>
+<p begin="0:29:59.133" dur="0:00:03.667">and let's assume that I can<br/>measure this to an accuracy</p>
+<p begin="0:30:02.800" dur="0:00:03.201">of about two milliseconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:06.001" dur="0:00:02.965">That is pretty safe.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:08.966" dur="0:00:03.334">So now we can measure<br/>these times</p>
+<p begin="0:30:12.300" dur="0:00:03.066">and then we can take<br/>the ratio</p>
+<p begin="0:30:15.366" dur="0:00:03.800">and then we can see whether<br/>we actually confirm</p>
+<p begin="0:30:19.166" dur="0:00:05.067">that the time that it takes<br/>is proportional to the height</p>
+<p begin="0:30:24.233" dur="0:00:02.467">to the square root<br/>of the height.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:26.700" dur="0:00:06.533">So I will make it a little more<br/>comfortable for you</p>
+<p begin="0:30:33.233" dur="0:00:02.633">in the lecture hall.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:35.866" dur="0:00:01.534">That's all right.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:37.400" dur="0:00:02.100">We have the setup here.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:39.500" dur="0:00:08.133">We first do the experiment<br/>with the... three meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:47.633" dur="0:00:02.368">There you see the three meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:50.001" dur="0:00:03.732">And the time... the moment<br/>that I pull this string</p>
+<p begin="0:30:53.733" dur="0:00:04.167">the apple will fall, the contact<br/>will open, the clock will start.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:57.900" dur="0:00:04.766">The moment that it hits the<br/>floor, the time will stop.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:02.666" dur="0:00:01.867">I have to stand on that side.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:04.533" dur="0:00:02.100">Otherwise the apple<br/>will fall on my hand.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:06.633" dur="0:00:01.700">That's not the idea.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:08.333" dur="0:00:04.267">I'll stand here.<br/>#VALUE!You ready?</p>
+<p begin="0:31:12.600" dur="0:00:02.966">Okay, then I'm ready.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:15.566" dur="0:00:01.700">Everything set?</p>
+<p begin="0:31:17.266" dur="0:00:01.834">Make sure that I've<br/>zeroed that properly.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:19.100" dur="0:00:01.633">Yes, I have.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:20.733" dur="0:00:01.000">Okay.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:21.733" dur="0:00:01.933">Three, two, one, zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:27.100" dur="0:00:03.366">781 milliseconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:30.466" dur="0:00:04.000">So this number...<br/>you should write it down</p>
+<p begin="0:31:34.466" dur="0:00:03.300">because you will need it<br/>for your second assignment.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:37.766" dur="0:00:03.900">781 milliseconds, with an<br/>uncertainty of two milliseconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:41.666" dur="0:00:06.067">You ready for the second one?</p>
+<p begin="0:31:47.733" dur="0:00:02.700">You ready?</p>
+<p begin="0:31:50.433" dur="0:00:01.667">You ready?</p>
+<p begin="0:31:52.100" dur="0:00:02.100">Okay, nothing wrong.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:54.200" dur="0:00:04.666">Ready.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:58.866" dur="0:00:02.467">Zero, zero, right?</p>
+<p begin="0:32:01.333" dur="0:00:01.500">Thank you.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:02.833" dur="0:00:01.168">Okay.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:04.001" dur="0:00:02.865">Three, two, one, zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:08.333" dur="0:00:05.700">551 milliseconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:14.033" dur="0:00:07.700">Boy, I'm nervous because<br/>I hope that physics works.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:21.733" dur="0:00:03.600">So I take my calculator</p>
+<p begin="0:32:25.333" dur="0:00:07.200">and I'm now going to take<br/>the ratio t1 over t2.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:32.533" dur="0:00:03.433">The uncertainty you can find<br/>by adding the two here</p>
+<p begin="0:32:35.966" dur="0:00:02.300">and subtracting the two there</p>
+<p begin="0:32:38.266" dur="0:00:02.000">and that will<br/>then give you an uncertainty</p>
+<p begin="0:32:40.266" dur="0:00:06.500">of, I think, .0... mmm, .08.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:46.766" dur="0:00:01.500">Yeah, .08.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:48.266" dur="0:00:03.300">You should do that<br/>for yourself-- .008.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:51.566" dur="0:00:01.400">Dimensionless number.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:52.966" dur="0:00:02.067">This would be the uncertainty.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:55.033" dur="0:00:03.000">This is the observation.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:58.033" dur="0:00:06.467">781 divided by 551.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:04.500" dur="0:00:01.000">One point...</p>
+<p begin="0:33:05.500" dur="0:00:02.200">Let me do that once more.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:07.700" dur="0:00:03.866">Seven eight one,<br/>divided by five five one...</p>
+<p begin="0:33:11.566" dur="0:00:04.734">One four one seven.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:16.300" dur="0:00:03.433">Perfect agreement.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:19.733" dur="0:00:04.533">Look, the prediction says<br/>1.414</p>
+<p begin="0:33:24.266" dur="0:00:03.334">but it could be 1 point...<br/>it could be two higher.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:27.600" dur="0:00:01.866">That's the uncertainty<br/>in my height.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:29.466" dur="0:00:01.600">I don't know any better.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:31.066" dur="0:00:03.434">And here I could even<br/>be off by an eight</p>
+<p begin="0:33:34.500" dur="0:00:01.866">because that's the uncertainty<br/>in my timing.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:36.366" dur="0:00:02.367">So these two measurements<br/>confirm.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:38.733" dur="0:00:01.433">They are in agreement<br/>with each other.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:40.166" dur="0:00:05.734">You see, uncertainties in<br/>measurements are essential.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:45.900" dur="0:00:07.533">Now look at our results.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:53.433" dur="0:00:05.633">We have here a result<br/>which is striking.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:59.066" dur="0:00:02.167">We have demonstrated that<br/>the time that it takes</p>
+<p begin="0:34:01.233" dur="0:00:06.300">for an object to fall<br/>is independent of its mass.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:07.533" dur="0:00:03.800">That is an amazing<br/>accomplishment.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:11.333" dur="0:00:05.800">Our great-grandfathers must<br/>have worried about this</p>
+<p begin="0:34:17.133" dur="0:00:05.733">and argued about this<br/>for more than 300 years.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:22.866" dur="0:00:01.967">Were they so dumb</p>
+<p begin="0:34:24.833" dur="0:00:06.933">to overlook this simple<br/>dimensional analysis?</p>
+<p begin="0:34:31.766" dur="0:00:02.534">Inconceivable.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:34.300" dur="0:00:05.000">Is this dimensional analysis<br/>perhaps not quite kosher?</p>
+<p begin="0:34:39.300" dur="0:00:03.666">Maybe.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:42.966" dur="0:00:02.634">Is this dimensional analysis</p>
+<p begin="0:34:45.600" dur="0:00:04.633">perhaps one that could have<br/>been done differently?</p>
+<p begin="0:34:50.233" dur="0:00:02.167">Yeah, oh, yeah.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:52.400" dur="0:00:03.400">You could have done it<br/>very differently.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:55.800" dur="0:00:03.333">You could have said<br/>the following.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:59.133" dur="0:00:08.000">You could have said,<br/>"The time for an apple to fall</p>
+<p begin="0:43:09.433" dur="0:00:04.700">""is proportional to the height<br/>that it falls from</p>
+<p begin="0:43:14.133" dur="-1:51:55.767">"to a power alpha."</p>
+<p begin="0:35:09.900" dur="0:00:01.101">Very reasonable.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:11.001" dur="0:00:02.932">We all know, the higher it is,<br/>the more it will take--</p>
+<p begin="0:35:13.933" dur="0:00:01.500">the more time it will take.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:15.433" dur="0:00:01.300">And we could have said,</p>
+<p begin="0:35:16.733" dur="0:00:08.000">"Yeah, it's probably<br/>proportional</p>
+<p begin="0:43:24.533" dur="0:00:01.200">""to the mass somehow.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:25.733" dur="-1:51:57.567">"If the mass is more, it will<br/>take a little bit less time."</p>
+<p begin="0:35:23.300" dur="0:00:02.800">Turns out to be not so,<br/>but you could think that.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:26.100" dur="0:00:01.100">But you could have said</p>
+<p begin="0:35:27.200" dur="0:00:08.000">"Well, let's not take the<br/>acceleration of the Earth</p>
+<p begin="0:43:35.800" dur="-1:51:56.300">"but let's take the mass<br/>of the Earth itself."</p>
+<p begin="0:35:32.100" dur="0:00:01.200">Very reasonable, right?</p>
+<p begin="0:35:33.300" dur="0:00:03.466">I would think if I increased<br/>the mass of the Earth</p>
+<p begin="0:35:36.766" dur="0:00:02.267">that the apple will fall faster.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:39.033" dur="0:00:04.567">So now I will put in the math<br/>of the Earth here.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:43.600" dur="0:00:02.466">And I start<br/>my dimensional analysis</p>
+<p begin="0:35:46.066" dur="0:00:03.334">and I end up dead in the waters.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:49.400" dur="0:00:05.233">Because, you see,<br/>there is no mass here.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:54.633" dur="0:00:01.967">There is a mass<br/>to the power beta here</p>
+<p begin="0:35:56.600" dur="0:00:01.766">and one to the power gamma</p>
+<p begin="0:35:58.366" dur="0:00:04.034">so what you would have found<br/>is beta plus gamma equals zero</p>
+<p begin="0:36:02.400" dur="0:00:03.200">and that would be end of story.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:05.600" dur="0:00:02.966">Now you can ask yourself<br/>the question</p>
+<p begin="0:36:08.566" dur="0:00:03.934">well, is there something wrong<br/>with the analysis that we did?</p>
+<p begin="0:36:12.500" dur="0:00:03.266">Is ours perhaps better<br/>than this one?</p>
+<p begin="0:36:15.766" dur="0:00:02.100">Well, it's a different one.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:17.866" dur="0:00:01.067">We came to the conclusion</p>
+<p begin="0:36:18.933" dur="0:00:02.000">that the time that it takes<br/>for the apple to fall</p>
+<p begin="0:36:20.933" dur="0:00:01.733">is independent of the mass.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:22.666" dur="0:00:02.700">Do we believe that?</p>
+<p begin="0:36:25.366" dur="0:00:02.434">Yes, we do.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:27.800" dur="0:00:04.666">On the other hand, there are<br/>very prestigious physicists</p>
+<p begin="0:36:32.466" dur="0:00:03.667">who even nowadays do<br/>very fancy experiments</p>
+<p begin="0:36:36.133" dur="0:00:03.600">and they try to demonstrate that<br/>the time for an apple to fall</p>
+<p begin="0:36:39.733" dur="0:00:02.167">does depend on its mass</p>
+<p begin="0:36:41.900" dur="0:00:03.266">even though it probably is<br/>only very small, if it's true</p>
+<p begin="0:36:45.166" dur="0:00:01.434">but they try to prove that.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:46.600" dur="0:00:02.800">And if any of them succeeds<br/>or any one of you succeeds</p>
+<p begin="0:36:49.400" dur="0:00:02.966">that's certainly worth<br/>a Nobel Prize.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:52.366" dur="0:00:03.400">So we do believe that it's<br/>independent of the mass.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:55.766" dur="0:00:05.167">However, this, what I did<br/>with you, was not a proof</p>
+<p begin="0:37:00.933" dur="0:00:03.367">because if you do it this way,<br/>you get stuck.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:04.300" dur="0:00:02.300">On the other hand, I'm<br/>quite pleased with the fact</p>
+<p begin="0:37:06.600" dur="0:00:01.600">that we found that the time<br/>is proportional</p>
+<p begin="0:37:08.200" dur="0:00:01.801">with the square root of h.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:10.001" dur="0:00:01.732">I think that's very useful.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:11.733" dur="0:00:01.533">We confirmed that<br/>with experiment</p>
+<p begin="0:37:13.266" dur="0:00:02.767">and indeed it came out that way.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:16.033" dur="0:00:02.067">So it was not a complete<br/>waste of time.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:18.100" dur="0:00:07.566">But when you do a dimensional<br/>analysis, you better be careful.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:25.666" dur="0:00:05.834">I'd like you to think this over,<br/>the comparison between the two</p>
+<p begin="0:37:31.500" dur="0:00:02.600">at dinner and maybe at breakfast</p>
+<p begin="0:37:34.100" dur="0:00:03.566">and maybe even while<br/>you are taking a shower</p>
+<p begin="0:37:37.666" dur="0:00:02.134">whether it's needed or not.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:39.800" dur="0:00:03.566">It is important that you<br/>digest and appreciate</p>
+<p begin="0:37:43.366" dur="0:00:02.967">the difference between<br/>these two approaches.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:46.333" dur="0:00:03.467">It will give you an insight<br/>in the power</p>
+<p begin="0:37:49.800" dur="0:00:04.033">and also into the limitations<br/>of dimensional analysis.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:53.833" dur="0:00:01.533">This goes to the very heart</p>
+<p begin="0:37:55.366" dur="0:00:03.635">of our understanding<br/>and appreciation of physics.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:59.001" dur="0:00:03.000">It's important that<br/>you get a feel for this.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:02.001" dur="0:00:02.165">You're now at MIT.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:04.166" dur="0:00:01.634">This is the time.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:05.800" dur="0:00:00.866">Thank you.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:06.666" dur="0:00:01.600">See you Friday.</p>
+</div>
+</body>
+</tt>