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sm-transcript 0.0.4 → 0.0.6

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+<p begin="0:00:01.633" dur="0:00:04.233">The exam on Wednesday will cover</p>
+<p begin="0:00:05.866" dur="0:00:07.367">our first five lectures and the<br />first two homework assignments.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:13.233" dur="0:00:05.233">And so I list here the topics<br />the way we discussed them.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:18.466" dur="0:00:05.534">Of course, it is not possible<br />to discuss all of them today</p>
+<p begin="0:00:24.000" dur="0:00:05.166">but I will make a selection.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:29.166" dur="0:00:04.434">I recall<br />that we discussed scaling</p>
+<p begin="0:00:33.600" dur="0:00:05.900">and we used the interesting<br />example of Galileo Galilei--</p>
+<p begin="0:00:39.500" dur="0:00:04.266">an animal,<br />and the animal has legs.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:43.766" dur="0:00:06.934">And we defined the overall size<br />of the animal as yea big--</p>
+<p begin="0:00:50.700" dur="0:00:02.200">we called that "s."</p>
+<p begin="0:00:52.900" dur="0:00:05.233">And then we said,<br />well, there is here the femur</p>
+<p begin="0:00:58.133" dur="0:00:06.333">and the femur has length l<br />and thickness d.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:04.466" dur="0:00:01.867">It was completely reasonable<br />to say</p>
+<p begin="0:01:06.333" dur="0:00:04.067">well... that l will have<br />to be proportional to S.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:10.400" dur="0:00:02.600">If an animal is<br />ten times larger than another</p>
+<p begin="0:01:13.000" dur="0:00:03.933">its legs will be typically<br />ten times longer.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:16.933" dur="0:00:03.067">Since the mass of the animal</p>
+<p begin="0:01:20.000" dur="0:00:04.100">must be proportional to its size<br />to the power three</p>
+<p begin="0:01:24.100" dur="0:00:03.000">it will also be proportional<br />to the length of the femur</p>
+<p begin="0:01:27.100" dur="0:00:01.366">to the power three,</p>
+<p begin="0:01:28.466" dur="0:00:02.500">and then came in<br />this key argument--</p>
+<p begin="0:01:30.966" dur="0:00:03.534">namely, you don't want<br />the bones to be crushed.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:34.500" dur="0:00:03.166">Which is called "yielding"<br />in physics.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:37.666" dur="0:00:03.134">If I take a piece of concrete,<br />a block of concrete,</p>
+<p begin="0:01:40.800" dur="0:00:03.300">and I put too much pressure<br />on it, it starts to crumble.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:44.100" dur="0:00:04.366">And that's what Galileo Galilei<br />may have had in mind.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:48.466" dur="0:00:03.100">And in order to protect animals</p>
+<p begin="0:01:51.566" dur="0:00:02.367">who get bigger<br />and bigger and bigger</p>
+<p begin="0:01:53.933" dur="0:00:02.367">against this crushing,</p>
+<p begin="0:01:56.300" dur="0:00:01.466">we argued-- and I will not go</p>
+<p begin="0:01:57.766" dur="0:00:01.767">through that argument<br />now anymore--</p>
+<p begin="0:01:59.533" dur="0:00:04.000">that the mass will have to be<br />proportional to d squared,</p>
+<p begin="0:02:03.533" dur="0:00:03.300">which is the cross-section<br />of the femur.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:06.833" dur="0:00:02.067">And so, you see immediately</p>
+<p begin="0:02:08.900" dur="0:00:03.466">that d squared has to be<br />proportional to l to the third</p>
+<p begin="0:02:12.366" dur="0:00:04.134">so d must be proportional<br />to the length of the femur</p>
+<p begin="0:02:16.500" dur="0:00:02.066">to the power one and a half.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:18.566" dur="0:00:03.734">So this would mean that if you<br />compare an elephant with a mouse</p>
+<p begin="0:02:22.300" dur="0:00:02.066">the elephant's overall size is</p>
+<p begin="0:02:24.366" dur="0:00:02.434">about 100 times larger<br />than a mouse.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:26.800" dur="0:00:03.000">You would expect the femur<br />to be about 100 times larger,</p>
+<p begin="0:02:29.800" dur="0:00:01.366">which is true.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:31.166" dur="0:00:02.234">But you would then expect<br />the femur to be</p>
+<p begin="0:02:33.400" dur="0:00:02.500">about 1,000 times thicker</p>
+<p begin="0:02:35.900" dur="0:00:02.933">and that turns out to be<br />not true, as we have seen.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:38.833" dur="0:00:02.067">In fact, the femur<br />of the elephant</p>
+<p begin="0:02:40.900" dur="0:00:04.900">is only 100 times thicker,<br />so it scales just as the size.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:45.800" dur="0:00:02.300">And the answer lies in the fact</p>
+<p begin="0:02:48.100" dur="0:00:02.400">that nature doesn't have<br />to protect</p>
+<p begin="0:02:50.500" dur="0:00:04.000">against crumbling of the bones.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:54.500" dur="0:00:04.100">There is a much larger danger,<br />which we call "buckling."</p>
+<p begin="0:02:58.600" dur="0:00:06.400">And buckling is the phenomenon<br />that the bones do this</p>
+<p begin="0:03:05.000" dur="0:00:02.933">and if now you put too much<br />pressure on it</p>
+<p begin="0:03:07.933" dur="0:00:01.567">the bones will break.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:09.500" dur="0:00:04.566">And if that's the case,<br />you remember that, in fact,</p>
+<p begin="0:03:14.066" dur="0:00:04.400">all you have to do is you have<br />to scale d proportional to l,</p>
+<p begin="0:03:18.466" dur="0:00:03.534">which is not intuitive--<br />that's not so easy to derive--</p>
+<p begin="0:03:22.000" dur="0:00:02.666">but that's the case.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:24.666" dur="0:00:03.800">And so the danger, then, that<br />nature protects animals against</p>
+<p begin="0:03:28.466" dur="0:00:03.434">is this buckling, and when<br />the buckling becomes too much</p>
+<p begin="0:03:31.900" dur="0:00:04.900">then, I would imagine, the<br />bones, at some point in time--</p>
+<p begin="0:03:36.800" dur="0:00:02.466">well, these are tough bones,<br />aren't they?--</p>
+<p begin="0:03:39.266" dur="0:00:01.167">(<i>snaps</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:03:40.433" dur="0:00:03.467">will break, and that's<br />what nature tries to prevent.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:43.900" dur="0:00:03.266">So that was a scaling argument.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:47.166" dur="0:00:04.534">And let's now talk<br />about dot products.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:51.700" dur="0:00:01.100">If I look there...</p>
+<p begin="0:03:52.800" dur="0:00:02.933">I scan it a little bit<br />in a random way over my topics,</p>
+<p begin="0:03:55.733" dur="0:00:05.967">so let's now talk<br />about dot products.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:01.700" dur="0:00:03.766">I have a vector A...</p>
+<p begin="0:04:05.466" dur="0:00:04.700">Ax times x roof, which is the<br />unit vector in the x direction,</p>
+<p begin="0:04:10.166" dur="0:00:06.634">plus Ay y roof plus Az Z roof.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:16.800" dur="0:00:02.000">So these are<br />the three unit vectors</p>
+<p begin="0:04:18.800" dur="0:00:01.533">in the x, y and z direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:20.333" dur="0:00:02.767">And these are the x components,<br />y and the z component</p>
+<p begin="0:04:23.100" dur="0:00:02.000">of the vector A.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:25.100" dur="0:00:02.300">I have another vector, B.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:27.400" dur="0:00:07.966">B of x, x roof, B of y, y roof,</p>
+<p begin="0:04:35.366" dur="0:00:03.600">B of z, z roof.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:38.966" dur="0:00:02.467">Now, the dot product...</p>
+<p begin="0:04:41.433" dur="0:00:05.333">A dot B-- also called<br />the scalar product--</p>
+<p begin="0:04:46.766" dur="0:00:03.934">is the same as B dot A</p>
+<p begin="0:04:50.700" dur="0:00:08.000">and it is defined as Ax Bx<br />plus Ay By plus Az Bz.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:06.000" dur="0:00:01.600">And it's a number.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:07.600" dur="0:00:02.866">It is a scalar,<br />it is a simple number.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:10.466" dur="0:00:05.500">And so this number can be larger<br />than zero-- it can be positive--</p>
+<p begin="0:05:15.966" dur="0:00:03.300">it can be equal to zero, it can<br />also be smaller than zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:19.266" dur="0:00:03.300">They're just dumb numbers.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:22.566" dur="0:00:03.000">There is another way<br />that you can define...</p>
+<p begin="0:05:25.566" dur="0:00:04.667">You can call this method number<br />one, if you prefer that.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:30.233" dur="0:00:04.533">There is another way that<br />you can find the dot product.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:34.766" dur="0:00:03.034">It would give you exactly<br />the same result.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:37.800" dur="0:00:07.933">If you have a vector A<br />and you have the vector B</p>
+<p begin="0:05:45.733" dur="0:00:03.567">and the angle<br />between them is theta,</p>
+<p begin="0:05:49.300" dur="0:00:02.966">then you can project B on A--</p>
+<p begin="0:05:52.266" dur="0:00:03.000">or A on B, for that matter,<br />it makes no difference--</p>
+<p begin="0:05:55.266" dur="0:00:05.267">and that projection...<br />the length of this projection</p>
+<p begin="0:06:00.533" dur="0:00:04.467">is then, of course,<br />B cosine theta.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:05.000" dur="0:00:04.966">And so A dot B...</p>
+<p begin="0:06:09.966" dur="0:00:01.634">and that is exactly the same.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:11.600" dur="0:00:03.766">You may want to go<br />through a proof of that.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:15.366" dur="0:00:05.867">It is the length of A<br />times the length of B</p>
+<p begin="0:06:21.233" dur="0:00:03.633">times cosine of theta.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:24.866" dur="0:00:03.200">And that will give you<br />precisely the same result.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:28.066" dur="0:00:04.367">What is interesting about this<br />formulation, which this lacks,</p>
+<p begin="0:06:32.433" dur="0:00:01.933">that you can immediately see</p>
+<p begin="0:06:34.366" dur="0:00:04.234">that if the two are<br />at 90-degree angles</p>
+<p begin="0:06:38.600" dur="0:00:04.700">or 270 degrees, for that matter,<br />then the dot product is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:43.300" dur="0:00:02.433">So that's an insight<br />that you get through this one</p>
+<p begin="0:06:45.733" dur="0:00:04.767">which you lack<br />through that other method.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:50.500" dur="0:00:07.666">Let us take a down-to-earth<br />example of a dot product.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:58.166" dur="0:00:05.467">Suppose A equals 3x</p>
+<p begin="0:07:03.633" dur="0:00:07.500">and B equals 2x plus 2y,</p>
+<p begin="0:07:11.133" dur="0:00:02.700">and I am asking you,<br />what is the dot product?</p>
+<p begin="0:07:13.833" dur="0:00:04.967">Well, you could use method<br />number one, which, in this case</p>
+<p begin="0:07:18.800" dur="0:00:03.366">is by far the fastest,<br />believe me.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:22.166" dur="0:00:04.700">Ax is 3 and Bx is 2,<br />so that gives me a 6.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:31.233" dur="0:00:04.500">There is no Ay, there is no Az,<br />so that's the answer.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:35.733" dur="0:00:02.667">It's just 6--<br />that's the dot product.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:38.400" dur="0:00:03.166">You could have done it that way.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:41.566" dur="0:00:02.000">It's a little bit<br />more complicated</p>
+<p begin="0:07:43.566" dur="0:00:04.467">but I certainly want<br />to show you that it works.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:48.033" dur="0:00:05.033">If this is the x direction<br />and this is the y direction--</p>
+<p begin="0:07:53.066" dur="0:00:01.867">we don't have to look<br />into the z direction</p>
+<p begin="0:07:54.933" dur="0:00:02.067">because there is<br />no z component--</p>
+<p begin="0:07:57.000" dur="0:00:05.900">then this would be vector A</p>
+<p begin="0:08:02.900" dur="0:00:04.433">and this point would be at 3.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:07.333" dur="0:00:08.667">B... this would be 2,<br />and this would be 2</p>
+<p begin="0:08:16.000" dur="0:00:06.100">and so this would be<br />the vector B.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:22.100" dur="0:00:04.966">And it's immediately clear now<br />that this angle... 45 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:27.066" dur="0:00:02.167">That follows<br />from the 2 and the 2.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:29.233" dur="0:00:07.300">So if we now apply<br />method number two, A dot B.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:36.533" dur="0:00:04.467">First the length of A, that's 3,</p>
+<p begin="0:08:41.000" dur="0:00:04.466">times the length of B,<br />that is 2,</p>
+<p begin="0:08:45.466" dur="0:00:02.267">times the square root of 2--</p>
+<p begin="0:08:47.733" dur="0:00:02.367">this is 2, this is 2,<br />this is 2... square root 2--</p>
+<p begin="0:08:50.100" dur="0:00:06.333">times the cosine of 45 degrees,<br />which is one-half square root 2,</p>
+<p begin="0:08:56.433" dur="0:00:01.467">and the answer is 6.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:57.900" dur="0:00:03.166">Notice that<br />this square root of 2</p>
+<p begin="0:09:01.066" dur="0:00:02.467">and this square root of 2<br />equal just 2, and you get 6.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:03.533" dur="0:00:01.567">You get the same answer,<br />of course.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:05.100" dur="0:00:01.666">But it would be<br />a dumb thing to do it</p>
+<p begin="0:09:06.766" dur="0:00:04.167">since it can be done<br />so much easier.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:10.933" dur="0:00:02.800">On cross products...</p>
+<p begin="0:09:13.733" dur="0:00:02.267">I don't want to go<br />through the formalism</p>
+<p begin="0:09:16.000" dur="0:00:03.533">of cross products the way we<br />did that with the determinant.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:19.533" dur="0:00:02.833">I just want to remind you</p>
+<p begin="0:09:22.366" dur="0:00:05.134">that if you have a cross product<br />of two vectors,</p>
+<p begin="0:09:27.500" dur="0:00:05.700">that is minus B cross A,</p>
+<p begin="0:09:33.200" dur="0:00:07.566">and that the magnitude of C</p>
+<p begin="0:09:40.766" dur="0:00:04.100">is the length of A<br />times the length of B</p>
+<p begin="0:09:44.866" dur="0:00:04.167">times the sine<br />of the angle between them.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:52.900" dur="0:00:03.933">The vector C, the dot product...<br />the cross product</p>
+<p begin="0:09:56.833" dur="0:00:05.467">is always perpendicular to<br />both A and perpendicular to B.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:02.300" dur="0:00:02.333">In other words,<br />it's perpendicular to the plane</p>
+<p begin="0:10:04.633" dur="0:00:02.367">of the two vectors.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:07.000" dur="0:00:03.000">Now, if it's perpendicular<br />to the plane,</p>
+<p begin="0:10:10.000" dur="0:00:02.600">then in that case, it's<br />perpendicular to the blackboard.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:12.600" dur="0:00:01.000">You have two choices:</p>
+<p begin="0:10:13.600" dur="0:00:01.800">it's either coming<br />at you perpendicular</p>
+<p begin="0:10:15.400" dur="0:00:02.800">or it's coming right<br />straight into the blackboard.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:18.200" dur="0:00:03.566">And now everyone has<br />his own way of doing it.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:21.766" dur="0:00:06.000">I taught you what's called<br />"the right-hand corkscrew" rule.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:27.766" dur="0:00:03.900">You take the first one that is<br />mentioned-- in this case, A--</p>
+<p begin="0:10:31.666" dur="0:00:04.400">and you rotate it<br />over the shortest angle to B.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:36.066" dur="0:00:03.034">When you do that,<br />you rotate your corkscrew--</p>
+<p begin="0:10:39.100" dur="0:00:02.266">seen from where you're sitting--<br />counterclockwise.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:41.366" dur="0:00:01.800">Then the corkscrew comes to you.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:43.166" dur="0:00:02.067">And so the direction<br />of the vector</p>
+<p begin="0:10:45.233" dur="0:00:02.400">is such that you will see<br />the tip of the vector</p>
+<p begin="0:10:47.633" dur="0:00:03.167">as though it's coming<br />straight out of the blackboard.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:50.800" dur="0:00:04.166">And so that gives you,<br />then, the direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:00.833" dur="0:00:04.967">Now I will give you<br />the position x of an object</p>
+<p begin="0:11:05.800" dur="0:00:01.833">as a function of time</p>
+<p begin="0:11:07.633" dur="0:00:04.167">and then we're going to ask<br />ourselves a lot of questions</p>
+<p begin="0:11:11.800" dur="0:00:03.866">about velocities, accelerations,</p>
+<p begin="0:11:15.666" dur="0:00:04.934">sort of everything<br />you can think of,</p>
+<p begin="0:11:20.600" dur="0:00:02.366">everything we have covered--<br />speeds...</p>
+<p begin="0:11:22.966" dur="0:00:02.334">And I will cover here<br />four seconds of time.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:25.300" dur="0:00:05.900">So this is the time axis<br />in seconds</p>
+<p begin="0:11:31.200" dur="0:00:03.333">and we will cover four seconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:34.533" dur="0:00:08.467">So let this be<br />one, two, three, four.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:43.000" dur="0:00:08.633">And let the object be<br />at position plus six.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:51.633" dur="0:00:05.567">This is my x-axis, this is where<br />the object is actually moving,</p>
+<p begin="0:11:57.200" dur="0:00:06.400">and this is three,<br />and here is minus three</p>
+<p begin="0:12:03.600" dur="0:00:02.700">and this, let's say,<br />is in meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:08.866" dur="0:00:02.567">Let's make a little grid</p>
+<p begin="0:12:11.433" dur="0:00:04.600">so that's easier for me<br />to put in the curve.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:29.733" dur="0:00:07.167">All right, so now comes<br />x as a function of t.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:36.900" dur="0:00:03.733">The time t equals t seconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:40.633" dur="0:00:07.833">The object is here<br />and it came from there.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:48.466" dur="0:00:07.000">And this part is a parabola</p>
+<p begin="0:12:55.466" dur="0:00:03.934">and this parabola<br />here is horizontal.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:59.400" dur="0:00:02.300">It's important,<br />you have to know that,</p>
+<p begin="0:13:01.700" dur="0:00:04.033">so this is a parabola</p>
+<p begin="0:13:05.733" dur="0:00:05.333">and this, here, is horizontal.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:11.066" dur="0:00:03.900">So the object goes<br />from plus six to three,</p>
+<p begin="0:13:14.966" dur="0:00:02.434">then it goes to minus three,</p>
+<p begin="0:13:17.400" dur="0:00:02.900">then it stays there<br />for one second</p>
+<p begin="0:13:20.300" dur="0:00:07.800">and then it goes back<br />in one second to plus six.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:28.100" dur="0:00:03.366">It's a one-dimensional problem.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:31.466" dur="0:00:04.734">The motion is only in the<br />x-axis, along the x direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:36.200" dur="0:00:04.800">Well, let's analyze all these<br />different seconds that occur.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:41.000" dur="0:00:08.300">Let's first take the first<br />second, during the first second.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:49.300" dur="0:00:01.666">Since this is a parabola,</p>
+<p begin="0:13:50.966" dur="0:00:03.667">you know that<br />the acceleration is constant</p>
+<p begin="0:13:54.633" dur="0:00:02.367">so I hope<br />you will conclude immediately</p>
+<p begin="0:13:57.000" dur="0:00:02.266">that a must be a constant.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:59.266" dur="0:00:04.567">If a is a constant, the<br />position x as a function of time</p>
+<p begin="0:14:03.833" dur="0:00:02.800">should change as follows:</p>
+<p begin="0:14:06.633" dur="0:00:08.033">x zero plus v zero t<br />plus one-half a t squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:17.500" dur="0:00:03.000">I expect you to know<br />this equation.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:20.500" dur="0:00:05.200">Very often do I give you<br />equations at the exam</p>
+<p begin="0:14:25.700" dur="0:00:02.900">and that may well happen during<br />the second and the third exam,</p>
+<p begin="0:14:28.600" dur="0:00:01.866">but it will not be the case<br />this time.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:30.466" dur="0:00:02.834">The equations are<br />all very fundamental</p>
+<p begin="0:14:33.300" dur="0:00:03.566">and you have to make them<br />part of your world.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:36.866" dur="0:00:05.100">So this is an equation<br />that you will have to remember.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:41.966" dur="0:00:05.600">All right,<br />what is the velocity here?</p>
+<p begin="0:14:47.566" dur="0:00:04.534">The velocity starts out<br />to be zero</p>
+<p begin="0:14:52.100" dur="0:00:04.433">and the velocity here is<br />not zero anymore.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:56.533" dur="0:00:06.833">If I look at time t equals one,</p>
+<p begin="0:15:03.366" dur="0:00:03.100">then I have here x zero or six.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:06.466" dur="0:00:04.134">It starts out with<br />velocity zero-- that's a given.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:10.600" dur="0:00:02.733">And I get plus one-half<br />times a t squared</p>
+<p begin="0:15:13.333" dur="0:00:04.367">but this is only one second,</p>
+<p begin="0:15:17.700" dur="0:00:05.833">and so when it is at three,</p>
+<p begin="0:15:23.533" dur="0:00:05.233">I have six plus one-half a<br />times one squared,</p>
+<p begin="0:15:28.766" dur="0:00:01.067">and so you find</p>
+<p begin="0:15:29.833" dur="0:00:04.900">that a equals minus six meters<br />per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:34.733" dur="0:00:02.767">So during this first second</p>
+<p begin="0:15:37.500" dur="0:00:05.000">the acceleration is minus six<br />meters per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:42.500" dur="0:00:04.366">And the velocity, v,<br />as a function of time,</p>
+<p begin="0:15:46.866" dur="0:00:06.100">is the derivative of this one,<br />is v zero plus at.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:52.966" dur="0:00:05.000">V zero was zero, and so<br />that is minus six times t.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:57.966" dur="0:00:05.034">So the velocity is changing<br />in a linear fashion.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:03.000" dur="0:00:06.133">What do I know about<br />the end of the first second?</p>
+<p begin="0:16:09.133" dur="0:00:05.833">Well, I can say that x is three.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:14.966" dur="0:00:01.734">What do I know<br />about the velocity?</p>
+<p begin="0:16:16.700" dur="0:00:04.733">Well, the velocity is minus six.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:24.533" dur="0:00:03.567">What do I know about a?</p>
+<p begin="0:16:28.100" dur="0:00:03.966">I don't... I don't know about a.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:32.066" dur="0:00:02.767">It's true that<br />during this first second</p>
+<p begin="0:16:34.833" dur="0:00:02.033">a is minus six meters<br />per second squared,</p>
+<p begin="0:16:36.866" dur="0:00:01.934">but it changes abruptly<br />at this point</p>
+<p begin="0:16:38.800" dur="0:00:01.500">so it's ill-defined<br />at this point.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:40.300" dur="0:00:01.566">In fact, it's<br />actually nonphysical.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:41.866" dur="0:00:02.967">So I really don't know<br />exactly at the end</p>
+<p begin="0:16:44.833" dur="0:00:03.800">what the acceleration is.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:51.766" dur="0:00:02.667">Let's now go<br />to the second second</p>
+<p begin="0:16:54.433" dur="0:00:02.800">and let's see<br />what happens there.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:02.100" dur="0:00:03.100">The second second.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:05.200" dur="0:00:05.433">And first let's look during,</p>
+<p begin="0:17:10.633" dur="0:00:03.567">and then we'll look<br />at the situation at the end.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:14.200" dur="0:00:03.266">During the second second,<br />it is clear--</p>
+<p begin="0:17:17.466" dur="0:00:02.400">since this is a straight line--</p>
+<p begin="0:17:19.866" dur="0:00:02.634">that the velocity<br />remains constant</p>
+<p begin="0:17:22.500" dur="0:00:02.800">and it remains<br />minus six meters per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:25.300" dur="0:00:02.666">That is exactly what it was<br />at this point at the end.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:27.966" dur="0:00:02.700">You can see it go six meters--</p>
+<p begin="0:17:30.666" dur="0:00:03.434">from plus three<br />to minus three-- in one second</p>
+<p begin="0:17:34.100" dur="0:00:06.800">so the velocity is<br />minus six meters per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:40.900" dur="0:00:04.333">The acceleration is<br />therefore zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:45.233" dur="0:00:02.033">You see that the acceleration<br />changes abruptly</p>
+<p begin="0:17:47.266" dur="0:00:02.734">from minus six meters<br />per second squared to zero</p>
+<p begin="0:17:50.000" dur="0:00:05.233">so I can't tell you what it is<br />exactly at this moment in time.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:55.233" dur="0:00:06.400">So that's the situation<br />during the second second.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:01.633" dur="0:00:01.667">And what is the situation</p>
+<p begin="0:18:03.300" dur="0:00:05.866">at the end of the second<br />section... second second?</p>
+<p begin="0:18:09.166" dur="0:00:05.167">At the end, I know<br />that x equals minus three.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:14.333" dur="0:00:02.133">What is the velocity?</p>
+<p begin="0:18:16.466" dur="0:00:03.234">I don't know, because<br />it changes abruptly here</p>
+<p begin="0:18:19.700" dur="0:00:01.400">from minus six to zero,</p>
+<p begin="0:18:21.100" dur="0:00:02.233">so I don't know exactly<br />what it is at that point.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:23.333" dur="0:00:03.867">It's a nonphysical thing,<br />it's a very abrupt change.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:27.200" dur="0:00:06.133">And the acceleration, yeah,<br />that's also a very tricky thing,</p>
+<p begin="0:18:33.333" dur="0:00:02.033">because if the velocity</p>
+<p begin="0:18:35.366" dur="0:00:03.067">is minus six on this side<br />of the two seconds</p>
+<p begin="0:18:38.433" dur="0:00:04.833">and here becomes zero, and if<br />that happens in a split second,</p>
+<p begin="0:18:43.266" dur="0:00:02.600">there must be<br />a<i>huge</i>acceleration</p>
+<p begin="0:18:45.866" dur="0:00:03.167">just at that point<br />which is nonphysical.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:49.033" dur="0:00:03.000">So I would also put a question<br />mark at the a...</p>
+<p begin="0:18:52.033" dur="0:00:03.000">I don't know what the a is.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:55.033" dur="0:00:03.033">So we'll go to the<br />third second... this part.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:01.833" dur="0:00:04.433">Let's first look during<br />the third second.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:06.266" dur="0:00:02.834">Well, the object<br />isn't going anywhere,</p>
+<p begin="0:19:09.100" dur="0:00:01.900">it's just sitting there.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:11.000" dur="0:00:05.333">x remains minus three</p>
+<p begin="0:19:16.333" dur="0:00:05.233">and the velocity is zero<br />and a is zero--</p>
+<p begin="0:19:21.566" dur="0:00:02.567">We can agree on that.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:24.133" dur="0:00:04.800">What is the situation<br />at the end of the third second?</p>
+<p begin="0:19:28.933" dur="0:00:02.433">That means t equals three.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:31.366" dur="0:00:02.267">Well, all I know is<br />that x is minus three.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:33.633" dur="0:00:02.500">That's nonnegotiable.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:36.133" dur="0:00:02.500">What the velocity is,<br />I don't know,</p>
+<p begin="0:19:38.633" dur="0:00:04.467">because it's changing abruptly<br />from zero to a positive value.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:43.100" dur="0:00:03.033">So that's ill-defined</p>
+<p begin="0:19:46.133" dur="0:00:01.967">and the same is true<br />for the acceleration.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:48.100" dur="0:00:02.000">There is a sudden change<br />in velocity.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:50.100" dur="0:00:02.466">That means there must be<br />a huge acceleration.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:52.566" dur="0:00:03.234">It's unknown, ill-defined</p>
+<p begin="0:19:55.800" dur="0:00:04.533">because this curve is,<br />of course, not very physical.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:00.333" dur="0:00:03.300">Let's now look<br />at the last second.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:03.633" dur="0:00:03.433">This is the fourth second.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:07.066" dur="0:00:02.200">First, during.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:10.766" dur="0:00:02.634">Well, it's going<br />from minus three to plus six</p>
+<p begin="0:20:13.400" dur="0:00:02.933">and it's a straight line,<br />so the velocity is constant.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:16.333" dur="0:00:01.300">If the velocity is constant</p>
+<p begin="0:20:17.633" dur="0:00:02.400">then you can immediately<br />conclude that a is zero--</p>
+<p begin="0:20:20.033" dur="0:00:01.733">there is no acceleration--</p>
+<p begin="0:20:21.766" dur="0:00:03.734">and it goes nine meters<br />in a time span of one second.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:25.500" dur="0:00:05.933">But it's now plus--<br />plus nine meters per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:31.433" dur="0:00:05.333">So the object first went<br />from positive values of x</p>
+<p begin="0:20:36.766" dur="0:00:02.534">to zero<br />and to negative values for x.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:39.300" dur="0:00:03.700">During all that time,<br />the velocity was negative</p>
+<p begin="0:20:43.000" dur="0:00:01.800">by our sign convention</p>
+<p begin="0:20:44.800" dur="0:00:04.133">and now the velocity,<br />it goes back to plus six.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:48.933" dur="0:00:04.767">The velocity becomes<br />plus nine meters per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:53.700" dur="0:00:03.166">What is the story at the end<br />of the fourth second?</p>
+<p begin="0:20:56.866" dur="0:00:03.434">Well, all I can say is<br />that x equals plus six.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:00.300" dur="0:00:01.733">I don't know much more.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:02.033" dur="0:00:01.533">I don't know<br />what the velocity is.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:03.566" dur="0:00:01.900">Neither do I know<br />what the acceleration is.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:05.466" dur="0:00:03.367">The plot stops there, anyhow.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:11.000" dur="0:00:02.366">Now, I would think</p>
+<p begin="0:21:13.366" dur="0:00:02.367">that it is reasonable<br />to ask the following question:</p>
+<p begin="0:21:15.733" dur="0:00:02.667">What is the average velocity,<br />for instance,</p>
+<p begin="0:21:18.400" dur="0:00:02.933">between time zero and time four?</p>
+<p begin="0:21:21.333" dur="0:00:02.367">Average velocity.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:23.700" dur="0:00:01.500">We define average velocity</p>
+<p begin="0:21:25.200" dur="0:00:04.000">as the position<br />at time four seconds</p>
+<p begin="0:21:29.200" dur="0:00:03.666">minus the position at time zero,<br />divided by four.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:32.866" dur="0:00:01.767">That is our definition.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:34.633" dur="0:00:04.333">At zero, it is at plus six,<br />at four, it is at plus six.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:38.966" dur="0:00:01.967">So the upstairs is zero,</p>
+<p begin="0:21:40.933" dur="0:00:06.167">so the average velocity during<br />this four-second trip is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:47.100" dur="0:00:03.400">You may not like that, it may go<br />against your intuition.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:50.500" dur="0:00:02.400">Of course!<br />I couldn't agree more with you</p>
+<p begin="0:21:52.900" dur="0:00:02.100">but that's the way<br />we define velocity.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:55.000" dur="0:00:02.566">Speed is defined differently.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:57.566" dur="0:00:03.534">Speed is the magnitude<br />of the velocity vector</p>
+<p begin="0:22:01.100" dur="0:00:03.433">and the speed, therefore,<br />always has a positive value.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:04.533" dur="0:00:01.367">And I will show you now</p>
+<p begin="0:22:05.900" dur="0:00:07.733">what is the average speed<br />between time zero and four.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:13.633" dur="0:00:01.067">That is the distance</p>
+<p begin="0:22:14.700" dur="0:00:02.433">that it has traveled<br />in these four seconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:17.133" dur="0:00:02.700">Well, let's first go<br />through the first second.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:19.833" dur="0:00:02.667">It goes from plus six<br />to plus three.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:22.500" dur="0:00:03.333">So it already travels<br />three meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:25.833" dur="0:00:01.833">Then in the second second</p>
+<p begin="0:22:27.666" dur="0:00:02.167">it goes from plus three<br />to minus three</p>
+<p begin="0:22:29.833" dur="0:00:02.833">so it travels<br />another six meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:32.666" dur="0:00:01.434">And then in the third second</p>
+<p begin="0:22:34.100" dur="0:00:02.866">it's lazy,<br />it doesn't do anything,</p>
+<p begin="0:22:36.966" dur="0:00:03.167">so the distance traveled<br />is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:40.133" dur="0:00:01.800">And then in the last one second</p>
+<p begin="0:22:41.933" dur="0:00:04.500">it gets very active<br />and it travels nine meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:46.433" dur="0:00:02.300">Notice you only see<br />plus signs here.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:48.733" dur="0:00:03.167">There are no minus signs,<br />it would make no sense.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:51.900" dur="0:00:02.966">And this occurs in four seconds,</p>
+<p begin="0:22:54.866" dur="0:00:08.000">so that is 4.5 meters<br />per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:02.866" dur="0:00:02.934">So the average speed is<br />4.5 meters per second,</p>
+<p begin="0:23:05.800" dur="0:00:05.066">but the average velocity<br />is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:10.866" dur="0:00:09.234">We could now make a plot of the<br />velocity as a function of time.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:20.100" dur="0:00:04.400">Let me put here the 4.5.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:24.500" dur="0:00:04.233">I just have enough room here<br />to make the velocity plot</p>
+<p begin="0:23:28.733" dur="0:00:02.800">as a function of time.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:31.533" dur="0:00:03.833">I'll make a new one.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:35.366" dur="0:00:08.000">This is my time axis,<br />and this is the velocity.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:45.533" dur="0:00:01.567">This is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:47.100" dur="0:00:07.400">One second, two seconds,<br />three seconds, four seconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:54.500" dur="0:00:06.533">And this velocity is<br />in meters per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:01.033" dur="0:00:07.933">I go up here to plus ten</p>
+<p begin="0:24:08.966" dur="0:00:07.967">and here is minus five,<br />here is minus six.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:16.933" dur="0:00:01.967">So, what do I do now?</p>
+<p begin="0:24:18.900" dur="0:00:04.500">I know that the velocity during<br />the first second is minus six t</p>
+<p begin="0:24:23.400" dur="0:00:02.800">so it's linear.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:26.200" dur="0:00:05.133">And so during the first second</p>
+<p begin="0:24:31.333" dur="0:00:04.333">this is the velocity<br />as a function of time.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:35.666" dur="0:00:03.734">It starts at zero,<br />you can see that,</p>
+<p begin="0:24:39.400" dur="0:00:01.466">and when it is here</p>
+<p begin="0:24:40.866" dur="0:00:03.767">it has a velocity<br />of minus six meters per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:44.633" dur="0:00:03.667">During the second second</p>
+<p begin="0:24:48.300" dur="0:00:03.300">it remains<br />minus six meters per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:51.600" dur="0:00:07.800">So during the second second,<br />the velocity is not changing.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:59.400" dur="0:00:02.200">It stays there.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:01.600" dur="0:00:03.033">During the third second</p>
+<p begin="0:25:04.633" dur="0:00:02.700">the velocity jumps<br />all of a sudden to zero--</p>
+<p begin="0:25:07.333" dur="0:00:02.233">you see<br />how nonphysical that is.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:09.566" dur="0:00:02.300">And so all of a sudden,<br />during the third second</p>
+<p begin="0:25:11.866" dur="0:00:02.167">it becomes zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:14.033" dur="0:00:01.233">So there has to be somehow</p>
+<p begin="0:25:15.266" dur="0:00:01.867">a connection, of course,<br />between the two</p>
+<p begin="0:25:17.133" dur="0:00:01.167">to make this physical.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:18.300" dur="0:00:03.166">So in a very small amount<br />of time that will have to occur.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:21.466" dur="0:00:04.234">That's why you get a<i>huge</i><br />acceleration here at that point.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:25.700" dur="0:00:02.833">Of course, you also get an<br />acceleration here at this point,</p>
+<p begin="0:25:28.533" dur="0:00:02.133">because there's also<br />a change in velocity.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:30.666" dur="0:00:02.534">And then,<br />during the fourth second,</p>
+<p begin="0:25:33.200" dur="0:00:02.833">the velocity is<br />plus nine meters per second,</p>
+<p begin="0:25:36.033" dur="0:00:01.033">and so we jump up.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:39.900" dur="0:00:03.233">Let's make this plus nine.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:48.566" dur="0:00:05.867">And so we have here<br />during the last second...</p>
+<p begin="0:25:54.433" dur="0:00:01.500">And again, this is nonphysical,</p>
+<p begin="0:25:55.933" dur="0:00:01.933">so there has to be<br />somehow a transition.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:57.866" dur="0:00:05.134">And so here you see the velocity<br />as a function of time.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:03.000" dur="0:00:02.600">Now comes<br />an interesting question.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:05.600" dur="0:00:04.466">Is it possible,<br />if I gave you this--</p>
+<p begin="0:26:10.066" dur="0:00:03.467">so this is a given,<br />you can't see that--</p>
+<p begin="0:26:13.533" dur="0:00:02.800">could you convert<br />this back to that?</p>
+<p begin="0:26:16.333" dur="0:00:01.667">And the answer is yes,</p>
+<p begin="0:26:18.000" dur="0:00:04.833">provided that I tell you<br />what the position is at t zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:22.833" dur="0:00:05.300">At t equals zero,<br />x equals plus six</p>
+<p begin="0:26:28.133" dur="0:00:01.500">and that is sufficient</p>
+<p begin="0:26:29.633" dur="0:00:04.700">for you to use this information<br />and to reconstruct that.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:34.333" dur="0:00:03.467">It's an interesting thing to do,<br />and if you feel like it</p>
+<p begin="0:26:37.800" dur="0:00:02.800">I would say, give it a shot.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:40.600" dur="0:00:04.000">All right, so far, about speeds</p>
+<p begin="0:26:44.600" dur="0:00:05.166">and average velocities<br />and accelerations.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:49.766" dur="0:00:07.400">Let's now go to trajectories,<br />three-dimensional trajectories.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:57.166" dur="0:00:02.800">Trajectories, thank goodness,</p>
+<p begin="0:26:59.966" dur="0:00:03.634">are almost<br />never three-dimensional.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:03.600" dur="0:00:01.733">They're always two-dimensional,</p>
+<p begin="0:27:05.333" dur="0:00:03.467">because the trajectory itself<br />is in a vertical plane</p>
+<p begin="0:27:08.800" dur="0:00:01.433">and so we normally...</p>
+<p begin="0:27:10.233" dur="0:00:03.467">When we throw up an object<br />in a gravitational field,</p>
+<p begin="0:27:13.700" dur="0:00:04.166">you have the trajectory<br />in a plane.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:22.533" dur="0:00:05.633">So we're going to have<br />one trajectory.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:28.166" dur="0:00:08.634">Let this be the x direction<br />and let this be the y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:36.800" dur="0:00:06.766">Increasing values of y,<br />increasing values of x.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:43.566" dur="0:00:02.067">I take an object</p>
+<p begin="0:27:45.633" dur="0:00:06.467">and I throw it up with<br />an initial velocity v zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:52.100" dur="0:00:02.266">And what is the object<br />going to do?</p>
+<p begin="0:27:54.366" dur="0:00:04.934">You're going to get a parabola<br />under the influence of gravity</p>
+<p begin="0:27:59.300" dur="0:00:03.766">and it comes down here again.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:03.066" dur="0:00:02.767">And where we have<br />this kind of a problem</p>
+<p begin="0:28:05.833" dur="0:00:04.967">we will decompose it<br />in two one-dimensional motions,</p>
+<p begin="0:28:10.800" dur="0:00:05.300">one in the x direction<br />and one in the y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:16.100" dur="0:00:06.500">We already decompose<br />right away the velocity</p>
+<p begin="0:28:22.600" dur="0:00:02.566">at time t equals zero</p>
+<p begin="0:28:25.166" dur="0:00:04.400">into a component<br />which I call v zero x</p>
+<p begin="0:28:29.566" dur="0:00:04.367">and that, of course, is v zero<br />times the cosine of alpha</p>
+<p begin="0:28:33.933" dur="0:00:03.300">if the angle is alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:37.233" dur="0:00:03.300">And the velocity<br />in the y direction</p>
+<p begin="0:28:40.533" dur="0:00:02.233">at time t equals zero--</p>
+<p begin="0:28:42.766" dur="0:00:04.000">I will call that<br />v zero in the y direction</p>
+<p begin="0:28:46.766" dur="0:00:05.234">and that is v zero<br />times the sine of alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:52.000" dur="0:00:03.533">And now I have to know</p>
+<p begin="0:28:55.533" dur="0:00:03.200">how the object moves in the x<br />direction as a function of time</p>
+<p begin="0:28:58.733" dur="0:00:03.533">and how it behaves as a function<br />of time in the y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:02.266" dur="0:00:04.767">So here come the equations<br />for the x direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:07.033" dur="0:00:07.733">x as a function of time equals<br />x zero plus v zero x times t.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:14.766" dur="0:00:05.134">That's all--<br />there is no acceleration.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:19.900" dur="0:00:03.266">The velocity in the x direction<br />as a function of time</p>
+<p begin="0:29:23.166" dur="0:00:04.634">is simply v zero x--<br />it never changes.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:27.800" dur="0:00:04.500">So that's the x direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:32.300" dur="0:00:04.366">Now we take the y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:36.666" dur="0:00:01.867">y as a function of time equals</p>
+<p begin="0:29:38.533" dur="0:00:08.000">y zero plus v zero y t<br />plus one-half at squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:49.066" dur="0:00:04.867">My g value that I'm going<br />to use is always positive--</p>
+<p begin="0:29:53.933" dur="0:00:02.600">either 9.8 meters<br />per second squared</p>
+<p begin="0:29:56.533" dur="0:00:03.200">or sometimes I make it<br />easy to use it, 10--</p>
+<p begin="0:29:59.733" dur="0:00:02.167">but mine is always positive.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:01.900" dur="0:00:02.300">And since in this case</p>
+<p begin="0:30:04.200" dur="0:00:02.633">I have chosen this to be<br />the increasing value of y,</p>
+<p begin="0:30:06.833" dur="0:00:01.333">that's the only reason</p>
+<p begin="0:30:08.166" dur="0:00:04.667">why I would now have to put in<br />minus one-half gt squared--</p>
+<p begin="0:30:12.833" dur="0:00:01.633"><i>not,</i>as some of you think,</p>
+<p begin="0:30:14.466" dur="0:00:01.767">because the acceleration<br />is down.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:16.233" dur="0:00:01.167">That's not a reason.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:17.400" dur="0:00:03.800">Because I could have called<br />this direction increasing y.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:21.200" dur="0:00:03.300">Then it would have been<br />plus one-half gt squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:24.500" dur="0:00:01.700">So the consequence<br />of my choosing</p>
+<p begin="0:30:26.200" dur="0:00:02.533">this the direction<br />in which y increases...</p>
+<p begin="0:30:28.733" dur="0:00:04.067">Therefore, the<br />plus one-half at squared</p>
+<p begin="0:30:32.800" dur="0:00:01.500">that you would normally see,</p>
+<p begin="0:30:34.300" dur="0:00:08.166">I'm going to replace that now<br />by minus one-half gt squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:42.466" dur="0:00:02.900">Then the velocity in the y<br />direction as a function of time</p>
+<p begin="0:30:45.366" dur="0:00:07.134">would be this derivative,<br />that is, v zero y minus gt</p>
+<p begin="0:30:52.500" dur="0:00:03.300">and the acceleration<br />equals minus g.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:55.800" dur="0:00:01.900">So these are the three equations</p>
+<p begin="0:30:57.700" dur="0:00:06.400">that govern the motion<br />in the y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:04.100" dur="0:00:04.933">This only holds<br />if there is no air drag,</p>
+<p begin="0:31:09.033" dur="0:00:01.367">no friction of any kind.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:10.400" dur="0:00:04.333">That is very unrealistic<br />if we are near Earth,</p>
+<p begin="0:31:14.733" dur="0:00:03.767">but when we are<br />far away from Earth,</p>
+<p begin="0:31:18.500" dur="0:00:02.700">as we were with the KC-135--</p>
+<p begin="0:31:21.200" dur="0:00:04.966">which was flying at an altitude<br />of about 30,000 feet--</p>
+<p begin="0:31:26.166" dur="0:00:03.367">that, of course, is<br />a little bit more realistic.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:29.533" dur="0:00:01.300">And therefore the example</p>
+<p begin="0:31:30.833" dur="0:00:02.567">that I have picked<br />to throw up an object</p>
+<p begin="0:31:33.400" dur="0:00:02.933">is the one whereby the KC-135,</p>
+<p begin="0:31:36.333" dur="0:00:03.633">at an altitude somewhere<br />around 25,000 or 30,000 feet,</p>
+<p begin="0:31:39.966" dur="0:00:05.767">comes in at a speed of 425 miles<br />per hour, turns the engines off</p>
+<p begin="0:31:45.733" dur="0:00:03.333">and then, for<br />the remaining whatever it was--</p>
+<p begin="0:31:49.066" dur="0:00:01.567">about 30 seconds--</p>
+<p begin="0:31:50.633" dur="0:00:03.367">everyone, including<br />the airplane, has no weight.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:54.000" dur="0:00:01.300">That's the case</p>
+<p begin="0:31:55.300" dur="0:00:03.800">that I now want to work out<br />quantitatively with you.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:59.100" dur="0:00:02.566">In the case of the KC-135,</p>
+<p begin="0:32:01.666" dur="0:00:03.200">we will take an angle for alpha<br />of 45 degrees</p>
+<p begin="0:32:04.866" dur="0:00:05.834">and we will take v zero, which<br />was about 425 miles per hour.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:10.700" dur="0:00:03.300">You may remember that<br />from that lecture.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:14.000" dur="0:00:04.066">425 miles per hour translates</p>
+<p begin="0:32:18.066" dur="0:00:06.067">into about 189 meters<br />per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:24.133" dur="0:00:05.833">And so that means that the<br />velocity v zero y and v zero x</p>
+<p begin="0:32:29.966" dur="0:00:05.034">are both the same<br />because of the 45-degree angle,</p>
+<p begin="0:32:35.000" dur="0:00:05.966">and that is, of course, the 189<br />divided by the square root of 2.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:40.966" dur="0:00:04.234">And that is<br />about 133 meters per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:45.200" dur="0:00:02.666">Both are positive--<br />keep that in mind</p>
+<p begin="0:32:47.866" dur="0:00:02.867">because this is what I call<br />the increasing value for y</p>
+<p begin="0:32:50.733" dur="0:00:01.667">and this is<br />the increasing value of x.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:52.400" dur="0:00:01.700">They are both positive values.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:54.100" dur="0:00:01.966">Signs do matter.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:56.066" dur="0:00:01.534">This is a given now.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:57.600" dur="0:00:02.933">And now comes the first question<br />that I could ask you on an exam.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:00.533" dur="0:00:06.500">When is the plane at its highest<br />point of its trajectory</p>
+<p begin="0:33:07.033" dur="0:00:02.967">and how high is it<br />above the point</p>
+<p begin="0:33:10.000" dur="0:00:02.200">where it started<br />when it turned the engines off</p>
+<p begin="0:33:12.200" dur="0:00:02.000">when it went into free fall?</p>
+<p begin="0:33:14.200" dur="0:00:04.466">So when is it here<br />and what is this distance?</p>
+<p begin="0:33:18.666" dur="0:00:02.734">Well, when is it there?</p>
+<p begin="0:33:21.400" dur="0:00:03.766">That's when the velocity<br />in the y direction becomes zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:25.166" dur="0:00:01.634">It is positive.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:26.800" dur="0:00:01.433">It gets smaller and smaller</p>
+<p begin="0:33:28.233" dur="0:00:01.833">because of<br />the gravitational acceleration,</p>
+<p begin="0:33:30.066" dur="0:00:01.734">comes to a halt<br />and becomes zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:31.800" dur="0:00:04.733">So I ask this equation,<br />when are you zero?</p>
+<p begin="0:33:36.533" dur="0:00:02.267">This is the one I pick</p>
+<p begin="0:33:38.800" dur="0:00:08.266">and so I say, zero equals<br />plus 133 minus 10 times t.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:47.066" dur="0:00:03.567">You may think that the<br />gravitational acceleration</p>
+<p begin="0:33:50.633" dur="0:00:03.500">at an altitude of 30,000 feet<br />could be substantially less</p>
+<p begin="0:33:54.133" dur="0:00:02.767">than the canonical number of 10.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:56.900" dur="0:00:01.166">It is a little less</p>
+<p begin="0:33:58.066" dur="0:00:03.034">because you're a little bit<br />further away from the Earth,</p>
+<p begin="0:34:01.100" dur="0:00:03.366">but it's only 0.3 percent less,<br />and so we'll just accept the 10.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:04.466" dur="0:00:01.800">It's easy to work with.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:06.266" dur="0:00:03.034">And so when is it<br />at the highest point?</p>
+<p begin="0:34:09.300" dur="0:00:04.033">That is when t<br />equals 13.3 seconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:13.333" dur="0:00:05.133">So that's about how long it<br />takes to get there.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:18.466" dur="0:00:01.667">When I gave<br />the lecture last time,</p>
+<p begin="0:34:20.133" dur="0:00:01.500">I said it's about 15 seconds,</p>
+<p begin="0:34:21.633" dur="0:00:02.500">because I made the numbers...<br />I rounded them off.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:24.133" dur="0:00:03.933">It's about 30.3 seconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:28.066" dur="0:00:01.900">And what is this distance h now?</p>
+<p begin="0:34:29.966" dur="0:00:03.800">Ah! Now I have to go<br />to this equation.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:33.766" dur="0:00:04.867">I say h equals zero, because<br />I'm going to define the point</p>
+<p begin="0:34:38.633" dur="0:00:02.267">where the plane<br />starts its trajectory.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:40.900" dur="0:00:03.400">I call that y zero zero,<br />I'm free to do that.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:44.300" dur="0:00:07.566">h equals zero plus 133--<br />that is the speed--</p>
+<p begin="0:34:51.866" dur="0:00:07.767">times 13.3 seconds minus<br />one-half times g-- that is 5--</p>
+<p begin="0:34:59.633" dur="0:00:04.500">times 13.3 squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:04.133" dur="0:00:03.567">That is what h must be.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:07.700" dur="0:00:06.333">And that turns out to be<br />about 885 meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:14.033" dur="0:00:04.967">I think I told you last time<br />it's about 900, close enough.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:19.000" dur="0:00:02.366">So we know now<br />how long it takes to reach p</p>
+<p begin="0:35:21.366" dur="0:00:03.800">and we know<br />what the vertical distance is.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:25.166" dur="0:00:03.634">And the whole trip<br />back to this starting point--</p>
+<p begin="0:35:28.800" dur="0:00:02.466">if we call this sort<br />of a starting point,</p>
+<p begin="0:35:31.266" dur="0:00:01.200">starting altitude--</p>
+<p begin="0:35:32.466" dur="0:00:03.000">this whole trip will take<br />twice the amount of time.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:35.466" dur="0:00:02.800">To get back to this point<br />when the engines are restarted</p>
+<p begin="0:35:38.266" dur="0:00:05.667">is about 26.5, 27 seconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:43.933" dur="0:00:04.533">How far has the plane traveled,<br />then, in horizontal direction?</p>
+<p begin="0:35:48.466" dur="0:00:04.934">Well, now I go<br />back to this equation.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:53.400" dur="0:00:02.333">So now I say, aha!</p>
+<p begin="0:35:55.733" dur="0:00:03.300">x then,<br />when it is back at this point,</p>
+<p begin="0:35:59.033" dur="0:00:03.800">must be x zero-- which I<br />conveniently choose zero--</p>
+<p begin="0:36:02.833" dur="0:00:02.300">plus 133 meters per second,</p>
+<p begin="0:36:05.133" dur="0:00:03.633">which is the velocity in the x<br />direction, which never changes.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:08.766" dur="0:00:02.967">When the plane is here,<br />that velocity in the x direction</p>
+<p begin="0:36:11.733" dur="0:00:04.667">is the same 133 meters<br />per second as it was here,</p>
+<p begin="0:36:16.400" dur="0:00:02.400">which, by the way,<br />is about 300 miles per hour.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:18.800" dur="0:00:01.433">That never changes</p>
+<p begin="0:36:20.233" dur="0:00:03.500">if there is no air drag<br />or air friction of any kind.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:23.733" dur="0:00:03.800">So we get plus 133<br />times the time</p>
+<p begin="0:36:27.533" dur="0:00:03.667">and the whole trip<br />takes 26.6 seconds,</p>
+<p begin="0:36:31.200" dur="0:00:04.166">and that, if you convert<br />that to kilometers</p>
+<p begin="0:36:35.366" dur="0:00:03.200">is about 3.5 kilometers.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:38.566" dur="0:00:04.934">Now, you could ask yourself<br />the question:</p>
+<p begin="0:36:43.500" dur="0:00:03.900">What is the velocity<br />of that plane</p>
+<p begin="0:36:47.400" dur="0:00:02.966">when it is at that point s?</p>
+<p begin="0:36:51.666" dur="0:00:04.800">And now... you may want<br />to abandon now</p>
+<p begin="0:36:56.466" dur="0:00:02.534">this one-dimensional idea<br />of x and y.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:59.000" dur="0:00:02.100">You may say, "Well, look.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:01.100" dur="0:00:03.200">"This is a parabola and<br />it is completely symmetric.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:04.300" dur="0:00:02.066">"If the plane comes up here</p>
+<p begin="0:37:06.366" dur="0:00:03.834">"with 425 miles per hour<br />at an angle of 45 degrees,</p>
+<p begin="0:37:10.200" dur="0:00:03.800">"then obviously it comes down<br />here at an angle of 45 degrees</p>
+<p begin="0:37:14.000" dur="0:00:03.566">and the speed must again be<br />425 miles per hour."</p>
+<p begin="0:37:17.566" dur="0:00:03.800">And you would score 100 percent,<br />of course-- it's clear.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:21.366" dur="0:00:03.567">I want you<br />to appreciate, however,</p>
+<p begin="0:37:24.933" dur="0:00:03.300">that I could continue<br />to think of this</p>
+<p begin="0:37:28.233" dur="0:00:03.567">as two one-dimensional motions.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:31.800" dur="0:00:03.033">And I can therefore calculate</p>
+<p begin="0:37:34.833" dur="0:00:05.167">what the velocity<br />in the x direction is at s</p>
+<p begin="0:37:40.000" dur="0:00:04.000">and what the velocity<br />in the y direction is at s.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:44.000" dur="0:00:05.800">So what is the velocity<br />in the x direction at point s?</p>
+<p begin="0:37:49.800" dur="0:00:02.866">I go to equation...<br />the second equation there.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:52.666" dur="0:00:07.867">That is v zero x, that is<br />plus 133 meters per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:00.533" dur="0:00:02.633">What is the velocity<br />in the y direction?</p>
+<p begin="0:38:03.166" dur="0:00:02.800">Ah, I have to go<br />to this equation now.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:05.966" dur="0:00:03.167">v zero y minus gt.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:09.133" dur="0:00:05.233">So I get plus 133 minus 10</p>
+<p begin="0:38:14.366" dur="0:00:06.034">times the 26.6 seconds<br />to reach that point s.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:20.400" dur="0:00:01.333">And what do I find?</p>
+<p begin="0:38:21.733" dur="0:00:05.200">Minus 133 meters per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:26.933" dur="0:00:05.033">The velocity in the y direction<br />started off plus 133,</p>
+<p begin="0:38:31.966" dur="0:00:01.867">but now it is minus 133.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:33.833" dur="0:00:02.500">You see, this is sign-sensitive.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:36.333" dur="0:00:01.067">This is wonderful.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:37.400" dur="0:00:02.233">That's the great thing<br />about treating it that way.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:39.633" dur="0:00:03.867">So you now know that it comes<br />in with a velocity</p>
+<p begin="0:38:43.500" dur="0:00:07.366">of 133 in the x direction--<br />positive--</p>
+<p begin="0:38:50.866" dur="0:00:02.767">133 in the minus y direction,</p>
+<p begin="0:38:53.633" dur="0:00:09.400">and so what is the net,<br />the sum of the two vectors?</p>
+<p begin="0:39:03.033" dur="0:00:02.433">That, of course, is this vector</p>
+<p begin="0:39:05.466" dur="0:00:04.634">and no surprise,<br />this angle is 45 degrees</p>
+<p begin="0:39:10.100" dur="0:00:03.400">and this one is<br />the square root of 2 times 133</p>
+<p begin="0:39:13.500" dur="0:00:04.566">and that, of course, gives you<br />back your 189 meters per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:18.066" dur="0:00:09.767">189 meters per second, and<br />that is 425 miles per hour.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:27.833" dur="0:00:03.133">I'm not recommending that<br />you would do this, of course.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:30.966" dur="0:00:01.834">It is perfectly reasonable</p>
+<p begin="0:39:32.800" dur="0:00:02.200">to immediately come<br />to that conclusion</p>
+<p begin="0:39:35.000" dur="0:00:05.600">because of the symmetry<br />of the parabola.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:42.366" dur="0:00:07.100">Let's now turn<br />to uniform circular motion.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:49.466" dur="0:00:04.067">Uniform circular motion occurs</p>
+<p begin="0:39:53.533" dur="0:00:04.600">when an object goes around<br />in a circle</p>
+<p begin="0:39:58.133" dur="0:00:04.300">and when the speed<br />never changes.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:02.433" dur="0:00:02.833">If the speed doesn't change,</p>
+<p begin="0:40:05.266" dur="0:00:02.834">then the velocity,<br />of course, does change</p>
+<p begin="0:40:08.100" dur="0:00:03.366">because the direction changes<br />all the time,</p>
+<p begin="0:40:11.466" dur="0:00:05.800">but the speed does not.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:17.266" dur="0:00:05.900">So here we have our circle.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:23.166" dur="0:00:02.534">Let this be radius r,</p>
+<p begin="0:40:25.700" dur="0:00:04.433">and at this moment in time,<br />the object is here.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:30.133" dur="0:00:03.400">It has a certain velocity.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:33.533" dur="0:00:02.000">This is 90 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:35.533" dur="0:00:01.500">And later in time,</p>
+<p begin="0:40:37.033" dur="0:00:03.500">the object is here,<br />the speed is the same,</p>
+<p begin="0:40:40.533" dur="0:00:04.700">but the direction<br />has changed, 90 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:45.233" dur="0:00:03.533">So these vectors,<br />they have the same length.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:51.066" dur="0:00:01.867">In a situation like this</p>
+<p begin="0:40:52.933" dur="0:00:02.933">that we have<br />uniform circular motion--</p>
+<p begin="0:40:55.866" dur="0:00:05.267">so it's uniform...</p>
+<p begin="0:41:01.133" dur="0:00:05.200">circular motion--</p>
+<p begin="0:41:06.333" dur="0:00:06.667">we first identify what we call<br />the period T in seconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:13.000" dur="0:00:04.000">That's the time to go around.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:17.000" dur="0:00:04.633">Then we identify what we call<br />the frequency,</p>
+<p begin="0:41:21.633" dur="0:00:04.100">that is, how many times<br />it goes around per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:25.733" dur="0:00:05.567">I prefer the letter f, but our<br />book uses the Greek letter nu.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:31.300" dur="0:00:02.300">I find the nu<br />often very confusing</p>
+<p begin="0:41:33.600" dur="0:00:01.633">with the v of velocity.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:35.233" dur="0:00:01.833">That's why I prefer the f.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:37.066" dur="0:00:05.800">It is one over T, and so<br />the units are seconds minus one</p>
+<p begin="0:41:42.866" dur="0:00:03.400">but most physicists<br />would call that "hertz."</p>
+<p begin="0:41:46.266" dur="0:00:03.934">Ten hertz means to go<br />ten times around per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:50.200" dur="0:00:09.266">And then we identify omega,<br />the angular velocity.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:59.466" dur="0:00:05.600">Omega, which is<br />in radians per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:06.733" dur="0:00:05.633">Since it takes T seconds<br />to go around two pi radians,</p>
+<p begin="0:42:12.366" dur="0:00:04.167">omega is two pi divided by T.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:16.533" dur="0:00:02.600">Now, then we have the speed,</p>
+<p begin="0:42:19.133" dur="0:00:03.467">which we can also think<br />of as a linear velocity.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:22.600" dur="0:00:02.766">How many meters per second<br />is linear,</p>
+<p begin="0:42:25.366" dur="0:00:03.134">as opposed to<br />how many radians per second,</p>
+<p begin="0:42:28.500" dur="0:00:01.366">which is angular velocity.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:29.866" dur="0:00:03.800">So this is a linear velocity,<br />this is an angular velocity.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:33.666" dur="0:00:01.667">And that linear velocity,</p>
+<p begin="0:42:35.333" dur="0:00:02.667">which, in this case,<br />is really your speed,</p>
+<p begin="0:42:38.000" dur="0:00:02.966">is of course<br />the circumference of the circle</p>
+<p begin="0:42:40.966" dur="0:00:03.467">divided by how many seconds<br />it takes to go around.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:44.433" dur="0:00:03.367">And that is also omega r</p>
+<p begin="0:42:47.800" dur="0:00:03.500">and that is now<br />in meters per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:51.300" dur="0:00:08.233">All this is only possible<br />if there is an acceleration,</p>
+<p begin="0:42:59.533" dur="0:00:04.267">and the acceleration is called<br />the centripetal acceleration.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:03.800" dur="0:00:07.233">It is always pointed<br />towards the center:</p>
+<p begin="0:43:11.033" dur="0:00:02.667">"a" centripetal,</p>
+<p begin="0:43:13.700" dur="0:00:02.866">"a" centripetal.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:16.566" dur="0:00:05.000">And the centripetal<br />acceleration-- the magnitude--</p>
+<p begin="0:43:21.566" dur="0:00:03.434">is v squared divided by r,</p>
+<p begin="0:43:25.000" dur="0:00:03.533">which is therefore<br />also omega squared r,</p>
+<p begin="0:43:28.533" dur="0:00:03.767">and that, of course,<br />is in meters per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:37.666" dur="0:00:04.134">I want to work out<br />a specific example,</p>
+<p begin="0:43:41.800" dur="0:00:07.333">and the example that I have<br />chosen is the human centrifuge</p>
+<p begin="0:43:49.133" dur="0:00:09.633">that is used by NASA in Houston<br />for experiments on humans</p>
+<p begin="0:43:58.766" dur="0:00:06.367">to see how they deal<br />with strong accelerations.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:05.133" dur="0:00:04.400">This is that centrifuge.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:13.833" dur="0:00:05.033">The radius<br />from the axis of rotation--</p>
+<p begin="0:44:18.866" dur="0:00:03.300">the axis of rotation is here--</p>
+<p begin="0:44:22.166" dur="0:00:01.700">and the distance<br />from here to here,</p>
+<p begin="0:44:23.866" dur="0:00:02.434">though you may not think so,<br />is about 15 meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:26.300" dur="0:00:04.033">So the astronauts go in here<br />and then the thing goes around.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:30.333" dur="0:00:05.867">And so I would like to work out<br />this with some numbers.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:44.133" dur="0:00:03.900">The radius r--<br />I'll give your light back</p>
+<p begin="0:44:48.033" dur="0:00:03.867">because it may<br />be nicer for you...</p>
+<p begin="0:44:51.900" dur="0:00:01.500">The radius is 15 meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:53.400" dur="0:00:02.166">It depends, of course,<br />a little bit</p>
+<p begin="0:44:55.566" dur="0:00:02.900">on where the person<br />is located in that sphere.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:58.466" dur="0:00:07.400">It goes around<br />24 revolutions per minute</p>
+<p begin="0:45:05.866" dur="0:00:03.567">and that translates<br />into 0.4 hertz.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:11.866" dur="0:00:04.300">So the period to go around<br />for one rotation</p>
+<p begin="0:45:16.166" dur="0:00:01.734">is 2.5 seconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:17.900" dur="0:00:04.000">The thing goes around<br />once in 2.5 seconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:21.900" dur="0:00:06.333">So the angular velocity omega,<br />which is two pi divided by T...</p>
+<p begin="0:45:28.233" dur="0:00:02.633">If you take two pi<br />and divide it by 2.5,</p>
+<p begin="0:45:30.866" dur="0:00:02.967">it just comes out<br />to be roughly 2.5.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:33.833" dur="0:00:03.000">(<i>chuckling</i>):<br />It's a purely accident,<br />that's the way it is.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:36.833" dur="0:00:03.500">Don't ever think that that<br />has to be the same, of course.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:40.333" dur="0:00:03.400">It just happens to come out<br />that way for these dimensions.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:43.733" dur="0:00:03.467">So omega is about 2.5 radians<br />per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:47.200" dur="0:00:06.000">And the speed, linear speed--</p>
+<p begin="0:45:53.200" dur="0:00:06.333">tangential speed, if you<br />want to call it-- is omega r.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:59.533" dur="0:00:08.867">That comes out to be about 35...<br />37.7 meters per second,</p>
+<p begin="0:46:08.400" dur="0:00:02.833">and that translates into<br />about 85 miles per hour,</p>
+<p begin="0:46:11.233" dur="0:00:04.300">so it's a sizable speed.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:15.533" dur="0:00:02.867">What, of course,<br />the goal is for NASA:</p>
+<p begin="0:46:18.400" dur="0:00:02.466">What is the centripetal<br />acceleration--</p>
+<p begin="0:46:20.866" dur="0:00:01.967">that is omega squared r--</p>
+<p begin="0:46:22.833" dur="0:00:03.533">or, if you prefer to take<br />v squared divided by r,</p>
+<p begin="0:46:26.366" dur="0:00:02.367">you'll find, of course,<br />exactly the same answer</p>
+<p begin="0:46:28.733" dur="0:00:02.600">if you haven't made a slip,</p>
+<p begin="0:46:31.333" dur="0:00:05.900">and that is 95 meters<br />per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:37.233" dur="0:00:02.767">And that is about ten times</p>
+<p begin="0:46:40.000" dur="0:00:01.700">the gravitational acceleration<br />on Earth,</p>
+<p begin="0:46:41.700" dur="0:00:04.400">which is really phenomenal,<br />if you add, too, the fact</p>
+<p begin="0:46:46.100" dur="0:00:03.633">that the direction is changing<br />all the time when you go around,</p>
+<p begin="0:46:49.733" dur="0:00:02.433">so you feel the 10 g<br />in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:46:52.166" dur="0:00:02.900">and then you feel it<br />in a different direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:55.066" dur="0:00:03.467">I can't imagine how people<br />can actually survive that--</p>
+<p begin="0:46:58.533" dur="0:00:02.767">I mean, not faint.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:01.300" dur="0:00:01.900">Most people, like you and me,</p>
+<p begin="0:47:03.200" dur="0:00:03.200">if we were to be accelerated<br />along a straight line,</p>
+<p begin="0:47:06.400" dur="0:00:03.000">not even a circle,<br />where the direction changed,</p>
+<p begin="0:47:09.400" dur="0:00:01.200">but along a straight line,</p>
+<p begin="0:47:10.600" dur="0:00:04.566">most of us faint<br />when we get close to 6 g.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:15.166" dur="0:00:01.634">And there is a reason for that.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:16.800" dur="0:00:02.333">You get problems<br />with your blood circulation</p>
+<p begin="0:47:19.133" dur="0:00:03.200">and not enough oxygen goes<br />to your brains,</p>
+<p begin="0:47:22.333" dur="0:00:02.233">and that's why you faint.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:24.566" dur="0:00:02.467">How these astronauts<br />can do it at 10 g</p>
+<p begin="0:47:27.033" dur="0:00:03.633">and the direction changing<br />all the time, it beats me.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:30.666" dur="0:00:04.467">If you take a Boeing 747,<br />it takes 30 seconds</p>
+<p begin="0:47:35.133" dur="0:00:02.333">from the moment<br />that it starts on the runway</p>
+<p begin="0:47:37.466" dur="0:00:01.167">until it takes off.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:38.633" dur="0:00:01.967">You should time that,<br />when you get a chance.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:40.600" dur="0:00:01.400">It's very close to 30 seconds,</p>
+<p begin="0:47:42.000" dur="0:00:02.866">and by that time<br />the plane has reached a speed</p>
+<p begin="0:47:44.866" dur="0:00:03.300">of about 150 miles per hour.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:48.166" dur="0:00:01.200">And if you calculate,</p>
+<p begin="0:47:49.366" dur="0:00:02.200">if you assume that the<br />acceleration is constant--</p>
+<p begin="0:47:51.566" dur="0:00:01.767">it's an easy calculation--<br />it turns out</p>
+<p begin="0:47:53.333" dur="0:00:03.467">that the acceleration is only<br />two meters per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:56.800" dur="0:00:03.100">That is only one-fifth of<br />the gravitational acceleration.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:59.900" dur="0:00:01.266">Feels sort of good, right?</p>
+<p begin="0:48:01.166" dur="0:00:02.100">It's very comfortable,<br />when you're taking off.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:03.266" dur="0:00:02.934">It's only 2 meters<br />per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:06.200" dur="0:00:02.100">These poor people,<br />men and women,</p>
+<p begin="0:48:08.300" dur="0:00:03.300">95 meters per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:16.400" dur="0:00:02.233">I would like<br />to address something</p>
+<p begin="0:48:18.633" dur="0:00:01.967">that is not part of the exam,</p>
+<p begin="0:48:20.600" dur="0:00:03.633">but that is something<br />that I want you to think about,</p>
+<p begin="0:48:24.233" dur="0:00:01.500">something that is fun,</p>
+<p begin="0:48:25.733" dur="0:00:04.267">and it's always nice<br />to do something that is fun.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:30.000" dur="0:00:02.300">It has to do<br />with my last lecture.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:32.300" dur="0:00:07.800">I have to clean my hands first<br />for it to work quite well.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:40.100" dur="0:00:04.833">I have a yardstick here, and I<br />am going to put the yardstick</p>
+<p begin="0:48:44.933" dur="0:00:06.500">on my hands, on my two fingers,<br />which I hold in front of me.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:51.433" dur="0:00:03.167">Here it is.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:54.600" dur="0:00:03.100">It's resting on my two fingers,</p>
+<p begin="0:48:57.700" dur="0:00:05.866">and I'm going to move my<br />two fingers towards each other.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:03.566" dur="0:00:02.867">One of them begins<br />to slide first, of course.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:06.433" dur="0:00:02.067">I can't tell you which one.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:08.500" dur="0:00:04.400">But something<br />very strange will happen.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:12.900" dur="0:00:02.533">If this one starts to slide<br />first, it comes to a stop</p>
+<p begin="0:49:15.433" dur="0:00:01.833">and then the other one<br />starts to slide</p>
+<p begin="0:49:17.266" dur="0:00:01.034">and it comes to a stop.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:18.300" dur="0:00:03.566">And then this one starts<br />to slide and so on.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:21.866" dur="0:00:01.800">And that is very strange.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:23.666" dur="0:00:03.400">This is something<br />you should be able to explain,</p>
+<p begin="0:49:27.066" dur="0:00:03.267">certainly after the lecture<br />we had last time.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:30.333" dur="0:00:05.100">Look at this.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:35.433" dur="0:00:03.033">Did you see the alternation?<br />I'll do it a little faster.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:38.466" dur="0:00:02.867">Left is going, right is going,<br />left is going, right is going,</p>
+<p begin="0:49:41.333" dur="0:00:01.000">left is going.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:42.333" dur="0:00:01.633">Once more... look at it.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:43.966" dur="0:00:03.834">Left is going, right is going,<br />left is going, right is going.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:47.800" dur="0:00:01.566">They alternate.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:49.366" dur="0:00:02.467">Give this some thought,</p>
+<p begin="0:49:51.833" dur="0:00:02.233">and you know,<br />PIVoT has an option</p>
+<p begin="0:49:54.066" dur="0:00:03.500">that you can discuss<br />problems with other students,</p>
+<p begin="0:49:57.566" dur="0:00:02.267">so make use<br />of this discussion button</p>
+<p begin="0:49:59.833" dur="0:00:02.933">and see whether you can<br />come to an explanation.</p>
+<p begin="0:50:02.766" dur="0:00:01.967">Good luck on your exam.</p>
+<p begin="0:50:04.733" dur="0:00:02.633">See you next Friday.</p>
+</div>
+</body>
+</tt>