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sm-transcript 0.0.4 → 0.0.6

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+<div xml:id="captions">
+<p begin="0:00:02.766" dur="0:00:05.400">Last time we discussed<br />that an acceleration is caused</p>
+<p begin="0:00:08.166" dur="0:00:02.400">by a push or by a pull.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:10.566" dur="0:00:04.567">Today we will express this<br />more qualitatively</p>
+<p begin="0:00:15.133" dur="0:00:04.600">in three laws which<br />are called Newton's Laws.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:19.733" dur="0:00:03.167">The first law really goes back</p>
+<p begin="0:00:22.900" dur="0:00:03.966">to the first part<br />of the 17th century.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:26.866" dur="0:00:02.267">It was Galileo who expressed</p>
+<p begin="0:00:29.133" dur="0:00:02.567">what he called<br />the law of inertia</p>
+<p begin="0:00:31.700" dur="0:00:04.466">and I will read you his law.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:36.166" dur="0:00:03.267">"A body at rest remains at rest</p>
+<p begin="0:00:39.433" dur="0:00:04.000">"and a body in motion<br />continues to move</p>
+<p begin="0:00:43.433" dur="0:00:04.433">"at constant velocity<br />along a straight line</p>
+<p begin="0:00:47.866" dur="0:00:04.134">unless acted upon<br />by an external force."</p>
+<p begin="0:00:52.000" dur="0:00:02.766">And now I will read to you</p>
+<p begin="0:00:54.766" dur="0:00:05.167">Newton's own words<br />in his famous book,<i>Principia.</i></p>
+<p begin="0:00:59.933" dur="0:00:04.900">"Every body perseveres<br />in its state of rest</p>
+<p begin="0:01:04.833" dur="0:00:04.167">"or of uniform motion<br />in a right line</p>
+<p begin="0:01:09.000" dur="0:00:05.000">"unless it is compelled<br />to change that state</p>
+<p begin="0:01:14.000" dur="0:00:03.066">by forces impressed upon it."</p>
+<p begin="0:01:17.066" dur="0:00:02.434">Now, Newton's First Law</p>
+<p begin="0:01:19.500" dur="0:00:04.266">is clearly against<br />our daily experiences.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:23.766" dur="0:00:02.867">Things that move don't move<br />along a straight line</p>
+<p begin="0:01:26.633" dur="0:00:03.767">and don't continue to move, and<br />the reason is, there's gravity.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:30.400" dur="0:00:01.966">And there is another reason.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:32.366" dur="0:00:02.100">Even if you remove gravity</p>
+<p begin="0:01:34.466" dur="0:00:03.267">then there is friction,<br />there's air drag.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:37.733" dur="0:00:02.967">And so things will<br />always come to a halt.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:40.700" dur="0:00:04.166">But we believe, though, that<br />in the absence of any forces</p>
+<p begin="0:01:44.866" dur="0:00:03.367">indeed an object, if it had<br />a certain velocity</p>
+<p begin="0:01:48.233" dur="0:00:05.000">would continue along a straight<br />line forever and ever and ever.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:53.233" dur="0:00:03.400">Now, this law,<br />this very fundamental law</p>
+<p begin="0:01:56.633" dur="0:00:03.267">does not hold<br />in all reference frames.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:59.900" dur="0:00:04.366">For instance, it doesn't hold<br />in a reference frame</p>
+<p begin="0:02:04.266" dur="0:00:02.900">which itself is<br />being accelerated.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:07.166" dur="0:00:04.034">Imagine that I accelerate<br />myself right here.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:11.200" dur="0:00:04.300">Either I jump on my horse,<br />or I take my bicycle</p>
+<p begin="0:02:15.500" dur="0:00:02.466">or my motorcycle or my car</p>
+<p begin="0:02:17.966" dur="0:00:03.800">and you see me being accelerated<br />in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:21.766" dur="0:00:04.700">And you sit there and you say,<br />"Aha, his velocity is changing.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:26.466" dur="0:00:02.700">"Therefore, according<br />to the First Law,</p>
+<p begin="0:02:29.166" dur="0:00:02.167">there must be a force on him."</p>
+<p begin="0:02:31.333" dur="0:00:02.633">And you say, "Hey, there,<br />do you feel that force?"</p>
+<p begin="0:02:33.966" dur="0:00:01.300">And I said, "Yeah, I do!</p>
+<p begin="0:02:35.266" dur="0:00:02.667">"I really feel that,<br />I feel someone's pushing me."</p>
+<p begin="0:02:37.933" dur="0:00:01.967">Consistent with the first law.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:39.900" dur="0:00:02.200">Perfect, the First Law works<br />for you.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:42.100" dur="0:00:01.100">Now I'm here.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:43.200" dur="0:00:02.466">I'm being accelerated<br />in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:02:45.666" dur="0:00:01.800">and you all come towards me</p>
+<p begin="0:02:47.466" dur="0:00:02.300">being accelerated<br />in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:49.766" dur="0:00:02.767">I say, "Aha, the First Law<br />should work</p>
+<p begin="0:02:52.533" dur="0:00:02.600">so these people<br />should feel a push."</p>
+<p begin="0:02:55.133" dur="0:00:01.433">I say, "Hey, there!</p>
+<p begin="0:02:56.566" dur="0:00:01.667">Do you feel the push?"</p>
+<p begin="0:02:58.233" dur="0:00:01.733">And you say, "I feel nothing.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:59.966" dur="0:00:02.167">There is no push,<br />there is no pull."</p>
+<p begin="0:03:02.133" dur="0:00:03.733">Therefore, the First Law doesn't<br />work from my frame of reference</p>
+<p begin="0:03:05.866" dur="0:00:02.567">if I'm being accelerated<br />towards you.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:08.433" dur="0:00:04.667">So now comes the question,<br />when does the First Law work?</p>
+<p begin="0:03:13.100" dur="0:00:04.466">Well, the First Law works<br />when the frame of reference</p>
+<p begin="0:03:17.566" dur="0:00:04.100">is what we call an "inertial"<br />frame of reference.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:21.666" dur="0:00:03.800">And an inertial frame<br />of reference would then be</p>
+<p begin="0:03:25.466" dur="0:00:04.434">a frame in which there are<br />no accelerations of any kind.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:29.900" dur="0:00:01.400">Is that possible?</p>
+<p begin="0:03:31.300" dur="0:00:02.566">Is 26.100...<br />is this lecture hall</p>
+<p begin="0:03:33.866" dur="0:00:02.634">an inertial reference frame?</p>
+<p begin="0:03:36.500" dur="0:00:02.833">For one, the earth rotates<br />about its own axis</p>
+<p begin="0:03:39.333" dur="0:00:01.567">and 26.100 goes with it.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:40.900" dur="0:00:02.700">That gives you<br />a centripetal acceleration.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:43.600" dur="0:00:05.466">Number two, the earth<br />goes around the sun.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:49.066" dur="0:00:01.767">That gives it<br />a centripetal acceleration</p>
+<p begin="0:03:50.833" dur="0:00:02.367">including the earth, including<br />you, including 26.100.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:53.200" dur="0:00:05.500">The sun goes around the Milky<br />Way, and you can go on and on.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:58.700" dur="0:00:04.966">So clearly 26.100 is not<br />an inertial reference frame.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:05.566" dur="0:00:02.467">We can try to make an estimate</p>
+<p begin="0:04:08.033" dur="0:00:02.867">on how large<br />these accelerations are</p>
+<p begin="0:04:10.900" dur="0:00:02.666">that we experience<br />here in 26.100</p>
+<p begin="0:04:13.566" dur="0:00:02.300">and let's start with the one</p>
+<p begin="0:04:15.866" dur="0:00:02.900">that is due<br />to the earth's rotation.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:18.766" dur="0:00:06.934">So here's the earth... rotating<br />with angular velocity omega</p>
+<p begin="0:04:25.700" dur="0:00:07.100">and here is the equator, and<br />the earth has a certain radius.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:32.800" dur="0:00:03.900">The radius of the earth...<br />this is the symbol for earth.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:36.700" dur="0:00:02.200">Now, I know that 26.100 is here</p>
+<p begin="0:04:38.900" dur="0:00:04.366">but let's just take the worst<br />case that you're on the equator.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:43.266" dur="0:00:02.200">You're... (<i>no audio</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:04:45.466" dur="0:00:03.067">You go around like this<br />and in order to do that</p>
+<p begin="0:04:48.533" dur="0:00:02.600">you need a centripetal<br />acceleration, a c</p>
+<p begin="0:04:51.133" dur="0:00:03.767">which, as we have seen last<br />time, equals omega squared R.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:54.900" dur="0:00:02.933">How large is that one?</p>
+<p begin="0:04:57.833" dur="0:00:05.600">Well, the period of rotation<br />for the earth</p>
+<p begin="0:05:03.433" dur="0:00:04.167">is 24 hours times 3,600 seconds</p>
+<p begin="0:05:07.600" dur="0:00:04.433">so omega equals two pi<br />divided by 24 times 3,600</p>
+<p begin="0:05:12.033" dur="0:00:04.167">and that would then be<br />in radians per second.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:16.200" dur="0:00:05.400">And so you can calculate now<br />what omega squared R earth is</p>
+<p begin="0:05:21.600" dur="0:00:03.700">if you know that the radius<br />of the earth</p>
+<p begin="0:05:25.300" dur="0:00:02.400">is about 6,400 kilometers.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:27.700" dur="0:00:04.400">Make sure you convert this<br />to meters, of course.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:32.100" dur="0:00:02.133">And you will find, then</p>
+<p begin="0:05:34.233" dur="0:00:04.400">that the centripetal<br />acceleration at the equator</p>
+<p begin="0:05:38.633" dur="0:00:03.333">which is the worst case--<br />it's less here--</p>
+<p begin="0:05:41.966" dur="0:00:03.200">is 0.034 meters<br />per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:45.166" dur="0:00:04.367">And this is way, way less--<br />this is 300 times smaller</p>
+<p begin="0:05:49.533" dur="0:00:02.867">than the gravitational<br />acceleration</p>
+<p begin="0:05:52.400" dur="0:00:02.066">that you experience<br />here on Earth.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:54.466" dur="0:00:03.300">And if we take the motion<br />of the earth around the sun</p>
+<p begin="0:05:57.766" dur="0:00:03.334">then it is an additional factor<br />of five times lower.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:01.100" dur="0:00:02.133">In other words,<br />these accelerations</p>
+<p begin="0:06:03.233" dur="0:00:03.500">even though they're real<br />and they can be measured easily</p>
+<p begin="0:06:06.733" dur="0:00:02.367">with today's<br />high-tech instrumentation--</p>
+<p begin="0:06:09.100" dur="0:00:02.833">they are much, much lower<br />than what we are used to</p>
+<p begin="0:06:11.933" dur="0:00:02.300">which is<br />the gravitational acceleration.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:14.233" dur="0:00:02.633">And therefore,<br />in spite of these accelerations</p>
+<p begin="0:06:16.866" dur="0:00:02.500">we will accept this hall</p>
+<p begin="0:06:19.366" dur="0:00:04.900">as a reasonably good<br />inertial frame of reference</p>
+<p begin="0:06:24.266" dur="0:00:04.100">in which the First Law<br />then should hold.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:28.366" dur="0:00:02.667">Can Newton's Law be proven?</p>
+<p begin="0:06:31.033" dur="0:00:05.100">The answer is no, because<br />it's impossible to be sure</p>
+<p begin="0:06:36.133" dur="0:00:05.400">that your reference frame<br />is without any accelerations.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:41.533" dur="0:00:01.433">Do we believe in this?</p>
+<p begin="0:06:42.966" dur="0:00:01.000">Yes, we do.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:43.966" dur="0:00:02.734">We believe in it<br />since it is consistent</p>
+<p begin="0:06:46.700" dur="0:00:02.966">within the uncertainty<br />of the measurements</p>
+<p begin="0:06:49.666" dur="0:00:02.900">with all experiments<br />that have been done.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:54.200" dur="0:00:07.266">Now we come to the Second Law,<br />Newton's Second Law.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:01.466" dur="0:00:02.267">I have a spring...</p>
+<p begin="0:07:07.966" dur="0:00:01.467">Forget gravity for now--</p>
+<p begin="0:07:09.433" dur="0:00:02.467">you can do this somewhere<br />in outer space.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:11.900" dur="0:00:02.333">This is the relaxed length<br />of the spring</p>
+<p begin="0:07:14.233" dur="0:00:01.500">and I extend the spring.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:15.733" dur="0:00:04.367">I extend it over a certain<br />amount, a certain distance--</p>
+<p begin="0:07:20.100" dur="0:00:02.100">unimportant how much.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:22.200" dur="0:00:05.000">And I know that I when I do that<br />that there will be a pull--</p>
+<p begin="0:07:27.200" dur="0:00:02.900">non-negotiable.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:30.100" dur="0:00:04.166">I put a mass, m1, here,<br />and I measure the acceleration</p>
+<p begin="0:07:34.266" dur="0:00:02.634">that this pull causes<br />on this mass</p>
+<p begin="0:07:36.900" dur="0:00:02.433">immediately after I release it.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:39.333" dur="0:00:01.533">I can measure that.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:40.866" dur="0:00:03.034">So I measure<br />an acceleration, a1.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:43.900" dur="0:00:03.233">Now I replace this object<br />by mass m2</p>
+<p begin="0:07:47.133" dur="0:00:05.100">but the extension is the same,<br />so the pull must be same.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:52.233" dur="0:00:04.233">The spring doesn't know what the<br />mass is at the other end, right?</p>
+<p begin="0:07:56.466" dur="0:00:01.600">So the pull is the same.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:58.066" dur="0:00:02.067">I put m2 there, different mass</p>
+<p begin="0:08:00.133" dur="0:00:05.567">and I measure<br />the new acceleration, a2.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:05.700" dur="0:00:07.933">It is now an experimental fact<br />that m1 a1 equals m2 a2.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:13.633" dur="0:00:05.733">And this product, ma,<br />we call the force.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:19.366" dur="0:00:03.700">That is our definition<br />of force.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:23.066" dur="0:00:04.000">So the same pull<br />on a ten times larger mass</p>
+<p begin="0:08:27.066" dur="0:00:03.934">would give a ten times<br />lower acceleration.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:32.700" dur="0:00:02.533">The Second Law<br />I will read to you:</p>
+<p begin="0:08:35.233" dur="0:00:03.800">"A force action on a body<br />gives it an acceleration</p>
+<p begin="0:08:39.033" dur="0:00:03.233">which is in the direction<br />of the force..."</p>
+<p begin="0:08:42.266" dur="0:00:01.767">That's also important--</p>
+<p begin="0:08:44.033" dur="0:00:03.800">the acceleration is in<br />the direction of the force.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:47.833" dur="0:00:02.567">"And has a magnitude<br />given by ma."</p>
+<p begin="0:08:50.400" dur="0:00:01.800">ma is the magnitude</p>
+<p begin="0:08:52.200" dur="0:00:04.466">and the direction is<br />the direction of the force.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:56.666" dur="0:00:04.534">And so now we will write<br />this in all glorious detail.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:01.200" dur="0:00:06.766">This is the Second Law by Newton</p>
+<p begin="0:09:07.966" dur="0:00:04.767">perhaps the most important law<br />in all of physics</p>
+<p begin="0:09:12.733" dur="0:00:02.867">but certainly in all of 801:</p>
+<p begin="0:09:15.600" dur="0:00:01.833">F equals ma.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:17.433" dur="0:00:03.533">The units of this force</p>
+<p begin="0:09:20.966" dur="0:00:06.934">are kilograms times meters<br />per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:27.900" dur="0:00:04.166">In honor of the great man,<br />we call that "one newton."</p>
+<p begin="0:09:34.266" dur="0:00:03.467">Like the First Law,<br />the Second Law only holds</p>
+<p begin="0:09:37.733" dur="0:00:02.300">in inertial reference frames.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:41.700" dur="0:00:03.300">Can the Second Law be proven?</p>
+<p begin="0:09:45.000" dur="0:00:01.000">No.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:46.000" dur="0:00:02.266">Do we believe in it?</p>
+<p begin="0:09:48.266" dur="0:00:01.000">Yes.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:49.266" dur="0:00:01.934">Why do we believe in it?</p>
+<p begin="0:09:51.200" dur="0:00:03.433">Because all experiments<br />and all measurements</p>
+<p begin="0:09:54.633" dur="0:00:03.333">within the uncertainty<br />of the measurements</p>
+<p begin="0:09:57.966" dur="0:00:02.900">are in agreement<br />with the Second Law.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:03.000" dur="0:00:02.600">Now you may object<br />and you may say</p>
+<p begin="0:10:05.600" dur="0:00:03.166">"This is strange,<br />what you've been doing.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:08.766" dur="0:00:02.600">"How can you<br />ever determine a mass</p>
+<p begin="0:10:11.366" dur="0:00:02.567">"if there is no force somewhere?</p>
+<p begin="0:10:13.933" dur="0:00:01.867">"Because if you want<br />to determine the mass</p>
+<p begin="0:10:15.800" dur="0:00:01.333">"maybe you put it on a scale,</p>
+<p begin="0:10:17.133" dur="0:00:02.400">"and when you put it on a scale<br />to determine the mass</p>
+<p begin="0:10:19.533" dur="0:00:01.600">"you made use<br />of gravitational force</p>
+<p begin="0:10:21.133" dur="0:00:02.133">"so isn't that some kind<br />of a circular argument</p>
+<p begin="0:10:23.266" dur="0:00:01.067">that you're using?"</p>
+<p begin="0:10:24.333" dur="0:00:03.467">And your answer is "No."</p>
+<p begin="0:10:27.800" dur="0:00:01.933">I can be somewhere<br />in outer space</p>
+<p begin="0:10:29.733" dur="0:00:01.600">where there is no gravity.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:31.333" dur="0:00:03.367">I have two pieces of cheese; they are identical in size.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:34.700" dur="0:00:02.466">This is cheese without holes,<br />by the way.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:37.166" dur="0:00:02.367">They are identical in size.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:39.533" dur="0:00:04.000">The sum of the two has<br />double the mass of one.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:43.533" dur="0:00:02.367">Mass is determined<br />by how many molecules--</p>
+<p begin="0:10:45.900" dur="0:00:01.266">how many atoms I have.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:47.166" dur="0:00:03.134">I don't need gravity to have<br />a relative scale of masses</p>
+<p begin="0:10:50.300" dur="0:00:03.033">so I can determine the relative<br />scale of these masses</p>
+<p begin="0:10:53.333" dur="0:00:01.700">without ever using the force.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:55.033" dur="0:00:03.033">So this is a very legitimate way</p>
+<p begin="0:10:58.066" dur="0:00:06.267">of checking up<br />on the Second Law.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:09.066" dur="0:00:05.134">Since all objects in<br />this lecture hall and the earth</p>
+<p begin="0:11:14.200" dur="0:00:04.666">fall with the constant<br />acceleration, which is g</p>
+<p begin="0:11:18.866" dur="0:00:04.534">we can write down<br />that the gravitational force</p>
+<p begin="0:11:23.400" dur="0:00:03.766">would be m times<br />this acceleration, g.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:27.166" dur="0:00:04.134">Normally I write an "a" for it,<br />but I make an exception now</p>
+<p begin="0:11:31.300" dur="0:00:03.433">because gravity, I call it<br />"gravitational force."</p>
+<p begin="0:11:34.733" dur="0:00:03.033">And so you see<br />that the gravitational force</p>
+<p begin="0:11:37.766" dur="0:00:02.567">due to the earth<br />on a particular mass</p>
+<p begin="0:11:40.333" dur="0:00:02.733">is linearly proportional<br />with the mass.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:43.066" dur="0:00:02.867">If the mass becomes<br />ten times larger</p>
+<p begin="0:11:45.933" dur="0:00:04.667">then the force due to gravity<br />goes up by a factor of ten.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:53.166" dur="0:00:04.700">Suppose I have here<br />this softball in my hands.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:57.866" dur="0:00:02.700">In the reference frame...</p>
+<p begin="0:12:00.566" dur="0:00:04.300">26.100 we will accept to be<br />an inertial reference frame.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:04.866" dur="0:00:04.200">It's not being accelerated<br />in our reference frame.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:09.066" dur="0:00:03.400">That means the force on it<br />must be zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:12.466" dur="0:00:01.934">So here is that ball.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:14.400" dur="0:00:02.833">And we know if it has mass, m--</p>
+<p begin="0:12:17.233" dur="0:00:04.067">which in this case<br />is about half a kilogram--</p>
+<p begin="0:12:21.300" dur="0:00:03.233">that there must be<br />a force here, mg</p>
+<p begin="0:12:24.533" dur="0:00:04.333">which is about five newtons,<br />or half a kilogram.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:28.866" dur="0:00:03.567">But the net force is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:32.433" dur="0:00:02.400">Therefore it is very clear</p>
+<p begin="0:12:34.833" dur="0:00:04.267">that I, Walter Lewin,<br />must push up with a force</p>
+<p begin="0:12:39.100" dur="0:00:04.900">from my hand onto the ball,<br />which is about the same...</p>
+<p begin="0:12:44.000" dur="0:00:03.533">which is exactly the same,<br />five newtons.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:47.533" dur="0:00:03.933">Only now is<br />there no acceleration</p>
+<p begin="0:12:51.466" dur="0:00:05.567">so I can write down<br />that force of Walter Lewin</p>
+<p begin="0:12:57.033" dur="0:00:04.667">plus the force of gravity<br />equals zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:01.700" dur="0:00:04.466">Because it's<br />a one-dimensional problem</p>
+<p begin="0:13:06.166" dur="0:00:03.967">you could say that the force<br />of Walter Lewin equals minus mg.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:13.833" dur="0:00:01.800">F equals ma.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:15.633" dur="0:00:05.633">Notice that there is<br />no statement made</p>
+<p begin="0:13:21.266" dur="0:00:02.467">on velocity or speed.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:23.733" dur="0:00:03.333">As long as you know f<br />and as long as you know m</p>
+<p begin="0:13:27.066" dur="0:00:01.734">a is uniquely specified.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:28.800" dur="0:00:02.700">No information is needed<br />on the speed.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:31.500" dur="0:00:02.566">So that would mean,<br />if we take gravity</p>
+<p begin="0:13:34.066" dur="0:00:04.034">and an object was falling down<br />with five meters per second</p>
+<p begin="0:13:38.100" dur="0:00:01.633">that the law would hold.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:39.733" dur="0:00:05.767">If it would fall down<br />with 5,000 meters per second</p>
+<p begin="0:13:45.500" dur="0:00:02.266">it would also hold.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:47.766" dur="0:00:02.367">Will it always hold?</p>
+<p begin="0:13:50.133" dur="0:00:02.467">No.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:52.600" dur="0:00:03.000">Once your speed approaches<br />the speed of light</p>
+<p begin="0:13:55.600" dur="0:00:02.733">then Newtonian mechanics<br />no longer works.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:58.333" dur="0:00:04.200">Then you have to use Einstein's<br />theory of special relativity.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:02.533" dur="0:00:03.900">So this is only valid<br />as long as we have speeds</p>
+<p begin="0:14:06.433" dur="0:00:06.533">that are substantially smaller,<br />say, than the speed of light.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:12.966" dur="0:00:03.900">Now we come<br />to Newton's Third Law:</p>
+<p begin="0:14:16.866" dur="0:00:04.600">"If one object exerts<br />a force on another</p>
+<p begin="0:14:21.466" dur="0:00:03.767">"the other exerts the same force</p>
+<p begin="0:14:25.233" dur="0:00:03.933">in opposite direction<br />on the one."</p>
+<p begin="0:14:29.166" dur="0:00:01.900">I'll read it again.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:31.066" dur="0:00:03.934">"If one object exerts<br />a force on another</p>
+<p begin="0:14:35.000" dur="0:00:03.233">"the other exerts the same force</p>
+<p begin="0:14:38.233" dur="0:00:03.333">in opposite direction<br />on the one."</p>
+<p begin="0:14:41.566" dur="0:00:08.000">And I normally summarize that<br />as follows, the Third Law</p>
+<p begin="0:14:51.933" dur="0:00:06.367">as "Action equals<br />minus reaction."</p>
+<p begin="0:14:59.766" dur="0:00:03.667">And the minus sign indicates,<br />then, that it opposes</p>
+<p begin="0:15:03.433" dur="0:00:02.700">so you sit on your seats</p>
+<p begin="0:15:06.133" dur="0:00:05.067">and you are pulled down on<br />your seats because of gravity</p>
+<p begin="0:15:11.200" dur="0:00:05.100">and the seats will push back<br />on you with the same force.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:16.300" dur="0:00:02.333">Action equals minus reaction.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:18.633" dur="0:00:02.400">I held the baseball in my hand.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:21.033" dur="0:00:04.033">The baseball pushes on my hand<br />with a certain force.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:25.066" dur="0:00:03.700">I push on the baseball<br />with the same force.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:28.766" dur="0:00:03.934">I push against the wall<br />with a certain force.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:32.700" dur="0:00:03.266">The wall pushes back<br />in the opposite direction</p>
+<p begin="0:15:35.966" dur="0:00:02.034">with exactly the same force.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:38.000" dur="0:00:02.000">The Third Law always holds.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:40.000" dur="0:00:03.400">Whether the objects<br />are moving or accelerated</p>
+<p begin="0:15:43.400" dur="0:00:01.533">makes no difference.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:44.933" dur="0:00:02.500">All moments in time, the force--</p>
+<p begin="0:15:47.433" dur="0:00:04.633">we call it actually the "contact<br />force" between two objects--</p>
+<p begin="0:15:52.066" dur="0:00:04.200">one on the other is always<br />the same as the other on one</p>
+<p begin="0:15:56.266" dur="0:00:04.900">but in the opposite direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:01.166" dur="0:00:05.000">Let us work out<br />a very simple example.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:06.166" dur="0:00:04.967">We have an object<br />which has a mass, m1.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:11.133" dur="0:00:06.533">We have object number one<br />and m1 is five kilograms.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:17.666" dur="0:00:05.367">And here, attached to it,<br />is an object two</p>
+<p begin="0:16:23.033" dur="0:00:03.567">and m2 equals 15 kilograms.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:26.600" dur="0:00:01.533">There is a force</p>
+<p begin="0:16:28.133" dur="0:00:04.467">and the force is coming in<br />from this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:32.600" dur="0:00:01.833">This is the force--</p>
+<p begin="0:16:34.433" dur="0:00:04.267">and the magnitude<br />of the force is 20 newtons.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:38.700" dur="0:00:05.166">What is the acceleration<br />of this system?</p>
+<p begin="0:16:43.866" dur="0:00:01.600">F equals ma.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:47.533" dur="0:00:04.733">Clearly the mass is<br />the sum of the two--</p>
+<p begin="0:16:52.266" dur="0:00:03.034">this force acts on both--</p>
+<p begin="0:16:55.300" dur="0:00:03.500">so we get m1 plus m2 times a.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:58.800" dur="0:00:02.766">This is 20, this is 20</p>
+<p begin="0:17:01.566" dur="0:00:03.834">so a equals<br />one meters per second squared</p>
+<p begin="0:17:05.400" dur="0:00:02.633">in the same direction as f.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:08.033" dur="0:00:02.733">So the whole system<br />is being accelerated</p>
+<p begin="0:17:10.766" dur="0:00:02.367">with one meters<br />per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:13.133" dur="0:00:01.500">Now watch me closely.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:14.633" dur="0:00:03.233">Now I single out this object--</p>
+<p begin="0:17:17.866" dur="0:00:06.267">here it is... object number two.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:24.133" dur="0:00:05.400">Object number one, while<br />this acceleration takes place</p>
+<p begin="0:17:29.533" dur="0:00:02.067">must be pushing<br />on object number two.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:31.600" dur="0:00:05.400">Otherwise object number two<br />could never be accelerated.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:37.000" dur="0:00:02.133">I call that force f12</p>
+<p begin="0:17:39.133" dur="0:00:02.967">the force<br />that one exerts on two.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:42.100" dur="0:00:04.566">I know that number two<br />has an acceleration of one.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:46.666" dur="0:00:03.400">That's a given already.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:50.066" dur="0:00:04.134">So here comes f equals ma.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:54.200" dur="0:00:03.266">f12 equals m2 times a.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:57.466" dur="0:00:04.767">We know a is one,<br />we know m2 is 15</p>
+<p begin="0:18:02.233" dur="0:00:08.333">so we see that the magnitude<br />of the force 12 is 15 newtons.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:10.566" dur="0:00:03.034">This force is 15.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:16.533" dur="0:00:05.067">Now I'm going to isolate<br />number one out.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:21.600" dur="0:00:05.000">Here is number one.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:26.600" dur="0:00:05.533">Number one experiences<br />this force, f, which was the 20</p>
+<p begin="0:18:32.133" dur="0:00:05.667">and it must experience<br />a contact force from number two.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:37.800" dur="0:00:06.266">Somehow, number two must<br />be pushing on number one</p>
+<p begin="0:18:44.066" dur="0:00:02.400">if one is pushing on number two.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:46.466" dur="0:00:03.600">And I call that force "f21."</p>
+<p begin="0:18:52.433" dur="0:00:02.300">I know that number one<br />is being accelerated</p>
+<p begin="0:18:54.733" dur="0:00:03.133">and I know the magnitude is<br />one meter per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:57.866" dur="0:00:04.067">That's non-negotiable,</p>
+<p begin="0:19:01.933" dur="0:00:07.300">and so we have that f,<br />this one, plus f21</p>
+<p begin="0:19:09.233" dur="0:00:03.500">must be m1 times a.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:12.733" dur="0:00:04.033">This is one, this is five,<br />this is 20</p>
+<p begin="0:19:16.766" dur="0:00:05.500">and so this one, you can<br />already see, is minus 15.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:22.266" dur="0:00:02.700">F21 is in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:19:24.966" dur="0:00:05.734">and the magnitude is exactly<br />the same as f12.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:30.700" dur="0:00:01.433">So you see?</p>
+<p begin="0:19:32.133" dur="0:00:04.300">One is pushing on two with<br />15 newtons in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:36.433" dur="0:00:03.233">Two is pushing back on one<br />with 15 newtons</p>
+<p begin="0:19:39.666" dur="0:00:03.167">and the whole system<br />is being accelerated</p>
+<p begin="0:19:42.833" dur="0:00:02.600">with one meter<br />per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:45.433" dur="0:00:02.667">Now, in these two examples--</p>
+<p begin="0:19:48.100" dur="0:00:04.466">the one whereby I had<br />the baseball on my hand--</p>
+<p begin="0:19:52.566" dur="0:00:03.500">you saw that it was consistent<br />with the Third Law.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:56.066" dur="0:00:01.700">In this example, you also see</p>
+<p begin="0:19:57.766" dur="0:00:02.300">that it's consistent<br />with the Third Law.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:00.066" dur="0:00:02.234">The contact force<br />from one on the other</p>
+<p begin="0:20:02.300" dur="0:00:02.066">is the same as<br />from the other on one</p>
+<p begin="0:20:04.366" dur="0:00:01.334">but in opposite signs.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:05.700" dur="0:00:01.866">Is this a proof?</p>
+<p begin="0:20:07.566" dur="0:00:01.034">No.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:08.600" dur="0:00:02.700">Can the Third Law be proven?</p>
+<p begin="0:20:11.300" dur="0:00:01.066">No.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:12.366" dur="0:00:02.334">Do we believe in it?</p>
+<p begin="0:20:14.700" dur="0:00:01.000">Yes.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:15.700" dur="0:00:01.700">Why do we believe in it?</p>
+<p begin="0:20:17.400" dur="0:00:03.500">Because all measurements,<br />all experiments</p>
+<p begin="0:20:20.900" dur="0:00:05.133">within the uncertainties are<br />consistent with the Third Law.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:28.866" dur="0:00:02.767">Action equals minus reaction.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:31.633" dur="0:00:04.333">It is something<br />that you experience every day.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:35.966" dur="0:00:06.400">I remember I had<br />a garden hose on the lawn</p>
+<p begin="0:20:42.366" dur="0:00:01.600">and I would open the faucet</p>
+<p begin="0:20:43.966" dur="0:00:02.700">and the garden hose would start<br />to snake backwards.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:46.666" dur="0:00:01.000">Why?</p>
+<p begin="0:20:47.666" dur="0:00:01.167">Water squirts out.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:48.833" dur="0:00:03.333">The garden hose pushes onto<br />the water in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:52.166" dur="0:00:03.767">The water pushes back onto the<br />garden hose and it snakes back.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:55.933" dur="0:00:03.500">Action equals minus reaction.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:59.433" dur="0:00:04.167">You take a balloon.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:03.600" dur="0:00:03.566">You take a balloon<br />and you blow up the balloon</p>
+<p begin="0:21:07.166" dur="0:00:01.934">and you let the air out.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:09.100" dur="0:00:02.066">The balloon pushes onto the air.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:11.166" dur="0:00:02.234">The air must push<br />onto the balloon.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:13.400" dur="0:00:02.100">And therefore,<br />when you let it go</p>
+<p begin="0:21:15.500" dur="0:00:02.333">the balloon will go<br />in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:21:17.833" dur="0:00:02.700">which is the basic idea<br />behind the rocket.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:20.533" dur="0:00:04.733">(<i>huffing and puffing</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:21:25.266" dur="0:00:05.000">I love to play with balloons,<br />don't you?</p>
+<p begin="0:21:30.266" dur="0:00:02.167">So, if I do it like this,<br />and I let it go</p>
+<p begin="0:21:32.433" dur="0:00:02.067">the air will come out<br />in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:21:34.500" dur="0:00:01.733">and so then it means the balloon</p>
+<p begin="0:21:36.233" dur="0:00:02.100">is pushing on the air<br />in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:38.333" dur="0:00:03.067">the air must be pushing on<br />the balloon in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:41.400" dur="0:00:01.000">There it goes.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:42.400" dur="0:00:01.033">(<i>whistles</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:21:43.433" dur="0:00:02.967">It didn't make it to the moon</p>
+<p begin="0:21:46.400" dur="0:00:03.300">but you saw the idea<br />of a rocket.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:49.700" dur="0:00:03.000">Action equals minus reaction.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:55.433" dur="0:00:04.667">If you fire a gun, the gun<br />exerts a force on the bullet</p>
+<p begin="0:22:00.100" dur="0:00:03.533">the bullet exerts<br />an equal force on the gun</p>
+<p begin="0:22:03.633" dur="0:00:02.467">which is called the recoil.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:06.100" dur="0:00:03.666">You feel that in your hands<br />and your shoulder.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:09.766" dur="0:00:02.467">I have here a marvelous device</p>
+<p begin="0:22:12.233" dur="0:00:05.067">which is a beautiful example of<br />"action equals minus reaction."</p>
+<p begin="0:22:17.300" dur="0:00:03.266">I show you from above<br />what it looks like.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:20.566" dur="0:00:02.467">You'll see more details later.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:24.933" dur="0:00:03.000">This rotates about this axis<br />rather freely--</p>
+<p begin="0:22:27.933" dur="0:00:01.533">the axis is vertical--</p>
+<p begin="0:22:29.466" dur="0:00:04.167">and we have here a reservoir<br />of water, which we will heat up.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:33.633" dur="0:00:01.333">It turns into steam</p>
+<p begin="0:22:34.966" dur="0:00:03.267">and these are hollow tubes<br />and the steam will squirt out.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:38.233" dur="0:00:06.200">And so when the steam squirts<br />out in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:22:44.433" dur="0:00:04.167">the tube exerts a force<br />on the steam in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:22:48.600" dur="0:00:04.666">so the steam exerts an equal<br />force in the opposite direction</p>
+<p begin="0:22:53.266" dur="0:00:03.734">and so the thing will start<br />to rotate like this.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:57.000" dur="0:00:04.266">And I would like<br />to demonstrate that.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:11.166" dur="0:00:01.367">You can see it now there.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:12.533" dur="0:00:02.367">With a little bit of luck,<br />there you see it.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:14.900" dur="0:00:03.300">So we're going to heat it.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:18.200" dur="0:00:05.366">(<i>torch hissing</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:23:23.566" dur="0:00:02.167">Walking.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:25.733" dur="0:00:03.400">When you walk,<br />you push against the floor.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:29.133" dur="0:00:02.300">The floor pushes back at you</p>
+<p begin="0:23:31.433" dur="0:00:03.433">and if the floor<br />wouldn't push back at you</p>
+<p begin="0:23:34.866" dur="0:00:02.500">you couldn't even walk,<br />you couldn't go forwards.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:39.766" dur="0:00:02.300">If you walk on ice,<br />very slippery--</p>
+<p begin="0:23:42.066" dur="0:00:03.700">you can't go anywhere, because<br />you can't push on the ice</p>
+<p begin="0:23:45.766" dur="0:00:02.267">so the ice won't push back<br />on you.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:50.000" dur="0:00:01.700">That's another example<br />where you see</p>
+<p begin="0:23:51.700" dur="0:00:01.466">action equals minus reaction.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:55.400" dur="0:00:03.600">This engine is called<br />"Hero's engine."</p>
+<p begin="0:23:59.000" dur="0:00:03.433">Hero, according<br />to the Greek legend</p>
+<p begin="0:24:02.433" dur="0:00:05.400">was a priestess of Aphrodite.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:07.833" dur="0:00:03.167">Let's first look at it.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:19.366" dur="0:00:06.267">She was a priestess of Aphrodite<br />and her lover, Leander</p>
+<p begin="0:24:25.633" dur="0:00:04.967">would swim across the Hellespont<br />every night to be with her.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:30.600" dur="0:00:03.233">And then one night<br />the poor guy drowned</p>
+<p begin="0:24:33.833" dur="0:00:02.967">and Hero threw herself<br />into the sea.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:36.800" dur="0:00:02.000">Very romantic thing to do</p>
+<p begin="0:24:38.800" dur="0:00:03.966">but, of course, also<br />not a very smart thing to do.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:42.766" dur="0:00:03.934">On the other hand, it must<br />have been a smart lady</p>
+<p begin="0:24:46.700" dur="0:00:02.966">if she invented,<br />really, this engine.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:49.666" dur="0:00:06.900">Yesterday, I looked<br />at the Web, "ask.com."</p>
+<p begin="0:24:56.566" dur="0:00:01.934">It's wonderful--<br />you can ask any question.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:58.500" dur="0:00:01.300">You can say, "How old am I?"</p>
+<p begin="0:24:59.800" dur="0:00:01.766">Now, you may not get<br />the right answer</p>
+<p begin="0:25:01.566" dur="0:00:01.400">but you can ask any question.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:02.966" dur="0:00:03.967">And I typed in, "Hero's engine."</p>
+<p begin="0:25:06.933" dur="0:00:07.733">And out popped a very nice high-<br />tech version of Hero's engine.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:14.666" dur="0:00:06.234">A soda can-- you pop four holes<br />in the soda can at the bottom.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:20.900" dur="0:00:04.600">So here's your soda can.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:25.500" dur="0:00:03.033">You pop four holes in here,<br />but when you put a nail in there</p>
+<p begin="0:25:28.533" dur="0:00:02.267">you bend every time<br />the nail to the same side</p>
+<p begin="0:25:30.800" dur="0:00:01.300">so the holes are slanted.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:32.100" dur="0:00:01.766">You put it in water</p>
+<p begin="0:25:33.866" dur="0:00:04.934">you lift it out of water<br />and you have a Hero's engine.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:38.800" dur="0:00:04.366">And I made it for you--<br />it took me only five minutes.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:43.166" dur="0:00:04.134">I went to one of MIT's machines,<br />got myself a soda</p>
+<p begin="0:25:47.300" dur="0:00:02.933">put the holes in it,<br />and here it is.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:50.233" dur="0:00:02.033">It's in the water there.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:52.266" dur="0:00:03.734">When I lift it out,<br />you will see the water squirts.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:56.000" dur="0:00:01.333">There it goes.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:57.333" dur="0:00:03.400">High-tech version<br />of Hero's engine.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:04.533" dur="0:00:03.767">Also makes a bit of a mess,<br />but okay.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:08.300" dur="0:00:01.066">All right.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:13.900" dur="0:00:02.333">Try to make one-- it's fun<br />and it's very quick.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:16.233" dur="0:00:01.667">It doesn't take<br />much time at all.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:26.733" dur="0:00:06.300">There are some bizarre<br />consequences of these laws.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:33.033" dur="0:00:04.600">Imagine that an object<br />is falling towards the earth.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:37.633" dur="0:00:03.433">An apple is falling<br />towards the earth</p>
+<p begin="0:26:41.066" dur="0:00:04.534">from a height, say, of,<br />hmm, I'd say 100 meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:45.600" dur="0:00:03.033">And let's calculate<br />how long it takes</p>
+<p begin="0:26:48.633" dur="0:00:02.667">for this apple to hit the earth</p>
+<p begin="0:26:51.300" dur="0:00:02.300">which should for you<br />be trivial, of course.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:53.600" dur="0:00:05.900">So here's the earth...</p>
+<p begin="0:26:59.500" dur="0:00:02.866">and the mass of the earth</p>
+<p begin="0:27:02.366" dur="0:00:04.400">is about 6 times 10<br />to the 24 kilograms.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:06.766" dur="0:00:03.400">And here at a distance, h--</p>
+<p begin="0:27:10.166" dur="0:00:03.200">for which we will take<br />100 meters--</p>
+<p begin="0:27:13.366" dur="0:00:06.334">is this apple, m, which, say,<br />has a mass of half a kilogram.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:19.700" dur="0:00:04.766">There's a force<br />from the earth onto the apple</p>
+<p begin="0:27:24.466" dur="0:00:02.534">and this is that force.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:27.000" dur="0:00:06.466">And the magnitude of that force<br />is mg and that is 5 newton.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:33.466" dur="0:00:05.567">I make g ten and<br />just round it off a little.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:39.033" dur="0:00:07.667">Now, how long does it take<br />this object to hit the earth?</p>
+<p begin="0:27:46.700" dur="0:00:05.600">So, we know that<br />1/2 gt squared equals h.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:52.300" dur="0:00:05.900">It doesn't start with any<br />initial speed, so that is 100.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:58.200" dur="0:00:03.600">G is 10, this is 5,<br />so t squared is 20.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:01.800" dur="0:00:02.700">So t is about 4� seconds.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:04.500" dur="0:00:06.133">So after 4� seconds, it hits<br />the earth-- so far, so good.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:10.633" dur="0:00:02.900">But now, according<br />to the Third Law</p>
+<p begin="0:28:13.533" dur="0:00:02.167">the earth must experience</p>
+<p begin="0:28:15.700" dur="0:00:03.333">exactly the same force<br />as the apple does</p>
+<p begin="0:28:19.033" dur="0:00:03.300">but in opposite direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:22.333" dur="0:00:07.700">So therefore the earth will<br />experience this same force, f--</p>
+<p begin="0:28:30.033" dur="0:00:02.267">5 newton, in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:32.300" dur="0:00:02.433">What is the earth going to do?</p>
+<p begin="0:28:34.733" dur="0:00:05.200">Well, the earth is going to fall<br />towards the apple-- f equals ma.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:39.933" dur="0:00:05.200">So the force on the earth<br />is the mass of the earth</p>
+<p begin="0:28:45.133" dur="0:00:03.733">times the acceleration<br />of the earth.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:48.866" dur="0:00:02.700">The force, we know, is 5.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:51.566" dur="0:00:03.734">We know the mass,<br />6 times 10 to the 24</p>
+<p begin="0:28:55.300" dur="0:00:06.166">so the acceleration will be 5<br />divided by 6 times 10 to the 24</p>
+<p begin="0:29:01.466" dur="0:00:02.534">which is about 8 times 10</p>
+<p begin="0:29:04.000" dur="0:00:04.200">to the minus 25 meters<br />per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:11.333" dur="0:00:02.100">How long will the earth fall?</p>
+<p begin="0:29:13.433" dur="0:00:03.167">Well, the earth will fall<br />roughly 4� seconds</p>
+<p begin="0:29:16.600" dur="0:00:01.466">before they collide.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:18.066" dur="0:00:05.567">How far does the earth move<br />in the 4� seconds?</p>
+<p begin="0:29:23.633" dur="0:00:05.133">Well, it moves<br />one-half a earth t squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:28.766" dur="0:00:02.600">That's the distance<br />that it moves.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:31.366" dur="0:00:04.500">We know a and we know t squared,<br />which is 20.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:35.866" dur="0:00:02.367">One-half times 20 is 10</p>
+<p begin="0:29:38.233" dur="0:00:04.100">so that means this distance<br />becomes that number times 10.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:42.333" dur="0:00:03.267">It's about 8 times 10<br />to the minus 24 meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:45.600" dur="0:00:05.966">The earth moves 8 times 10<br />to the minus 24 meters.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:51.566" dur="0:00:05.000">That, of course, is<br />impossible to measure.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:56.566" dur="0:00:06.000">But just imagine what<br />a wonderful concept this is!</p>
+<p begin="0:30:02.566" dur="0:00:04.000">When this ball falls back to me</p>
+<p begin="0:30:06.566" dur="0:00:07.800">the earth and you and I and MIT<br />are falling towards the ball.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:14.366" dur="0:00:02.134">Every time that the ball<br />comes down</p>
+<p begin="0:30:16.500" dur="0:00:01.966">we're falling towards the ball.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:18.466" dur="0:00:03.334">Imagine the power I have<br />over you and over the earth!</p>
+<p begin="0:30:23.866" dur="0:00:02.867">But you may want<br />to think about this--</p>
+<p begin="0:30:26.733" dur="0:00:04.167">if I throw the ball up,<br />going to be away from the earth</p>
+<p begin="0:30:30.900" dur="0:00:01.633">I'll bet you anything</p>
+<p begin="0:30:32.533" dur="0:00:03.600">that the earth will also<br />go away from the ball.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:36.133" dur="0:00:02.200">So as I do this,<br />casually playing--</p>
+<p begin="0:30:38.333" dur="0:00:03.067">believe me, man,<br />what a glorious feeling it is--</p>
+<p begin="0:30:41.400" dur="0:00:03.500">earth is going down, earth<br />is coming towards the ball.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:44.900" dur="0:00:03.100">The earth is going down<br />and I'm part of the earth</p>
+<p begin="0:30:48.000" dur="0:00:02.433">and I'm shaking this earth<br />up and down</p>
+<p begin="0:30:50.433" dur="0:00:02.100">by simply playing<br />with this ball.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:52.533" dur="0:00:03.667">That is the consequence<br />of Newton's Third Law</p>
+<p begin="0:30:56.200" dur="0:00:03.933">even though the amount<br />by which the earth moves</p>
+<p begin="0:31:00.133" dur="0:00:03.267">is, of course,<br />too small to be measured.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:06.333" dur="0:00:05.433">I now want to work out with you<br />a rather detailed example</p>
+<p begin="0:31:11.766" dur="0:00:05.834">of something in which we combine<br />what we have learned today--</p>
+<p begin="0:31:17.600" dur="0:00:02.433">a down-to-earth problem--</p>
+<p begin="0:31:20.033" dur="0:00:03.800">the kind of a problem<br />that you might see</p>
+<p begin="0:31:23.833" dur="0:00:04.167">on an exam<br />or on an assignment.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:28.000" dur="0:00:08.300">We hang an object on two strings</p>
+<p begin="0:31:36.300" dur="0:00:06.466">and one string makes an angle<br />of 60 degrees with the vertical</p>
+<p begin="0:31:42.766" dur="0:00:06.500">and the other makes an angle<br />of 45 degrees with the vertical.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:49.266" dur="0:00:04.600">So this is the one<br />that makes an angle...</p>
+<p begin="0:31:53.866" dur="0:00:05.367">oh, 60 degrees with the horizon,<br />30 degrees with the vertical</p>
+<p begin="0:31:59.233" dur="0:00:02.500">and this one, 45 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:04.000" dur="0:00:04.766">Let's assume that the strings<br />have negligible mass.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:08.766" dur="0:00:03.767">So they are attached here<br />to the ceiling</p>
+<p begin="0:32:12.533" dur="0:00:02.767">and I hang here an object, m.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:15.300" dur="0:00:02.700">Well, if there's an object m</p>
+<p begin="0:32:18.000" dur="0:00:05.800">for sure there will be<br />a force mg, gravitational force.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:23.800" dur="0:00:05.933">This object is hanging there,<br />it's not being accelerated</p>
+<p begin="0:32:29.733" dur="0:00:03.900">so the net acceleration<br />must be zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:33.633" dur="0:00:02.800">And so one string must<br />be pulling in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:32:36.433" dur="0:00:02.967">and the other string must<br />be pulling in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:32:39.400" dur="0:00:02.433">so that the net force<br />on the system is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:44.466" dur="0:00:04.034">Let's call this pull,<br />for now, "T1."</p>
+<p begin="0:32:48.500" dur="0:00:02.866">We'll call that the tension<br />in the string</p>
+<p begin="0:32:51.366" dur="0:00:03.134">and we call the tension<br />in this string "T2."</p>
+<p begin="0:32:57.400" dur="0:00:04.566">And the question now is how<br />large is T1 and how large is T2?</p>
+<p begin="0:33:01.966" dur="0:00:03.667">There are various ways<br />you can do this.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:05.633" dur="0:00:03.567">One way that always works--<br />pretty safe--</p>
+<p begin="0:33:09.200" dur="0:00:02.933">you call this the x direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:12.133" dur="0:00:03.333">You may choose which direction<br />you call "plus."</p>
+<p begin="0:33:15.466" dur="0:00:03.100">I call this plus,<br />I call this negative.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:18.566" dur="0:00:03.100">And you could call this<br />the y direction</p>
+<p begin="0:33:21.666" dur="0:00:03.634">and you may call this plus<br />and this negative.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:25.300" dur="0:00:08.000">I know, from Newton's<br />Second Law-- F equals ma--</p>
+<p begin="0:33:36.133" dur="0:00:03.933">that there is no acceleration,<br />so this must be zero</p>
+<p begin="0:33:40.066" dur="0:00:03.967">so the sum of all forces<br />on that mass must be zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:44.033" dur="0:00:05.967">These three forces must eat<br />each other up, so to speak.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:50.000" dur="0:00:02.866">Well, if that's the case,<br />then the sum of all forces</p>
+<p begin="0:33:52.866" dur="0:00:02.000">in the x direction<br />must also be zero<br /></p>
+<p begin="0:33:54.866" dur="0:00:02.767">because there's no acceleration<br />in the x direction</p>
+<p begin="0:33:57.633" dur="0:00:03.300">and the sum of all forces<br />in the y direction must be zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:00.933" dur="0:00:02.867">And so I am going<br />to decompose them--</p>
+<p begin="0:34:03.800" dur="0:00:02.400">something we have done before.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:06.200" dur="0:00:02.633">I am going to decompose<br />the forces</p>
+<p begin="0:34:08.833" dur="0:00:02.567">into an x and<br />into a y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:13.333" dur="0:00:06.867">So here comes<br />the x component of T1</p>
+<p begin="0:34:20.200" dur="0:00:07.966">and its magnitude is T1<br />times the cosine of 60 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:36.166" dur="0:00:08.634">Now I want to know<br />what this one is.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:44.800" dur="0:00:08.000">This one is T1 times<br />the sine of 60 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:55.400" dur="0:00:09.200">This projection, T2,<br />cosign 45 degrees</p>
+<p begin="0:35:04.600" dur="0:00:09.000">and the y component,<br />T2 times the sine of 45 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:13.600" dur="0:00:05.300">So we go into the x direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:18.900" dur="0:00:07.966">In the x direction<br />I have T1 cosign 60 degrees</p>
+<p begin="0:35:26.866" dur="0:00:05.500">minus T2 cosign 45 degrees<br />equals zero--</p>
+<p begin="0:35:32.366" dur="0:00:02.800">that's one equation.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:35.166" dur="0:00:04.967">The cosine of 60 degrees<br />is one-half</p>
+<p begin="0:35:40.133" dur="0:00:06.767">and the cosine of 45 degrees<br />is one-half square root two.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:46.900" dur="0:00:03.166">Now I go to the y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:50.066" dur="0:00:06.334">This is plus, this is minus,<br />so we get one component here</p>
+<p begin="0:35:56.400" dur="0:00:04.500">which is T1 times<br />the sine of 60 degrees</p>
+<p begin="0:36:00.900" dur="0:00:05.366">plus T2 times the sine<br />of 45 degrees<i>minus</i>mg.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:06.266" dur="0:00:05.434">It's in the opposite direction--<br />must be zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:11.700" dur="0:00:03.733">That's my second equation.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:15.433" dur="0:00:08.567">The sine of 60 degrees equals<br />one-half the square root three</p>
+<p begin="0:36:24.000" dur="0:00:03.766">and the sine of 45 degrees</p>
+<p begin="0:36:27.766" dur="0:00:02.867">is the same as the cosine<br />one-half square root two.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:32.733" dur="0:00:02.900">Notice I have two equations<br />with two unknowns.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:35.633" dur="0:00:01.533">If you tell me what m is</p>
+<p begin="0:36:37.166" dur="0:00:02.800">I should be able to solve<br />for T1 and for T2.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:39.966" dur="0:00:02.034">In fact, if we add them up</p>
+<p begin="0:36:42.000" dur="0:00:03.600">it's going to be very easy<br />because we lose this</p>
+<p begin="0:36:45.600" dur="0:00:03.533">because we have both<br />one-half square root two.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:49.133" dur="0:00:04.167">And so you see immediately here<br />that one-half times T1</p>
+<p begin="0:36:53.300" dur="0:00:09.033">plus one-half square root three<br />times T1 equals mg</p>
+<p begin="0:37:02.333" dur="0:00:05.567">and so you find that<br />the tension 1 equals two mg</p>
+<p begin="0:37:07.900" dur="0:00:05.233">divided by one<br />plus the square root of three.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:15.733" dur="0:00:04.567">I can go back now<br />to this equation--</p>
+<p begin="0:37:20.300" dur="0:00:02.233">T1 times one-half</p>
+<p begin="0:37:22.533" dur="0:00:05.667">equals T2 times one-half<br />square root of two.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:28.200" dur="0:00:01.666">I lose my half</p>
+<p begin="0:37:29.866" dur="0:00:06.334">and so T2 equals T1 divided<br />by the square root of two.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:36.200" dur="0:00:02.566">So the bottom line is,<br />you tell me what m is</p>
+<p begin="0:37:38.766" dur="0:00:03.400">I'll tell you what T1 is<br />and I'll tell you what T2 is.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:42.166" dur="0:00:04.934">Suppose we take a mass<br />of four kilograms--</p>
+<p begin="0:37:47.100" dur="0:00:04.566">m equals four kilograms,<br />so mg is about 40</p>
+<p begin="0:37:51.666" dur="0:00:03.767">if we make g ten for simplicity.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:55.433" dur="0:00:07.767">Then T1, if you put in<br />the numbers, is about 29.3</p>
+<p begin="0:38:03.200" dur="0:00:03.566">and T2... 29.3 newtons</p>
+<p begin="0:38:06.766" dur="0:00:05.534">and T2 is about 20.7 newtons,<br />I believe.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:15.366" dur="0:00:04.767">It's very difficult to rig<br />this up as an experiment</p>
+<p begin="0:38:20.133" dur="0:00:01.833">but I've tried that.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:21.966" dur="0:00:02.367">I'll show you in a minute.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:24.333" dur="0:00:04.233">I want you to know<br />that there is another method</p>
+<p begin="0:38:28.566" dur="0:00:03.067">which is perhaps<br />even more elegant</p>
+<p begin="0:38:31.633" dur="0:00:02.600">and which you may consider</p>
+<p begin="0:38:34.233" dur="0:00:03.300">in which there is<br />no decomposition</p>
+<p begin="0:38:37.533" dur="0:00:02.233">in the two directions.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:42.533" dur="0:00:02.900">Here is mg-- that's a given.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:45.433" dur="0:00:05.500">And we know that the other<br />directions are also given--</p>
+<p begin="0:38:50.933" dur="0:00:06.067">this angle of 30 degrees here<br />and this angle of 45 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:57.000" dur="0:00:03.933">If these two forces<br />must cancel out this one</p>
+<p begin="0:39:00.933" dur="0:00:02.800">why don't I flip this one over?</p>
+<p begin="0:39:03.733" dur="0:00:01.300">Here it comes.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:07.233" dur="0:00:03.267">I flip it over.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:10.500" dur="0:00:01.800">There it is.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:12.300" dur="0:00:03.666">T1 and T2 now, together,<br />must add up to this one.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:15.966" dur="0:00:04.134">Then the problem is solved,<br />then the net force is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:20.100" dur="0:00:02.333">Well, that's easy-- I do this.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:28.366" dur="0:00:03.367">And now I have constructed</p>
+<p begin="0:39:31.733" dur="0:00:05.733">a complete fair construction<br />of T1 and of T2.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:37.466" dur="0:00:02.134">No physics anymore now,<br />it's all over.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:39.600" dur="0:00:03.400">You know this angle here, 45<br />degrees, so this is 45 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:43.000" dur="0:00:01.333">This is 30, this is 30.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:44.333" dur="0:00:03.233">You know all the angles and<br />you know this magnitude is mg</p>
+<p begin="0:39:47.566" dur="0:00:01.734">so it's a high school problem.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:49.300" dur="0:00:03.033">You have a triangle with<br />all the angles and one side;</p>
+<p begin="0:39:52.333" dur="0:00:01.967">you can calculate<br />the other sides</p>
+<p begin="0:39:54.300" dur="0:00:03.366">and you should find exactly<br />the same answer, of course.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:59.733" dur="0:00:02.067">We made an attempt to rig it up.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:01.800" dur="0:00:01.733">How do we measure tension?</p>
+<p begin="0:40:03.533" dur="0:00:04.433">Well, we put in these lines,<br />scales, tension meters</p>
+<p begin="0:40:07.966" dur="0:00:03.134">and that is problematic,<br />believe me.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:11.100" dur="0:00:05.733">We put in here a tension meter,<br />we put in here a tension meter</p>
+<p begin="0:40:16.833" dur="0:00:05.567">and the bottom one, we hang on a<br />string with a tension meter</p>
+<p begin="0:40:22.400" dur="0:00:03.333">and then here we put<br />four kilograms.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:25.733" dur="0:00:02.400">These scales are not masses.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:28.133" dur="0:00:02.300">That's already problematic.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:30.433" dur="0:00:02.667">The scales are<br />not very accurate</p>
+<p begin="0:40:33.100" dur="0:00:03.966">so we may not even come close<br />to these numbers.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:37.066" dur="0:00:02.934">For sure,<br />if I put four kilograms here</p>
+<p begin="0:40:40.000" dur="0:00:03.533">then I would like this one<br />to read 40 newtons</p>
+<p begin="0:40:43.533" dur="0:00:02.533">or somewhere<br />in that neighborhood</p>
+<p begin="0:40:46.066" dur="0:00:03.134">depending on<br />how accurate my meters are.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:49.200" dur="0:00:03.200">These are springs,<br />and the springs extend</p>
+<p begin="0:40:52.400" dur="0:00:05.600">and when the springs extend,<br />you see a handle... a hand go.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:58.000" dur="0:00:03.233">You can clearly see<br />how that works</p>
+<p begin="0:41:01.233" dur="0:00:04.567">because if there is a force<br />on that bottom scale</p>
+<p begin="0:41:05.800" dur="0:00:05.233">in this direction, which is mg,<br />and it's not being accelerated</p>
+<p begin="0:41:11.033" dur="0:00:02.733">then the string<br />must pull upwards</p>
+<p begin="0:41:13.766" dur="0:00:03.900">and so... in order to make<br />the net force zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:17.666" dur="0:00:03.400">And if you have a pull down here<br />and you have a pull up here</p>
+<p begin="0:41:21.066" dur="0:00:01.767">and you have in here a spring</p>
+<p begin="0:41:22.833" dur="0:00:02.967">then you see you have<br />a way of measuring that force.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:25.800" dur="0:00:01.066">We often do that--</p>
+<p begin="0:41:26.866" dur="0:00:03.767">we measure with springs<br />the tension in strings.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:30.633" dur="0:00:04.267">For whatever it's worth, I will<br />show you what we rigged up.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:34.900" dur="0:00:03.766">Now a measurement without<br />knowledge of uncertainties</p>
+<p begin="0:41:38.666" dur="0:00:02.367">is meaningless--<br />I told you that.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:41.033" dur="0:00:04.067">So maybe this is meaningless,<br />what I am going to do now.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:45.100" dur="0:00:02.966">Let me do something meaningless<br />for once.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:48.066" dur="0:00:04.367">And remember, when I show it,<br />you can always close your eyes</p>
+<p begin="0:41:52.433" dur="0:00:02.067">so that you haven't seen it.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:54.500" dur="0:00:04.166">So we have here something<br />that approaches this 60 degrees</p>
+<p begin="0:41:58.666" dur="0:00:03.334">and this approaches<br />the 45 degrees</p>
+<p begin="0:42:02.000" dur="0:00:02.766">and we're going to hang<br />four kilograms at the bottom.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:08.266" dur="0:00:02.234">There it is, and here it is.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:10.500" dur="0:00:03.733">All right, this one--<br />it's not too far from 40.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:14.233" dur="0:00:01.600">It's not an embarrassment.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:15.833" dur="0:00:02.033">This one is not too far<br />from 20.7.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:17.866" dur="0:00:02.000">This one is a bit<br />on the low side.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:19.866" dur="0:00:02.000">Maybe I can push it up a little.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:21.866" dur="0:00:02.467">I think that's close to 30;it's not bad.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:24.333" dur="0:00:04.500">So you see, it's very difficult<br />to get these angles right</p>
+<p begin="0:42:28.833" dur="0:00:02.000">but it's not too far off.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:30.833" dur="0:00:02.100">So let's remove this again</p>
+<p begin="0:42:32.933" dur="0:00:02.667">because this will block<br />your view.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:35.600" dur="0:00:05.033">These scales were calibrated<br />in newtons, as you could see.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:45.200" dur="0:00:04.666">Now we come<br />to something very delicate.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:49.866" dur="0:00:05.700">Now I need your alertness<br />and I need your help.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:58.700" dur="0:00:03.233">I have a block--<br />you see it there--</p>
+<p begin="0:43:01.933" dur="0:00:03.500">and that block weighs<br />two kilograms.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:05.433" dur="0:00:01.967">A red block.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:07.400" dur="0:00:02.333">So here it is.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:09.733" dur="0:00:02.567">It's red.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:12.300" dur="0:00:01.566">And I have two strings.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:13.866" dur="0:00:04.334">It's hanging from a black string<br />here and a black string there.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:18.200" dur="0:00:03.133">Ignore that red string,<br />that is just a safety.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:21.333" dur="0:00:03.133">But it's a<i>very</i>thin thread<br />here and here.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:24.466" dur="0:00:03.834">And they are as close<br />as we can make them the same.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:28.300" dur="0:00:02.333">They come from the same batch.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:33.233" dur="0:00:03.267">This one has a mass<br />of two kilograms</p>
+<p begin="0:43:36.500" dur="0:00:02.633">and this string has no mass.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:39.133" dur="0:00:02.433">This is two kilograms.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:41.566" dur="0:00:03.600">So what will be the tension<br />in the upper string</p>
+<p begin="0:43:45.166" dur="0:00:02.134">which is string number one?</p>
+<p begin="0:43:47.300" dur="0:00:02.066">This is string number two.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:49.366" dur="0:00:04.334">Well, this string must be able<br />to carry this two kilograms</p>
+<p begin="0:43:53.700" dur="0:00:02.666">so the tension has to be<br />20 newtons.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:56.366" dur="0:00:03.600">So you will find here<br />the tension-- call it T1--</p>
+<p begin="0:43:59.966" dur="0:00:03.134">which is about 20 newtons.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:03.100" dur="0:00:03.933">So it's pulling<br />up on this object.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:07.033" dur="0:00:06.100">It's also pulling down<br />from the ceiling, by the way.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:13.133" dur="0:00:04.333">Think about it, it's pulling<br />from the ceiling.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:17.466" dur="0:00:03.100">The tension is here, 20 newtons.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:20.566" dur="0:00:02.567">We could put in here<br />one of these scales</p>
+<p begin="0:44:23.133" dur="0:00:02.767">and you would see<br />approximately 20 newtons.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:25.900" dur="0:00:01.633">What is the tension here?</p>
+<p begin="0:44:27.533" dur="0:00:02.933">Well, the tension here<br />is very close to zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:30.466" dur="0:00:03.200">There's nothing hanging on it<br />and the string has no weight</p>
+<p begin="0:44:33.666" dur="0:00:02.600">so there's no tension there--<br />you can see that.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:39.433" dur="0:00:04.800">Now I am going to pull on here</p>
+<p begin="0:44:44.233" dur="0:00:07.567">and I'm going to increase<br />the tension on the bottom one</p>
+<p begin="0:44:51.800" dur="0:00:03.900">until one of the two breaks.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:55.700" dur="0:00:04.233">So this tension goes up and up</p>
+<p begin="0:44:59.933" dur="0:00:04.967">and therefore, since this object<br />is not being accelerated--</p>
+<p begin="0:45:04.900" dur="0:00:04.333">we're going to get a force<br />down now on this object--</p>
+<p begin="0:45:09.233" dur="0:00:02.767">this tension must increase,<br />right?</p>
+<p begin="0:45:12.000" dur="0:00:01.133">You see that?</p>
+<p begin="0:45:13.133" dur="0:00:04.000">If I have a force on this one...</p>
+<p begin="0:45:17.133" dur="0:00:04.933">so there's a force here,<br />and there is mg</p>
+<p begin="0:45:22.066" dur="0:00:04.600">then, of course, this string<br />must now be mg plus this force.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:26.666" dur="0:00:04.867">So the tension will go up here<br />and the tension will go up here.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:31.533" dur="0:00:03.700">The strings are as identical<br />as they can be.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:35.233" dur="0:00:03.200">Which of the strings<br />will break first?</p>
+<p begin="0:45:38.433" dur="0:00:01.567">What do you think?</p>
+<p begin="0:45:42.566" dur="0:00:01.034">LEWIN:<br />Excuse me?</p>
+<p begin="0:45:43.600" dur="0:00:01.500">(<i>student answers</i><br /><i>unintelligibly</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:45:45.100" dur="0:00:01.000">I can't hear you.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:46.100" dur="0:00:01.000">STUDENT:<br />The one on top.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:47.100" dur="0:00:01.000">LEWIN:<br />The one on top.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:48.100" dur="0:00:04.233">Who is in favor<br />of the one on top?</p>
+<p begin="0:45:52.333" dur="0:00:02.333">Who says no, the bottom one?</p>
+<p begin="0:45:54.666" dur="0:00:03.434">(<i>Student answers</i><br /><i>unintelligibly</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:45:58.100" dur="0:00:03.933">LEWIN:<br />Who says they won't break<br />at all?</p>
+<p begin="0:46:02.033" dur="0:00:03.200">Okay, let's take a look at it.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:05.233" dur="0:00:04.967">The one on top--<br />that's the most likely, right?</p>
+<p begin="0:46:10.200" dur="0:00:02.366">Three, two, one, zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:16.500" dur="0:00:03.500">The bottom one broke.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:20.000" dur="0:00:01.100">My goodness.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:21.100" dur="0:00:01.866">Newton's Second Law is at stake.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:22.966" dur="0:00:01.800">Newton's Third Law is at stake.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:24.766" dur="0:00:01.667">The whole world is at stake!</p>
+<p begin="0:46:26.433" dur="0:00:04.767">Something is not working.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:31.200" dur="0:00:03.500">I increased tension here,<br />this one didn't break.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:34.700" dur="0:00:02.200">This one's stronger, perhaps.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:36.900" dur="0:00:02.466">No, I don't cheat on you;I'm not a magician.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:39.366" dur="0:00:01.600">I want to teach you physics.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:43.766" dur="0:00:01.767">Did we overlook something?</p>
+<p begin="0:46:45.533" dur="0:00:02.667">You know,<br />I'll give you a second chance.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:48.200" dur="0:00:01.233">We'll do it again.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:49.433" dur="0:00:01.667">Let's have another vote.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:51.100" dur="0:00:02.266">So I'll give you a chance<br />to change your minds.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:53.366" dur="0:00:02.300">It's nothing wrong in life,<br />changing your mind.</p>
+<p begin="0:46:55.666" dur="0:00:02.367">It's one of the greatest things<br />that you can do.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:02.266" dur="0:00:02.400">What do you think<br />will happen now?</p>
+<p begin="0:47:04.666" dur="0:00:02.800">Who is in favor still<br />of the top one?</p>
+<p begin="0:47:07.466" dur="0:00:01.500">Seeing is believing.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:08.966" dur="0:00:01.700">You still insist on the top one?</p>
+<p begin="0:47:10.666" dur="0:00:02.034">Who is now in favor<br />of the bottom one?</p>
+<p begin="0:47:12.700" dur="0:00:03.200">Ah, many of you<br />got converted, right?</p>
+<p begin="0:47:15.900" dur="0:00:01.600">Okay, there we go.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:17.500" dur="0:00:01.966">Three, two, one, zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:22.466" dur="0:00:01.400">The top one broke.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:23.866" dur="0:00:02.067">So some of you were right.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:25.933" dur="0:00:02.200">Now I'm getting so confused.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:28.133" dur="0:00:02.167">I can't believe it anymore.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:30.300" dur="0:00:03.100">First we argued<br />that the top one should break</p>
+<p begin="0:47:33.400" dur="0:00:02.533">but it didn't--<br />the bottom one broke.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:35.933" dur="0:00:03.600">Then we had another vote<br />and then the top one broke.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:39.533" dur="0:00:01.933">Is someone pulling our leg?</p>
+<p begin="0:47:41.466" dur="0:00:02.500">I suggest we do it<br />one more time.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:43.966" dur="0:00:02.500">I suggest we do it one more time</p>
+<p begin="0:47:46.466" dur="0:00:03.800">and whatever's going to happen,<br />that's the winner.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:50.266" dur="0:00:03.067">If the top one breaks,<br />that's the winner.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:53.333" dur="0:00:04.700">If the bottom one breaks, well,<br />then, we have to accept that.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:58.033" dur="0:00:02.933">But I want you to vote again.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:00.966" dur="0:00:05.400">I want you to vote again<br />on this decisive measurement</p>
+<p begin="0:48:06.366" dur="0:00:04.467">whether the top one will break<br />first or the bottom one?</p>
+<p begin="0:48:10.833" dur="0:00:02.567">Who is in favor of the top one?</p>
+<p begin="0:48:16.266" dur="0:00:01.400">Many of you are scared, right?</p>
+<p begin="0:48:17.666" dur="0:00:01.234">You're not<i>voting</i>anymore!</p>
+<p begin="0:48:18.900" dur="0:00:01.000">(<i>class laughs</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:48:19.900" dur="0:00:01.700">LEWIN:<br />I can tell, you're not voting.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:21.600" dur="0:00:04.266">Who is in favor<br />of the bottom one?</p>
+<p begin="0:48:25.866" dur="0:00:02.667">Only ten people are voting.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:28.533" dur="0:00:01.600">(<i>class laughs</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:48:30.133" dur="0:00:03.567">LEWIN:<br />Let's do this<br />in an undemocratic way.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:33.700" dur="0:00:02.833">You may decide--<br />what's your name?</p>
+<p begin="0:48:36.533" dur="0:00:01.033">Alicia?</p>
+<p begin="0:48:37.566" dur="0:00:01.934">Georgia, close enough.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:39.500" dur="0:00:01.200">(<i>laughter</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:48:40.700" dur="0:00:02.300">You may decide<br />whether the top one</p>
+<p begin="0:48:43.000" dur="0:00:02.066">or the bottom one will break.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:45.066" dur="0:00:01.200">Isn't that great?</p>
+<p begin="0:48:46.266" dur="0:00:02.467">Doesn't it give you<br />a fantastic amount of power?</p>
+<p begin="0:48:52.166" dur="0:00:01.000">The bottom one.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:54.166" dur="0:00:02.467">The bottom one.</p>
+<p begin="0:48:56.633" dur="0:00:01.100">You ready?</p>
+<p begin="0:48:57.733" dur="0:00:02.567">Three, two, one, zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:00.300" dur="0:00:01.400">The bottom one broke.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:01.700" dur="0:00:01.000">You were right.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:02.700" dur="0:00:01.766">You will pass this course.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:04.466" dur="0:00:02.867">Thank you,<br />and see you Wednesday.</p>
+<p begin="0:49:07.333" dur="0:00:04.200">By the way, think about this,<br />think about this.</p>
+</div>
+</body>
+</tt>