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sm-transcript 0.0.4 → 0.0.6

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+<p begin="0:00:01.400" dur="0:00:04.700">Today we're going to talk<br />about friction, something...</p>
+<p begin="0:00:06.100" dur="0:00:01.966">(<i>students murmuring</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:00:08.066" dur="0:00:03.267">Please, I have a terrible cold.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:11.333" dur="0:00:01.833">My voice is down.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:13.166" dur="0:00:04.400">Help me to get through this<br />with my voice-- thank you.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:17.566" dur="0:00:01.967">We're going to talk<br />about friction</p>
+<p begin="0:00:19.533" dur="0:00:02.000">which we have never dealt with.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:21.533" dur="0:00:05.267">Friction is a tricky thing,<br />not as easy as you may think.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:26.800" dur="0:00:04.133">I have an object<br />on a horizontal surface.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:30.933" dur="0:00:04.500">The object has a mass, m,<br />gravitational force, mg.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:38.066" dur="0:00:02.800">This is the y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:40.866" dur="0:00:02.934">This could be the x direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:43.800" dur="0:00:01.600">There must be a force</p>
+<p begin="0:00:45.400" dur="0:00:03.700">pushing upwards from the surface<br />to cancel out mg</p>
+<p begin="0:00:49.100" dur="0:00:03.533">because there's no acceleration<br />in the y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:52.633" dur="0:00:02.367">We normally call that<br />the "normal force"</p>
+<p begin="0:00:55.000" dur="0:00:02.100">because it's normal<br />to this surface</p>
+<p begin="0:00:57.100" dur="0:00:01.633">and it must be the same as mg.</p>
+<p begin="0:00:58.733" dur="0:00:03.633">Otherwise there would be an<br />acceleration in the y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:02.366" dur="0:00:05.067">Now I am going to push<br />on this object with a force--</p>
+<p begin="0:01:07.433" dur="0:00:01.267">force Walter Lewin.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:08.700" dur="0:00:02.933">And we know that the object<br />in the beginning</p>
+<p begin="0:01:11.633" dur="0:00:01.933">will not start accelerating.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:13.566" dur="0:00:01.200">Why is that?</p>
+<p begin="0:01:14.766" dur="0:00:04.134">That's only possible because<br />there is a frictional force</p>
+<p begin="0:01:18.900" dur="0:00:03.700">which adjusts itself<br />to exactly counter my force.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:22.600" dur="0:00:03.600">I push harder<br />and harder and harder</p>
+<p begin="0:01:26.200" dur="0:00:02.433">and there comes a time<br />that I win</p>
+<p begin="0:01:28.633" dur="0:00:02.667">and the object begins<br />to accelerate.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:31.300" dur="0:00:02.333">It means that<br />the frictional force--</p>
+<p begin="0:01:33.633" dur="0:00:03.167">which is growing all the time<br />as I push harder--</p>
+<p begin="0:01:36.800" dur="0:00:03.133">reaches a maximum value<br />which it cannot exceed.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:39.933" dur="0:00:04.567">And that maximum value<br />that the friction can achieve--</p>
+<p begin="0:01:44.500" dur="0:00:02.600">this is an experimental fact--</p>
+<p begin="0:01:47.100" dur="0:00:03.833">is what's called<br />the friction coefficient mu</p>
+<p begin="0:01:50.933" dur="0:00:04.667">which has no dimension,<br />times this normal force.</p>
+<p begin="0:01:55.600" dur="0:00:02.100">We make a distinction</p>
+<p begin="0:01:57.700" dur="0:00:04.800">between static friction<br />coefficients and kinetic.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:02.500" dur="0:00:04.200">This is to break it loose,<br />to get it going.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:06.700" dur="0:00:01.700">This is to keep it going</p>
+<p begin="0:02:08.400" dur="0:00:02.700">when it already has<br />a certain velocity.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:11.100" dur="0:00:03.033">The static is always larger<br />than the kinetic</p>
+<p begin="0:02:14.133" dur="0:00:02.433">for reasons<br />that are quite obvious.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:16.566" dur="0:00:02.900">It's a little harder<br />to break it loose.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:19.466" dur="0:00:03.500">Once it's going, it's easier<br />to<i>keep</i>it going.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:22.966" dur="0:00:03.934">It is fairly easy to measure<br />a friction coefficient</p>
+<p begin="0:02:26.900" dur="0:00:04.766">by putting an object<br />on an incline</p>
+<p begin="0:02:31.666" dur="0:00:05.100">and by changing the angle<br />of the incline, increasing it.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:36.766" dur="0:00:02.234">This is the angle alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:39.000" dur="0:00:01.400">You increase it</p>
+<p begin="0:02:40.400" dur="0:00:04.600">to the point that the objects<br />start to slide down.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:45.000" dur="0:00:02.000">Here is the object.</p>
+<p begin="0:02:47.000" dur="0:00:03.633">This is<br />the gravitational force, mg</p>
+<p begin="0:02:50.633" dur="0:00:03.933">which I will decompose<br />in two forces:</p>
+<p begin="0:02:54.566" dur="0:00:02.600">one in the y direction--</p>
+<p begin="0:02:57.166" dur="0:00:05.500">which I always choose<br />perpendicular to the surface--</p>
+<p begin="0:03:02.666" dur="0:00:01.934">and another one<br />in an x direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:04.600" dur="0:00:03.566">You are free to choose<br />this plus or this plus.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:08.166" dur="0:00:03.267">I will now choose this<br />the plus direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:11.433" dur="0:00:06.733">I am going to decompose them,<br />so I have one component here</p>
+<p begin="0:03:18.166" dur="0:00:05.400">and this component equals<br />mg times the cosine of alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:23.566" dur="0:00:04.034">And I have a component<br />in the x direction</p>
+<p begin="0:03:27.600" dur="0:00:06.066">which is mg sine alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:33.666" dur="0:00:04.534">There is no acceleration in the<br />y direction, so I can be sure</p>
+<p begin="0:03:38.200" dur="0:00:03.800">that the surface pushes back<br />with a normal force, N</p>
+<p begin="0:03:42.000" dur="0:00:04.166">and that normal force N must be<br />exactly mg cosine alpha</p>
+<p begin="0:03:46.166" dur="0:00:04.300">because those are the only<br />two forces in the y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:50.466" dur="0:00:02.600">And there is no acceleration<br />in the y direction</p>
+<p begin="0:03:53.066" dur="0:00:05.867">so this one must be<br />mg cosine alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:03:58.933" dur="0:00:03.367">Now this object wants<br />to slide downhill.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:02.300" dur="0:00:02.866">Friction prevents it<br />from doing so</p>
+<p begin="0:04:05.166" dur="0:00:03.067">so there's going to be<br />a frictional force</p>
+<p begin="0:04:08.233" dur="0:00:01.367">in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:09.600" dur="0:00:02.000">And as I increase the tilt</p>
+<p begin="0:04:11.600" dur="0:00:04.466">this frictional force will get<br />larger and larger and larger</p>
+<p begin="0:04:16.066" dur="0:00:03.500">and then there comes a time that<br />the object will start to slide.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:19.566" dur="0:00:01.200">Let us evaluate</p>
+<p begin="0:04:20.766" dur="0:00:04.267">that very moment that it's<br />just about to break loose.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:25.033" dur="0:00:03.433">I'm applying<br />Newton's Second Law.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:28.466" dur="0:00:03.700">In this direction, now,<br />the acceleration is still zero</p>
+<p begin="0:04:32.166" dur="0:00:04.467">but the frictional force has now<br />just reached the maximum value--</p>
+<p begin="0:04:36.633" dur="0:00:04.067">because I increase alpha-- so<br />this component will get larger</p>
+<p begin="0:04:40.700" dur="0:00:01.600">and this component<br />will get larger.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:42.300" dur="0:00:01.566">This component will get larger.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:43.866" dur="0:00:02.167">This component is<br />still holding its own</p>
+<p begin="0:04:46.033" dur="0:00:02.833">but then all of a sudden<br />it can't grow any further</p>
+<p begin="0:04:48.866" dur="0:00:01.667">and it starts to accelerate.</p>
+<p begin="0:04:50.533" dur="0:00:02.267">So Newton's Second Law tells me</p>
+<p begin="0:04:52.800" dur="0:00:09.566">that mg sine alpha minus F<br />f maximum at this point is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:02.366" dur="0:00:09.267">And this one is mu static times<br />N, which is mg cosine alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:11.633" dur="0:00:04.233">This one is mg sine alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:15.866" dur="0:00:01.467">This equals zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:17.333" dur="0:00:02.667">I lose my mg, and you see</p>
+<p begin="0:05:20.000" dur="0:00:04.266">that mu of s equals<br />the tangent of alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:24.266" dur="0:00:01.734">It's that easy to measure.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:26.000" dur="0:00:01.666">So you increase the tilt.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:27.666" dur="0:00:03.000">We will do that later<br />until it starts to slip</p>
+<p begin="0:05:30.666" dur="0:00:03.367">and then at that critical angle<br />that it starts to slip</p>
+<p begin="0:05:34.033" dur="0:00:01.600">you have a value for mu of s</p>
+<p begin="0:05:35.633" dur="0:00:02.033">for the static<br />friction coefficient.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:37.666" dur="0:00:03.467">It is very nonintuitive<br />that this friction coefficient</p>
+<p begin="0:05:41.133" dur="0:00:02.467">is completely independent<br />of the mass.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:43.600" dur="0:00:01.766">The mass has disappeared.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:45.366" dur="0:00:02.767">Think about it--<br />it's very nonintuitive.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:48.133" dur="0:00:03.567">If you double the mass,<br />the angle would be the same</p>
+<p begin="0:05:51.700" dur="0:00:03.733">given the fact that you have<br />the same kind of object.</p>
+<p begin="0:05:55.433" dur="0:00:02.667">The friction coefficient<br />only depends</p>
+<p begin="0:05:58.100" dur="0:00:02.300">on the materials that you have</p>
+<p begin="0:06:00.400" dur="0:00:03.433">the materials that are rubbing<br />over each other.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:03.833" dur="0:00:03.000">It's also independent<br />of the surface area</p>
+<p begin="0:06:06.833" dur="0:00:02.400">that is in contact<br />with this incline</p>
+<p begin="0:06:09.233" dur="0:00:02.067">which is equally nonintuitive.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:11.300" dur="0:00:03.000">It's very nonintuitive,<br />but we will see</p>
+<p begin="0:06:14.300" dur="0:00:02.066">that that's quite accurate</p>
+<p begin="0:06:16.366" dur="0:00:03.367">within the uncertainties<br />that we can measure it.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:19.733" dur="0:00:02.733">If you have a car<br />and you park your car</p>
+<p begin="0:06:22.466" dur="0:00:03.734">you throw it on the brakes<br />and you put it at an angle</p>
+<p begin="0:06:26.200" dur="0:00:02.733">and you increase<br />the angle of the slope</p>
+<p begin="0:06:28.933" dur="0:00:04.200">the friction coefficient for<br />rubber on concrete is about one</p>
+<p begin="0:06:33.133" dur="0:00:03.900">so the tangent is one, so<br />the angle is about 45 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:37.033" dur="0:00:04.200">So if the road were 45 degrees,<br />the car would start to slide</p>
+<p begin="0:06:41.233" dur="0:00:02.500">independent of the mass<br />of the car--</p>
+<p begin="0:06:43.733" dur="0:00:03.267">no matter whether it's a truck<br />or whether it is a small car--</p>
+<p begin="0:06:47.000" dur="0:00:02.000">independent of the width<br />of the tires.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:49.000" dur="0:00:03.166">It doesn't enter into it even<br />though you may think it does.</p>
+<p begin="0:06:52.166" dur="0:00:02.567">They would both start to slide<br />at the same angle</p>
+<p begin="0:06:54.733" dur="0:00:01.567">given the fact, of course</p>
+<p begin="0:06:56.300" dur="0:00:05.000">the same road<br />and the same kind of rubber.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:01.300" dur="0:00:03.833">I first want to show you<br />some of this</p>
+<p begin="0:07:05.133" dur="0:00:04.033">which is at first<br />very qualitative.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:09.166" dur="0:00:03.334">I don't want it<br />to become quantitative yet.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:12.500" dur="0:00:03.333">The difficulty<br />with these experiments are--</p>
+<p begin="0:07:15.833" dur="0:00:02.600">I'm going to use<br />this plank here--</p>
+<p begin="0:07:18.433" dur="0:00:03.767">that the moment<br />that my fingers touch this plank</p>
+<p begin="0:07:22.200" dur="0:00:02.400">or touch the bottom<br />of any of the objects</p>
+<p begin="0:07:24.600" dur="0:00:03.100">that I'm going to slide,<br />then all hell breaks loose.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:27.700" dur="0:00:02.000">A little bit of water<br />on the plank</p>
+<p begin="0:07:29.700" dur="0:00:03.100">would locally make the<br />friction coefficients larger.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:32.800" dur="0:00:01.833">My fingers have chalk on them.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:34.633" dur="0:00:02.267">A little bit of chalk<br />on a local place</p>
+<p begin="0:07:36.900" dur="0:00:02.633">would make the friction<br />coefficient go down.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:39.533" dur="0:00:03.733">That's why, at this point, we'll<br />keep it a little qualitative.</p>
+<p begin="0:07:43.266" dur="0:00:05.700">The first thing I want to show<br />you is, if I take a rubber puck</p>
+<p begin="0:07:48.966" dur="0:00:03.534">and I put the rubber puck<br />on this incline</p>
+<p begin="0:07:52.500" dur="0:00:02.433">and I have a plastic bin--</p>
+<p begin="0:07:54.933" dur="0:00:03.667">this is quite smooth,<br />I put it on here--</p>
+<p begin="0:07:58.600" dur="0:00:01.633">that it's immediately intuitive</p>
+<p begin="0:08:00.233" dur="0:00:02.367">that the friction coefficient<br />of this plastic bin</p>
+<p begin="0:08:02.600" dur="0:00:01.900">will be lower than<br />of the rubber puck.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:04.500" dur="0:00:02.033">So when I increase the angle,<br />you expect</p>
+<p begin="0:08:06.533" dur="0:00:02.300">that first the plastic bin<br />will start to slide</p>
+<p begin="0:08:08.833" dur="0:00:01.267">and then the rubber puck.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:10.100" dur="0:00:02.533">And if I gave you the angles<br />at which that happens</p>
+<p begin="0:08:12.633" dur="0:00:02.167">you could actually<br />calculate the two values</p>
+<p begin="0:08:14.800" dur="0:00:01.533">for the friction coefficient--</p>
+<p begin="0:08:16.333" dur="0:00:02.533">which I will not do now,<br />but I will do that later.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:18.866" dur="0:00:03.200">So all I want you to see--<br />I hope--</p>
+<p begin="0:08:22.066" dur="0:00:04.067">that this one will go earlier<br />than that one.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:26.133" dur="0:00:05.400">So I am going to increase<br />the tilt... I do it very slowly.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:31.533" dur="0:00:09.300">I try not to... rock the boat<br />too much, very slowly.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:40.833" dur="0:00:05.633">We must be approaching the<br />critical angle for the plastic.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:46.466" dur="0:00:01.867">Boy, it's holding on to itself.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:48.333" dur="0:00:06.033">There it goes... and the rubber<br />goes a little later.</p>
+<p begin="0:08:54.366" dur="0:00:04.334">The rubber can be made rough<br />by rubbing it on one side</p>
+<p begin="0:08:58.700" dur="0:00:03.900">in which case the angle<br />will be even larger.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:02.600" dur="0:00:03.300">I told you that<br />the friction coefficient</p>
+<p begin="0:09:05.900" dur="0:00:03.100">is independent<br />of the mass of the object.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:09.000" dur="0:00:01.933">I have<br />two identical bins here...</p>
+<p begin="0:09:10.933" dur="0:00:02.233">well, as far<br />as they can be identical.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:13.166" dur="0:00:03.500">Maybe one at the bottom is<br />a little rougher than the other.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:16.666" dur="0:00:02.267">But in one,<br />I'm going to put 200 grams</p>
+<p begin="0:09:18.933" dur="0:00:03.433">which is about five times<br />the weight of the bin.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:22.366" dur="0:00:01.700">And then, within reason</p>
+<p begin="0:09:24.066" dur="0:00:03.434">when I tilt them,<br />they will go at the same angle</p>
+<p begin="0:09:27.500" dur="0:00:02.666">because it's independent<br />of the mass.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:30.166" dur="0:00:03.600">So let's try that again<br />and see how close they are.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:33.766" dur="0:00:03.867">It may be off by half a degree<br />or one degree, of course</p>
+<p begin="0:09:37.633" dur="0:00:03.167">because the plank is<br />not uniform everywhere.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:40.800" dur="0:00:05.666">And now it's 18 degrees...<br />19�... 20... 20�...</p>
+<p begin="0:09:46.466" dur="0:00:03.000">21, and the other one is 21.2.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:49.466" dur="0:00:04.934">So they almost go<br />at the same time, so you've seen</p>
+<p begin="0:09:54.400" dur="0:00:05.433">that apparently the mass has<br />very small if any effect.</p>
+<p begin="0:09:59.833" dur="0:00:01.933">Now comes something</p>
+<p begin="0:10:01.766" dur="0:00:02.967">that I always find<br />very, very nonintuitive</p>
+<p begin="0:10:04.733" dur="0:00:01.800">and that is surface area.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:06.533" dur="0:00:03.533">I have two pieces of wood<br />and they're identical--</p>
+<p begin="0:10:10.066" dur="0:00:02.334">whatever that means,<br />"identical";</p>
+<p begin="0:10:12.400" dur="0:00:03.266">you can never make them exactly<br />the same in terms of roughness.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:15.666" dur="0:00:01.267">This surface we prepared</p>
+<p begin="0:10:16.933" dur="0:00:02.200">as well as we prepared<br />this bottom surface.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:19.133" dur="0:00:03.033">But this bottom surface here is<br />four times smaller in area</p>
+<p begin="0:10:22.166" dur="0:00:03.000">than this surface area here,<br />the flat part.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:25.166" dur="0:00:03.567">I'm going to put<br />the flat one here</p>
+<p begin="0:10:28.733" dur="0:00:04.000">and I'm going to put<br />the same object--</p>
+<p begin="0:10:32.733" dur="0:00:03.367">but with its small area-- here.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:36.100" dur="0:00:03.300">If indeed the friction<br />coefficient is independent</p>
+<p begin="0:10:39.400" dur="0:00:02.600">of surface area,<br />then when I tilt them</p>
+<p begin="0:10:42.000" dur="0:00:03.600">they should start to slide<br />roughly at the same angle.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:45.600" dur="0:00:01.766">There we go.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:51.000" dur="0:00:07.666">14 degrees... 16... 18... one<br />goes and the other one follows.</p>
+<p begin="0:10:58.666" dur="0:00:01.667">It was in two-tenths<br />of a degree.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:00.333" dur="0:00:02.433">And the reason why there's<br />always some difference--</p>
+<p begin="0:11:02.766" dur="0:00:02.167">of course, the plank is<br />not exactly uniform.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:04.933" dur="0:00:01.400">I have to be careful</p>
+<p begin="0:11:06.333" dur="0:00:02.833">that I don't touch<br />the critical surfaces.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:09.166" dur="0:00:03.634">So you have seen difference<br />in friction coefficients</p>
+<p begin="0:11:12.800" dur="0:00:04.066">and you have seen there's<br />almost no effect on surface area</p>
+<p begin="0:11:16.866" dur="0:00:02.867">and there's no effect<br />on the mass.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:19.733" dur="0:00:02.967">And that is both<br />very nonintuitive.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:22.700" dur="0:00:04.366">The width of the tires<br />of your car does not matter.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:27.066" dur="0:00:04.034">And that... I ask you<br />the question to explain--</p>
+<p begin="0:11:31.100" dur="0:00:01.666">in your assignment<br />number three--</p>
+<p begin="0:11:32.766" dur="0:00:01.800">why race cars have<br />very wide tires.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:34.566" dur="0:00:01.667">There must be a reason for that.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:36.233" dur="0:00:01.667">I want you to think about that.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:39.333" dur="0:00:01.733">There is another way</p>
+<p begin="0:11:41.066" dur="0:00:03.934">that one can measure<br />the friction coefficient</p>
+<p begin="0:11:45.000" dur="0:00:02.566">which is way more complicated</p>
+<p begin="0:11:47.566" dur="0:00:05.134">and really, that's not the<br />reason why I want you to see it.</p>
+<p begin="0:11:52.700" dur="0:00:04.133">The reason why I want you to go<br />with me through these arguments</p>
+<p begin="0:11:56.833" dur="0:00:01.600">is that you begin to see</p>
+<p begin="0:11:58.433" dur="0:00:03.167">how subtle and how really<br />difficult friction is.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:01.600" dur="0:00:03.966">I'm going to put an object now</p>
+<p begin="0:12:05.566" dur="0:00:04.767">on an incline again,<br />as we did before</p>
+<p begin="0:12:10.333" dur="0:00:04.933">and instead of having it<br />sit on its own</p>
+<p begin="0:12:15.266" dur="0:00:04.434">I'm going to attach to it<br />a string.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:19.700" dur="0:00:06.433">So here is that object<br />and here is the string</p>
+<p begin="0:12:26.133" dur="0:00:04.500">and a pulley and here a string.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:30.633" dur="0:00:06.167">And here is an object mass m2,<br />and this object has mass m1</p>
+<p begin="0:12:36.800" dur="0:00:05.700">and the angle here... alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:42.500" dur="0:00:02.033">I'm looking for my green chalk.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:44.533" dur="0:00:02.600">I want to use<br />the same color convention.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:47.133" dur="0:00:03.533">Now let's look at all the forces<br />that we can think of.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:50.666" dur="0:00:04.034">Here is m1 g.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:54.700" dur="0:00:03.233">Let's decompose that<br />in y and x direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:12:57.933" dur="0:00:03.700">And I will call this direction<br />y, as I always do</p>
+<p begin="0:13:01.633" dur="0:00:02.300">perpendicular to the surface.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:03.933" dur="0:00:03.700">So we call this y</p>
+<p begin="0:13:07.633" dur="0:00:04.467">and I will call this direction<br />now the positive x direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:12.100" dur="0:00:03.366">You're free to choose it<br />any way you want to.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:17.533" dur="0:00:05.000">The force here is m2 g...</p>
+<p begin="0:13:27.733" dur="0:00:02.533">and now comes a major problem.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:30.266" dur="0:00:04.500">The biggest problem is<br />that you do not know in advance</p>
+<p begin="0:13:34.766" dur="0:00:03.634">whether this system will start<br />to accelerate in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:13:38.400" dur="0:00:03.300">or whether it will start<br />to accelerate in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:13:41.700" dur="0:00:02.466">or whether it will<br />not accelerate at all--</p>
+<p begin="0:13:44.166" dur="0:00:01.200">it's quite possible.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:45.366" dur="0:00:02.934">And all these three cases,<br />as you will see</p>
+<p begin="0:13:48.300" dur="0:00:02.500">have to be dealt with<br />independently.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:50.800" dur="0:00:03.666">You cannot do it with one<br />equation, as you will see.</p>
+<p begin="0:13:54.466" dur="0:00:02.300">Let's first decompose this force</p>
+<p begin="0:13:56.766" dur="0:00:04.400">as we did before,<br />in the y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:01.166" dur="0:00:06.034">So this one equals<br />m1 g cosine alpha</p>
+<p begin="0:14:07.200" dur="0:00:02.466">and this one, the x component--</p>
+<p begin="0:14:09.666" dur="0:00:03.067">which is in<br />the minus x direction now--</p>
+<p begin="0:14:12.733" dur="0:00:06.000">equals m1 g sine alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:18.733" dur="0:00:02.267">Clearly, this one--<br />m1 g cosine alpha--</p>
+<p begin="0:14:21.000" dur="0:00:01.733">we never have to worry about.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:22.733" dur="0:00:02.500">There is no acceleration<br />in the y direction</p>
+<p begin="0:14:25.233" dur="0:00:04.600">so this normal force N<br />will kill this one</p>
+<p begin="0:14:29.833" dur="0:00:03.400">and this is m1 g cosine alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:33.233" dur="0:00:02.233">So you never have to worry<br />about the y direction;</p>
+<p begin="0:14:35.466" dur="0:00:01.534">we know there's no acceleration.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:37.000" dur="0:00:02.300">We only deal with forces<br />in the x direction</p>
+<p begin="0:14:39.300" dur="0:00:01.200">that are of interest.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:40.500" dur="0:00:04.866">There is a tension<br />in this string</p>
+<p begin="0:14:45.366" dur="0:00:02.134">and now comes the problem:</p>
+<p begin="0:14:47.500" dur="0:00:03.566">I do not know in what direction<br />the frictional force is.</p>
+<p begin="0:14:51.066" dur="0:00:02.867">If this object has<br />the tendency to go uphill--</p>
+<p begin="0:14:53.933" dur="0:00:01.567">which I don't know yet--</p>
+<p begin="0:14:55.500" dur="0:00:02.900">then the frictional force is<br />in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:14:58.400" dur="0:00:01.833">because it opposes always</p>
+<p begin="0:15:00.233" dur="0:00:01.467">the direction in which<br />the object wants to go.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:01.700" dur="0:00:02.600">If, however, this object wants<br />to go in this direction--</p>
+<p begin="0:15:04.300" dur="0:00:01.200">which I do not know--</p>
+<p begin="0:15:05.500" dur="0:00:03.633">then the frictional force has<br />to be put in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:09.133" dur="0:00:02.800">And I don't know that.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:11.933" dur="0:00:03.033">The only thing I do know</p>
+<p begin="0:15:14.966" dur="0:00:06.100">is that the maximum value<br />of the friction will be</p>
+<p begin="0:15:21.066" dur="0:00:03.767">mu static times N,<br />which is what we had there.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:24.833" dur="0:00:02.767">Remember, that's<br />the maximum value</p>
+<p begin="0:15:27.600" dur="0:00:04.266">that the friction can have<br />times m1 g cosine alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:31.866" dur="0:00:02.000">That I know.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:33.866" dur="0:00:02.734">So now, if I want<br />to deal with this</p>
+<p begin="0:15:36.600" dur="0:00:04.300">I have to look at three<br />complete different situations:</p>
+<p begin="0:15:40.900" dur="0:00:02.433">acceleration in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:15:43.333" dur="0:00:03.033">in which the friction is<br />pointing here;</p>
+<p begin="0:15:46.366" dur="0:00:02.034">acceleration in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:15:48.400" dur="0:00:02.633">in which the friction is<br />pointing there;</p>
+<p begin="0:15:51.033" dur="0:00:01.833">or no acceleration at all.</p>
+<p begin="0:15:52.866" dur="0:00:03.700">There is also, of course,<br />the tension here...</p>
+<p begin="0:15:59.333" dur="0:00:03.100">and this tension is exactly<br />the same as that tension.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:02.433" dur="0:00:01.700">We discussed that last time.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:04.133" dur="0:00:02.800">I will not go over that<br />because this is an ideal</p>
+<p begin="0:16:06.933" dur="0:00:02.367">and, of course,<br />an unphysical situation.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:09.300" dur="0:00:01.333">The pulley has no mass</p>
+<p begin="0:16:10.633" dur="0:00:02.200">the pulley is<br />completely frictionless</p>
+<p begin="0:16:12.833" dur="0:00:03.167">and the string has no mass--<br />it's a massless string.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:16.000" dur="0:00:01.333">And I argued last time</p>
+<p begin="0:16:17.333" dur="0:00:02.900">that therefore the tension here<br />must be the same</p>
+<p begin="0:16:20.233" dur="0:00:01.500">as the tension there.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:21.733" dur="0:00:02.000">We even know the tension.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:23.733" dur="0:00:02.667">I'm going to evaluate, for now</p>
+<p begin="0:16:26.400" dur="0:00:03.733">only situations<br />that the system is at rest.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:30.133" dur="0:00:01.767">It's not yet moving.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:31.900" dur="0:00:02.933">If the system is at rest,<br />T must be m2 g</p>
+<p begin="0:16:34.833" dur="0:00:03.300">because this object is<br />not being accelerated.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:38.133" dur="0:00:01.367">So we already know</p>
+<p begin="0:16:39.500" dur="0:00:03.466">that all situations<br />where the system is at rest</p>
+<p begin="0:16:42.966" dur="0:00:04.000">T must be m2 g--<br />that's nonnegotiable.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:46.966" dur="0:00:03.300">It's this T as well as that T.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:50.266" dur="0:00:05.100">Now I have to start splitting in<br />the following situation.</p>
+<p begin="0:16:55.366" dur="0:00:01.734">My first option is</p>
+<p begin="0:16:57.100" dur="0:00:05.100">that I make the assumption<br />that the system is just...</p>
+<p begin="0:17:02.200" dur="0:00:03.933">just about to start<br />accelerating upwards.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:06.133" dur="0:00:04.867">It isn't doing it\yet;it is just about to do that.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:11.000" dur="0:00:03.066">If that's the case, then I know</p>
+<p begin="0:17:14.066" dur="0:00:03.900">that the frictional force<br />will be in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:17:17.966" dur="0:00:03.200">and it will have reached<br />the maximum value</p>
+<p begin="0:17:21.166" dur="0:00:02.800">with the static<br />friction coefficient.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:23.966" dur="0:00:04.834">Now I can write down, in the x<br />direction, Newton's Second Law.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:28.800" dur="0:00:04.266">Now I have T, which is<br />in the positive direction</p>
+<p begin="0:17:33.066" dur="0:00:09.567">minus m1 g sine alpha<br />minus F f max.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:42.633" dur="0:00:03.967">That now has to be zero,<br />just at the moment</p>
+<p begin="0:17:46.600" dur="0:00:05.966">that it is just about to change<br />its mind and start accelerating.</p>
+<p begin="0:17:52.566" dur="0:00:02.734">Now, I know what T is,<br />that is, m2 g</p>
+<p begin="0:17:55.300" dur="0:00:07.700">so m2 g equals m1 g sine alpha</p>
+<p begin="0:18:03.000" dur="0:00:06.933">plus the maximum frictional<br />force, which is this value.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:09.933" dur="0:00:07.133">So this is just at the moment<br />that it wants to start sliding.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:17.066" dur="0:00:06.700">Therefore, if I make mass m2<br />a hair larger, just a hair</p>
+<p begin="0:18:23.766" dur="0:00:01.234">it will go.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:25.000" dur="0:00:04.333">And therefore the moment<br />that I make this a larger sign</p>
+<p begin="0:18:29.333" dur="0:00:03.467">I know that it's going<br />to accelerate uphill.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:32.800" dur="0:00:03.933">That's the criterion<br />for going uphill.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:36.733" dur="0:00:04.000">Now I look at situation two.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:40.733" dur="0:00:05.600">Now I make the assumption that<br />the object, still standing still</p>
+<p begin="0:18:46.333" dur="0:00:03.667">is just about<br />to start accelerating downhill.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:50.000" dur="0:00:02.200">Aha! If that's the case, I know</p>
+<p begin="0:18:52.200" dur="0:00:03.266">that the maximum force is<br />now pointing upwards--</p>
+<p begin="0:18:55.466" dur="0:00:04.000">the same magnitude, but it<br />has now a different direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:18:59.466" dur="0:00:03.100">So now I can write down<br />Newton's Second Law.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:02.566" dur="0:00:02.900">So the frictional force is<br />now<i>helping</i>T.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:05.466" dur="0:00:01.767">So now we get</p>
+<p begin="0:19:07.233" dur="0:00:08.000">T plus F f max minus<br />m1 g sine alpha equals zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:21.900" dur="0:00:04.133">We know that this is m2 g</p>
+<p begin="0:19:26.033" dur="0:00:08.000">so m2 g equals<br />m1 g sine alpha minus F f max.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:37.366" dur="0:00:01.900">Notice the difference:</p>
+<p begin="0:19:39.266" dur="0:00:04.400">there's a plus sign here;there's a minus sign here.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:43.666" dur="0:00:03.467">This is... the object<br />is still not moving</p>
+<p begin="0:19:47.133" dur="0:00:04.567">but if I make m2 g a hair less,<br />just a teeny-weeny little less</p>
+<p begin="0:19:51.700" dur="0:00:03.633">it will definitely start<br />to accelerate downwards.</p>
+<p begin="0:19:55.333" dur="0:00:03.933">So if I make this<br />"smaller than" sign</p>
+<p begin="0:19:59.266" dur="0:00:04.800">the object will start<br />accelerating downhill.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:04.066" dur="0:00:03.300">This is condition one,<br />this is condition two.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:07.366" dur="0:00:03.100">If the condition is<br />neither one nor two...</p>
+<p begin="0:20:14.933" dur="0:00:01.633">what do you think<br />will happen then?</p>
+<p begin="0:20:16.566" dur="0:00:01.600">Very possible<br />that you don't meet</p>
+<p begin="0:20:18.166" dur="0:00:02.534">any one of these two conditions.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:20.700" dur="0:00:02.400">What do you think will happen?</p>
+<p begin="0:20:23.100" dur="0:00:01.366">(<i>class murmurs</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:20:24.466" dur="0:00:01.000">LEWIN:<br />Can't hear you.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:25.466" dur="0:00:01.000">(<i>student replies</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:20:26.466" dur="0:00:02.600">LEWIN:<br />It won't move-- a is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:29.066" dur="0:00:03.967">Because this... both cases<br />are going to accelerate</p>
+<p begin="0:20:33.033" dur="0:00:04.200">so in all other cases,<br />the acceleration equals zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:37.233" dur="0:00:03.033">And the frictional force,<br />in this case</p>
+<p begin="0:20:40.266" dur="0:00:02.434">will adjust itself<br />just the right way</p>
+<p begin="0:20:42.700" dur="0:00:04.066">so that Newton's Second Law<br />in the x direction</p>
+<p begin="0:20:46.766" dur="0:00:03.300">will give you,<br />for the force, a zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:53.133" dur="0:00:03.267">Let us take<br />a very simple example</p>
+<p begin="0:20:56.400" dur="0:00:02.966">so that you see this at work.</p>
+<p begin="0:20:59.366" dur="0:00:05.834">So, we have an example here,<br />and in my example</p>
+<p begin="0:21:05.200" dur="0:00:05.566">I have m1 equals 1 kilogram,<br />m2 equals 2 kilograms.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:10.766" dur="0:00:03.900">Can't make the numbers<br />much simpler.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:14.666" dur="0:00:03.634">I take alpha equals 30 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:18.300" dur="0:00:06.800">I take a static friction<br />coefficient which is 0.5</p>
+<p begin="0:21:25.100" dur="0:00:04.166">and I take<br />a kinetic friction coefficient</p>
+<p begin="0:21:29.266" dur="0:00:03.767">which is a little less,<br />which is 0.4.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:33.033" dur="0:00:03.533">The question is now, is it going<br />to be accelerated uphill</p>
+<p begin="0:21:36.566" dur="0:00:03.067">or accelerated downhill<br />or no acceleration at all?</p>
+<p begin="0:21:39.633" dur="0:00:01.800">What it comes down to</p>
+<p begin="0:21:41.433" dur="0:00:03.867">is that we have to evaluate<br />these three terms.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:45.300" dur="0:00:04.000">Let's first take m2 g--<br />m2 g equals 20.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:49.300" dur="0:00:05.100">We'll just take, for g, 10--<br />that is just easier.</p>
+<p begin="0:21:54.400" dur="0:00:02.566">M1 g sine alpha...</p>
+<p begin="0:21:56.966" dur="0:00:05.267">The sine of alpha is a half,<br />so that is five.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:02.233" dur="0:00:06.133">M1 g sine alpha equals five.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:08.366" dur="0:00:02.734">And what is F f maximum?</p>
+<p begin="0:22:11.100" dur="0:00:05.333">I have to use, for<br />my friction coefficient, .5.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:16.433" dur="0:00:03.000">I have to use, for m1, one</p>
+<p begin="0:22:19.433" dur="0:00:03.167">here, a 10, and have<br />the cosine for 30 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:22.600" dur="0:00:03.500">And what I find-- you have<br />to take my word for it--</p>
+<p begin="0:22:26.100" dur="0:00:04.500">that this is about 4.33,<br />and I want to remind you</p>
+<p begin="0:22:30.600" dur="0:00:02.633">I have used the static<br />friction coefficient.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:33.233" dur="0:00:01.167">This is in newtons.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:34.400" dur="0:00:02.266">I never put a capital N<br />for newtons</p>
+<p begin="0:22:36.666" dur="0:00:03.567">because that is very confusing<br />with this normal force.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:40.233" dur="0:00:02.433">All my units are always<br />in S.I. units</p>
+<p begin="0:22:42.666" dur="0:00:03.200">so the force is always<br />in newtons.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:45.866" dur="0:00:02.667">Aha! We are well on our way.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:48.533" dur="0:00:04.333">Let's first test<br />whether condition one is met.</p>
+<p begin="0:22:52.866" dur="0:00:05.467">Is 20 larger than 5 plus 4.33?</p>
+<p begin="0:23:00.866" dur="0:00:02.500">And the answer is yes, it is.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:03.366" dur="0:00:04.600">So we know that it's going<br />to be accelerated uphill.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:07.966" dur="0:00:02.000">That is nonnegotiable.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:09.966" dur="0:00:03.567">So now I could ask you<br />a simple question:</p>
+<p begin="0:23:13.533" dur="0:00:01.900">What is the acceleration</p>
+<p begin="0:23:15.433" dur="0:00:02.933">and what is the tension<br />in the string?</p>
+<p begin="0:23:18.366" dur="0:00:01.734">And so you will think</p>
+<p begin="0:23:20.100" dur="0:00:03.033">"Oh, well, that is<br />within arm's reach."</p>
+<p begin="0:23:23.133" dur="0:00:04.800">Not quite, because things are<br />now going to change.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:27.933" dur="0:00:03.767">If it is going<br />to be accelerated uphill</p>
+<p begin="0:23:31.700" dur="0:00:02.933">then at least I know one thing</p>
+<p begin="0:23:34.633" dur="0:00:04.267">which I am going to put<br />in this drawing now.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:38.900" dur="0:00:04.500">I know that this is<br />the maximum friction possible</p>
+<p begin="0:23:43.400" dur="0:00:05.466">which now becomes mu kinetic--<br />because it's going to move--</p>
+<p begin="0:23:48.866" dur="0:00:06.934">times m1 times g<br />times cosine alpha.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:55.800" dur="0:00:01.800">So that is already one change.</p>
+<p begin="0:23:57.600" dur="0:00:03.000">It is moving, so sure,<br />it's going to be accelerated</p>
+<p begin="0:24:00.600" dur="0:00:03.566">so the frictional force is in<br />this direction, has this value.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:04.166" dur="0:00:02.200">So let's write down now</p>
+<p begin="0:24:06.366" dur="0:00:03.900">Newton's Second Law<br />in the x direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:10.266" dur="0:00:08.767">So we have T in the positive<br />direction minus m1 g sine alpha</p>
+<p begin="0:24:19.033" dur="0:00:08.000">minus this maximum force--<br />minus mu k m1 g cosine alpha--</p>
+<p begin="0:24:29.400" dur="0:00:04.500">and that, now, according<br />to Newton's Law, must be</p>
+<p begin="0:24:33.900" dur="0:00:03.766">m1 times a, if a is<br />T acceleration uphill.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:37.666" dur="0:00:03.367">One equation with two unknowns.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:41.033" dur="0:00:04.100">You don't know a<br />and you don't know T.</p>
+<p begin="0:24:45.133" dur="0:00:07.633">Or do you know T? What is T?<br />What is the tension?</p>
+<p begin="0:24:52.766" dur="0:00:01.334">What is the tension</p>
+<p begin="0:24:54.100" dur="0:00:03.100">when that thing is<br />being accelerated uphill?</p>
+<p begin="0:24:57.200" dur="0:00:02.500">Anyone has the courage to try?</p>
+<p begin="0:24:59.700" dur="0:00:01.766">(<i>student responds</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:25:01.466" dur="0:00:04.234">LEWIN:<br />You think "m2 g"--<br />you couldn't be more wrong.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:05.700" dur="0:00:03.000">It's now moving,<br />it's being accelerated.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:08.700" dur="0:00:04.100">That means this object is going<br />to be accelerated down</p>
+<p begin="0:25:12.800" dur="0:00:02.833">and if this force is<br />the same as this</p>
+<p begin="0:25:15.633" dur="0:00:02.267">it can never accelerate down.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:17.900" dur="0:00:02.200">This T must get smaller.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:20.100" dur="0:00:05.200">Remember, an object in an<br />elevator being accelerated down</p>
+<p begin="0:25:25.300" dur="0:00:03.033">loses weight--<br />it's losing weight.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:28.333" dur="0:00:03.367">This object must<br />be accelerated down.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:31.700" dur="0:00:01.766">We have to take that<br />into account.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:33.466" dur="0:00:03.134">So the tension, once it starts<br />accelerating, will go down.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:36.600" dur="0:00:03.366">So I have the second equation<br />for object number two.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:39.966" dur="0:00:04.834">I call this the plus direction,<br />so for object number two</p>
+<p begin="0:25:44.800" dur="0:00:07.333">I have m2 g minus T equals<br />m2 times a.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:52.133" dur="0:00:02.300">It is very important<br />that you see</p>
+<p begin="0:25:54.433" dur="0:00:02.100">that the tension will change.</p>
+<p begin="0:25:56.533" dur="0:00:03.267">Now I have two equations<br />with two unknowns</p>
+<p begin="0:25:59.800" dur="0:00:02.733">and now I can solve.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:02.533" dur="0:00:03.733">It's very easy-- you just add<br />them, and I leave you with that.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:06.266" dur="0:00:01.900">I'll just give you the results.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:08.166" dur="0:00:07.567">I find that the acceleration, a,<br />equals plus... I think 3.85.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:15.733" dur="0:00:05.767">That is correct-- plus 3.85<br />meters per second squared.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:21.500" dur="0:00:09.000">And I find that the tension<br />equals 12.3 newtons.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:30.500" dur="0:00:02.800">I want to dwell on this<br />a little bit.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:33.300" dur="0:00:03.200">I find, for the acceleration,<br />a plus sign.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:36.500" dur="0:00:02.666">Had I found a minus sign,<br />I would...</p>
+<p begin="0:26:39.166" dur="0:00:02.767">I'm sure I would have made<br />a mistake.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:41.933" dur="0:00:03.300">Why is it<i>mandatory</i><br />that I find a plus sign?</p>
+<p begin="0:26:45.233" dur="0:00:01.633">Absolutely mandatory!</p>
+<p begin="0:26:46.866" dur="0:00:01.834">Who wants to try that one?</p>
+<p begin="0:26:48.700" dur="0:00:01.000">Yeah?</p>
+<p begin="0:26:49.700" dur="0:00:05.833">(<i>student making explanation</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:26:55.533" dur="0:00:02.733">LEWIN:<br />Yeah, you say...<br />you say it well.</p>
+<p begin="0:26:58.266" dur="0:00:03.034">I would have said it<br />slightly differently.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:01.300" dur="0:00:01.766">We know that the acceleration is<br />in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:03.066" dur="0:00:01.000">We derived that.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:04.066" dur="0:00:01.100">Therefore the acceleration</p>
+<p begin="0:27:05.166" dur="0:00:01.767">since I call that<br />the "plus x direction"--</p>
+<p begin="0:27:06.933" dur="0:00:03.400">that was my plus sign--<br />must come out plus.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:10.333" dur="0:00:04.267">So if this comes out negative,<br />you've made a mistake.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:14.600" dur="0:00:03.433">I also want this number<br />to be less than 20.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:18.033" dur="0:00:02.333">If not, I've made a mistake.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:20.366" dur="0:00:03.667">Why does that number<br />have to be less than 20?</p>
+<p begin="0:27:24.033" dur="0:00:02.933">(<i>student making explanation</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:27:26.966" dur="0:00:03.434">LEWIN:<br />Exactly--<br />this object is going<i>down.</i></p>
+<p begin="0:27:30.400" dur="0:00:03.033">To put it<br />the way we put it last time</p>
+<p begin="0:27:33.433" dur="0:00:02.667">it lost weight,<br />it's accelerated downwards.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:36.100" dur="0:00:02.900">This Nt g, which is 20,<br />better wins it from T;</p>
+<p begin="0:27:39.000" dur="0:00:02.800">otherwise it would<br />never be accelerated down.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:41.800" dur="0:00:03.033">So this plus sign is a must,<br />and this is a must.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:44.833" dur="0:00:03.300">And if you find not a plus sign<br />but a minus sign</p>
+<p begin="0:27:48.133" dur="0:00:02.733">you have to go back<br />to your calculation</p>
+<p begin="0:27:50.866" dur="0:00:02.134">because you've made a mistake.</p>
+<p begin="0:27:53.000" dur="0:00:05.000">Now we take the same situation,<br />I leave everything unchanged</p>
+<p begin="0:27:58.000" dur="0:00:09.266">but I make the second mass, m2,<br />I make it 0.4 kilograms.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:07.266" dur="0:00:05.467">So now all the numbers remain<br />the same that we have there</p>
+<p begin="0:28:12.733" dur="0:00:03.033">except that m2 g now becomes 4.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:15.766" dur="0:00:02.767">Now I'm going to test again.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:18.533" dur="0:00:03.200">This m2 g, which is 4--</p>
+<p begin="0:28:21.733" dur="0:00:08.000">is that larger than 5 plus the<br />frictional force static, 4.33?</p>
+<p begin="0:28:32.200" dur="0:00:01.800">The answer is no.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:34.000" dur="0:00:03.700">I'm going to test<br />for my second case.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:37.700" dur="0:00:06.366">Is m2 g smaller<br />than 5 minus 4.33?</p>
+<p begin="0:28:44.066" dur="0:00:07.767">The answer is no,<br />so what do we conclude?</p>
+<p begin="0:28:51.833" dur="0:00:02.500">What must be our conclusion?</p>
+<p begin="0:28:54.333" dur="0:00:04.433">Condition one is not met,<br />condition two is not met.</p>
+<p begin="0:28:58.766" dur="0:00:04.100">The conclusion is a is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:02.866" dur="0:00:04.834">The object will<br />not be accelerated</p>
+<p begin="0:29:07.700" dur="0:00:03.500">and the frictional force<br />is going to adjust</p>
+<p begin="0:29:11.200" dur="0:00:05.133">along the x direction so that<br />the acceleration indeed is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:16.333" dur="0:00:02.567">How does<br />the frictional force do that?</p>
+<p begin="0:29:18.900" dur="0:00:02.700">This is that slope,<br />here is that object.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:21.600" dur="0:00:03.600">I will only put in the forces<br />along the x direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:25.200" dur="0:00:02.533">I don't bother<br />about the y direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:27.733" dur="0:00:06.033">I know that there is m1 g<br />sine alpha, and that one is 5.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:33.766" dur="0:00:04.067">So we have here<br />a component of gravity</p>
+<p begin="0:29:37.833" dur="0:00:06.200">which is the m1 g sine alpha,<br />and we know that that is 5.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:44.033" dur="0:00:01.600">We have it there.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:45.633" dur="0:00:02.967">I also know<br />that we have tension here</p>
+<p begin="0:29:48.600" dur="0:00:02.300">and the tension must be m2 g</p>
+<p begin="0:29:50.900" dur="0:00:03.566">because the object is<br />not being accelerated.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:54.466" dur="0:00:02.100">We're back where we were.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:56.566" dur="0:00:02.567">Number two is<br />not being accelerated.</p>
+<p begin="0:29:59.133" dur="0:00:03.633">The tension is 20...<br />sorry, not 20, what is my m2?</p>
+<p begin="0:30:02.766" dur="0:00:05.434">The tension is... mg is 4.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:08.200" dur="0:00:03.400">Five newtons downhill,<br />four newtons uphill.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:11.600" dur="0:00:05.300">What will the friction be, how<br />large, and in what direction?</p>
+<p begin="0:30:16.900" dur="0:00:04.366">Uphill, how large? One, exactly.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:21.266" dur="0:00:05.734">The friction will adjust itself<br />so that there is equilibrium</p>
+<p begin="0:30:27.000" dur="0:00:01.933">if nothing is going.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:28.933" dur="0:00:03.800">All right, I now would like<br />to do a few demonstrations</p>
+<p begin="0:30:32.733" dur="0:00:02.233">whereby I want you to calculate</p>
+<p begin="0:30:34.966" dur="0:00:02.300">the friction coefficients<br />for me.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:37.266" dur="0:00:01.534">So we're going to put</p>
+<p begin="0:30:38.800" dur="0:00:03.000">a particular object<br />on that incline</p>
+<p begin="0:30:41.800" dur="0:00:05.333">and I'm first going to raise<br />the angle until it breaks loose.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:47.133" dur="0:00:02.933">So you should be able<br />to calculate</p>
+<p begin="0:30:50.066" dur="0:00:01.067">what the friction<br />coefficient is</p>
+<p begin="0:30:51.133" dur="0:00:04.967">using the equation<br />tangent alpha equals mu s.</p>
+<p begin="0:30:56.100" dur="0:00:06.166">And the object that I use<br />for that is this... this box.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:02.266" dur="0:00:03.700">In this box is a little weight<br />that's not very important.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:05.966" dur="0:00:04.334">It makes the whole thing<br />361 grams.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:10.300" dur="0:00:01.700">I want you to know</p>
+<p begin="0:31:12.000" dur="0:00:04.100">that the weight<br />of this object is 361 grams.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:16.100" dur="0:00:03.800">I'll write it down for you here.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:19.900" dur="0:00:04.266">So, the mass<br />of the object is 361;</p>
+<p begin="0:31:24.166" dur="0:00:05.000">I'm sure that the uncertainty is<br />at least 1 gram.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:29.166" dur="0:00:02.734">You have to trust me<br />when I give you the angles.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:31.900" dur="0:00:01.900">I'm going to increase<br />the incline</p>
+<p begin="0:31:33.800" dur="0:00:03.066">and there comes a moment<br />that it will start to slide.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:36.866" dur="0:00:01.300">I'll give you the angle</p>
+<p begin="0:31:38.166" dur="0:00:03.000">and I want you to calculate<br />that friction coefficient.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:41.166" dur="0:00:03.034">So we'll do that first...<br />there we go.</p>
+<p begin="0:31:47.666" dur="0:00:08.000">It's now 10 degrees, 11...<br />12�, 13... 14, 15... 16</p>
+<p begin="0:31:59.700" dur="0:00:08.800">17... 17�, 18, 19,<br />19�, 20-- 20 degrees.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:08.500" dur="0:00:05.266">It starts to slide at about<br />20 degrees-- write that down.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:13.766" dur="0:00:06.134">Now I'm going to do<br />exactly this experiment:</p>
+<p begin="0:32:19.900" dur="0:00:05.133">Put a rope over it, with a<br />pulley, and put m2 on this side.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:25.033" dur="0:00:02.667">And now I'm going<br />to load down m2</p>
+<p begin="0:32:27.700" dur="0:00:03.633">to the point that it starts<br />to slide uphill.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:31.333" dur="0:00:01.767">That should allow you</p>
+<p begin="0:32:33.100" dur="0:00:03.533">to also calculate<br />the friction coefficient.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:36.633" dur="0:00:03.400">You have all the tools for it,<br />because once you know</p>
+<p begin="0:32:40.033" dur="0:00:03.733">that it is just at the point<br />of breaking and going uphill</p>
+<p begin="0:32:43.766" dur="0:00:03.467">you know that that equals sign<br />of that equation holds</p>
+<p begin="0:32:47.233" dur="0:00:02.500">and so you should be able<br />to calculate</p>
+<p begin="0:32:49.733" dur="0:00:01.833">the friction coefficient.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:51.566" dur="0:00:02.700">Would you find<br />exactly the same number</p>
+<p begin="0:32:54.266" dur="0:00:02.367">as you find<br />from this experiment?</p>
+<p begin="0:32:56.633" dur="0:00:01.200">Not very likely.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:57.833" dur="0:00:01.933">You have to think<br />about that for yourself.</p>
+<p begin="0:32:59.766" dur="0:00:02.234">Wood has grain, and the grain<br />in this direction</p>
+<p begin="0:33:02.000" dur="0:00:02.700">could be very different from<br />the grain in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:04.700" dur="0:00:02.566">But it would be interesting<br />to compare the two numbers</p>
+<p begin="0:33:07.266" dur="0:00:03.200">to see how much they're off.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:10.466" dur="0:00:03.734">So I'm going to put here<br />this rope over here</p>
+<p begin="0:33:14.200" dur="0:00:04.400">and I'm going to set the angle<br />now at a given value</p>
+<p begin="0:33:18.600" dur="0:00:02.633">so this is now not negotiable.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:21.233" dur="0:00:04.133">I set it at 20.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:28.966" dur="0:00:02.034">I could be off by half a degree.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:31.000" dur="0:00:02.000">Again, you see, it wants to go.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:33.000" dur="0:00:03.200">You just saw that-- at 20<br />degrees, it wants to go.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:36.200" dur="0:00:02.233">So I prevent it from going</p>
+<p begin="0:33:38.433" dur="0:00:04.067">and so I'm going to put<br />a little weight on here.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:42.500" dur="0:00:03.633">Now there is 100 grams,<br />and it's not going.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:46.133" dur="0:00:02.867">It's happy<br />and it's sitting there.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:49.000" dur="0:00:01.466">A is zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:50.466" dur="0:00:03.234">That condition isn't met<br />and this condition isn't met.</p>
+<p begin="0:33:53.700" dur="0:00:02.566">So now you must write down<br />in your notebook</p>
+<p begin="0:33:56.266" dur="0:00:02.967">that alpha now-- it's<br />an independent experiment--</p>
+<p begin="0:33:59.233" dur="0:00:06.867">equals 20.0,<br />maybe plus or minus 1.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:06.100" dur="0:00:04.533">I think it's about 1 degree<br />accuracy that I can do.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:10.633" dur="0:00:02.633">Okay, I'm going to load here<br />more weight--</p>
+<p begin="0:34:13.266" dur="0:00:02.000">more mass, I should say-- at m2</p>
+<p begin="0:34:15.266" dur="0:00:01.534">and I'll give you the numbers</p>
+<p begin="0:34:16.800" dur="0:00:02.166">and when it breaks loose,<br />you will see it.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:18.966" dur="0:00:01.467">I will give you the numbers.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:20.433" dur="0:00:02.300">Now, I have done this<br />many times, believe me</p>
+<p begin="0:34:22.733" dur="0:00:04.300">and the breaking point is<br />not always at the same mass.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:27.033" dur="0:00:03.567">The mass could differ<br />by 20, 25 grams easily.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:30.600" dur="0:00:03.600">So whatever number<br />we're going to find for m2</p>
+<p begin="0:34:34.200" dur="0:00:04.200">I would say you should<br />at least allow an uncertainty</p>
+<p begin="0:34:38.400" dur="0:00:05.100">of about something<br />like 25 grams</p>
+<p begin="0:34:43.500" dur="0:00:02.100">just because I've done<br />it many times...</p>
+<p begin="0:34:45.600" dur="0:00:02.366">and I know it could<br />even be worse at times.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:47.966" dur="0:00:02.034">The humidity could change<br />in the room</p>
+<p begin="0:34:50.000" dur="0:00:02.333">and that could change<br />the friction coefficient.</p>
+<p begin="0:34:52.333" dur="0:00:05.600">Okay, we have 100 grams on it...<br />we have 200 grams on it...</p>
+<p begin="0:34:57.933" dur="0:00:07.800">250... 260... 270,<br />and it goes at 270.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:05.733" dur="0:00:02.000">Did you see it go?</p>
+<p begin="0:35:07.733" dur="0:00:03.100">It started to slide at 270.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:10.833" dur="0:00:05.233">So at 270 grams, I met<br />exactly that condition.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:16.066" dur="0:00:01.234">It was an equals sign.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:17.300" dur="0:00:01.900">That should allow you<br />to calculate</p>
+<p begin="0:35:19.200" dur="0:00:02.433">the static friction coefficient</p>
+<p begin="0:35:21.633" dur="0:00:04.700">and you'll get a chance to do<br />that in your third assignment.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:30.200" dur="0:00:04.000">When I had this thing up here,<br />and when I was loading this down</p>
+<p begin="0:35:34.200" dur="0:00:03.100">making it heavier and heavier,<br />I hope you realize</p>
+<p begin="0:35:37.300" dur="0:00:03.133">that at first it wanted<br />to slide in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:40.433" dur="0:00:02.900">So at first the friction was<br />in this direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:43.333" dur="0:00:02.000">As I loaded it down<br />more and more</p>
+<p begin="0:35:45.333" dur="0:00:02.633">the friction became less<br />and less and less.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:47.966" dur="0:00:04.267">There comes even a time<br />that the friction becomes zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:52.233" dur="0:00:02.233">I loaded more and more and more.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:54.466" dur="0:00:02.867">The friction flips over<br />to the other side.</p>
+<p begin="0:35:57.333" dur="0:00:02.600">The friction grows<br />and grows and grows</p>
+<p begin="0:35:59.933" dur="0:00:03.333">fights an heroic battle<br />to not make it go uphill</p>
+<p begin="0:36:03.266" dur="0:00:04.034">loses the battle at one point,<br />reaches the maximum value.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:07.300" dur="0:00:03.133">I put a little bit more on here<br />and it goes.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:10.433" dur="0:00:03.033">So this frictional force is<br />really having a rough time</p>
+<p begin="0:36:13.466" dur="0:00:02.967">starting off in this direction,<br />slowly becoming less</p>
+<p begin="0:36:16.433" dur="0:00:03.833">becoming zero, changing<br />direction, reaching the maximum</p>
+<p begin="0:36:20.266" dur="0:00:02.134">and finally losing the battle.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:22.400" dur="0:00:04.500">Friction is often a pain<br />in the neck, as we all know.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:26.900" dur="0:00:04.733">Friction causes wear, it causes<br />tear and it costs fuel.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:31.633" dur="0:00:03.933">With a car, there's a lot<br />of friction with the road.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:35.566" dur="0:00:03.867">You pay for that, and<br />people try to reduce friction</p>
+<p begin="0:36:39.433" dur="0:00:03.067">with bearings and<br />with lubrication, oil.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:42.500" dur="0:00:03.400">Water is an amazing lubricant.</p>
+<p begin="0:36:45.900" dur="0:00:01.300">If it starts raining</p>
+<p begin="0:36:47.200" dur="0:00:02.866">and there is a little bit<br />of dust on the road</p>
+<p begin="0:36:50.066" dur="0:00:03.300">the friction coefficient<br />between your tires and road</p>
+<p begin="0:36:53.366" dur="0:00:02.967">can become so low<br />that you begin to hydroplane</p>
+<p begin="0:36:56.333" dur="0:00:02.567">and that you literally...<br />(<i>makes whooshing sound</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:36:58.900" dur="0:00:02.666">that your friction coefficient<br />goes almost to zero.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:01.566" dur="0:00:01.967">It happened to me once,<br />and it's no fun.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:03.533" dur="0:00:01.533">It can happen instantaneously</p>
+<p begin="0:37:05.066" dur="0:00:01.934">particularly<br />when the rain begins--</p>
+<p begin="0:37:07.000" dur="0:00:01.900">in the very early part<br />of the rain</p>
+<p begin="0:37:08.900" dur="0:00:01.300">when the road is dusty</p>
+<p begin="0:37:10.200" dur="0:00:03.033">so you get the water<br />with a little bit of dust mixed.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:13.233" dur="0:00:02.967">It's a very dangerous situation.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:16.200" dur="0:00:03.300">At home, I have a pan--<br />this is my pan at home.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:19.500" dur="0:00:03.800">Actually I have more than<br />one pan at home, believe me.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:23.300" dur="0:00:02.166">But this is a very special pan</p>
+<p begin="0:37:25.466" dur="0:00:03.600">and what is special about it<br />is something</p>
+<p begin="0:37:29.066" dur="0:00:03.167">that I discovered<br />purely by accident</p>
+<p begin="0:37:32.233" dur="0:00:04.333">and I want to share with you<br />this remarkable pan.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:39.933" dur="0:00:02.033">You see,<br />when I rotate this cover</p>
+<p begin="0:37:41.966" dur="0:00:02.767">there's a lot of friction--<br />you can hear it.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:44.733" dur="0:00:01.367">(<i>metal lid grating</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:37:46.100" dur="0:00:01.233">And it stops.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:47.333" dur="0:00:02.233">You can hear it, right?</p>
+<p begin="0:37:49.566" dur="0:00:03.900">And so one evening<br />I was boiling potatoes</p>
+<p begin="0:37:53.466" dur="0:00:03.067">and I was looking at this pan,<br />and I walked up to it</p>
+<p begin="0:37:56.533" dur="0:00:02.267">because I wanted to check<br />the potatoes.</p>
+<p begin="0:37:58.800" dur="0:00:03.100">And I touched the thing,<br />and there was no friction.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:01.900" dur="0:00:02.766">It just went spinning<br />and spinning and spinning.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:04.666" dur="0:00:02.767">I couldn't believe my eyes</p>
+<p begin="0:38:07.433" dur="0:00:03.667">until I realized<br />what is happening.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:11.100" dur="0:00:04.633">Water had accumulated<br />in the rim of this pan</p>
+<p begin="0:38:15.733" dur="0:00:04.400">and the cover was beginning<br />to hydroplane.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:20.133" dur="0:00:03.133">(<i>metal lid skimming freely</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:38:23.266" dur="0:00:02.367">I'm putting water in it now.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:25.633" dur="0:00:05.433">(<i>metal lid skimming</i><br /><i>freely, silently</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:38:31.066" dur="0:00:02.567">You almost don't hear it<br />anymore.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:33.633" dur="0:00:01.933">Isn't that amazing?</p>
+<p begin="0:38:38.466" dur="0:00:01.867">Almost frictionless.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:40.333" dur="0:00:03.633">So now the water acts<br />like a lubricant.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:43.966" dur="0:00:02.434">And you try it with your pan,<br />it won't work</p>
+<p begin="0:38:46.400" dur="0:00:02.033">because you need<br />just the right shape</p>
+<p begin="0:38:48.433" dur="0:00:01.567">and you need the right edge</p>
+<p begin="0:38:50.000" dur="0:00:02.000">to be able to lubricate it<br />that way.</p>
+<p begin="0:38:56.333" dur="0:00:03.033">There are many experiments<br />that are done</p>
+<p begin="0:38:59.366" dur="0:00:03.200">and many attempts have been<br />made by people</p>
+<p begin="0:39:02.566" dur="0:00:01.467">to reduce friction.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:04.033" dur="0:00:04.533">You try, if you can, to avoid<br />contact between two surfaces.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:08.566" dur="0:00:03.834">That you can do by putting<br />a lubricant in between.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:12.400" dur="0:00:02.500">But even better it would be</p>
+<p begin="0:39:14.900" dur="0:00:03.900">if you could separate<br />the object completely</p>
+<p begin="0:39:18.800" dur="0:00:02.600">and only have air in between</p>
+<p begin="0:39:21.400" dur="0:00:04.466">because air has much<br />less friction than a liquid.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:25.866" dur="0:00:02.934">And that's being done<br />with great success.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:28.800" dur="0:00:01.600">People use hovercrafts</p>
+<p begin="0:39:30.400" dur="0:00:04.333">so they blow air out from below<br />so the craft lifts itself up</p>
+<p begin="0:39:34.733" dur="0:00:03.533">and now it's no longer<br />in contact with the water.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:38.266" dur="0:00:02.767">It's above the water,<br />so if it moves now</p>
+<p begin="0:39:41.033" dur="0:00:03.900">all it has to overcome is<br />the air friction and that's it</p>
+<p begin="0:39:44.933" dur="0:00:02.000">and that helps tremendously.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:46.933" dur="0:00:02.733">You will be seeing<br />in this lecture hall</p>
+<p begin="0:39:49.666" dur="0:00:03.434">many demonstrations that I<br />will be doing in the future</p>
+<p begin="0:39:53.100" dur="0:00:02.100">with what I call an "air track."</p>
+<p begin="0:39:55.200" dur="0:00:02.166">I will show it to you<br />in a minute.</p>
+<p begin="0:39:57.366" dur="0:00:05.600">It is a long...<br />call it a bar, for now.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:02.966" dur="0:00:03.400">The cross-section is<br />a triangular shape</p>
+<p begin="0:40:06.366" dur="0:00:05.067">and there are holes in here,<br />and we blow air out of that.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:11.433" dur="0:00:02.700">And on top of that are devices</p>
+<p begin="0:40:14.133" dur="0:00:03.000">which have been<br />specially designed</p>
+<p begin="0:40:17.133" dur="0:00:02.633">to perfectly fit this triangle.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:19.766" dur="0:00:02.767">And when you start blowing<br />the air</p>
+<p begin="0:40:22.533" dur="0:00:02.767">they are lifted up,<br />so they float.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:25.300" dur="0:00:03.466">And so now when you give them<br />a little tap</p>
+<p begin="0:40:28.766" dur="0:00:04.067">they can move almost--<br />not quite, but almost--</p>
+<p begin="0:40:32.833" dur="0:00:01.567">without friction.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:35.766" dur="0:00:04.934">Here's one... a lot of friction.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:42.433" dur="0:00:02.100">Now I'll turn on the air.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:44.533" dur="0:00:01.433">(<i>air whooshing</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:40:49.266" dur="0:00:01.800">Look at the difference.</p>
+<p begin="0:40:51.066" dur="0:00:01.467">Isn't that amazing?</p>
+<p begin="0:40:52.533" dur="0:00:02.800">It's floating<br />on its own air cushion.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:04.766" dur="0:00:02.500">And if I turn it off...</p>
+<p begin="0:41:07.266" dur="0:00:01.600">(<i>air clicks off</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:41:08.866" dur="0:00:04.600">the moment that the air stops,<br />you will see it stops.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:13.466" dur="0:00:02.134">So this is the technique</p>
+<p begin="0:41:15.600" dur="0:00:03.400">that is often used<br />to do demonstrations</p>
+<p begin="0:41:19.000" dur="0:00:04.400">if you have to do them<br />with a minimum of friction.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:23.400" dur="0:00:03.300">Of course, you could do<br />experiments in the shuttle</p>
+<p begin="0:41:26.700" dur="0:00:03.566">very well, where you have,<br />again, only air around you.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:30.266" dur="0:00:02.900">But that's, of course,<br />a very expensive way.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:33.166" dur="0:00:02.367">In 26.100,<br />we will use the air track</p>
+<p begin="0:41:35.533" dur="0:00:02.400">when we start colliding objects</p>
+<p begin="0:41:37.933" dur="0:00:04.567">and try to see what happens<br />before and after the collision.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:42.500" dur="0:00:03.766">There is another device,<br />which is very intriguing</p>
+<p begin="0:41:46.266" dur="0:00:04.167">and that also acts on the idea<br />that it lifts itself up</p>
+<p begin="0:41:50.433" dur="0:00:04.967">as a result of gas<br />which is flowing out.</p>
+<p begin="0:41:55.400" dur="0:00:05.000">In this case, it's a container<br />of carbon dioxide...</p>
+<p begin="0:42:00.400" dur="0:00:03.900">with carbon dioxide in here,<br />which is solid</p>
+<p begin="0:42:04.300" dur="0:00:02.733">and there is<br />a small opening here</p>
+<p begin="0:42:07.033" dur="0:00:01.400">and this is</p>
+<p begin="0:42:08.433" dur="0:00:06.500">an extremely well machined<br />flat surface, very flat.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:14.933" dur="0:00:04.400">And the whole thing rests<br />on an extremely flat surface.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:19.333" dur="0:00:02.567">Because of the room temperature</p>
+<p begin="0:42:21.900" dur="0:00:03.600">the carbon dioxide<br />will start to evaporate</p>
+<p begin="0:42:25.500" dur="0:00:02.366">and will start to flow out.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:27.866" dur="0:00:03.667">And therefore under this thing<br />comes a film</p>
+<p begin="0:42:31.533" dur="0:00:03.000">a very thin layer<br />of carbon dioxide</p>
+<p begin="0:42:34.533" dur="0:00:02.600">and now you can move this<br />around in two dimensions.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:37.133" dur="0:00:02.800">You are not stuck, like you<br />are there, to one dimension</p>
+<p begin="0:42:39.933" dur="0:00:02.800">of going back and forth<br />on what we call the air track.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:42.733" dur="0:00:03.667">But now you can move it<br />around over this whole surface.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:46.400" dur="0:00:05.933">And that allows you to do<br />very interesting things</p>
+<p begin="0:42:52.333" dur="0:00:03.367">as I want to show you next.</p>
+<p begin="0:42:55.700" dur="0:00:02.366">First make it dark.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:06.366" dur="0:00:03.467">FILM NARRATOR:<br />And we've filled that can<br />with dry ice</p>
+<p begin="0:43:09.833" dur="0:00:02.067">that is, solid carbon dioxide.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:11.900" dur="0:00:03.233">Now, you know solid carbon<br />dioxide is very cold.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:15.133" dur="0:00:02.067">This white stuff is just frost</p>
+<p begin="0:43:17.200" dur="0:00:03.566">that's gathered<br />on the outside of the can.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:20.766" dur="0:00:03.567">Now, as the can absorbs heat<br />from the room</p>
+<p begin="0:43:24.333" dur="0:00:04.400">the carbon dioxide evaporates<br />and turns into a gas.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:28.733" dur="0:00:03.333">The gas takes up more room<br />than the solid</p>
+<p begin="0:43:32.066" dur="0:00:01.867">so it has to go somewhere.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:33.933" dur="0:00:01.833">It can't come out the top</p>
+<p begin="0:43:35.766" dur="0:00:04.200">so it comes out a little hole<br />here in the bottom of the disc.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:39.966" dur="0:00:05.767">Now, you can't see it coming out<br />the hole, but if I make a flame</p>
+<p begin="0:43:45.733" dur="0:00:01.700">I think you can see</p>
+<p begin="0:43:47.433" dur="0:00:04.433">that there's gas coming out<br />and blowing the flame.</p>
+<p begin="0:43:51.866" dur="0:00:02.867">Now if we put the disc--</p>
+<p begin="0:43:54.733" dur="0:00:05.333">with its stream of gas<br />coming out the bottom--</p>
+<p begin="0:44:00.066" dur="0:00:01.200">down on our table top</p>
+<p begin="0:44:01.266" dur="0:00:03.067">which is made of a very<br />smooth piece of plate glass...</p>
+<p begin="0:44:06.300" dur="0:00:01.166">We can wait a moment</p>
+<p begin="0:44:07.466" dur="0:00:03.100">while the gas coming out<br />builds up pressure underneath</p>
+<p begin="0:44:10.566" dur="0:00:04.500">which it has to do<br />in order to escape.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:15.066" dur="0:00:06.967">By now, the disc is floating<br />on this film of escaping gas.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:22.033" dur="0:00:01.267">That film is so thin</p>
+<p begin="0:44:23.300" dur="0:00:02.900">that I'm sure you can't see it<br />from out there.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:26.200" dur="0:00:02.333">I can scarcely see a space</p>
+<p begin="0:44:28.533" dur="0:00:03.500">between the disc<br />and the glass, myself.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:32.033" dur="0:00:02.833">But if you'll come<br />and look over my shoulder</p>
+<p begin="0:44:34.866" dur="0:00:02.867">I think I can show you<br />that there is a space</p>
+<p begin="0:44:37.733" dur="0:00:02.367">by slipping underneath the disc</p>
+<p begin="0:44:40.100" dur="0:00:04.166">this piece of tinfoil I took<br />off a chewing gum wrapper.</p>
+<p begin="0:44:44.266" dur="0:00:03.667">Now, we'll slip the tinfoil<br />between the disc</p>
+<p begin="0:44:47.933" dur="0:00:03.000">and the plate glass top<br />of the table</p>
+<p begin="0:44:50.933" dur="0:00:05.300">showing that there is indeed<br />a space, a thin film of gas</p>
+<p begin="0:44:56.233" dur="0:00:05.367">between the disc and the glass<br />upon which it's resting.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:01.600" dur="0:00:02.833">The purpose of this is simply<br />to reduce the friction</p>
+<p begin="0:45:04.433" dur="0:00:02.733">to a point where<br />we won't have to worry about it</p>
+<p begin="0:45:07.166" dur="0:00:02.667">or measure it<br />in our experiments today.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:09.833" dur="0:00:03.567">It's fun to play with<br />this thing-- let me show you.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:13.400" dur="0:00:06.133">I'll give it a little push,<br />just a little one.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:19.533" dur="0:00:05.900">And there it goes, moving<br />sedately, no sign of slowing up.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:25.433" dur="0:00:03.133">Come on back.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:28.566" dur="0:00:03.200">Same thing<br />in the other direction.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:31.766" dur="0:00:04.067">It takes only a very tiny force<br />to start it in motion.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:35.833" dur="0:00:01.433">Let me show you that.</p>
+<p begin="0:45:37.266" dur="0:00:03.467">(<i>triumphant Spanish</i><br /><i>dance music playing</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:45:40.733" dur="0:00:03.600">(<i>music continues</i><br /><i>throughout rest of film</i>)</p>
+<p begin="0:47:46.733" dur="0:00:02.333">(\music ends; applause\)</p>
+<p begin="0:47:50.900" dur="0:00:03.000">LEWIN:<br />So you see, fleas are<br />good for something.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:53.900" dur="0:00:01.533">Have a good weekend.</p>
+<p begin="0:47:55.433" dur="0:00:01.133">See you Monday.</p>
+</div>
+</body>
+</tt>