scipy 1.16.2__cp314-cp314t-win_arm64.whl

scipy/interpolate/_interpolate.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2266 @@
+__all__ = ['interp1d', 'interp2d', 'lagrange', 'PPoly', 'BPoly', 'NdPPoly']
+
+from math import prod
+
+import numpy as np
+from numpy import array, asarray, intp, poly1d, searchsorted
+
+import scipy.special as spec
+from scipy._lib._util import copy_if_needed
+from scipy.special import comb
+
+from . import _fitpack_py
+from ._polyint import _Interpolator1D
+from . import _ppoly
+from ._interpnd import _ndim_coords_from_arrays
+from ._bsplines import make_interp_spline, BSpline
+
+
+def lagrange(x, w):
+    r"""
+    Return a Lagrange interpolating polynomial.
+
+    Given two 1-D arrays `x` and `w,` returns the Lagrange interpolating
+    polynomial through the points ``(x, w)``.
+
+    Warning: This implementation is numerically unstable. Do not expect to
+    be able to use more than about 20 points even if they are chosen optimally.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : array_like
+        `x` represents the x-coordinates of a set of datapoints.
+    w : array_like
+        `w` represents the y-coordinates of a set of datapoints, i.e., f(`x`).
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    lagrange : `numpy.poly1d` instance
+        The Lagrange interpolating polynomial.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The name of this function refers to the fact that the returned object represents
+    a Lagrange polynomial, the unique polynomial of lowest degree that interpolates
+    a given set of data [1]_. It computes the polynomial using Newton's divided
+    differences formula [2]_; that is, it works with Newton basis polynomials rather
+    than Lagrange basis polynomials. For numerical calculations, the barycentric form
+    of Lagrange interpolation (`scipy.interpolate.BarycentricInterpolator`) is
+    typically more appropriate.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] Lagrange polynomial. *Wikipedia*.
+           https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_polynomial
+    .. [2] Newton polynomial. *Wikipedia*.
+           https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_polynomial
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Interpolate :math:`f(x) = x^3` by 3 points.
+
+    >>> import numpy as np
+    >>> from scipy.interpolate import lagrange
+    >>> x = np.array([0, 1, 2])
+    >>> y = x**3
+    >>> poly = lagrange(x, y)
+
+    Since there are only 3 points, the Lagrange polynomial has degree 2. Explicitly,
+    it is given by
+
+    .. math::
+
+        \begin{aligned}
+            L(x) &= 1\times \frac{x (x - 2)}{-1} + 8\times \frac{x (x-1)}{2} \\
+                 &= x (-2 + 3x)
+        \end{aligned}
+
+    >>> from numpy.polynomial.polynomial import Polynomial
+    >>> Polynomial(poly.coef[::-1]).coef
+    array([ 0., -2.,  3.])
+
+    >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+    >>> x_new = np.arange(0, 2.1, 0.1)
+    >>> plt.scatter(x, y, label='data')
+    >>> plt.plot(x_new, Polynomial(poly.coef[::-1])(x_new), label='Polynomial')
+    >>> plt.plot(x_new, 3*x_new**2 - 2*x_new + 0*x_new,
+    ...          label=r"$3 x^2 - 2 x$", linestyle='-.')
+    >>> plt.legend()
+    >>> plt.show()
+
+    """
+
+    M = len(x)
+    p = poly1d(0.0)
+    for j in range(M):
+        pt = poly1d(w[j])
+        for k in range(M):
+            if k == j:
+                continue
+            fac = x[j]-x[k]
+            pt *= poly1d([1.0, -x[k]])/fac
+        p += pt
+    return p
+
+
+# !! Need to find argument for keeping initialize. If it isn't
+# !! found, get rid of it!
+
+
+err_mesg = """\
+`interp2d` has been removed in SciPy 1.14.0.
+
+For legacy code, nearly bug-for-bug compatible replacements are
+`RectBivariateSpline` on regular grids, and `bisplrep`/`bisplev` for
+scattered 2D data.
+
+In new code, for regular grids use `RegularGridInterpolator` instead.
+For scattered data, prefer `LinearNDInterpolator` or
+`CloughTocher2DInterpolator`.
+
+For more details see
+https://scipy.github.io/devdocs/tutorial/interpolate/interp_transition_guide.html
+"""
+
+class interp2d:
+    """
+    interp2d(x, y, z, kind='linear', copy=True, bounds_error=False,
+             fill_value=None)
+
+    Class for 2D interpolation (deprecated and removed)
+
+    .. versionremoved:: 1.14.0
+
+        `interp2d` has been removed in SciPy 1.14.0.
+
+        For legacy code, nearly bug-for-bug compatible replacements are
+        `RectBivariateSpline` on regular grids, and `bisplrep`/`bisplev` for
+        scattered 2D data.
+
+        In new code, for regular grids use `RegularGridInterpolator` instead.
+        For scattered data, prefer `LinearNDInterpolator` or
+        `CloughTocher2DInterpolator`.
+
+        For more details see :ref:`interp-transition-guide`.
+    """
+    def __init__(self, x, y, z, kind='linear', copy=True, bounds_error=False,
+                 fill_value=None):
+        raise NotImplementedError(err_mesg)
+
+
+def _check_broadcast_up_to(arr_from, shape_to, name):
+    """Helper to check that arr_from broadcasts up to shape_to"""
+    shape_from = arr_from.shape
+    if len(shape_to) >= len(shape_from):
+        for t, f in zip(shape_to[::-1], shape_from[::-1]):
+            if f != 1 and f != t:
+                break
+        else:  # all checks pass, do the upcasting that we need later
+            if arr_from.size != 1 and arr_from.shape != shape_to:
+                arr_from = np.ones(shape_to, arr_from.dtype) * arr_from
+            return arr_from.ravel()
+    # at least one check failed
+    raise ValueError(f'{name} argument must be able to broadcast up '
+                     f'to shape {shape_to} but had shape {shape_from}')
+
+
+def _do_extrapolate(fill_value):
+    """Helper to check if fill_value == "extrapolate" without warnings"""
+    return (isinstance(fill_value, str) and
+            fill_value == 'extrapolate')
+
+
+class interp1d(_Interpolator1D):
+    """
+    Interpolate a 1-D function (legacy).
+
+    .. legacy:: class
+
+        For a guide to the intended replacements for `interp1d` see
+        :ref:`tutorial-interpolate_1Dsection`.
+
+    `x` and `y` are arrays of values used to approximate some function f:
+    ``y = f(x)``. This class returns a function whose call method uses
+    interpolation to find the value of new points.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x : (npoints, ) array_like
+        A 1-D array of real values.
+    y : (..., npoints, ...) array_like
+        A N-D array of real values. The length of `y` along the interpolation
+        axis must be equal to the length of `x`. Use the ``axis`` parameter
+        to select correct axis. Unlike other interpolators, the default
+        interpolation axis is the last axis of `y`.
+    kind : str or int, optional
+        Specifies the kind of interpolation as a string or as an integer
+        specifying the order of the spline interpolator to use.
+        The string has to be one of 'linear', 'nearest', 'nearest-up', 'zero',
+        'slinear', 'quadratic', 'cubic', 'previous', or 'next'. 'zero',
+        'slinear', 'quadratic' and 'cubic' refer to a spline interpolation of
+        zeroth, first, second or third order; 'previous' and 'next' simply
+        return the previous or next value of the point; 'nearest-up' and
+        'nearest' differ when interpolating half-integers (e.g. 0.5, 1.5)
+        in that 'nearest-up' rounds up and 'nearest' rounds down. Default
+        is 'linear'.
+    axis : int, optional
+        Axis in the ``y`` array corresponding to the x-coordinate values. Unlike
+        other interpolators, defaults to ``axis=-1``.
+    copy : bool, optional
+        If ``True``, the class makes internal copies of x and y. If ``False``,
+        references to ``x`` and ``y`` are used if possible. The default is to copy.
+    bounds_error : bool, optional
+        If True, a ValueError is raised any time interpolation is attempted on
+        a value outside of the range of x (where extrapolation is
+        necessary). If False, out of bounds values are assigned `fill_value`.
+        By default, an error is raised unless ``fill_value="extrapolate"``.
+    fill_value : array-like or (array-like, array_like) or "extrapolate", optional
+        - if a ndarray (or float), this value will be used to fill in for
+          requested points outside of the data range. If not provided, then
+          the default is NaN. The array-like must broadcast properly to the
+          dimensions of the non-interpolation axes.
+        - If a two-element tuple, then the first element is used as a
+          fill value for ``x_new < x[0]`` and the second element is used for
+          ``x_new > x[-1]``. Anything that is not a 2-element tuple (e.g.,
+          list or ndarray, regardless of shape) is taken to be a single
+          array-like argument meant to be used for both bounds as
+          ``below, above = fill_value, fill_value``. Using a two-element tuple
+          or ndarray requires ``bounds_error=False``.
+
+          .. versionadded:: 0.17.0
+        - If "extrapolate", then points outside the data range will be
+          extrapolated.
+
+          .. versionadded:: 0.17.0
+    assume_sorted : bool, optional
+        If False, values of `x` can be in any order and they are sorted first.
+        If True, `x` has to be an array of monotonically increasing values.
+
+    Attributes
+    ----------
+    fill_value
+
+    Methods
+    -------
+    __call__
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    splrep, splev
+        Spline interpolation/smoothing based on FITPACK.
+    UnivariateSpline : An object-oriented wrapper of the FITPACK routines.
+    interp2d : 2-D interpolation
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Calling `interp1d` with NaNs present in input values results in
+    undefined behaviour.
+
+    Input values `x` and `y` must be convertible to `float` values like
+    `int` or `float`.
+
+    If the values in `x` are not unique, the resulting behavior is
+    undefined and specific to the choice of `kind`, i.e., changing
+    `kind` will change the behavior for duplicates.
+
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> import numpy as np
+    >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+    >>> from scipy import interpolate
+    >>> x = np.arange(0, 10)
+    >>> y = np.exp(-x/3.0)
+    >>> f = interpolate.interp1d(x, y)
+
+    >>> xnew = np.arange(0, 9, 0.1)
+    >>> ynew = f(xnew)   # use interpolation function returned by `interp1d`
+    >>> plt.plot(x, y, 'o', xnew, ynew, '-')
+    >>> plt.show()
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, x, y, kind='linear', axis=-1,
+                 copy=True, bounds_error=None, fill_value=np.nan,
+                 assume_sorted=False):
+        """ Initialize a 1-D linear interpolation class."""
+        _Interpolator1D.__init__(self, x, y, axis=axis)
+
+        self.bounds_error = bounds_error  # used by fill_value setter
+
+        # `copy` keyword semantics changed in NumPy 2.0, once that is
+        # the minimum version this can use `copy=None`.
+        self.copy = copy
+        if not copy:
+            self.copy = copy_if_needed
+
+        if kind in ['zero', 'slinear', 'quadratic', 'cubic']:
+            order = {'zero': 0, 'slinear': 1,
+                     'quadratic': 2, 'cubic': 3}[kind]
+            kind = 'spline'
+        elif isinstance(kind, int):
+            order = kind
+            kind = 'spline'
+        elif kind not in ('linear', 'nearest', 'nearest-up', 'previous',
+                          'next'):
+            raise NotImplementedError(f"{kind} is unsupported: Use fitpack "
+                                      "routines for other types.")
+        x = array(x, copy=self.copy)
+        y = array(y, copy=self.copy)
+
+        if not assume_sorted:
+            ind = np.argsort(x, kind="mergesort")
+            x = x[ind]
+            y = np.take(y, ind, axis=axis)
+
+        if x.ndim != 1:
+            raise ValueError("the x array must have exactly one dimension.")
+        if y.ndim == 0:
+            raise ValueError("the y array must have at least one dimension.")
+
+        # Force-cast y to a floating-point type, if it's not yet one
+        if not issubclass(y.dtype.type, np.inexact):
+            y = y.astype(np.float64)
+
+        # Backward compatibility
+        self.axis = axis % y.ndim
+
+        # Interpolation goes internally along the first axis
+        self.y = y
+        self._y = self._reshape_yi(self.y)
+        self.x = x
+        del y, x  # clean up namespace to prevent misuse; use attributes
+        self._kind = kind
+
+        # Adjust to interpolation kind; store reference to *unbound*
+        # interpolation methods, in order to avoid circular references to self
+        # stored in the bound instance methods, and therefore delayed garbage
+        # collection.  See: https://docs.python.org/reference/datamodel.html
+        if kind in ('linear', 'nearest', 'nearest-up', 'previous', 'next'):
+            # Make a "view" of the y array that is rotated to the interpolation
+            # axis.
+            minval = 1
+            if kind == 'nearest':
+                # Do division before addition to prevent possible integer
+                # overflow
+                self._side = 'left'
+                self.x_bds = self.x / 2.0
+                self.x_bds = self.x_bds[1:] + self.x_bds[:-1]
+
+                self._call = self.__class__._call_nearest
+            elif kind == 'nearest-up':
+                # Do division before addition to prevent possible integer
+                # overflow
+                self._side = 'right'
+                self.x_bds = self.x / 2.0
+                self.x_bds = self.x_bds[1:] + self.x_bds[:-1]
+
+                self._call = self.__class__._call_nearest
+            elif kind == 'previous':
+                # Side for np.searchsorted and index for clipping
+                self._side = 'left'
+                self._ind = 0
+                # Move x by one floating point value to the left
+                self._x_shift = np.nextafter(self.x, -np.inf)
+                self._call = self.__class__._call_previousnext
+                if _do_extrapolate(fill_value):
+                    self._check_and_update_bounds_error_for_extrapolation()
+                    # assume y is sorted by x ascending order here.
+                    fill_value = (np.nan, np.take(self.y, -1, axis))
+            elif kind == 'next':
+                self._side = 'right'
+                self._ind = 1
+                # Move x by one floating point value to the right
+                self._x_shift = np.nextafter(self.x, np.inf)
+                self._call = self.__class__._call_previousnext
+                if _do_extrapolate(fill_value):
+                    self._check_and_update_bounds_error_for_extrapolation()
+                    # assume y is sorted by x ascending order here.
+                    fill_value = (np.take(self.y, 0, axis), np.nan)
+            else:
+                # Check if we can delegate to numpy.interp (2x-10x faster).
+                np_dtypes = (np.dtype(np.float64), np.dtype(int))
+                cond = self.x.dtype in np_dtypes and self.y.dtype in np_dtypes
+                cond = cond and self.y.ndim == 1
+                cond = cond and not _do_extrapolate(fill_value)
+
+                if cond:
+                    self._call = self.__class__._call_linear_np
+                else:
+                    self._call = self.__class__._call_linear
+        else:
+            minval = order + 1
+
+            rewrite_nan = False
+            xx, yy = self.x, self._y
+            if order > 1:
+                # Quadratic or cubic spline. If input contains even a single
+                # nan, then the output is all nans. We cannot just feed data
+                # with nans to make_interp_spline because it calls LAPACK.
+                # So, we make up a bogus x and y with no nans and use it
+                # to get the correct shape of the output, which we then fill
+                # with nans.
+                # For slinear or zero order spline, we just pass nans through.
+                mask = np.isnan(self.x)
+                if mask.any():
+                    sx = self.x[~mask]
+                    if sx.size == 0:
+                        raise ValueError("`x` array is all-nan")
+                    xx = np.linspace(np.nanmin(self.x),
+                                     np.nanmax(self.x),
+                                     len(self.x))
+                    rewrite_nan = True
+                if np.isnan(self._y).any():
+                    yy = np.ones_like(self._y)
+                    rewrite_nan = True
+
+            self._spline = make_interp_spline(xx, yy, k=order,
+                                              check_finite=False)
+            if rewrite_nan:
+                self._call = self.__class__._call_nan_spline
+            else:
+                self._call = self.__class__._call_spline
+
+        if len(self.x) < minval:
+            raise ValueError(f"x and y arrays must have at least {minval} entries")
+
+        self.fill_value = fill_value  # calls the setter, can modify bounds_err
+
+    @property
+    def fill_value(self):
+        """The fill value."""
+        # backwards compat: mimic a public attribute
+        return self._fill_value_orig
+
+    @fill_value.setter
+    def fill_value(self, fill_value):
+        # extrapolation only works for nearest neighbor and linear methods
+        if _do_extrapolate(fill_value):
+            self._check_and_update_bounds_error_for_extrapolation()
+            self._extrapolate = True
+        else:
+            broadcast_shape = (self.y.shape[:self.axis] +
+                               self.y.shape[self.axis + 1:])
+            if len(broadcast_shape) == 0:
+                broadcast_shape = (1,)
+            # it's either a pair (_below_range, _above_range) or a single value
+            # for both above and below range
+            if isinstance(fill_value, tuple) and len(fill_value) == 2:
+                below_above = [np.asarray(fill_value[0]),
+                               np.asarray(fill_value[1])]
+                names = ('fill_value (below)', 'fill_value (above)')
+                for ii in range(2):
+                    below_above[ii] = _check_broadcast_up_to(
+                        below_above[ii], broadcast_shape, names[ii])
+            else:
+                fill_value = np.asarray(fill_value)
+                below_above = [_check_broadcast_up_to(
+                    fill_value, broadcast_shape, 'fill_value')] * 2
+            self._fill_value_below, self._fill_value_above = below_above
+            self._extrapolate = False
+            if self.bounds_error is None:
+                self.bounds_error = True
+        # backwards compat: fill_value was a public attr; make it writeable
+        self._fill_value_orig = fill_value
+
+    def _check_and_update_bounds_error_for_extrapolation(self):
+        if self.bounds_error:
+            raise ValueError("Cannot extrapolate and raise "
+                             "at the same time.")
+        self.bounds_error = False
+
+    def _call_linear_np(self, x_new):
+        # Note that out-of-bounds values are taken care of in self._evaluate
+        return np.interp(x_new, self.x, self.y)
+
+    def _call_linear(self, x_new):
+        # 2. Find where in the original data, the values to interpolate
+        #    would be inserted.
+        #    Note: If x_new[n] == x[m], then m is returned by searchsorted.
+        x_new_indices = searchsorted(self.x, x_new)
+
+        # 3. Clip x_new_indices so that they are within the range of
+        #    self.x indices and at least 1. Removes mis-interpolation
+        #    of x_new[n] = x[0]
+        x_new_indices = x_new_indices.clip(1, len(self.x)-1).astype(int)
+
+        # 4. Calculate the slope of regions that each x_new value falls in.
+        lo = x_new_indices - 1
+        hi = x_new_indices
+
+        x_lo = self.x[lo]
+        x_hi = self.x[hi]
+        y_lo = self._y[lo]
+        y_hi = self._y[hi]
+
+        # Note that the following two expressions rely on the specifics of the
+        # broadcasting semantics.
+        slope = (y_hi - y_lo) / (x_hi - x_lo)[:, None]
+
+        # 5. Calculate the actual value for each entry in x_new.
+        y_new = slope*(x_new - x_lo)[:, None] + y_lo
+
+        return y_new
+
+    def _call_nearest(self, x_new):
+        """ Find nearest neighbor interpolated y_new = f(x_new)."""
+
+        # 2. Find where in the averaged data the values to interpolate
+        #    would be inserted.
+        #    Note: use side='left' (right) to searchsorted() to define the
+        #    halfway point to be nearest to the left (right) neighbor
+        x_new_indices = searchsorted(self.x_bds, x_new, side=self._side)
+
+        # 3. Clip x_new_indices so that they are within the range of x indices.
+        x_new_indices = x_new_indices.clip(0, len(self.x)-1).astype(intp)
+
+        # 4. Calculate the actual value for each entry in x_new.
+        y_new = self._y[x_new_indices]
+
+        return y_new
+
+    def _call_previousnext(self, x_new):
+        """Use previous/next neighbor of x_new, y_new = f(x_new)."""
+
+        # 1. Get index of left/right value
+        x_new_indices = searchsorted(self._x_shift, x_new, side=self._side)
+
+        # 2. Clip x_new_indices so that they are within the range of x indices.
+        x_new_indices = x_new_indices.clip(1-self._ind,
+                                           len(self.x)-self._ind).astype(intp)
+
+        # 3. Calculate the actual value for each entry in x_new.
+        y_new = self._y[x_new_indices+self._ind-1]
+
+        return y_new
+
+    def _call_spline(self, x_new):
+        return self._spline(x_new)
+
+    def _call_nan_spline(self, x_new):
+        out = self._spline(x_new)
+        out[...] = np.nan
+        return out
+
+    def _evaluate(self, x_new):
+        # 1. Handle values in x_new that are outside of x. Throw error,
+        #    or return a list of mask array indicating the outofbounds values.
+        #    The behavior is set by the bounds_error variable.
+        x_new = asarray(x_new)
+        y_new = self._call(self, x_new)
+        if not self._extrapolate:
+            below_bounds, above_bounds = self._check_bounds(x_new)
+            if len(y_new) > 0:
+                # Note fill_value must be broadcast up to the proper size
+                # and flattened to work here
+                y_new[below_bounds] = self._fill_value_below
+                y_new[above_bounds] = self._fill_value_above
+        return y_new
+
+    def _check_bounds(self, x_new):
+        """Check the inputs for being in the bounds of the interpolated data.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        x_new : array
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        out_of_bounds : bool array
+            The mask on x_new of values that are out of the bounds.
+        """
+
+        # If self.bounds_error is True, we raise an error if any x_new values
+        # fall outside the range of x. Otherwise, we return an array indicating
+        # which values are outside the boundary region.
+        below_bounds = x_new < self.x[0]
+        above_bounds = x_new > self.x[-1]
+
+        if self.bounds_error and below_bounds.any():
+            below_bounds_value = x_new[np.argmax(below_bounds)]
+            raise ValueError(f"A value ({below_bounds_value}) in x_new is below "
+                             f"the interpolation range's minimum value ({self.x[0]}).")
+        if self.bounds_error and above_bounds.any():
+            above_bounds_value = x_new[np.argmax(above_bounds)]
+            raise ValueError(f"A value ({above_bounds_value}) in x_new is above "
+                             f"the interpolation range's maximum value ({self.x[-1]}).")
+
+        # !! Should we emit a warning if some values are out of bounds?
+        # !! matlab does not.
+        return below_bounds, above_bounds
+
+
+class _PPolyBase:
+    """Base class for piecewise polynomials."""
+    __slots__ = ('c', 'x', 'extrapolate', 'axis')
+
+    def __init__(self, c, x, extrapolate=None, axis=0):
+        self.c = np.asarray(c)
+        self.x = np.ascontiguousarray(x, dtype=np.float64)
+
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = True
+        elif extrapolate != 'periodic':
+            extrapolate = bool(extrapolate)
+        self.extrapolate = extrapolate
+
+        if self.c.ndim < 2:
+            raise ValueError("Coefficients array must be at least "
+                             "2-dimensional.")
+
+        if not (0 <= axis < self.c.ndim - 1):
+            raise ValueError(f"axis={axis} must be between 0 and {self.c.ndim-1}")
+
+        self.axis = axis
+        if axis != 0:
+            # move the interpolation axis to be the first one in self.c
+            # More specifically, the target shape for self.c is (k, m, ...),
+            # and axis !=0 means that we have c.shape (..., k, m, ...)
+            #                                               ^
+            #                                              axis
+            # So we roll two of them.
+            self.c = np.moveaxis(self.c, axis+1, 0)
+            self.c = np.moveaxis(self.c, axis+1, 0)
+
+        if self.x.ndim != 1:
+            raise ValueError("x must be 1-dimensional")
+        if self.x.size < 2:
+            raise ValueError("at least 2 breakpoints are needed")
+        if self.c.ndim < 2:
+            raise ValueError("c must have at least 2 dimensions")
+        if self.c.shape[0] == 0:
+            raise ValueError("polynomial must be at least of order 0")
+        if self.c.shape[1] != self.x.size-1:
+            raise ValueError("number of coefficients != len(x)-1")
+        dx = np.diff(self.x)
+        if not (np.all(dx >= 0) or np.all(dx <= 0)):
+            raise ValueError("`x` must be strictly increasing or decreasing.")
+
+        dtype = self._get_dtype(self.c.dtype)
+        self.c = np.ascontiguousarray(self.c, dtype=dtype)
+
+    def _get_dtype(self, dtype):
+        if np.issubdtype(dtype, np.complexfloating) \
+               or np.issubdtype(self.c.dtype, np.complexfloating):
+            return np.complex128
+        else:
+            return np.float64
+
+    @classmethod
+    def construct_fast(cls, c, x, extrapolate=None, axis=0):
+        """
+        Construct the piecewise polynomial without making checks.
+
+        Takes the same parameters as the constructor. Input arguments
+        ``c`` and ``x`` must be arrays of the correct shape and type. The
+        ``c`` array can only be of dtypes float and complex, and ``x``
+        array must have dtype float.
+        """
+        self = object.__new__(cls)
+        self.c = c
+        self.x = x
+        self.axis = axis
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = True
+        self.extrapolate = extrapolate
+        return self
+
+    def _ensure_c_contiguous(self):
+        """
+        c and x may be modified by the user. The Cython code expects
+        that they are C contiguous.
+        """
+        if not self.x.flags.c_contiguous:
+            self.x = self.x.copy()
+        if not self.c.flags.c_contiguous:
+            self.c = self.c.copy()
+
+    def extend(self, c, x):
+        """
+        Add additional breakpoints and coefficients to the polynomial.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        c : ndarray, size (k, m, ...)
+            Additional coefficients for polynomials in intervals. Note that
+            the first additional interval will be formed using one of the
+            ``self.x`` end points.
+        x : ndarray, size (m,)
+            Additional breakpoints. Must be sorted in the same order as
+            ``self.x`` and either to the right or to the left of the current
+            breakpoints.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        This method is not thread safe and must not be executed concurrently
+        with other methods available in this class. Doing so may cause
+        unexpected errors or numerical output mismatches.
+        """
+
+        c = np.asarray(c)
+        x = np.asarray(x)
+
+        if c.ndim < 2:
+            raise ValueError("invalid dimensions for c")
+        if x.ndim != 1:
+            raise ValueError("invalid dimensions for x")
+        if x.shape[0] != c.shape[1]:
+            raise ValueError(f"Shapes of x {x.shape} and c {c.shape} are incompatible")
+        if c.shape[2:] != self.c.shape[2:] or c.ndim != self.c.ndim:
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"Shapes of c {c.shape} and self.c {self.c.shape} are incompatible"
+            )
+
+        if c.size == 0:
+            return
+
+        dx = np.diff(x)
+        if not (np.all(dx >= 0) or np.all(dx <= 0)):
+            raise ValueError("`x` is not sorted.")
+
+        if self.x[-1] >= self.x[0]:
+            if not x[-1] >= x[0]:
+                raise ValueError("`x` is in the different order "
+                                "than `self.x`.")
+
+            if x[0] >= self.x[-1]:
+                action = 'append'
+            elif x[-1] <= self.x[0]:
+                action = 'prepend'
+            else:
+                raise ValueError("`x` is neither on the left or on the right "
+                                "from `self.x`.")
+        else:
+            if not x[-1] <= x[0]:
+                raise ValueError("`x` is in the different order "
+                                "than `self.x`.")
+
+            if x[0] <= self.x[-1]:
+                action = 'append'
+            elif x[-1] >= self.x[0]:
+                action = 'prepend'
+            else:
+                raise ValueError("`x` is neither on the left or on the right "
+                                "from `self.x`.")
+
+        dtype = self._get_dtype(c.dtype)
+
+        k2 = max(c.shape[0], self.c.shape[0])
+        c2 = np.zeros((k2, self.c.shape[1] + c.shape[1]) + self.c.shape[2:],
+                    dtype=dtype)
+
+        if action == 'append':
+            c2[k2-self.c.shape[0]:, :self.c.shape[1]] = self.c
+            c2[k2-c.shape[0]:, self.c.shape[1]:] = c
+            self.x = np.r_[self.x, x]
+        elif action == 'prepend':
+            c2[k2-self.c.shape[0]:, :c.shape[1]] = c
+            c2[k2-c.shape[0]:, c.shape[1]:] = self.c
+            self.x = np.r_[x, self.x]
+
+        self.c = c2
+
+    def __call__(self, x, nu=0, extrapolate=None):
+        """
+        Evaluate the piecewise polynomial or its derivative.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        x : array_like
+            Points to evaluate the interpolant at.
+        nu : int, optional
+            Order of derivative to evaluate. Must be non-negative.
+        extrapolate : {bool, 'periodic', None}, optional
+            If bool, determines whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points
+            based on first and last intervals, or to return NaNs.
+            If 'periodic', periodic extrapolation is used.
+            If None (default), use `self.extrapolate`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        y : array_like
+            Interpolated values. Shape is determined by replacing
+            the interpolation axis in the original array with the shape of x.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        Derivatives are evaluated piecewise for each polynomial
+        segment, even if the polynomial is not differentiable at the
+        breakpoints. The polynomial intervals are considered half-open,
+        ``[a, b)``, except for the last interval which is closed
+        ``[a, b]``.
+        """
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = self.extrapolate
+        x = np.asarray(x)
+        x_shape, x_ndim = x.shape, x.ndim
+        x = np.ascontiguousarray(x.ravel(), dtype=np.float64)
+
+        # With periodic extrapolation we map x to the segment
+        # [self.x[0], self.x[-1]].
+        if extrapolate == 'periodic':
+            x = self.x[0] + (x - self.x[0]) % (self.x[-1] - self.x[0])
+            extrapolate = False
+
+        out = np.empty((len(x), prod(self.c.shape[2:])), dtype=self.c.dtype)
+        self._ensure_c_contiguous()
+        self._evaluate(x, nu, extrapolate, out)
+        out = out.reshape(x_shape + self.c.shape[2:])
+        if self.axis != 0:
+            # transpose to move the calculated values to the interpolation axis
+            l = list(range(out.ndim))
+            l = l[x_ndim:x_ndim+self.axis] + l[:x_ndim] + l[x_ndim+self.axis:]
+            out = out.transpose(l)
+        return out
+
+
+class PPoly(_PPolyBase):
+    """Piecewise polynomial in the power basis.
+
+    The polynomial between ``x[i]`` and ``x[i + 1]`` is written in the
+    local power basis::
+
+        S = sum(c[m, i] * (xp - x[i])**(k-m) for m in range(k+1))
+
+    where ``k`` is the degree of the polynomial.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    c : ndarray, shape (k, m, ...)
+        Polynomial coefficients, order `k` and `m` intervals.
+    x : ndarray, shape (m+1,)
+        Polynomial breakpoints. Must be sorted in either increasing or
+        decreasing order.
+    extrapolate : bool or 'periodic', optional
+        If bool, determines whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points
+        based on first and last intervals, or to return NaNs. If 'periodic',
+        periodic extrapolation is used. Default is True.
+    axis : int, optional
+        Interpolation axis. Default is zero.
+
+    Attributes
+    ----------
+    x : ndarray
+        Breakpoints.
+    c : ndarray
+        Coefficients of the polynomials. They are reshaped
+        to a 3-D array with the last dimension representing
+        the trailing dimensions of the original coefficient array.
+    axis : int
+        Interpolation axis.
+
+    Methods
+    -------
+    __call__
+    derivative
+    antiderivative
+    integrate
+    solve
+    roots
+    extend
+    from_spline
+    from_bernstein_basis
+    construct_fast
+
+    See also
+    --------
+    BPoly : piecewise polynomials in the Bernstein basis
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    High-order polynomials in the power basis can be numerically
+    unstable. Precision problems can start to appear for orders
+    larger than 20-30.
+    """
+
+    def _evaluate(self, x, nu, extrapolate, out):
+        _ppoly.evaluate(self.c.reshape(self.c.shape[0], self.c.shape[1], -1),
+                        self.x, x, nu, bool(extrapolate), out)
+
+    def derivative(self, nu=1):
+        """
+        Construct a new piecewise polynomial representing the derivative.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        nu : int, optional
+            Order of derivative to evaluate. Default is 1, i.e., compute the
+            first derivative. If negative, the antiderivative is returned.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pp : PPoly
+            Piecewise polynomial of order k2 = k - n representing the derivative
+            of this polynomial.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        Derivatives are evaluated piecewise for each polynomial
+        segment, even if the polynomial is not differentiable at the
+        breakpoints. The polynomial intervals are considered half-open,
+        ``[a, b)``, except for the last interval which is closed
+        ``[a, b]``.
+        """
+        if nu < 0:
+            return self.antiderivative(-nu)
+
+        # reduce order
+        if nu == 0:
+            c2 = self.c.copy()
+        else:
+            c2 = self.c[:-nu, :].copy()
+
+        if c2.shape[0] == 0:
+            # derivative of order 0 is zero
+            c2 = np.zeros((1,) + c2.shape[1:], dtype=c2.dtype)
+
+        # multiply by the correct rising factorials
+        factor = spec.poch(np.arange(c2.shape[0], 0, -1), nu)
+        c2 *= factor[(slice(None),) + (None,)*(c2.ndim-1)]
+
+        # construct a compatible polynomial
+        return self.construct_fast(c2, self.x, self.extrapolate, self.axis)
+
+    def antiderivative(self, nu=1):
+        """
+        Construct a new piecewise polynomial representing the antiderivative.
+
+        Antiderivative is also the indefinite integral of the function,
+        and derivative is its inverse operation.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        nu : int, optional
+            Order of antiderivative to evaluate. Default is 1, i.e., compute
+            the first integral. If negative, the derivative is returned.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pp : PPoly
+            Piecewise polynomial of order k2 = k + n representing
+            the antiderivative of this polynomial.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        The antiderivative returned by this function is continuous and
+        continuously differentiable to order n-1, up to floating point
+        rounding error.
+
+        If antiderivative is computed and ``self.extrapolate='periodic'``,
+        it will be set to False for the returned instance. This is done because
+        the antiderivative is no longer periodic and its correct evaluation
+        outside of the initially given x interval is difficult.
+        """
+        if nu <= 0:
+            return self.derivative(-nu)
+
+        c = np.zeros((self.c.shape[0] + nu, self.c.shape[1]) + self.c.shape[2:],
+                     dtype=self.c.dtype)
+        c[:-nu] = self.c
+
+        # divide by the correct rising factorials
+        factor = spec.poch(np.arange(self.c.shape[0], 0, -1), nu)
+        c[:-nu] /= factor[(slice(None),) + (None,)*(c.ndim-1)]
+
+        # fix continuity of added degrees of freedom
+        self._ensure_c_contiguous()
+        _ppoly.fix_continuity(c.reshape(c.shape[0], c.shape[1], -1),
+                              self.x, nu - 1)
+
+        if self.extrapolate == 'periodic':
+            extrapolate = False
+        else:
+            extrapolate = self.extrapolate
+
+        # construct a compatible polynomial
+        return self.construct_fast(c, self.x, extrapolate, self.axis)
+
+    def integrate(self, a, b, extrapolate=None):
+        """
+        Compute a definite integral over a piecewise polynomial.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        a : float
+            Lower integration bound
+        b : float
+            Upper integration bound
+        extrapolate : {bool, 'periodic', None}, optional
+            If bool, determines whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points
+            based on first and last intervals, or to return NaNs.
+            If 'periodic', periodic extrapolation is used.
+            If None (default), use `self.extrapolate`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ig : array_like
+            Definite integral of the piecewise polynomial over [a, b]
+        """
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = self.extrapolate
+
+        # Swap integration bounds if needed
+        sign = 1
+        if b < a:
+            a, b = b, a
+            sign = -1
+
+        range_int = np.empty((prod(self.c.shape[2:]),), dtype=self.c.dtype)
+        self._ensure_c_contiguous()
+
+        # Compute the integral.
+        if extrapolate == 'periodic':
+            # Split the integral into the part over period (can be several
+            # of them) and the remaining part.
+
+            xs, xe = self.x[0], self.x[-1]
+            period = xe - xs
+            interval = b - a
+            n_periods, left = divmod(interval, period)
+
+            if n_periods > 0:
+                _ppoly.integrate(
+                    self.c.reshape(self.c.shape[0], self.c.shape[1], -1),
+                    self.x, xs, xe, False, out=range_int)
+                range_int *= n_periods
+            else:
+                range_int.fill(0)
+
+            # Map a to [xs, xe], b is always a + left.
+            a = xs + (a - xs) % period
+            b = a + left
+
+            # If b <= xe then we need to integrate over [a, b], otherwise
+            # over [a, xe] and from xs to what is remained.
+            remainder_int = np.empty_like(range_int)
+            if b <= xe:
+                _ppoly.integrate(
+                    self.c.reshape(self.c.shape[0], self.c.shape[1], -1),
+                    self.x, a, b, False, out=remainder_int)
+                range_int += remainder_int
+            else:
+                _ppoly.integrate(
+                    self.c.reshape(self.c.shape[0], self.c.shape[1], -1),
+                    self.x, a, xe, False, out=remainder_int)
+                range_int += remainder_int
+
+                _ppoly.integrate(
+                    self.c.reshape(self.c.shape[0], self.c.shape[1], -1),
+                    self.x, xs, xs + left + a - xe, False, out=remainder_int)
+                range_int += remainder_int
+        else:
+            _ppoly.integrate(
+                self.c.reshape(self.c.shape[0], self.c.shape[1], -1),
+                self.x, a, b, bool(extrapolate), out=range_int)
+
+        # Return
+        range_int *= sign
+        return range_int.reshape(self.c.shape[2:])
+
+    def solve(self, y=0., discontinuity=True, extrapolate=None):
+        """
+        Find real solutions of the equation ``pp(x) == y``.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        y : float, optional
+            Right-hand side. Default is zero.
+        discontinuity : bool, optional
+            Whether to report sign changes across discontinuities at
+            breakpoints as roots.
+        extrapolate : {bool, 'periodic', None}, optional
+            If bool, determines whether to return roots from the polynomial
+            extrapolated based on first and last intervals, 'periodic' works
+            the same as False. If None (default), use `self.extrapolate`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        roots : ndarray
+            Roots of the polynomial(s).
+
+            If the PPoly object describes multiple polynomials, the
+            return value is an object array whose each element is an
+            ndarray containing the roots.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        This routine works only on real-valued polynomials.
+
+        If the piecewise polynomial contains sections that are
+        identically zero, the root list will contain the start point
+        of the corresponding interval, followed by a ``nan`` value.
+
+        If the polynomial is discontinuous across a breakpoint, and
+        there is a sign change across the breakpoint, this is reported
+        if the `discont` parameter is True.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+
+        Finding roots of ``[x**2 - 1, (x - 1)**2]`` defined on intervals
+        ``[-2, 1], [1, 2]``:
+
+        >>> import numpy as np
+        >>> from scipy.interpolate import PPoly
+        >>> pp = PPoly(np.array([[1, -4, 3], [1, 0, 0]]).T, [-2, 1, 2])
+        >>> pp.solve()
+        array([-1.,  1.])
+        """
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = self.extrapolate
+
+        self._ensure_c_contiguous()
+
+        if np.issubdtype(self.c.dtype, np.complexfloating):
+            raise ValueError("Root finding is only for "
+                             "real-valued polynomials")
+
+        y = float(y)
+        r = _ppoly.real_roots(self.c.reshape(self.c.shape[0], self.c.shape[1], -1),
+                              self.x, y, bool(discontinuity),
+                              bool(extrapolate))
+        if self.c.ndim == 2:
+            return r[0]
+        else:
+            r2 = np.empty(prod(self.c.shape[2:]), dtype=object)
+            # this for-loop is equivalent to ``r2[...] = r``, but that's broken
+            # in NumPy 1.6.0
+            for ii, root in enumerate(r):
+                r2[ii] = root
+
+            return r2.reshape(self.c.shape[2:])
+
+    def roots(self, discontinuity=True, extrapolate=None):
+        """
+        Find real roots of the piecewise polynomial.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        discontinuity : bool, optional
+            Whether to report sign changes across discontinuities at
+            breakpoints as roots.
+        extrapolate : {bool, 'periodic', None}, optional
+            If bool, determines whether to return roots from the polynomial
+            extrapolated based on first and last intervals, 'periodic' works
+            the same as False. If None (default), use `self.extrapolate`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        roots : ndarray
+            Roots of the polynomial(s).
+
+            If the PPoly object describes multiple polynomials, the
+            return value is an object array whose each element is an
+            ndarray containing the roots.
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        PPoly.solve
+        """
+        return self.solve(0, discontinuity, extrapolate)
+
+    @classmethod
+    def from_spline(cls, tck, extrapolate=None):
+        """
+        Construct a piecewise polynomial from a spline
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        tck
+            A spline, as returned by `splrep` or a BSpline object.
+        extrapolate : bool or 'periodic', optional
+            If bool, determines whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points
+            based on first and last intervals, or to return NaNs.
+            If 'periodic', periodic extrapolation is used. Default is True.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        Construct an interpolating spline and convert it to a `PPoly` instance
+
+        >>> import numpy as np
+        >>> from scipy.interpolate import splrep, PPoly
+        >>> x = np.linspace(0, 1, 11)
+        >>> y = np.sin(2*np.pi*x)
+        >>> tck = splrep(x, y, s=0)
+        >>> p = PPoly.from_spline(tck)
+        >>> isinstance(p, PPoly)
+        True
+
+        Note that this function only supports 1D splines out of the box.
+
+        If the ``tck`` object represents a parametric spline (e.g. constructed
+        by `splprep` or a `BSpline` with ``c.ndim > 1``), you will need to loop
+        over the dimensions manually.
+
+        >>> from scipy.interpolate import splprep, splev
+        >>> t = np.linspace(0, 1, 11)
+        >>> x = np.sin(2*np.pi*t)
+        >>> y = np.cos(2*np.pi*t)
+        >>> (t, c, k), u = splprep([x, y], s=0)
+
+        Note that ``c`` is a list of two arrays of length 11.
+
+        >>> unew = np.arange(0, 1.01, 0.01)
+        >>> out = splev(unew, (t, c, k))
+
+        To convert this spline to the power basis, we convert each
+        component of the list of b-spline coefficients, ``c``, into the
+        corresponding cubic polynomial.
+
+        >>> polys = [PPoly.from_spline((t, cj, k)) for cj in c]
+        >>> polys[0].c.shape
+        (4, 14)
+
+        Note that the coefficients of the polynomials `polys` are in the
+        power basis and their dimensions reflect just that: here 4 is the order
+        (degree+1), and 14 is the number of intervals---which is nothing but
+        the length of the knot array of the original `tck` minus one.
+
+        Optionally, we can stack the components into a single `PPoly` along
+        the third dimension:
+
+        >>> cc = np.dstack([p.c for p in polys])    # has shape = (4, 14, 2)
+        >>> poly = PPoly(cc, polys[0].x)
+        >>> np.allclose(poly(unew).T,     # note the transpose to match `splev`
+        ...             out, atol=1e-15)
+        True
+
+        """
+        if isinstance(tck, BSpline):
+            t, c, k = tck.tck
+            if extrapolate is None:
+                extrapolate = tck.extrapolate
+        else:
+            t, c, k = tck
+
+        cvals = np.empty((k + 1, len(t)-1), dtype=c.dtype)
+        for m in range(k, -1, -1):
+            y = _fitpack_py.splev(t[:-1], tck, der=m)
+            cvals[k - m, :] = y/spec.gamma(m+1)
+
+        return cls.construct_fast(cvals, t, extrapolate)
+
+    @classmethod
+    def from_bernstein_basis(cls, bp, extrapolate=None):
+        """
+        Construct a piecewise polynomial in the power basis
+        from a polynomial in Bernstein basis.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        bp : BPoly
+            A Bernstein basis polynomial, as created by BPoly
+        extrapolate : bool or 'periodic', optional
+            If bool, determines whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points
+            based on first and last intervals, or to return NaNs.
+            If 'periodic', periodic extrapolation is used. Default is True.
+        """
+        if not isinstance(bp, BPoly):
+            raise TypeError(f".from_bernstein_basis only accepts BPoly instances. "
+                            f"Got {type(bp)} instead.")
+
+        dx = np.diff(bp.x)
+        k = bp.c.shape[0] - 1  # polynomial order
+
+        rest = (None,)*(bp.c.ndim-2)
+
+        c = np.zeros_like(bp.c)
+        for a in range(k+1):
+            factor = (-1)**a * comb(k, a) * bp.c[a]
+            for s in range(a, k+1):
+                val = comb(k-a, s-a) * (-1)**s
+                c[k-s] += factor * val / dx[(slice(None),)+rest]**s
+
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = bp.extrapolate
+
+        return cls.construct_fast(c, bp.x, extrapolate, bp.axis)
+
+
+class BPoly(_PPolyBase):
+    """Piecewise polynomial in the Bernstein basis.
+
+    The polynomial between ``x[i]`` and ``x[i + 1]`` is written in the
+    Bernstein polynomial basis::
+
+        S = sum(c[a, i] * b(a, k; x) for a in range(k+1)),
+
+    where ``k`` is the degree of the polynomial, and::
+
+        b(a, k; x) = binom(k, a) * t**a * (1 - t)**(k - a),
+
+    with ``t = (x - x[i]) / (x[i+1] - x[i])`` and ``binom`` is the binomial
+    coefficient.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    c : ndarray, shape (k, m, ...)
+        Polynomial coefficients, order `k` and `m` intervals
+    x : ndarray, shape (m+1,)
+        Polynomial breakpoints. Must be sorted in either increasing or
+        decreasing order.
+    extrapolate : bool, optional
+        If bool, determines whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points
+        based on first and last intervals, or to return NaNs. If 'periodic',
+        periodic extrapolation is used. Default is True.
+    axis : int, optional
+        Interpolation axis. Default is zero.
+
+    Attributes
+    ----------
+    x : ndarray
+        Breakpoints.
+    c : ndarray
+        Coefficients of the polynomials. They are reshaped
+        to a 3-D array with the last dimension representing
+        the trailing dimensions of the original coefficient array.
+    axis : int
+        Interpolation axis.
+
+    Methods
+    -------
+    __call__
+    extend
+    derivative
+    antiderivative
+    integrate
+    construct_fast
+    from_power_basis
+    from_derivatives
+
+    See also
+    --------
+    PPoly : piecewise polynomials in the power basis
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Properties of Bernstein polynomials are well documented in the literature,
+    see for example [1]_ [2]_ [3]_.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernstein_polynomial
+
+    .. [2] Kenneth I. Joy, Bernstein polynomials,
+       http://www.idav.ucdavis.edu/education/CAGDNotes/Bernstein-Polynomials.pdf
+
+    .. [3] E. H. Doha, A. H. Bhrawy, and M. A. Saker, Boundary Value Problems,
+           vol 2011, article ID 829546, :doi:`10.1155/2011/829543`.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from scipy.interpolate import BPoly
+    >>> x = [0, 1]
+    >>> c = [[1], [2], [3]]
+    >>> bp = BPoly(c, x)
+
+    This creates a 2nd order polynomial
+
+    .. math::
+
+        B(x) = 1 \\times b_{0, 2}(x) + 2 \\times b_{1, 2}(x) + 3
+               \\times b_{2, 2}(x) \\\\
+             = 1 \\times (1-x)^2 + 2 \\times 2 x (1 - x) + 3 \\times x^2
+
+    """  # noqa: E501
+
+    def _evaluate(self, x, nu, extrapolate, out):
+        _ppoly.evaluate_bernstein(
+            self.c.reshape(self.c.shape[0], self.c.shape[1], -1),
+            self.x, x, nu, bool(extrapolate), out)
+
+    def derivative(self, nu=1):
+        """
+        Construct a new piecewise polynomial representing the derivative.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        nu : int, optional
+            Order of derivative to evaluate. Default is 1, i.e., compute the
+            first derivative. If negative, the antiderivative is returned.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        bp : BPoly
+            Piecewise polynomial of order k - nu representing the derivative of
+            this polynomial.
+
+        """
+        if nu < 0:
+            return self.antiderivative(-nu)
+
+        if nu > 1:
+            bp = self
+            for k in range(nu):
+                bp = bp.derivative()
+            return bp
+
+        # reduce order
+        if nu == 0:
+            c2 = self.c.copy()
+        else:
+            # For a polynomial
+            #    B(x) = \sum_{a=0}^{k} c_a b_{a, k}(x),
+            # we use the fact that
+            #   b'_{a, k} = k ( b_{a-1, k-1} - b_{a, k-1} ),
+            # which leads to
+            #   B'(x) = \sum_{a=0}^{k-1} (c_{a+1} - c_a) b_{a, k-1}
+            #
+            # finally, for an interval [y, y + dy] with dy != 1,
+            # we need to correct for an extra power of dy
+
+            rest = (None,)*(self.c.ndim-2)
+
+            k = self.c.shape[0] - 1
+            dx = np.diff(self.x)[(None, slice(None))+rest]
+            c2 = k * np.diff(self.c, axis=0) / dx
+
+        if c2.shape[0] == 0:
+            # derivative of order 0 is zero
+            c2 = np.zeros((1,) + c2.shape[1:], dtype=c2.dtype)
+
+        # construct a compatible polynomial
+        return self.construct_fast(c2, self.x, self.extrapolate, self.axis)
+
+    def antiderivative(self, nu=1):
+        """
+        Construct a new piecewise polynomial representing the antiderivative.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        nu : int, optional
+            Order of antiderivative to evaluate. Default is 1, i.e., compute
+            the first integral. If negative, the derivative is returned.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        bp : BPoly
+            Piecewise polynomial of order k + nu representing the
+            antiderivative of this polynomial.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        If antiderivative is computed and ``self.extrapolate='periodic'``,
+        it will be set to False for the returned instance. This is done because
+        the antiderivative is no longer periodic and its correct evaluation
+        outside of the initially given x interval is difficult.
+        """
+        if nu <= 0:
+            return self.derivative(-nu)
+
+        if nu > 1:
+            bp = self
+            for k in range(nu):
+                bp = bp.antiderivative()
+            return bp
+
+        # Construct the indefinite integrals on individual intervals
+        c, x = self.c, self.x
+        k = c.shape[0]
+        c2 = np.zeros((k+1,) + c.shape[1:], dtype=c.dtype)
+
+        c2[1:, ...] = np.cumsum(c, axis=0) / k
+        delta = x[1:] - x[:-1]
+        c2 *= delta[(None, slice(None)) + (None,)*(c.ndim-2)]
+
+        # Now fix continuity: on the very first interval, take the integration
+        # constant to be zero; on an interval [x_j, x_{j+1}) with j>0,
+        # the integration constant is then equal to the jump of the `bp` at x_j.
+        # The latter is given by the coefficient of B_{n+1, n+1}
+        # *on the previous interval* (other B. polynomials are zero at the
+        # breakpoint). Finally, use the fact that BPs form a partition of unity.
+        c2[:,1:] += np.cumsum(c2[k, :], axis=0)[:-1]
+
+        if self.extrapolate == 'periodic':
+            extrapolate = False
+        else:
+            extrapolate = self.extrapolate
+
+        return self.construct_fast(c2, x, extrapolate, axis=self.axis)
+
+    def integrate(self, a, b, extrapolate=None):
+        """
+        Compute a definite integral over a piecewise polynomial.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        a : float
+            Lower integration bound
+        b : float
+            Upper integration bound
+        extrapolate : {bool, 'periodic', None}, optional
+            Whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points based on first
+            and last intervals, or to return NaNs. If 'periodic', periodic
+            extrapolation is used. If None (default), use `self.extrapolate`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        array_like
+            Definite integral of the piecewise polynomial over [a, b]
+
+        """
+        # XXX: can probably use instead the fact that
+        # \int_0^{1} B_{j, n}(x) \dx = 1/(n+1)
+        ib = self.antiderivative()
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = self.extrapolate
+
+        # ib.extrapolate shouldn't be 'periodic', it is converted to
+        # False for 'periodic. in antiderivative() call.
+        if extrapolate != 'periodic':
+            ib.extrapolate = extrapolate
+
+        if extrapolate == 'periodic':
+            # Split the integral into the part over period (can be several
+            # of them) and the remaining part.
+
+            # For simplicity and clarity convert to a <= b case.
+            if a <= b:
+                sign = 1
+            else:
+                a, b = b, a
+                sign = -1
+
+            xs, xe = self.x[0], self.x[-1]
+            period = xe - xs
+            interval = b - a
+            n_periods, left = divmod(interval, period)
+            res = n_periods * (ib(xe) - ib(xs))
+
+            # Map a and b to [xs, xe].
+            a = xs + (a - xs) % period
+            b = a + left
+
+            # If b <= xe then we need to integrate over [a, b], otherwise
+            # over [a, xe] and from xs to what is remained.
+            if b <= xe:
+                res += ib(b) - ib(a)
+            else:
+                res += ib(xe) - ib(a) + ib(xs + left + a - xe) - ib(xs)
+
+            return sign * res
+        else:
+            return ib(b) - ib(a)
+
+    def extend(self, c, x):
+        k = max(self.c.shape[0], c.shape[0])
+        self.c = self._raise_degree(self.c, k - self.c.shape[0])
+        c = self._raise_degree(c, k - c.shape[0])
+        return _PPolyBase.extend(self, c, x)
+    extend.__doc__ = _PPolyBase.extend.__doc__
+
+    @classmethod
+    def from_power_basis(cls, pp, extrapolate=None):
+        """
+        Construct a piecewise polynomial in Bernstein basis
+        from a power basis polynomial.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        pp : PPoly
+            A piecewise polynomial in the power basis
+        extrapolate : bool or 'periodic', optional
+            If bool, determines whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points
+            based on first and last intervals, or to return NaNs.
+            If 'periodic', periodic extrapolation is used. Default is True.
+        """
+        if not isinstance(pp, PPoly):
+            raise TypeError(f".from_power_basis only accepts PPoly instances. "
+                            f"Got {type(pp)} instead.")
+
+        dx = np.diff(pp.x)
+        k = pp.c.shape[0] - 1   # polynomial order
+
+        rest = (None,)*(pp.c.ndim-2)
+
+        c = np.zeros_like(pp.c)
+        for a in range(k+1):
+            factor = pp.c[a] / comb(k, k-a) * dx[(slice(None),)+rest]**(k-a)
+            for j in range(k-a, k+1):
+                c[j] += factor * comb(j, k-a)
+
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = pp.extrapolate
+
+        return cls.construct_fast(c, pp.x, extrapolate, pp.axis)
+
+    @classmethod
+    def from_derivatives(cls, xi, yi, orders=None, extrapolate=None):
+        """Construct a piecewise polynomial in the Bernstein basis,
+        compatible with the specified values and derivatives at breakpoints.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        xi : array_like
+            sorted 1-D array of x-coordinates
+        yi : array_like or list of array_likes
+            ``yi[i][j]`` is the ``j``\\ th derivative known at ``xi[i]``
+        orders : None or int or array_like of ints. Default: None.
+            Specifies the degree of local polynomials. If not None, some
+            derivatives are ignored.
+        extrapolate : bool or 'periodic', optional
+            If bool, determines whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points
+            based on first and last intervals, or to return NaNs.
+            If 'periodic', periodic extrapolation is used. Default is True.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        If ``k`` derivatives are specified at a breakpoint ``x``, the
+        constructed polynomial is exactly ``k`` times continuously
+        differentiable at ``x``, unless the ``order`` is provided explicitly.
+        In the latter case, the smoothness of the polynomial at
+        the breakpoint is controlled by the ``order``.
+
+        Deduces the number of derivatives to match at each end
+        from ``order`` and the number of derivatives available. If
+        possible it uses the same number of derivatives from
+        each end; if the number is odd it tries to take the
+        extra one from y2. In any case if not enough derivatives
+        are available at one end or another it draws enough to
+        make up the total from the other end.
+
+        If the order is too high and not enough derivatives are available,
+        an exception is raised.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+
+        >>> from scipy.interpolate import BPoly
+        >>> BPoly.from_derivatives([0, 1], [[1, 2], [3, 4]])
+
+        Creates a polynomial `f(x)` of degree 3, defined on ``[0, 1]``
+        such that `f(0) = 1, df/dx(0) = 2, f(1) = 3, df/dx(1) = 4`
+
+        >>> BPoly.from_derivatives([0, 1, 2], [[0, 1], [0], [2]])
+
+        Creates a piecewise polynomial `f(x)`, such that
+        `f(0) = f(1) = 0`, `f(2) = 2`, and `df/dx(0) = 1`.
+        Based on the number of derivatives provided, the order of the
+        local polynomials is 2 on ``[0, 1]`` and 1 on ``[1, 2]``.
+        Notice that no restriction is imposed on the derivatives at
+        ``x = 1`` and ``x = 2``.
+
+        Indeed, the explicit form of the polynomial is::
+
+            f(x) = | x * (1 - x),  0 <= x < 1
+                   | 2 * (x - 1),  1 <= x <= 2
+
+        So that f'(1-0) = -1 and f'(1+0) = 2
+
+        """
+        xi = np.asarray(xi)
+        if len(xi) != len(yi):
+            raise ValueError("xi and yi need to have the same length")
+        if np.any(xi[1:] - xi[:1] <= 0):
+            raise ValueError("x coordinates are not in increasing order")
+
+        # number of intervals
+        m = len(xi) - 1
+
+        # global poly order is k-1, local orders are <=k and can vary
+        try:
+            k = max(len(yi[i]) + len(yi[i+1]) for i in range(m))
+        except TypeError as e:
+            raise ValueError(
+                "Using a 1-D array for y? Please .reshape(-1, 1)."
+            ) from e
+
+        if orders is None:
+            orders = [None] * m
+        else:
+            if isinstance(orders, int | np.integer):
+                orders = [orders] * m
+            k = max(k, max(orders))
+
+            if any(o <= 0 for o in orders):
+                raise ValueError("Orders must be positive.")
+
+        c = []
+        for i in range(m):
+            y1, y2 = yi[i], yi[i+1]
+            if orders[i] is None:
+                n1, n2 = len(y1), len(y2)
+            else:
+                n = orders[i]+1
+                n1 = min(n//2, len(y1))
+                n2 = min(n - n1, len(y2))
+                n1 = min(n - n2, len(y2))
+                if n1 + n2 != n:
+                    mesg = (
+                        f"Point {xi[i]} has {len(y1)} derivatives, point {xi[i+1]} has "
+                        f"{len(y2)} derivatives, but order {orders[i]} requested"
+                    )
+                    raise ValueError(mesg)
+
+                if not (n1 <= len(y1) and n2 <= len(y2)):
+                    raise ValueError("`order` input incompatible with"
+                                     " length y1 or y2.")
+
+            b = BPoly._construct_from_derivatives(xi[i], xi[i+1],
+                                                  y1[:n1], y2[:n2])
+            if len(b) < k:
+                b = BPoly._raise_degree(b, k - len(b))
+            c.append(b)
+
+        c = np.asarray(c)
+        return cls(c.swapaxes(0, 1), xi, extrapolate)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _construct_from_derivatives(xa, xb, ya, yb):
+        r"""Compute the coefficients of a polynomial in the Bernstein basis
+        given the values and derivatives at the edges.
+
+        Return the coefficients of a polynomial in the Bernstein basis
+        defined on ``[xa, xb]`` and having the values and derivatives at the
+        endpoints `xa` and `xb` as specified by `ya` and `yb`.
+        The polynomial constructed is of the minimal possible degree, i.e.,
+        if the lengths of `ya` and `yb` are `na` and `nb`, the degree
+        of the polynomial is ``na + nb - 1``.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        xa : float
+            Left-hand end point of the interval
+        xb : float
+            Right-hand end point of the interval
+        ya : array_like
+            Derivatives at `xa`. ``ya[0]`` is the value of the function, and
+            ``ya[i]`` for ``i > 0`` is the value of the ``i``\ th derivative.
+        yb : array_like
+            Derivatives at `xb`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        array
+            coefficient array of a polynomial having specified derivatives
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        This uses several facts from life of Bernstein basis functions.
+        First of all,
+
+            .. math:: b'_{a, n} = n (b_{a-1, n-1} - b_{a, n-1})
+
+        If B(x) is a linear combination of the form
+
+            .. math:: B(x) = \sum_{a=0}^{n} c_a b_{a, n},
+
+        then :math: B'(x) = n \sum_{a=0}^{n-1} (c_{a+1} - c_{a}) b_{a, n-1}.
+        Iterating the latter one, one finds for the q-th derivative
+
+            .. math:: B^{q}(x) = n!/(n-q)! \sum_{a=0}^{n-q} Q_a b_{a, n-q},
+
+        with
+
+          .. math:: Q_a = \sum_{j=0}^{q} (-)^{j+q} comb(q, j) c_{j+a}
+
+        This way, only `a=0` contributes to :math: `B^{q}(x = xa)`, and
+        `c_q` are found one by one by iterating `q = 0, ..., na`.
+
+        At ``x = xb`` it's the same with ``a = n - q``.
+
+        """
+        ya, yb = np.asarray(ya), np.asarray(yb)
+        if ya.shape[1:] != yb.shape[1:]:
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"Shapes of ya {ya.shape} and yb {yb.shape} are incompatible"
+            )
+
+        dta, dtb = ya.dtype, yb.dtype
+        if (np.issubdtype(dta, np.complexfloating) or
+               np.issubdtype(dtb, np.complexfloating)):
+            dt = np.complex128
+        else:
+            dt = np.float64
+
+        na, nb = len(ya), len(yb)
+        n = na + nb
+
+        c = np.empty((na+nb,) + ya.shape[1:], dtype=dt)
+
+        # compute coefficients of a polynomial degree na+nb-1
+        # walk left-to-right
+        for q in range(0, na):
+            c[q] = ya[q] / spec.poch(n - q, q) * (xb - xa)**q
+            for j in range(0, q):
+                c[q] -= (-1)**(j+q) * comb(q, j) * c[j]
+
+        # now walk right-to-left
+        for q in range(0, nb):
+            c[-q-1] = yb[q] / spec.poch(n - q, q) * (-1)**q * (xb - xa)**q
+            for j in range(0, q):
+                c[-q-1] -= (-1)**(j+1) * comb(q, j+1) * c[-q+j]
+
+        return c
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _raise_degree(c, d):
+        r"""Raise a degree of a polynomial in the Bernstein basis.
+
+        Given the coefficients of a polynomial degree `k`, return (the
+        coefficients of) the equivalent polynomial of degree `k+d`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        c : array_like
+            coefficient array, 1-D
+        d : integer
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        array
+            coefficient array, 1-D array of length `c.shape[0] + d`
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        This uses the fact that a Bernstein polynomial `b_{a, k}` can be
+        identically represented as a linear combination of polynomials of
+        a higher degree `k+d`:
+
+            .. math:: b_{a, k} = comb(k, a) \sum_{j=0}^{d} b_{a+j, k+d} \
+                                 comb(d, j) / comb(k+d, a+j)
+
+        """
+        if d == 0:
+            return c
+
+        k = c.shape[0] - 1
+        out = np.zeros((c.shape[0] + d,) + c.shape[1:], dtype=c.dtype)
+
+        for a in range(c.shape[0]):
+            f = c[a] * comb(k, a)
+            for j in range(d+1):
+                out[a+j] += f * comb(d, j) / comb(k+d, a+j)
+        return out
+
+
+class NdPPoly:
+    """
+    Piecewise tensor product polynomial
+
+    The value at point ``xp = (x', y', z', ...)`` is evaluated by first
+    computing the interval indices `i` such that::
+
+        x[0][i[0]] <= x' < x[0][i[0]+1]
+        x[1][i[1]] <= y' < x[1][i[1]+1]
+        ...
+
+    and then computing::
+
+        S = sum(c[k0-m0-1,...,kn-mn-1,i[0],...,i[n]]
+                * (xp[0] - x[0][i[0]])**m0
+                * ...
+                * (xp[n] - x[n][i[n]])**mn
+                for m0 in range(k[0]+1)
+                ...
+                for mn in range(k[n]+1))
+
+    where ``k[j]`` is the degree of the polynomial in dimension j. This
+    representation is the piecewise multivariate power basis.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    c : ndarray, shape (k0, ..., kn, m0, ..., mn, ...)
+        Polynomial coefficients, with polynomial order `kj` and
+        `mj+1` intervals for each dimension `j`.
+    x : ndim-tuple of ndarrays, shapes (mj+1,)
+        Polynomial breakpoints for each dimension. These must be
+        sorted in increasing order.
+    extrapolate : bool, optional
+        Whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points based on first
+        and last intervals, or to return NaNs. Default: True.
+
+    Attributes
+    ----------
+    x : tuple of ndarrays
+        Breakpoints.
+    c : ndarray
+        Coefficients of the polynomials.
+
+    Methods
+    -------
+    __call__
+    derivative
+    antiderivative
+    integrate
+    integrate_1d
+    construct_fast
+
+    See also
+    --------
+    PPoly : piecewise polynomials in 1D
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    High-order polynomials in the power basis can be numerically
+    unstable.
+
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, c, x, extrapolate=None):
+        self.x = tuple(np.ascontiguousarray(v, dtype=np.float64) for v in x)
+        self.c = np.asarray(c)
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = True
+        self.extrapolate = bool(extrapolate)
+
+        ndim = len(self.x)
+        if any(v.ndim != 1 for v in self.x):
+            raise ValueError("x arrays must all be 1-dimensional")
+        if any(v.size < 2 for v in self.x):
+            raise ValueError("x arrays must all contain at least 2 points")
+        if c.ndim < 2*ndim:
+            raise ValueError("c must have at least 2*len(x) dimensions")
+        if any(np.any(v[1:] - v[:-1] < 0) for v in self.x):
+            raise ValueError("x-coordinates are not in increasing order")
+        if any(a != b.size - 1 for a, b in zip(c.shape[ndim:2*ndim], self.x)):
+            raise ValueError("x and c do not agree on the number of intervals")
+
+        dtype = self._get_dtype(self.c.dtype)
+        self.c = np.ascontiguousarray(self.c, dtype=dtype)
+
+    @classmethod
+    def construct_fast(cls, c, x, extrapolate=None):
+        """
+        Construct the piecewise polynomial without making checks.
+
+        Takes the same parameters as the constructor. Input arguments
+        ``c`` and ``x`` must be arrays of the correct shape and type.  The
+        ``c`` array can only be of dtypes float and complex, and ``x``
+        array must have dtype float.
+
+        """
+        self = object.__new__(cls)
+        self.c = c
+        self.x = x
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = True
+        self.extrapolate = extrapolate
+        return self
+
+    def _get_dtype(self, dtype):
+        if np.issubdtype(dtype, np.complexfloating) \
+               or np.issubdtype(self.c.dtype, np.complexfloating):
+            return np.complex128
+        else:
+            return np.float64
+
+    def _ensure_c_contiguous(self):
+        if not self.c.flags.c_contiguous:
+            self.c = self.c.copy()
+        if not isinstance(self.x, tuple):
+            self.x = tuple(self.x)
+
+    def __call__(self, x, nu=None, extrapolate=None):
+        """
+        Evaluate the piecewise polynomial or its derivative
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        x : array-like
+            Points to evaluate the interpolant at.
+        nu : tuple, optional
+            Orders of derivatives to evaluate. Each must be non-negative.
+        extrapolate : bool, optional
+            Whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points based on first
+            and last intervals, or to return NaNs.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        y : array-like
+            Interpolated values. Shape is determined by replacing
+            the interpolation axis in the original array with the shape of x.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        Derivatives are evaluated piecewise for each polynomial
+        segment, even if the polynomial is not differentiable at the
+        breakpoints. The polynomial intervals are considered half-open,
+        ``[a, b)``, except for the last interval which is closed
+        ``[a, b]``.
+
+        """
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = self.extrapolate
+        else:
+            extrapolate = bool(extrapolate)
+
+        ndim = len(self.x)
+
+        x = _ndim_coords_from_arrays(x)
+        x_shape = x.shape
+        x = np.ascontiguousarray(x.reshape(-1, x.shape[-1]), dtype=np.float64)
+
+        if nu is None:
+            nu = np.zeros((ndim,), dtype=np.intc)
+        else:
+            nu = np.asarray(nu, dtype=np.intc)
+            if nu.ndim != 1 or nu.shape[0] != ndim:
+                raise ValueError("invalid number of derivative orders nu")
+
+        dim1 = prod(self.c.shape[:ndim])
+        dim2 = prod(self.c.shape[ndim:2*ndim])
+        dim3 = prod(self.c.shape[2*ndim:])
+        ks = np.array(self.c.shape[:ndim], dtype=np.intc)
+
+        out = np.empty((x.shape[0], dim3), dtype=self.c.dtype)
+        self._ensure_c_contiguous()
+
+        _ppoly.evaluate_nd(self.c.reshape(dim1, dim2, dim3),
+                           self.x,
+                           ks,
+                           x,
+                           nu,
+                           bool(extrapolate),
+                           out)
+
+        return out.reshape(x_shape[:-1] + self.c.shape[2*ndim:])
+
+    def _derivative_inplace(self, nu, axis):
+        """
+        Compute 1-D derivative along a selected dimension in-place
+        May result to non-contiguous c array.
+        """
+        if nu < 0:
+            return self._antiderivative_inplace(-nu, axis)
+
+        ndim = len(self.x)
+        axis = axis % ndim
+
+        # reduce order
+        if nu == 0:
+            # noop
+            return
+        else:
+            sl = [slice(None)]*ndim
+            sl[axis] = slice(None, -nu, None)
+            c2 = self.c[tuple(sl)]
+
+        if c2.shape[axis] == 0:
+            # derivative of order 0 is zero
+            shp = list(c2.shape)
+            shp[axis] = 1
+            c2 = np.zeros(shp, dtype=c2.dtype)
+
+        # multiply by the correct rising factorials
+        factor = spec.poch(np.arange(c2.shape[axis], 0, -1), nu)
+        sl = [None]*c2.ndim
+        sl[axis] = slice(None)
+        c2 *= factor[tuple(sl)]
+
+        self.c = c2
+
+    def _antiderivative_inplace(self, nu, axis):
+        """
+        Compute 1-D antiderivative along a selected dimension
+        May result to non-contiguous c array.
+        """
+        if nu <= 0:
+            return self._derivative_inplace(-nu, axis)
+
+        ndim = len(self.x)
+        axis = axis % ndim
+
+        perm = list(range(ndim))
+        perm[0], perm[axis] = perm[axis], perm[0]
+        perm = perm + list(range(ndim, self.c.ndim))
+
+        c = self.c.transpose(perm)
+
+        c2 = np.zeros((c.shape[0] + nu,) + c.shape[1:],
+                     dtype=c.dtype)
+        c2[:-nu] = c
+
+        # divide by the correct rising factorials
+        factor = spec.poch(np.arange(c.shape[0], 0, -1), nu)
+        c2[:-nu] /= factor[(slice(None),) + (None,)*(c.ndim-1)]
+
+        # fix continuity of added degrees of freedom
+        perm2 = list(range(c2.ndim))
+        perm2[1], perm2[ndim+axis] = perm2[ndim+axis], perm2[1]
+
+        c2 = c2.transpose(perm2)
+        c2 = c2.copy()
+        _ppoly.fix_continuity(c2.reshape(c2.shape[0], c2.shape[1], -1),
+                              self.x[axis], nu-1)
+
+        c2 = c2.transpose(perm2)
+        c2 = c2.transpose(perm)
+
+        # Done
+        self.c = c2
+
+    def derivative(self, nu):
+        """
+        Construct a new piecewise polynomial representing the derivative.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        nu : ndim-tuple of int
+            Order of derivatives to evaluate for each dimension.
+            If negative, the antiderivative is returned.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pp : NdPPoly
+            Piecewise polynomial of orders (k[0] - nu[0], ..., k[n] - nu[n])
+            representing the derivative of this polynomial.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        Derivatives are evaluated piecewise for each polynomial
+        segment, even if the polynomial is not differentiable at the
+        breakpoints. The polynomial intervals in each dimension are
+        considered half-open, ``[a, b)``, except for the last interval
+        which is closed ``[a, b]``.
+
+        """
+        p = self.construct_fast(self.c.copy(), self.x, self.extrapolate)
+
+        for axis, n in enumerate(nu):
+            p._derivative_inplace(n, axis)
+
+        p._ensure_c_contiguous()
+        return p
+
+    def antiderivative(self, nu):
+        """
+        Construct a new piecewise polynomial representing the antiderivative.
+
+        Antiderivative is also the indefinite integral of the function,
+        and derivative is its inverse operation.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        nu : ndim-tuple of int
+            Order of derivatives to evaluate for each dimension.
+            If negative, the derivative is returned.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pp : PPoly
+            Piecewise polynomial of order k2 = k + n representing
+            the antiderivative of this polynomial.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        The antiderivative returned by this function is continuous and
+        continuously differentiable to order n-1, up to floating point
+        rounding error.
+
+        """
+        p = self.construct_fast(self.c.copy(), self.x, self.extrapolate)
+
+        for axis, n in enumerate(nu):
+            p._antiderivative_inplace(n, axis)
+
+        p._ensure_c_contiguous()
+        return p
+
+    def integrate_1d(self, a, b, axis, extrapolate=None):
+        r"""
+        Compute NdPPoly representation for one dimensional definite integral
+
+        The result is a piecewise polynomial representing the integral:
+
+        .. math::
+
+           p(y, z, ...) = \int_a^b dx\, p(x, y, z, ...)
+
+        where the dimension integrated over is specified with the
+        `axis` parameter.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        a, b : float
+            Lower and upper bound for integration.
+        axis : int
+            Dimension over which to compute the 1-D integrals
+        extrapolate : bool, optional
+            Whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points based on first
+            and last intervals, or to return NaNs.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ig : NdPPoly or array-like
+            Definite integral of the piecewise polynomial over [a, b].
+            If the polynomial was 1D, an array is returned,
+            otherwise, an NdPPoly object.
+
+        """
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = self.extrapolate
+        else:
+            extrapolate = bool(extrapolate)
+
+        ndim = len(self.x)
+        axis = int(axis) % ndim
+
+        # reuse 1-D integration routines
+        c = self.c
+        swap = list(range(c.ndim))
+        swap.insert(0, swap[axis])
+        del swap[axis + 1]
+        swap.insert(1, swap[ndim + axis])
+        del swap[ndim + axis + 1]
+
+        c = c.transpose(swap)
+        p = PPoly.construct_fast(c.reshape(c.shape[0], c.shape[1], -1),
+                                 self.x[axis],
+                                 extrapolate=extrapolate)
+        out = p.integrate(a, b, extrapolate=extrapolate)
+
+        # Construct result
+        if ndim == 1:
+            return out.reshape(c.shape[2:])
+        else:
+            c = out.reshape(c.shape[2:])
+            x = self.x[:axis] + self.x[axis+1:]
+            return self.construct_fast(c, x, extrapolate=extrapolate)
+
+    def integrate(self, ranges, extrapolate=None):
+        """
+        Compute a definite integral over a piecewise polynomial.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        ranges : ndim-tuple of 2-tuples float
+            Sequence of lower and upper bounds for each dimension,
+            ``[(a[0], b[0]), ..., (a[ndim-1], b[ndim-1])]``
+        extrapolate : bool, optional
+            Whether to extrapolate to out-of-bounds points based on first
+            and last intervals, or to return NaNs.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        ig : array_like
+            Definite integral of the piecewise polynomial over
+            [a[0], b[0]] x ... x [a[ndim-1], b[ndim-1]]
+
+        """
+
+        ndim = len(self.x)
+
+        if extrapolate is None:
+            extrapolate = self.extrapolate
+        else:
+            extrapolate = bool(extrapolate)
+
+        if not hasattr(ranges, '__len__') or len(ranges) != ndim:
+            raise ValueError("Range not a sequence of correct length")
+
+        self._ensure_c_contiguous()
+
+        # Reuse 1D integration routine
+        c = self.c
+        for n, (a, b) in enumerate(ranges):
+            swap = list(range(c.ndim))
+            swap.insert(1, swap[ndim - n])
+            del swap[ndim - n + 1]
+
+            c = c.transpose(swap)
+
+            p = PPoly.construct_fast(c, self.x[n], extrapolate=extrapolate)
+            out = p.integrate(a, b, extrapolate=extrapolate)
+            c = out.reshape(c.shape[2:])
+
+        return c