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+{"03d23adb-52fc-5e9a-b84a-0cf1c00fe196":{"name":"Seljuqs (Great Seljuqs)","also_known_as":"","area":"Iran, Iraq and Syria","history":"Seljuq Bey, who laid the foundations for the Great Seljuq state, was the son of Duqaq Subashi, a commander of the state of Oghuz \\[Oğuz\\] near the Caspian Sea. On the death of his father, Seljuq Bey became *subashi* at a very young age and increased his power very quickly. To resolve conflicts with the sultan of the state of Oghuz, he surrounded himself with Oghuz Turks and settled at Jend near the Oxus River in AH 375 / AD 985 and converted to Islam.  \nSeljuq Bey allied himself to the Samanids and established himself at Nur near Bukhara, to defend the northern frontiers. He was succeeded by his son Arslan Bey. After the fall of the Samanids at the hands of the Karakhanids in 399 / 999, the good relationship the Seljuqs had enjoyed with the Karakhanids and the Ghaznavids came to an end.  \nThe capture and imprisonment of Arslan Bey by the Ghaznavids in 416 / 1025 caused a split in the Seljuqs. Arslan Bey was succeeded by his nephews Tuğrul \\[Tughril\\] and Çağrı \\[Chaghrı\\]. Having defeated the Ghaznawids at Serahs (429 / 1038) and Dandanakan (431 / 1040), they founded the Great Seljuq state. Tuğrul Bey proclaimed himself sultan. Nishapur was briefly capital of the state, before being replaced by Marw.  \nThe Great Seljuq state, founded in the territory of present-day Iran, saw its power increase significantly between 431 and 485 (1040–92), the years of the 'first imperial age'. Under the reigns of Alparslan \\[Alp Arslan\\] and Melikşah \\[Malik Shah\\], who succeeded Tuğrul Bey, the Seljuqs extended their dominion towards Anatolia, the Middle East and Central Asia.  \nAfter the death of Sultan Melikşah in 485 / 1092, disputes over succession, the Batini rebellions, the Turcoman revolts and the Mongol invasions caused the fragmentation of the Great Seljuqs into four states (the Seljuqs of Iraq, Syria, Kirman and Anatolia \\[Rum\\]) and the emergence of numerous *atabegs* \\[commanders\\]. In spite of the efforts of Sultan Sanjar, who came to power in 510 / 1117, to confederate the states, the Battle of Qatawan \\[Katvan\\] fought against the Karakhitais in 536 / 1141 and the Oghuz rebellions of 548 / 1153 paved the road to an inevitable end. The Great Seljuq state officially ceased to exist with the death of Sultan Sanjar in 552 / 1157.","date_description_ah":"AH 429–552","date_description_ad":"AD 1038–1157"},"0a03f889-edff-5b28-a555-d7350135e797":{"name":"Deccan Sultanate","also_known_as":"","area":"Deccan, Indian subcontinent","history":"The Deccan denotes the region in southern India that was witness to a group of rulers, both local and from distant lands, who travelled to the area and founded empires there. They included soldiers, ministers, sufis, craftsmen and artists. Over time, the governors of this region broke away from the Bahmani dynasty to form five dynasties that ruled different parts of the region.  \n  \nThe first of these was the Imad Shahi Sultans of Berar, located in the far north. Their capital was in Elichpur, which was situated on the north-western plateau. Then there were the Nizam Shahi Sultans of Ahmednagar. A third and important dynasty that lay toward the east was the Qutb Shahi realm of Golconda, and to the west ruled the Adil Shahi sons of Bijapur. Located at the very centre of the plateau was the former Bahmani capital of Bidar, where the Barid Shahi Sultans reigned.  \n  \nThe Deccan was well placed geographically for long-distance Indian Ocean trade routes. It came to be identified mainly with the regions of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Goa.  \n  \nIn the 14th and 18th centuries, Islam was the most followed religion in the region. A Muslim sultanate had been established in Delhi (northern India) toward the beginning of the 13th century. Between 1323 and 1340, the Deccan was ruled by three main dynasties: the Marathi-speaking Yadavas, the Kannada-speaking Hoysala and the Telugu-speaking Kakatiyas.  \n  \nFiruz Shah Tughlaq was a ruler of the Tughluq dynasty and ruled the Sultanate of Delhi from 1351 to 1388. He started recruiting Persian-speaking men of letters, administrators, artisans and soldiers. In 1354, Firuz also commenced the building of his new capital, Firuzabad, 27 kilometres south of Gulbarga. Before the reign of the Firuz Shah Tughlaq, two new dynasties were established in the Deccan, namely, the Sangamas at Vijayanagara in the southern Deccan (1336) and the Bahmanis at Gulbarga in the north (1347). This gave rise to the renowned Indo-Islamic culture in the Deccan. However, when Amir Timur sacked Delhi in 1399, the Tughluqs had to withdraw to their chosen capital, Firuzabad.  \n  \nIn 1422, Sultan Ahmad Bahmani was succeeded by his brother, Firuz, who transferred the state’s capital from Gulbarga to Bidar, located in the heart of the Deccan plateau. While Delhi was sacked, Bidar was the new and impressive imperial city. It was known for its architecture, which was inspired by Timurid Samarqand. Between the 14th and 18th centuries, the Deccan plateau witnessed an efflorescence of art and architecture. The rulers commissioned monumental architecture using materials such as bronze, silver, stone, glass and lacquer. They also commissioned textiles made of cotton and silk.  \n  \nThe monument that resembled Timurid architecture the most was the madrasa of Mahmud Gawan (1418). Gawan was a cosmopolitan Iranian, having travelled to Anatolia, Syria, Egypt and central Asia. He reached the Bahmani capital, and after being interviewed by Sultan Ahmad II Bahmani, he was made an emir with a command of 1,000 cavalrymen. In 1499, he was also made regent for two monarchs.  \n  \nMuslims who came from Iran and central Asia to south Asia brought a cosmopolitan Persian culture with them. By the 15th century, Iran and central Asia were ruled by the Timurids and Turkmen. During this time there was cultural exchange with the Deccan Sultanates. In the southern kingdom of Vijayanagara, Turkic mercenaries were being recruited, and this gave rise to a ruling class that took to Persianate ideas and practices. Commerce and military concerns also allied Vijayanagara with the Persianate world.  \n  \nIn the 16th century, there were changes that occurred in the political climate of Iran and central Asia. The Timurid empire disintegrated after being attacked by the Safavids and Shaybanids descended from Chengiz Khan. There were Timurids who, as a consequence of these attacks, moved to northern India, and this relocation marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire (1526–1858).  \n  \nThe Bahmani state divided into smaller kingdoms: Berar, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Bidar and Golconda. Along with Vijayanagara, the five states of the Deccan Sultanates vied with each other for land and resources. These states had a great number of foreigners, including Africans, who were recruited as military slaves, as well as Arabs, Iranians and central Asians. The Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar, the Qutb Shahs of Golconda and the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, known for its syncretic religious policy, all had ties with the Safavid court.  \n  \nBy 1565, the joint armies of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda dealt a severe blow to Vijayanagara, which had already been reduced geographically and consequently lost any influence in the region. As a result, Berar and Bidar became a part of Ahmadnagar (1574) and Bijapur (1619), respectively. In 1636, a treaty was signed according to which Ahmadnagar was divided between the Mughal Empire and Bijapur. In the same year, Bijapur and Golconda accepted Mughal suzerainty, and half a century later they were incorporated into the Mughal Empire.  \n  \nBibliography  \n• Eaton, Richard M., India in the Persianate Age, UK: Penguin Books Limited, 2019.  \n• Haidar, Navina Najat and Sardar, Marika, Sultans of the South: Arts of India's Deccan Courts, 1323-1687, New York: Met Publications, 2011.  \n• Michell, George, Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.  \n• Parodi, Laura and Eaton, Richard, The Visual World of Muslim India. I.B. Tauris, London (2014).  \n  \nThis profile, compiled by Fiza Ishaq and copy-edited by Adrienne Staudohar, was added as part of the ‘Explore Islamic Art Collections’ project.","date_description_ah":"AH 734–1098","date_description_ad":"AD 1334–1687"},"0db8518d-c9f6-5aef-aca1-75a988170af8":{"name":"Taifas","also_known_as":"Dynasties of the central Maghreb, Iberian Peninsula","area":"Central Maghreb","history":"The AH 5th / AD 11th century was a time of change in the western Mediterranean. First, the ancient world lost importance in favour of Islam, which came to dominate the shores of the Mediterranean, and second, 'territorial' towns supplanted 'imperial' towns, which were no longer needed. These 'new' towns would be dominated by small dynasties ruling over political and economic areas of differing sizes.  \nThe family groups that controlled these towns were generally native to the region, and their members already full converts to Islam. These dynasties usually adopted names linked to their founders. The Maghreb was dominated by dynasties such as the Zirids (who founded several towns in central Maghreb) and the Hammadids (the Banu Hammad entered into conflict with the Zirids and chased them to Ifriqiya \\[Tunisia\\] before taking control of central Maghreb from 408 to 547 / 1018 to 1152).  \nIn the Iberian Peninsula, the 5th / 11th century saw the emergence of a group of 'taifa' (flag) kingdoms, still based around family groups, that multiplied after the fall of the caliphate. These kingdoms included the Abbadids of Seville, the Aftasids of Badajoz, the Hudids of Saragossa, the Zirids of Granada and the Hammadids of Malaga. Incessant disputes between the small Taifa kings helped the progress of the Christian Reconquista from the north and the conquest of al-Andalus by the Almoravids.","date_description_ah":"AH 4th–5th centuries","date_description_ad":"AD 10th–11th centuries"},"0dc8430e-9925-5792-b703-2201e9d5674a":{"name":"Alawids","also_known_as":"Filali Sharifs","area":"Morocco. Capitals: Fez, Meknes and Rabat","history":"The greatness of the Sa'dids was disproportionately linked to exceptionally favourable circumstances and the personalities of two sovereigns: 'Abd al-Malik and Ahmad al-Mansur.  \nOn the death of the latter (AH 1011 / AD 1603), the political and economic difficulties resurfaced, as did the unrest of the brotherhoods and the piracy that reinforced the breakdown of relations with Europe.  \nThe Alawid Sharifs, who held some power in Tafilalet, used their religious power and their skill as warriors and organisers to take control of eastern Morocco before taking Fez (1076 / 1666) and then Marrakesh (1079 / 1669).  \nMulay Isma'il, the most renowned of the sultans (1082–1139 / 1672–1727), consolidated the work of the founders of the dynasty and breathed new life into Moroccan civilisation. He fought the Turks and took the places still held by the Europeans on the Atlantic. However, this military power proved to be too costly and, after the death of Mulay Isma'il, Morocco fell into a deep political and economic crisis, which worsened the effect of the loss of revenues generated through privateering.  \nAfter 30 years of chaos, Morocco experienced a spectacular recovery under Sidi Muhammad bin 'Abdallah (1170–1204 1757–90), who regained control of the army and the tribal administration and opened the country to the Atlantic by developing Tangiers and Casablanca and founding Essaouira, as well as re-establishing diplomatic and commercial links with Europe and even setting up relations with the USA. This recovery was cut short by a plague epidemic and a great famine, with the population plunging from five to three million between 1189 and 1214 / 1776 and 1800. The country became inward-looking and its weakness left it wide open to the vast European colonial movement.","date_description_ah":"Since AH 1076","date_description_ad":"Since AD 1666"},"12372d12-9b12-553c-861f-285f6d090ef6":{"name":"Zirids","also_known_as":"","area":"Ifriqiya [Tunisia], eastern Algeria","history":"The Fatimid Amir al-Mu'izz Ibn Badis al-Ziri, the new governor of Cairo, entrusted the Emirate of Ifriqiya \\[Tunisia\\] in AH 362 / AD 973, to one of his faithful lieutenants, the dignitary Yusuf ibn Ziri al-Sanhagi, advising him to adopt a policy of benevolence towards the towns and their inhabitants.  \nThus a dynasty was born that, at its peak, reigned over a vast area that stretched to central Maghreb. The Zirids had two administrative towns, Kairouan and then Mahdia, before returning to Monastir for their eternal rest. Under the Zirids, and in particular during the reign of al-Mu'izz (406–53 / 1016–62), Ifriqiya was a prosperous land, a fact recorded by many chroniclers. However, an event fraught with consequences jeopardised Zirid power and marked the history of medieval Ifriqiya: the Hilalian invasion launched in 443 / 1052 by the Caliph of Cairo to punish his vassal al-Mu'izz for having rejected the suzerainty of the Fatimids over his kingdom. The Zirids lost control of the country and withdrew to Mahdia, from where they were expelled in 542 / 1148 when the town was taken by the Normans.  \nThe Zirids made an important contribution to Ifriqiyan art, in particular:  \n• The repair and decoration of the Great Mosque of Tunis, including the dome erected in 380 / 991 over the entrance of the prayer room, which brings together the most significant decorative elements of the time.  \n• Decorative work on the Great Mosque of Kairouan, such as the painted ceilings and the addition of a *minbar* (pulpit) with high-quality wood carvings of plant motifs.  \n• Expansions and conversions of other holy sites in places such as Monastir, Sousse and Sfax.  \n• The construction of princely residences in the royal Fatimid city of Sabra al-Mansuriya at the gateway to Kairouan.  \n• Fortifications in several of the county's coastal towns such as Monastir, where they are thought to be responsible for the al-Sayyida *ribat* (fortress), which was also their necropolis.","date_description_ah":"AH 362–542","date_description_ad":"AD 973–1148"},"13672afb-3fca-5590-9d58-2619b67ab0de":{"name":"Saadids","also_known_as":"The Sa'did Sharifs","area":"Morocco. Capital: Marrakesh","history":"Unable to counter Spanish and Portuguese incursions or the numerous Marabout divisions, the Wattasids tried to hang on to scraps of power by allying themselves with the Turks, the new rulers of central Maghreb and Ifriqiya (Tunisia).  \nThe tribes of the south appealed to the Sa'dids, who had arrived from Arabia in the AH mid-8th / AD mid-14th century proclaiming themselves to be descendents of the Prophet.  \nThe Sa'dids led a holy war after establishing themselves in the south of the country. In AH 947 / AD 1541, they took Agadir from the Portuguese, their first victory over the Europeans, which won them great prestige and enabled them to become rulers of the country by AH 950 / AD 1554.  \nIn AH 985 / AD 1578, the battle of Oued el-Makhazine (known as the Battle of Alcazarquivir or the Battle of the Three Kings) fought against the Portuguese army led by King Dom Sebastian, earned Ahmad al-Mansur (the Victorious) immense international prestige, as well as great wealth from the ransoms paid for Christian knights.  \nMorocco, which could then challenge the Turks ruling over Algeria and Tunisia, regained control of Saharan trade and built up a strengthened army and a reorganised administration. Agriculture and craft were promoted and trade with Europe grew.  \nOther than the modifications made to the Qarawiyyin, it was in Marrakesh that the Sa'dids left their mark on Moroccan architecture. Although Mulay Isma'ïl destroyed the Badi (Incomparable) Palace, inspired by Granada, the royal necropolis (Sa'dian tombs) and other buildings in the *kasbah* can still be seen.","date_description_ah":"AH 954–1027","date_description_ad":"AD 1548–1618"},"161e659e-f4e1-516b-b48e-7a31a9d4d42f":{"name":"Khurasanids","also_known_as":"","area":"Tunisia","history":"The people of Tunis turned to the Sanhajian kingdom \\[Algeria\\] of Banu Hammad in AH 445 / AD 1054 to counter the anarchy and insecurity that beset the town, disseminated by a chieftain named Abu al-Ghaith. A new page in the history of the town then began with the foundation of the first royal dynasty of Tunis, under the authority of the Hammadid emissary ‘Abd al-Haq ibn Khurasan.  \nThe peaceful relationship that the Khurasanid leaders were able to foster with the Christian West made Tunis a prosperous city, in particular as a result of trade with the Normans. But faced with the ascendancy of the Normans following their reconquest of Sicily in 463 / 1071, and the internal risk posed by hordes of nomads who travelled the countryside and threatened the towns, the Khurasanids withdrew to their city and prepared new defences. They were unable to repel the Almohad attack that ended their reign in 553 / 1159.  \nSome of Tunis’ most beautiful buildings in its northern quarters are originally attributable to the Khurasanid princes, as it was in this upper part of Tunis, within the city walls, that they established their royal city. They are still remembered today in the form of a street that bears their name and evokes the past glory of the Khurasanid principality, linking the two most important buildings of the royal city, which appears to have extended to the south of the town.  \nThe monuments that have survived to this day, bearing witness to prolific architectural activity, include:  \n• The mosque of the Qsar, built in the Fatimid tradition with a beautiful prayer room with groined vaults and a *mihrab* (prayer niche), typical of the style of that time.  \n• The Banu Khurasan Necropolis, which houses the tombs of the Khurasan dynasty and is noteworthy for its elegant domed pavilion decorated with a historical inscription.  \nThe Khurasanids are also credited with a royal palace that probably stood on the site now occupied by the Dar Husayn, which rises just a short distance from their mosque.","date_description_ah":"AH 454–522, 543–54","date_description_ad":"AD 1062–1128, 1148–59"},"1b44d492-30f4-535f-900d-c5ef2637794f":{"name":"Seljuqs (Anatolian)","also_known_as":"The Seljuqs of Rum or Rum-Seljuqs","area":"Anatolia (also known as Asia Minor, the Asian part of modern Turkey)","history":"From the early AH 5th / AD 11th century, the Oghuz \\[Oğuz\\] Turks began making incursions into Anatolia and, following the battle of Manzikert (Malazgirt, in eastern Turkey) between the Great Seljuqs and the Byzantines in 463 / 1071, the Great Seljuq Sultan Alparslan \\[Alp Arslan\\] sent several Turcoman leaders and chiefs to take Anatolia. The first Turkish emirates were soon established in Anatolia: the Saltuqids in Erzurum, the Mengüjekids in Erzincan and the Danishmendids in Sivas.  \nSüleyman Shah, who took Konya and the surrounding area, founded the Anatolian Seljuq state in 469 / 1077. Konya was briefly the capital, before being replaced by Iznik after it was taken by the Seljuqs in 472 / 1080. With the advent of the First Crusade in 489 / 1096, Iznik and the region returned to Byzantine rule and the Seljuqs re-established their capital at Konya.  \nHaving reigned solely over Konya and the surrounding area, the Seljuqs of Anatolia quickly expanded their territory. In the 7th/13th century, by installing lesser rulers in newly conquered regions, they came to control much of Anatolia, with the exception of the coastal regions of the west.  \nThe Anatolian Seljuq state had its political, economic and cultural heyday during the reign of Alaeddin Keykubad I \\['Ala' al-Din Kay Qubadh\\], 616–34/ 1220–37. The conquest of Alanya on the Mediterranean coast elevated the Seljuqs to the status of great power on the maritime trading routes, while the caravan routes that criss-crossed Anatolia enabled them to increase their power by taxing the movement of goods.  \nThe unification of Turkey was consolidated and public safety was assured in Anatolia. Starting with Konya, Kayseri and Sivas, the citadels of many Anatolian towns were fortified, and the towns themselves modernised and endowed with monuments. The Anatolian Seljuq state began to decline after the Babai rebellions during the reign of Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev II \\[Giyath al-Din Kay Khusraw, 634–44 / 1237–46) in 640 / 1242 and defeat to the Mongols at the Battle of Kösedag \\[Köse Dagh\\] in 641 / 1243. After that, Anatolia was governed by the Mongols. The death of Sultan Gıyaseddin Mesud III \\[Giyath al-Din Masud\\] in 708 / 1308 marked the official end of the Seljuq State.","date_description_ah":"AH 469-708","date_description_ad":"AD 1077-1308"},"1d206364-a251-5fda-81dc-54a09e646e5e":{"name":"Aghlabids","also_known_as":"","area":"Ifriqiya [Tunisia], Algeria, Sicily","history":"The spread of the Abbasid Empire and the re-establishment of the Umayyads in Al-Andalus and the Idrisids in Morocco, led the Abbasids to establish a local principality in North Africa to protect themselves against these rival powers surrounding their kingdom. In AH 184 / AD 800, Caliph Harun al-Rashid (169–93 / 786–809) gave Ifriqiya (Tunisia) to Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab (184–6 / 800–11), as a hereditary principality for him and his descendants to rule.  \nDespite the many revolts they faced in their early days, the Aghlabids managed to establish their rule over Ifriqiya, pacifying the country and developing trade and communication. They rebuilt cities and villages, and constructed a series of fortresses along the Tunisian coast to defend the country from attack from their rivals or from the Byzantines.  \nThe Aghlabids controlled most of the islands in the western Mediterranean, including Sicily and Malta, and their influence extended as far as southern Italy. Ifriqiya experienced great prosperity under the Aghlabids, evident in the wealth of their architectural legacy, which included the Great Mosque of Kairouan and nearby reservoirs, and the Mosque of Zaytuna. Agriculture, weaving and ceramics also prospered, making Ifriqiya the main trade link between the Middle East and North Africa, and between Al-Andalus and Sudan.  \nThe inevitable fall of the Aghlabids came about mainly because of the brutality of the ruling prince Ibrahim II and the atmosphere of frivolity and profligacy that pervaded the reign of Ziyadat Allah III (290–6 / 903–9), which led the people of Ifriqiya to reject the Aghlabids and to refuse to support them against the spread of Shi'ism. Ifriqiya fell without a fight in 296 / 909 to the armies of Abu 'Abdallah al-Sana'ani, the founder of the Fatimid Dynasty, which went on to rule Egypt, Syria and Palestine.","date_description_ah":"AH 184–296","date_description_ad":"AD 800–909"},"243087ef-42ec-5f14-920a-edc2cb221bd6":{"name":"Tulunids","also_known_as":"","area":"Egypt, Syria","history":"In AH 254 / AD 868, Ahmad ibn Tulun (r. 254–70 / 868–84) arrived in Egypt as the deputy of Bakbak, the Abbasid governor of Egypt. He remained deputy after the death of Bakbak and the installation of the prince Jarquq as the new ruler of Egypt. Ibn Tulun eventually became the governor of Egypt in his own right, enjoying almost complete independence not just in Egypt but throughout the region from Alexandria to Syria and Palestine, at a time when the Abbasids were busy suppressing revolts in southern Iraq.  \nIbn Tulun consolidated his state by organising an efficient army of some 100,000 men and a special guard made up of Turkish soldiers and black slaves. His extensive military experience and organisational skills enabled him to govern Egypt skilfully. His reign was a time of great prosperity and social harmony.  \nFor the convenience of his court, government and army, Ibn Tulun founded a new capital, al-Qata’i, next to Fustat, whose design was inspired by Samarra, the capital of the Abbasids in Iraq.  \nLike many other Turkish states in the Abbasid empire, the Tulunid state was relatively short lived. This can be explained for the most part by the absence of regional and ethnic roots in the places they settled and because their rulers depended on contingents of foreign mercenaries to keep them in power. Consequently in 292 / 904, during the reign of the fourth Tulunid ruler, the Abbasid Caliph al-Muktafi Billah sent Muhammad bin Sulayman at the head of an army to eliminate the Tulunids and recapture Egypt for the Abbasid throne.","date_description_ah":"AH 254–292","date_description_ad":"AD 868–905"},"26e98384-aec9-54a7-8d11-2fa3e84a1d52":{"name":"Umayyads of al-Andalus","also_known_as":"Spanish Umayyads","area":"Iberian peninsula, excepting Christian kingdoms of the north","history":"'Abd al-Rahman bin Hisham, grandson of the last Umayyad caliph of Damascus and survivor of his family's massacre at the hands of the Abbasids, arrived in Córdoba in AH 132 / AD 750. He founded a dynasty that broke off his allegiance with the Abbasid caliphate of Baghdad and governed al-Andalus from AH 138 to 422 / AD 756 to 1031, initially as an emirate and then, in AH 316 / AD 929, as a full caliphate ('Abd al-Rahman III). A pacific and hugely rich state, the Caliphate of Córdoba ruled the whole of al-Andalus and nurtured a brilliant civilisation that rivalled that of Baghdad and eclipsed those in the Christian West.","date_description_ah":"AH 138–422","date_description_ad":"AD 756–1031"},"275fd924-3ed6-5493-ba0f-732cc27640a1":{"name":"Timurids","also_known_as":"Timuroghullari","area":"Central Asia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Anatolia [Turkey] and India","history":"The Timurid Empire was founded by Tamerlane (Timur the Lame), the son of Turagay \\[Taraghay\\], the *bey* of the Barlas, a vassal tribe of the Chaghatays in Turkistan. Timur succeeded his father (d. AH 761 / AD 1360) and his uncle (d. 762 / 1361) as the leader of the Barlas. He increased his power in a short time and was proclaimed the 'amir' of the Chaghatay state. He founded the Timurid state, making Samarkand his capital.  \nIn a short time, Tamerlane conquered a vast region encompassing Azerbaijan, Khwarazm, Khurasan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Anatolia, India and many other lands, and stretching from India to Damascus, from the Gulf of Basra to the Lake Aral and Anatolia.  \nTamerlane defeated the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I ('Thunderbolt') at the Battle of Ankara in 804 / 1402 and struck a deadly blow against the Ottomans. Tamerlane died in 807 / 1405 on an expedition to China.  \nThe contest for the throne following Tamerlane's death shook his empire greatly. Shah Rukh (r. 811–50 / 1409–47) moved his capital to Herat, leaving his son Uluğ Bey \\[Ulugh Beg\\], a renowned astronomer, in Samarkand. In this period Samarkand and Herat were furbished with magnificent monuments and became centres of arts and sciences. Uluğ Bey succeeded his father but was assassinated in 910 / 1449. This led to a great conflict, which finally ended in 854 / 1451 when Abu Sa'id ascended the throne. The Timurid Empire reached its zenith during his reign and the reign of his son Hüseyin Baykara. The Timurid Empire fell to the in 910 / 1505.  \nTimurids constructed many monuments in cities such as Samarkand, Herat, Bukhara, Mashhad, Tabriz, Balkh and Yazd. The complexes of Uluğ Bey in Samarkand and Bukhara, the Gök Masjid in Tabriz, the mausoleum group of Shah Zinda in Samarkand, the complex of Hodja Ahmed Yasawi in Yesi and Bibi Hatun Mosque at Samarkand are among the most noteworthy monuments of the period.","date_description_ah":"AH 771-911","date_description_ad":"AD 1370-1505"},"282e09d8-c525-5fa3-b4f7-a60f2b60f56b":{"name":"Hammadids","also_known_as":"","area":"Central Maghreb from Achir to Bejaia, Constantine.","history":"In recognition of his loyalty to the Fatimids, the founder of the Zirid dynasty, Ziri ibn Manad, was authorised around AH 323 / AD 935 to found the town of Achir on the edge of the Tellian Atlas. The town's perfectly central position between the Tell and the High Plateaux made it an active capital and a place of commercial and cultural exchange.  \nTo consolidate his power over the region and to provide outlets to the sea, Buluggin, the son of Ziri, founded three more towns: Miliana, Lemdia (modern-day Médéa) and al-Djazaïr (Algiers) before taking control of Ifriqiya and Central Maghreb as a vassal to the Fatimids. The Zirids settled in Mansuria, the former capital of the Fatimids, entrusting Achir to their Hammad cousins. These latter made their desire for independence clear when they set up a rival principality whose capital, Qal'at Bani Hammad, was founded in 397 / 1007 in the Hodna mountains near to the town of Msila to the southeast of Algiers. There the Hammadids erected many large buildings whose artistry and refinement would later inspire the builders of Andalusian Spain.  \nThe war between the Zirids of Ifriqiya and the Hammadids of Central Maghreb, who were cousins, lasted until 433 / 1042, when their heirs were able to make peace and settle in their two capitals: Achir and Qal'at. The entire region then enjoyed a period of prosperity that was recognised by all contemporary writers.  \nIn 439 / 1048, the Zirids broke off their bond of vassalage with the Fatimids of Cairo, and the region became independent. This political break was compounded by a religious one facilitated by Maghreb's traditional attachment to Malekism, and the Fatimid Shi'a rite made way for Malikite Sunni orthodoxy. In retaliation, the Fatimid caliph of Cairo sent the Arab tribes of Bani Hilal and Banu Sulaym to subdue Maghreb, and they swept through the region from 441 / 1051.","date_description_ah":"AH 405–547","date_description_ad":"AD 1015–1152"},"29eaeead-971d-5ced-a2f3-a650a47f04ff":{"name":"Safavids","also_known_as":"","area":"Persia","history":"The Safavid dynasty of Turkic origin was founded by the religious leader Safi al-Din Ardabili, who lived in Ardabil from 659 to 754 / 1252 to 1334. His religious order spread quickly in Anatolia, Iran and Iraq. The dynasty was supported by Tamerlane, the Ottomans and the Aq Qoyunlus and became more powerful especially during the reign of Hodja Ali, a grandson of Ardabili. When Shaykh Junayd, a grandson of Hodja Ali, interfered with the internal affairs of the Mamluks and the Qara Qoyunlus, relations with these powers deteriorated. Around the end of the AH 9th / AD 15th century, their relations with the Aq Qoyunlus also deteriorated and this led to the dissolution of the dynasty. However, the Safavids recovered quickly and Shah Isma'il established the Safavid State in 906 / 1501, with Tabriz as the capital.  \nJoining forces with the Shi'a, the Safavids ruled over a vast area encompassing Iran, Iraq, Caucasia and east Anatolia. The Ottoman Sultan Selim I defeated Shah Isma'il at Çaldıran in 920 / 1514. Shah Isma'il was succeeded by his son Shah Tahmasp in 930 / 1524 and the capital was moved to Qazwin. After Shah Tahmasp, the Safavid State was ruled by Isma'il Mirza, Hamza Mirza, Shah Abbas, Sam Mirza, Abbas II, Shah Sulayman I, Shah Husayn, Tahmasp II and finally by Abbas III. Nadir Shah of Afshar origin brought the Safavid State to an end in 1150 / 1737 by conquering Iran.  \nThe Safavids built numerous monuments during their rule of approximately 250 years, especially in Iran. The palaces of Jihil Sütun and Hasht Bahisht, the Kiosk of Ali Kapı and the mosques of Masjid-i Shah and Shaykh Lutf Allah in Isfahan are among the major monuments of this period.","date_description_ah":"AH 907–1150","date_description_ad":"AD 1501–1737"},"2c8ab4b0-e8bd-5ae8-982b-758f178293e4":{"name":"Aq Qoyunlu","also_known_as":"","area":"Eastern Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq","history":"The Aq Qoyunlu (meaning “white sheep”) were a confederation of Turkmen nomads centered in Diyar Bakr in power from Hegira 780/AD 1378 to Hegira 908/AD 1508. They came to power in the late 14th century AD and served under Timur (AD 1370–1405). Under the leader Uzun Hasan (AD 1457–1478) they went on to rule a territory stretching from eastern Anatolia (AD 1378–1503) to western Iran Khurasan, as well as Iraq and the Persian Gulf. Ultimately, they were defeated by the Ottomans and the Safavids.  \n  \nThe first Aq Qoyunlu leader was Tur-Ali (b. Pahlavan), in power in the decade of Hegira 740–50/AD 1339–49 during a time of armed clashes with forces from Trebizond. To regain peace, in Hegira 753/AD 1352, Tur-Ali’s son Fakr-al-din Qutlu was married to the sister of Trebizond’s ruler Alexios III (AD 1349–90). Trebizond was safe from Aq Qoyunlu’s attacks until it fell to the Ottomans in Hegira 865/AD 1461. Tur-Ali died sometime between Hegira 753/AD 1352 and Hegira 764/AD 1363 and his successor Qutlu died in Hegira 791/AD 1389. Leadership was passed on to Qutlu’s son Ahmad, who was later replaced by his brother Qara Yoluz (or Yülük) Otman Beg, or Qara Otman.  \n  \nQara Otman joined the ruler Timur in Hegira 802/AD1399–1400, and participated in his campaigns in Sivas and the battle of Ankara (Hegira 804/AD 1402). In return, Timur made Qara Otman an amir and an official leader of the Aq Qoyunlu tribe. The confederation of the Aq Qoyunlu also acquired the fortress city of Amed (Diyar Bakr), which would continue to be their capital for seventy years.  \n  \nBy the time of Qara Otman’s death in Hegira 839/AD 1435, the Aq Qoyunlu, allied with the Timurids, had become an unquestioned authority in the region of Armenia and Diyar Bakr. Qara Otman had chosen Ali as his heir, however this new successor was not able to retain power in the face of his male relatives and renounced his position of leadership in Hegira 841/AD 1438–39 and went into self-imposed exile in Egypt. Ali’s brother Hamza was a powerful leader of the Aq Qoyunlu for a time, until his death in Hegira 848/AD 1444.  \n  \nIt was Uzun Hasan (Long Hasan) under whose rule the Aq Qoyunlu were reunified and gained strength. In Hegira 862/AD 1458, he raided Georgia and came to be known as ghazi (“fighter for the faith”), and renewed the Aq Qoyulu’s friendship with the house of Trebizond. He also married the Komnenian princess Theodora, forming an alliance that grew in strength in the face of threat from the Ottomans. However, the Ottomans were superior in weaponry and strength. Due to this military imbalance, Uzun Hasan refrained from going to war with them. In the summer of Hegira 873/AD 1468, Uzun Hasan defeated the Qara Qoyunlu and conquered Azerbaijan.  \n  \nThe Timurid ruler Abu Sa’id had been ruling Herat since Hegira 855/AD 1451 when he was taken prisoner and put to death by Uzun Hasan. Now that his adversaries had been eliminated, Uzun Hasan marched to western Iran and annexed the Iranian provinces up to Khorasan and transferred his government to Tabriz. However, he failed to assert his rule over the Timurids of Khorasan. In late Hegira 875/early AD 1471, Uzun Hasan moved his garrison from Khorasan to the western frontier, which led to friendly relations between Tabriz and Herat. However, in Qaraman his interests conflicted with those of the Ottomans and Mamluks.  \n  \nUzun Hasan died on the eve of Sawwal, Hegira 882/AD 5–6 January 1478. Before his death he reacted to the defiance of his son Ogurlu Mohammad by designating Ogurlu’s brother Kalil as his heir. However, Kalil was soon killed in Rabiʿa II, Hegira 883/AD July 1478 in an armed struggle with his fourteen-year-old brother Ya’qub and his supporters, near Koy. Ya’qub came to power and his reign lasted for a period of twelve years. He died mysteriously on I1 Safar AH 896/AD 24 December 1491. During his reign he had convinced Kalil’s supporters to come to his side. However, Ya’qub had no interest in the religious sentiments of the masses and their practices, alienating large groups of his followers, particularly the Turkmans. As a consequence of Ya’qub’s death, the Aq Qoyunlu were engaged in constant power struggles.  \n  \nYa’qub’s eight-year-old son Baysongor was crowned in Hegira 896/AD 1491 under the guidance of Ṣufi Kalil Beg Mawsellu. However, he was expelled from Tabriz in Rajab, Hegira 897/AD May 1492 by his cousin Rostam (descended from Maqṣūd, descendent of Uzun Ḥasan), who was supported by the Pornak and Qajar tribes. Baysongor was killed in Hegira 898/AD 1493. Rostam attempted to create a reconciliation between the religious establishment and the popular Sufi orders.  \n  \nIn Hegira 902/AD 1497, Rostam was ousted by his cousin Govde (“dwarf”) Aḥmad (b. Ogurlu Moḥammad), who had returned from his exile in Ottoman territory. Ahmad’s politics brought about a revolt by the amirs, who defeated and killed him on Rabīʿa II, Hegira 903/AD December 1497. With Ahmad’s death, the Aq Qoyunlu empire further disintegrated. The last Aq Qoyunlu sultan was Morad (b. Yaʿqub), who took help from Ottoman troops to gain the throne, but he was defeated and killed by Esma’il Qizilbash’s troops. The last of the surviving Aq Qoyunlu tribes were then absorbed into other groups, such as the Qizilbash.  \n  \nThis profile, compiled by Fiza Ishaq and copy-edited by Rachel Parish was added as part of the ‘Explore Islamic Art Collections’ project.","date_description_ah":"779 – 908","date_description_ad":"1378 – 1503"},"2cf9d6c6-0226-5c5d-8710-c052cc2ac4c7":{"name":"Al-Busaid","also_known_as":"","area":"Oman, Zanzibar","history":"The Al Busaid dynasty, also known as the House of Al Said, was a line of rulers that included the Sultanate of Oman (1744-1856), the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman (1856-1970) and the Sultanate of Zanzibar (1856-1964). Founded by Ahmad bin Said al- Busaidi, ruler of Oman and the east African territories, the Al Busaid dynasty governed the region for 250 years. During Ahmad bin Said al- Busaidi’s 39-year reign, the Omani navy was a formidable presence in the Indian Ocean, second only to the British navy. It very easily expelled the Persian forces from the region while protecting Ottoman ships in the Gulf of Oman and the Indian Ocean.  \n  \nThe modern history of Oman has witnessed two different systems of governance: the *imama* system and the sultanate system. An *imamah* (imamate) can refer to the office of the imam or to his spiritual leadership. Imams are spiritual leaders who may exercise control over a particular region. To receive the *imamah*, a ruler has to be elected.  \n  \nImam Ahmed ibn Said (1741-1783) established the sultanate system during his rule. It was the first time that a separation was established between the two political systems. He saved Oman from a civil war, restored it to its regional place in the Afro-Asian and maritime system and made a decisive contribution to the shaping of Oman’s modern history - a history of the sultanate as opposed to the *imama* system. In 1741, he received the *imamah*. Ahmed was remarkable for his firm attitude towards colonial hegemony. This became apparent when he barred the East India Company from setting up a branch in Muscat. The long reign of Ahmed ibn Said (about 39 years) also witnessed changes and new tendencies in Omani society. His reign not only forged a new vision of a political system but also helped lay the foundation of a new political, national and cultural identity.  \n  \nAhmed ibn Said died in 1778 and was succeeded by his son, Said bin Ahmed, a pious leader who divided duties among palace officials along religious, administrative and military lines. Said bin Ahmed kept his *imamah* and moved to al-Rustaq, where he remained until his death in 1811. In 1783, his son, Hamad bin Said, decided to move his court to the coastal city of Muscat and make the city his political capital. He also took the title of sultan, signalling his power.  \n  \nHamad bin Said was a capable ruler who did much for the country in his eight-year reign. He facilitated reform policy in the initial stages of the transition but died suddenly in 1792. On his death, Oman’s political system was divided into three main parts: Said bin Ahmed, the official imam, stayed in al-Rustaq; Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmed (who succeeded Hamad ibn Said) retained Muscat as his base of power; and finally, Sayf, Ahmed ibn Sa’id’s third son, took the city of Sohar (located near Hormuz) as his centre of power. Thus in 1793, and with the collaboration of the British, the Islamic state of Oman, which had been a unified nation, was now fragmented into three separate polities.  \n  \nAfter his accession to the throne in 1792, Sayyid Sultan ibn Ahmed (1792-1804) used his power and intellect to restore Muscat to the place it was under the rule of his father Ahmed. Oman became an ally of France in the region east of Africa and the Indian Ocean, especially as Britain was beginning to appear a hazard to Oman, India and all the countries of the Gulf.  \n  \nSayyid Said bin Sultan, aged 17, came to power in 1806 on his father’s death and remained ruler for half a century until his death in 1856. He was the first sayyid of Oman, received the title of sultan and was also called ‘the Great’. Oman was established as a major commercial and maritime power in the Indian Ocean during his reign. He was succeeded by Thuwaini bin Said al-Said, who was the third son of Said bin Sultan and ruled from 1856-1866.  \n  \nBetween 1866 and 1970, Oman experienced the reign of six other rulers. Finally, from 1970 to 2020, Oman was ruled by Sultan Qaboos, who modernized the region. The current heir to the throne since 2020 is Sultan Haitham bin Tariq.  \n  \nBibliography  \n• Ghubash, Hussein, Oman - The Islamic Democratic Tradition, London and New York: Routledge, 2006.  \n• Jones, Jeremy and Ridout, Nicholas, A History of Modern Oman, Cambridge (UK) and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016.  \n  \nThis profile, compiled by Fiza Ishaq and copy-edited by Adrienne Staudohar, was added as part of the ‘Explore Islamic Art Collections’ project.","date_description_ah":"AH 1167–present","date_description_ad":"AD 1754–present"},"2fc256bd-66da-5cb4-b5ca-43283018a1db":{"name":"Atabegs","also_known_as":"","area":"North Syria, north Mesopotamia [Iraq], southeastern Anatolia [Turkey]","history":"*Atabeg*s or *atabey*s were high-level state officials entrusted with the education of the Great Seljuq princes. They also had authority in military and administrative matters.  \nThe atabegs took advantage of the contest for the throne among the sons of the Great Seljuq Sultan Melikşah \\[Maliq Shah\\] when he died in AH 485 / AD 1092 and proclaimed their independence. Among the most noteworthy atabeg states were the Atabegs of Damascus, the Zangids (Atabegs of Mosul), Ildenizids \\[Eldigüzids or Ildegizids\\], Salghurids and Atabegs of Erbil.  \nThe Atabegs of Damascus were also known as the Tuğtekinler \\[Tughtiginids\\] or Börids \\[Burids\\]. This dynasty was founded by Tuğtekin \\[Tughtigin\\], who was appointed as the atabeg for the son of Maliq Duqaq, son of Tutush who was the brother of Sultan Melikşah, in 497 / 1104, following the fall of the Seljuqs of Syria. They fell to Nur al-Din Mahmud, the Atabeg of Aleppo, in 548 / 1154.  \nThe Zangids are also known as the Atabegs of Mosul. This dynasty was founded by 'Imad al-Din Zangi, one of the commanders of the Great Seljuq Sultan Melikşah, in 520 / 1127 in Mosul. They fell in 619 / 1223 thanks to constant conflict with the Ayyubids.  \nThe dynasty of the Ildenizids, also known as the Atabegs of Azerbaijan, was founded in 535 / 1141 by Ildeniz as vassal to the Seljuqs of Iraq. They fell to the Khwarazm Shahs in 625 / 1228.  \nThe Salghurid Atabeg Dynasty was founded in 541 / 1147 by the Salghur branch of the Oghuz Turks, led by Atabeg Sunqur. They fell to the Mongolians in 682 / 1284.  \nThe Atabegs of Erbil were also known as Begtiginliler \\[Begtiginids\\] and their dynasty was founded in the mid 12th century by Zayn al-Din 'Ali Küçük bin Begtigin in southeastern Anatolia and northern Iraq. They came under Abbasid rule in 629 / 1232.","date_description_ah":"AH 485–683","date_description_ad":"AD 1092–1284"},"31ce1f02-7f90-58b4-be58-74a7ce5f450b":{"name":"House of Muhammad Ali","also_known_as":"","area":"Egypt and the Sudan","history":"Egypt remained one of the provinces under the Ottoman Empire for three centuries (AH 923–1220 / AD 1517–1805). However, the French Expedition to Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1213 / 1798 marked the end of direct Ottoman rule in Egypt.  \nIn 1218 / 1803 Muhammad Ali, the military leader of the Albanian Ottoman army, by order of the Ottoman sultan, succeeded in evacuating the French army from Egypt, and was appointed as ruler of the country by a decree from the Ottoman Sultan. The right of succession was granted to his progeny by another decree in 1257 / 1841. Thus Egypt became an independent state under the *wali* (governor) Muhammad Ali.  \nA great reform and development movement was initiated by the new ruler. Canals were dug, bridges restored, schools established, and factories of all kinds spread all over the country. A large number of mosques, *sabils* (drinking fountains) and palaces were constructed by foreign architects and workers, which allowed new elements to appear in architecture and decoration. Buildings were erected from wood and brick instead of stone, and the traditional fine marble mosaics were replaced by white marble and alabaster; *mashrabiyyas* (screens) were replaced by modern windows. Decorations based on flowers, grape clusters and landscape paintings in the Rococo style appeared. Such artistic elements, brought over from Europe by Italian artists, were common in Turkey in the 12th / 18th centuries. The Turkish artists, however, adapted this new style to suit local taste and the best Islamic traditions.  \nThe line of rulers succeeding Muhammad 'Ali included 'Abbas I (1264–70 / 1848–54), Sa'id (1270–80 / 1854–63), who initiated the digging of the Suez Canal, and Isma'il (r. 1280–96 / 1863–79 d. 1312 / 1895), who undertook the architectural development of Cairo, on the occasion of the Suez Canal inauguration, to make it an image of Paris, with gardens such as al-Azbakiyya and an opera house. He built Abdeen Palace to which he moved the seat of rule from the Citadel.  \nThe last of this dynasty's kings was Faruq I (1355–71 / 1936–52), a great-grandson of Muhammad 'Ali, whose deposition from the throne in 1371 / 1952 in the 23 July Revolution brought to an end the reign of this house.","date_description_ah":"AH 1220–1371","date_description_ad":"AD 1805–1952"},"3a5bd0e8-5c73-5d1a-8242-521f5d28c002":{"name":"Mudéjar period","also_known_as":"","area":"Iberian Peninsula","history":"Mudéjar art, the art of the Muslims who remained in the Iberian Peninsula after the Christian Reconquista (the Mudéjars), can be described as the integration of Islamic architectural and artistic forms with Christian art and crafts. Rather than a style *per se*, it is the expression of a trend towards Islamic forms. This 'mudéjarism' emerged as the Reconquista moved south and contact with the Islamic world became closer.  \nThe reason for this assimilation was the fascination the Muslim world exerted on the Christian aristocracy (and on Christian artists and artisans); the extraordinary luxury that Muslim rulers enjoyed was in complete contrast to the sober conditions in which Christian noblemen lived.  \nThe origins of this artistic association go back to the 12th century, but it was with the conquest of Córdoba (1236) and Seville (1248) that it became widespread, culminating 150 years later with the conquest of Granada and an outpouring of 'mudéjarism' in civil and religious architecture. Alfonso XI and Pedro I of Castile (14th century), Pedro de Luna (Antipope Benedict XIII, late 14th–early 15th centuries), the Catholic Kings (15th century) and D. Manuel I of Portugal (late 15th–early 16th centuries) were the driving forces in this centuries-long process.  \nUnder the Christians, prestigious Mudéjar artists, occasionally organised into itinerant groups, worked for the élite, and the most exquisite Mudéjar pieces were exported en masse. Mudéjar artisans also formed renowned guilds of carpenters, bricklayers, saddlers and potters, among other trades.  \nPolitical and aesthetic reasons were at the root of the decline of Mudéjar art in the 16th century. On one hand, the Counter-Reformation made all non-Christians undesirable (it was the time of the Inquisition and of the last expulsions of Muslims and Jews), and on the other, the models of the Italian Renaissance were beginning to appear. However, this did not prevent a popular Mudéjar style from surviving until the advent of Baroque.","date_description_ah":"AH 6–8th centuries","date_description_ad":"AD 12th–14th centuries"},"3eb686ce-9607-530b-b1a3-688cf19fe53a":{"name":"Zangids","also_known_as":"The Atabegs of Mosul","area":"Jazira, Syria","history":"The line of the Zangid Atabegs, also known as the Atabegs of Mosul, was founded in AH 521 / AD 1127 by Imameddin Zangi (‘Imad al-Din Zangi), a general of the Great Seljuq Sultan Melikşah I (Malik Shah) who governed Mosul (Iraq) and Syria. Mahmud, the Seljuq leader in Iraq, entrusted the education of his sons to Imameddin Zangi when Zangi became governor of Mosul in 521 / 1127. Zangi intended to found a great state. He first took Harran, Nusaybin and Aleppo, and further increased his power after invading Diyarbakır (Diyar Bakr) and Urfa (ancient Edessa). After the death of Imameddin Zangi in 541 / 1146, his son Seyfeddin Gazi (Sayf al-Din Ghazi) took over Mosul and his other son Nureddin (Nur al-Din), took charge of Syria.  \nNureddin Zangi wiped out the Fatimids in 567 / 1171 through his Ayyubid general Salah al-Din (Saladin) and extended his territory. He died in 569 / 1174. Seyfeddin Gazi, the governor of Mosul, died in 544 / 1148 and was succeeded by Kutbeddin Mevdud (Qutb al-Din Mawdud), who continued to reign until 565 / 1170.  \nThe disputes over succession that followed the deaths of Nureddin Zangi and Kutbeddin Mevdud, and the conflicts that arose with the Ayyubid dynasty founded by Salah al-Din in 569 / 1174, resulted in the decline of the Zangids and their eventual fall in 620 / 1223.  \nThe heyday of the Zangids was under Nureddin Zangi, governor of Syria. He had several castles in Syrian towns restored and built many mosques, caravanserais, *madrasas* (schools) and *imarets* (pious foundations). The Great Mosque of Mosul, the Nuriyya *madrasa*, Dar al-Hadith and the Maristan (hospital) of Damascus are some of the most important monuments from the period.","date_description_ah":"AH 521–620","date_description_ad":"AD 1127–1223"},"3f91573e-41a6-541f-92a9-3ea587133f9a":{"name":"Afsharid","also_known_as":"","area":"","history":"The Afsharid Dynasty (Hegira 1148 / AD 1736–Hegira 1210 / AD 1796), was founded by Nader Shah Afsar (AD 1736–1747), born in Hegira 1100 / AD 1688 in the Qirqlu branch of the Afsars, located in the Darra-gaz region of northern Mashhad. He came to power by raiding and plundering neighboring areas. He successfully abolished the rule of the Safavid Dynasty until 1796, when the kingdom was invaded by the Qajars (AD 1789–1925). Nader Shah’s rule seemed to be a re-establishment of the erstwhile Iranian empire. He ruled the province of Khorasan and added to the prestige of Mashhad. After his death, the Afsharid state was limited to Iranian Khorasan.  \n  \nUnder the trifling rule of Shah Tahmasp II (AD 1729–1732), the Persians were primarily absorbed by dealing with threats from Afghanistan. In the midst of this chaos, Nader Shah took the opportunity to establish himself as a military genius. In 1726, Nader Shah aided Tahmasp II by becoming his chief ally and supporter. It was in this time that Nader Shah, with Tahmasp II’s support, captured Mashhad. In the same year Nader Shah won three major battles, recaptured Isfahan and restored control of the Safavid dynasty. By 1730, he had wrested control of most of north-western Iran, which had been occupied by the Ottomans. Nader Shah, it is said, purged the Persian empire of its internal and foreign adversaries, thus restoring it.  \n  \nIn 1736, Nader Shah deposed the infant Safavid ruler with his renowned victories and support from major chiefs and notables from across the empire. The Persian Empire was now ruled by Nader Shah, who established the Afsharid Dynasty. The dynasty came to be known by this title after the Turcoman Afshar tribe to which Nader Shah belonged.  \n  \nIn 1738 Nader Shah campaigned against the Afghans in the Kandahar region. At this point, he decided to invade Mughal India, a neighbour of the Afghans. His aim was to loot the Mughal treasury, so in 1739 he entered Delhi, the Mughal capital. Here he massacred approximately 20,000 to 30,000 people and claimed the loot for himself. In 1740, he invaded Transoxiana (modern-day Uzbekistan and Tajikistan) and moved the Persian capital from Isfahan to Mashhad so it would be closer to Central Asia. Nader Shah began to be viewed as a conqueror similar to his predecessor Timur (AD 1370–1405). He became known for the campaigns he led in Western Iran, Afghanistan, India and Central Asia. Afsharid refers to the history of Khorasan from the period of the reign of Nader Shah to his death and the subsequent accession of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar. Finally, Nader Shah was assassinated on 11 Jomada II Hegira 116 / AD 20 June 1747.  \n  \nAfter Nader Shah’s death, two of his nephews vied for the throne, but were deposed by relatives or dissatisfied followers. The last ruler of the Afsharid dynasty was Nader Shah’s grandson Shahrokh Shah, who became Shah in 1749 and was ousted in the same year. However, he ascended the throne one more time, now with only Khorasan under his rule. Throughout the rest of the Persian Empire tribes were fighting each other for power and for the title of Shah. These included the Kurdish Zand tribe, originally from west-central Iran, and the Turkic Qajar tribe from the north-western regions of the empire. By 1751, the Zand tribe had gained the upper hand under the rulership of Karim Khan, who was known for his generosity and benevolence. Under Khan’s twenty-year rule, the Persian Empire knew a period of peace after decades of war. However, Khan’s death in 1779 ended this peaceful period. His death resulted in a civil war between various tribes as well as members of the Zand tribe.  \n  \nIn 1796, the Afsharid dynasty was defeated by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar (AD 1789–17 June 1797) who went on to found a native Iranian empire.  \n  \nThis profile, compiled by Fiza Ishaq and copy-edited by Rachel Parish was added as part of the ‘Explore Islamic Art Collections’ project.","date_description_ah":"1148 - 1210","date_description_ad":"1736-1796"},"4ff94404-b748-5d95-93e3-648f784dd9ba":{"name":"Qing","also_known_as":"","area":"China, Taiwan, Tiber and Mongolia, as well as parts of central Asia","history":"The Qing dynasty was the last of the imperial dynasties of China. It was also the longest reigning dynasty, spanning the period from 1644 to 1912, and its rulers were renowned for their military prowess. The dynasty was also known as the Manchu dynasty as it was established by a Manchu clan (House of Aisin-Gioro), and half the royal officials were Manchu.  \n  \nThe foundations of the Qing dynasty were laid when the Manchu people of northern China united against the Ming dynasty. Another group that went against the Ming dynasty was the Jurchen or the eastern barbarians. The group consisted of different tribes who inhabited the northeastern frontiers of the Ming empire. The Jurchen rose to power in the 1580s, led by a man named Nurhaci (also known as Nurgaci, 1559–1626), a Ming vassal who went on to unite all the Manchu clans. By 1583, after the death of his father and grandfather, Nurhaci emerged at 24 years old as the pre-eminent power in the region.  \n  \nUnlike the forebears of the Jurchen and other invaders and conquerors, Nurhaci’s tribesmen were not nomads. Their economy was dependent on agriculture, hunting and trade. In 1616, Nurhaci declared himself khan (“king”) of the Aisin dynasty. In a public document, he held the Ming rulers responsible for the deaths of his father and grandfather, calling them out for their abuse of power. The Ming dynasty responded by sending out a large number of militants against him, but this expeditionary force was defeated by a pan-Jurchen confederation led by Nurhaci.  \n  \nNurhaci died in 1626, leaving his eighth son and heir, Hong Taiji (also known as Huang Taiji, 1626–43). Hong Taiji came to power as the descendent of his paternal grandfather, Giocangga. In 1616, Hong Taiji began driving out the Ming military from the Liaodong Peninsula. In 1629, he breached the Great Wall and occupied four Chinese cities: Luanzhou, Qian’an, Zunhua and Yongping. By 1636, he had established a functional government and went on to declare the formation of the “Great Qing” dynasty. Hong Taiji died on 21 September 1643, leaving behind a temporary power vacuum. After some negotiation it was decided that the emperor’s brother Dorgon (1612–50), together with the general named Jirgalang (1599–1655) would act as co-regents for Hong Taiji’s five-year-old son, Fulin. Fulin acceded to the throne in 1643 as the Shunzhi (“compliant rule”) emperor.  \n  \nFrom the 1750s to 1790s, the Qianlong emperor extended Qing control into the interior territories of Asia. At its height, the empire ruled over almost all of today’s mainland China, including Hainan, Taiwan, Mongolia, parts of Manchuria and northwest China. The Qing rulers maintained their Manchu custom and followed Tibetan Buddhism. The dynasty reached its peak in the 18th century but gradually deteriorated due to challenges from abroad, revolts within the kingdom, population growth, a disordered economy and corruption. The Qing dynasty was finally overthrown with the formation of the Republic of China in 1912.  \n  \nBibliography  \n• Smith, Richard J., The Qing Dynasty and Traditional Chinese Culture, Washington, DC: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2015.  \n  \nThis profile, compiled by Fiza Ishaq and copy-edited by Adrienne Staudohar, was added as part of the ‘Explore Islamic Art Collections’ project.","date_description_ah":"AH 1045–1330","date_description_ad":"AD 1636–1912"},"537cc8f3-d885-58da-9d9f-1aae10f9bbba":{"name":"Siculo–Norman period","also_known_as":"","area":"Italy, Sicily","history":"The island of Sicily, which formed part of the Byzantine Empire, experienced more than a century of raids, military expeditions and sieges of its most important cities (Palermo, Siracusa) before coming under predominantly Muslim control in 902. In 948, a Sicilian emirate under the command of al-Hasan Ibn ‘Ali Ibn Abi al-Husayn al-Kalbi, a ruler appointed by the Fatimid dynasty, was created. The Kalbite dynasty that followed established rules regarding the coexistence of Christians and Muslims, reorganised territorial administration through the division and redistribution of large estates, and promoted building activity and artistic production. Christians were allowed to practise their religion discreetly and without ostentation. They were also able to preserve their properties, although these were subject to a special patrimony tax.  \n  \nIn 1061, two Norman military leaders, Ruggero and Roberto il Guiscardo, took advantage of the internal fight between the Muslim rulers of Agrigento (Ibn al-Hawwas) and Catania (Ibn al Thumma), starting the reconquest of Sicily and its reversion to Christianity. Count Ruggero obtained the apostolic legateship (1098) from Pope Urban II, allowing Ruggero’s descendants to enjoy full political powers and the right to nominate bishops and archbishops in Sicily.  \n  \nOn 25 December 1130, in Palermo Cathedral, Ruggero’s son Ruggero II assumed the titles of King of Sicily, Duke of Apulia and Prince of Capua. Ruggero II undertook a policy of expansion in North Africa, conquering Jerba, Mahdia, Sfax and Sousse. After successful expeditions on the Adriatic coast of the Balkans, Ruggero II also prevented the Byzantine Empire from restoring its authority in Sicily and Western Europe in general. Sicily became a powerful, independent kingdom. A regime of tolerance was established by Ruggero II in Sicily; Muslims were free to gather in small, isolated communities, preserving their cultural habits and practising their religion in local mosques.  \n  \nThe magnificence of the Siculo-Norman art and architecture – the result of ethnic, religious and cultural integration among Muslims, Greeks and Normans – is particularly evident in the city of Palermo and was fully achieved at the time of King Guglielmo II, who ruled until 1189.  \n  \nAfter the extinction of the male hereditary line from King Ruggero II, southern Italy and Sicily were occupied by Enrico VI of Hohenstaufen, son of Federico Barbarossa, the emperor and king of Germany. His wife, Costanza d’Altavilla, daughter of Ruggero II, gave birth in 1194 to Federico II, who thus inherited the crowns of Sicily and the Holy Roman Empire. The refined and cultured Federico II was deeply influenced by Islamic culture despite facing insurrections of the Muslim enclaves of the island. In 1246, the last Muslim settlements were demolished, and the Muslim rebels were deported to Lucera, in Apulia.  \n  \nThis profile, compiled by Pier Paolo Racioppi and copy-edited by Adrienne Staudohar, was added as part of the ‘Explore Islamic Art Collections’ project.","date_description_ah":"","date_description_ad":""},"6e65510a-5080-5ab5-9beb-f1fdf4b4df93":{"name":"Rustamids","also_known_as":"","area":"Central Maghreb from Tahert to Tlemcen, then Sédrata and M’zab.","history":"The egalitarian schism represented by Kharijism was for the people of Maghreb the political arm that allowed them to establish their opposition to Sunni orthodoxy and Arab despotism. The occupying forces showed a genuine contempt for new converts, obliging them to pay taxes normally only payable by infidels (*kharadj* and *djizia*, land and poll taxes) for example.  \nIn AH 143 / AD 761, 'Abd al-Rahman Ibn Rustam (the founder of the Rustamid dynasty) established the Kharijite imamate of Tahert near to modern-day Tiaret, to the southwest of Algiers. At the same time, Abu Qurra was creating a Kharijite kingdom in the area around Tlemcen. By 154 / 771, these two kingdoms held Central Maghreb and Ifriqiya. Shortly afterwards, an Alid named Idris established another dissident emirate, first in Fez and then Tlemcen.  \nThe Abbasid dynasty took 15 years to quell the revolt, without ever managing to regain control of the whole of Maghreb. The kingdom of Tahert grew throughout the 3rd / 9th century following the principles of the Ibadite doctrine of Kharijism (egalitarian puritanism, theocratic government and religious zeal), which did not prevent the birth of a refined civilisation enriched by the numerous new arrivals from the East, who had been attracted by the religious, intellectual and commercial atmosphere of the Rustamid capital. The Ibadites were driven out in 296 / 909 with the succession of a new dynasty in Maghreb: the Fatimids. They found refuge in the Sahara, and the Rustamid's second capital at Sédrata (Isedraten), near to modern-day Ouargla, produced a wealth of decorative styles inspired by a range of different artistic influences.  \nAgain persecuted, in 433 / 1042 the Ibadites established five towns at the bottom of the M'zab valley 600 kilometres south of Algiers, where the descendants of the Mozabites still live today, perpetuating their doctrine and using all of their ingenuity to survive in a hostile environment.","date_description_ah":"AH 143–466","date_description_ad":"AD 761–1074"},"82bf75f6-c980-5811-8489-7dca1909cc10":{"name":"Ghurid Sultanate","also_known_as":"","area":"Ghur, Afghanistan, Khorasan, India","history":"The mountainous region named Ghur, what today is known as west-central Afghanistan, was located to the east and south-east of current day Herat and the south of Gharchistan and Guzgan. However, as the entire region could not be controlled by any one political power, Ghur came to be a fragmented land of fortresses. The landscape consisted of several fortified palaces and towers scattered across the region for the protection of its inhabitants. Each fortress exercised authority over its surrounding lands and the subjects living there. Patriarchal traditions in these areas were dominant and had deep roots. It was under the rule of Qutb al-Din Muhammad (d. AD 1146–7) that a part of Ghur was designated the capital, Firuzkuh.  \n  \nDuring the Umayyad period (AD 661–750), several attempts were made to bring Ghur under Muslim rule and consequent Islamic cultural influence; however, this did not come to fruition. Over the course of the 10th and 11th centuries AD, it was an ascetic and pietistic form of Sunni Islam, a movement from Khurasan well-represented in Nishapur known as Karramiyya, that was established in Ghur. The Shansabanid Maliks, and later in the 12th century AD the two brothers Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad and Mu’izz al-Din Muhammad, began to follow Karramiyya until they ultimately opted for the mainstream Shafi’i and Hanafi law schools of Sunni Islam.  \n  \nIn the year Higira 545/AD 1150, Ala’ al-Din Husayn, a chief of the Shansabanid clan of Ghur, ransacked Ghazni and destroyed its monuments as well as the tombs of its rulers. Ghazni had been the capital of the sultanate subjugating the eastern Islamic world for a century and a half. This bloodshed was meant to avenge the death of Ala’ al-Din Husayn’s two brothers, which had been ordered by the Ghaznavid sultan. This invasion resulted in the unexpected entry of the Ghurid maliks (chiefs) onto the political stage. Over the following years, the people of Ghur embraced Islam and three main regions of the valley emerged: Firuzkuh (the capital of the Shansabanid clan), Jam and Chisht.  \n  \nThe Ghurids were also responsible for establishing the foundations of Muslim rule in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. The Shansabanid Ghurs were positioned between the Ghaznavids in the east and the Seljuqs of Iran in the west. As the Seljuqs of Iran grew weaker and more vulnerable, the Ghurs gained power and became predominate rulers in the region. In the span of five decades, the Ghurid chiefs gained control of and reconfigured politics in the region so that their rule encompassed territories of eastern Iran and Bengal, Ghazni and the Hindukush with the Indus Valley and Gangetic plain.  \n  \nThe Ghurids rose as an independent power, and after a period internal conflict, the Ghurid Sultanate was under the rule of Sultan Ghiyath al-Din b. Sam (r. AD 1163⁠–⁠1203), a nephew of Ala’ al-Din. The highpoint of Ghurid power was attained during the reign of the brothers Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam (r. Higira 558–99/AD 1163–1203) and Mu’izz al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam (r. Higira 569–602/AD 1173–1206). The two functioned together in unity, with Ghiyath al-Din supervising the westward expansion of the Shansabanid sultanate and Mu’izz al-Din supervising eastward expansion.  \n  \nThe Ghurid reign grew rapidly and to a remarkable scale until the death of Ghiyath al-Din in AD 1203 and the assassination of Mu’izz al-Din in AD 1206. In AD 1175 Ghazna and Herat were recaptured. By Higira 596/AD 1200, the Ghurid empire stretched all the way to the western Khorasan city of Nishapur. In Higira 582/AD 1186 the Ghurid empire had reached Lahore, which was under the reign of the Ghaznavids when it was captured and made part of the Ghurid sultanate. The Ghurid armies also encountered the northern Indian Rajputs. In Higira 588/AD 1192 they formed an alliance with the Chauhans of Shakambari at Tara’in (Taraori) in Haryana. This Ghurid victory was a means to their conquest of northern India.  \n  \nThe Ghurid sultanate came to an end with the death of Mu’izz al-Din as the Khwarazmshahs of Central Asia conquered the western Ghurid territories and absorbed them into their own domains. In the east the Turkish slaves who worked as generals in the army gained power and became an independent sultanate based in Delhi.  \n  \nThis profile, compiled by Fiza Ishaq and copy-edited by Rachel Parish was added as part of the ‘Explore Islamic Art Collections’ project.","date_description_ah":"441 – 611","date_description_ad":"1050 – 1215"},"8bbd89fd-a70d-5448-86d7-e9dc5a7ae307":{"name":"Almoravids","also_known_as":"al-Murabitun","area":"Northwest Africa and Spain. Capital: Marrakesh","history":"The fragmentation of the Idrisid kingdom led to more than half a century of unrest and confusion in Morocco, without however undermining the economic prosperity of the country.  \nIt was during this period that the Almoravids (al-Murabitun: the people of the fortresses) arrived. Members of the Lemtuna tribe, nomadic warriors and masters of the caravan routes of the South, the Almoravids were driven by reformist religious zeal and the search for fertile lands. They took Sijilmassa (AH 445 / AD 1054) and Taroudant (AH 448 / AD 1057) and set up Morocco's first Berber dynasty with a new capital at Marrakesh, which they founded in AH 453 / AD 1062 before taking Fez in AH 455 / AD 1064. Having unified Morocco, they annexed the Saharan territories as far as the Senegal River and al-Andalus, of which they made Seville the capital.  \nInitially impervious to Andalusian civilisation, completely different from their simple trce was initially intellectual (poetry and science), and then spread to Almoravid buildings through the architecturaditions, the Almoravids ended up absorbed in this culture of splendour and sophistication. The Andalusian influence of Córdoba and Seville (Qarawiyyin, mosques of Tlemcen and Algiers).","date_description_ah":"AH 447–541","date_description_ad":"AD 1056–1147"},"9596d88c-4ee2-559b-a8ed-57b2802b4338":{"name":"Ghaznavid","also_known_as":"","area":"Ghazni (Afghanistan), western Persia (most of Iran), south central Asia (parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan), Punjab and Sind (north-west India), Baluchistan (Pakistan)","history":"The Ghaznavid dynasty was a Turkish dynasty of slave origin, and comprised two military families that founded the Simjurids and the Ghaznavids. The Ghaznavid dynasty was founded by Sebuktigin in 977–997 after the death of his father-in-law, Alp Tigin. He was an official in the Samanid dynasty, which extended from Balkh to north of Hindu Kush in Greater Khurasan. They were established in the eastern part of Iran at a time when dynasties such as the Samanids, the Afrighid, the Khwarizmshahs, the Ziyarids and the Biiyids were deteriorating or in decline. It was during the reign of Sebuktigin and his son Mahmud that the Ghaznavid dynasty flourished. At the time of Mahmud’s death in 1030, the empire encompassed the extensive territories of the eastern Islamic world. These included Iran, Afghanistan, much of the historical region of Transoxiana and the north-west Indian subcontinent from 977 to 1186.  \n  \nThe Turkish Ghaznavids were used to spending life on the central Asian steppes. Upon becoming rulers in a Persianate world they had to familiarise themselves with the Persian official bureaucracy and Persian ways of administration, military organisation and personal life. Tribes such as the Khalaj of Zamindawar, whose customs, language and external appearance were Turkish, survived for several centuries before being subdued by Sebuktigin and included in his army. They were an essential component in the armies of the Ghaznavids, Ghurids and Khwarizmshahs and were the ancestors of the Lodi Kings of Delhi (1451-1526). Sebuktigin died in 997 and left his son Ismail as his successor, but this lasted for a very short time as he was defeated and captured at the Battle of Ghazni.  \n  \nSebuktigin had a second son, Mahmud (997-1030), who went on to rule the Ghaznavid dynasty and assumed the title of sultan. Mahmud’s early life was spent helping his father, who was a faithful official of the Samanids. During Sebuktigin’s reign, the boundaries of Ghaznavid, which were to be maintained by Mahmud, were laid out, extending south-west to Bust and Qusdar and east to India, against the Hindu Shahi Rajas of Waihand. Mahmud was the first independent ruler of the Ghaznavids; he was not in the service of the Samanids or any other dynasty. By 998, Mahmud had made himself ruler of all the lands that were held by his father. He has been described as an aggressive ruler who waged bloody battles to expand his territory. He raided India a number of times and was known for his ferocity and ruthlessness. However, it has been argued that during his battles he treated Muslims in the same way as Hindus, and one of his most important officials was a Hindu named Tilak.  \n  \nMahmud also cultivated great minds at his court in Ghazni. He wanted the court to become a haven for scholars, poets and artists. Poets such as Firdausi, who wrote Shahnama, made Ghazni his home, as did the Arabian geographer Al Biruni. Sultan Mahmud died on 30 April 1030. His mausoleum is located in Ghazni, Afghanistan.  \n  \nBibliography  \n• Bosworth, C.E., Medieval History of Iran Afghanistan and Central Asia, London: Variorum, 1977.  \n• Bosworth, C.E., The Ghaznavids, New Delhi: Munshram Manoharial Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1992.  \n  \nThis profile, compiled by Fiza Ishaq and copy-edited by Adrienne Staudohar, was added as part of the ‘Explore Islamic Art Collections’ project.","date_description_ah":"AH 366–582","date_description_ad":"AD 977–1186"},"9edc1c13-a45a-5e4f-b590-717688101260":{"name":"Abbasids","also_known_as":"","area":"Ifriqiya [Tunisia], Jordan, Egypt, North Africa, Iraq","history":"The Abbasid era is considered to be the golden age of Islamic civilisation. The Abbasids were able to establish their supremacy by taking up the cause of non-Arabs who had been unjustly treated by the Umayyads and who, under the leadership of the rebel Abu Muslim al-Khurasani, successfully overthrew them in AH 132 / AD 750. The Abbasids became the caliphs of the Islamic empire that same year.  \nThe outer reaches of the empire were stabilised and consolidated by Caliph al-Mansur (AH 136–7 / AD 754–75) who broke up the monopoly of the Arabs over the political and economic institutions of the state and encouraged equality between the different groups that made up Abbasid society. Construction of the new capital, Baghdad, was completed in AH 138 / AD 766.  \nThe Abbasid period reached its zenith during the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid (AH 169–93 / AD 786–809) who achieved peace with Byzantium and exchanged embassies with Charlemagne of France. This period included the reigns of al-Ma'mun (AH 197–218 / AD 813–33), al-Mu'tasim (AH 218–27 / AD 833–42) and al-Wathiq (AH 227–32 / AD 842–7).  \nThe new wealth created by the switch from an agrarian to a trading economy reduced the social disparity between Arab and non-Arab communities and promoted the development of numerous craft industries, such as glass, ceramics and textiles, exported via the old trade routes from China to sub-Saharan Africa. Learning was encouraged and the key texts of Greek, Persian and Indian civilisations were translated into Arabic. Numerous great scholars furthered all fields of knowledge: philosophy (al-Kindi and al-Farabi), astronomy, mathematics (al-Khawarizmi), medicine (al-Razi and Ibn Sina), physics and chemistry (Ibn Sina), and their contributions would go on to influence the whole of medieval thinking.  \nAbbasid power began to decline in the AH 5th / AD 11th century, and several provinces became independent. The Fatimids (AH 296–566 / AD 909–1171) established a rival caliphate in Egypt and Syria, and Tughrul (Tughril) Beg emerged from the Turkish regiments of the Abbasid army to take Baghdad in AH 447 / AD 1055. The final blow was dealt to the Abbasid Dynasty by the Mongols who swept through the Middle East and took Baghdad in AH 656 / AD 1258.","date_description_ah":"AH 132–656","date_description_ad":"AD 750–1258"},"a999b9e1-b986-5792-8f1c-7764cd952822":{"name":"Marinids and Wattasids","also_known_as":"","area":"Morocco and central Maghreb. Capital: Fez","history":"After a century of brilliance, Almohad power was weakened by in-fighting before collapsing with the loss of control over the Sahara routes, the conquest of central Maghreb by the Hafsids of Tunisia and the progress of the *Reconquista* in Spain. Against this backdrop, Fez was taken by the Marinids (Banu Marin), Zenete nomads from Eastern Morocco. They strove to reunify the Maghreb for their own benefit (fall of Tunis, AH 747 / AD 1347). Abu Yusuf Ya'qub, the first Marinid sultan, went on to cross the Straits of Gibraltar several times, hindering the progress of the Christians and helping to save Granada.  \nFor the next 150 years, Morocco passed through a period of brilliance marked by artistic and cultural developments, the construction of numerous mosques and *madrasas* (schools) and the establishment of a new capital at Fez al-Jadid (674 / 1276).  \nFollowing the heyday of the Marinids, an epidemic of the Black Death (748 / 1348) and the rebellions of Tlemcen and Tunis marked the decline of the dynasty, which failed to drive back the Spanish and the Portuguese.  \nThe Wattasids (Banu Wattas), a vizier family that succeeded the Marinids, declared themselves regents of the kingdom before taking power as sovereigns. However, the country sank into a grave economic crisis following the fall of Granada, the last Muslim kingdom in Spain, and the influx of refugees expelled from al-Andalus only served to increase popular frustrations and religious dispute.  \nAt the beginning of the 8th / 14th century, Morocco descended into anarchy and a cycle of conservatism and weakness. The Portuguese took Tangiers (875 / 1471) and occupied Safi, Azemmour, Mazagan and Agadir, while the Spanish established themselves in Mellilla.","date_description_ah":"The Marinids: AH 667–868 and the Wattasids: AH 869–955","date_description_ad":"The Marinids: AD 1269–1464 and the Wattasids: AD 1465–1549"},"ab22ae48-7fde-5229-a684-189558585904":{"name":"Nasrids","also_known_as":"Banu'l-Ahmar","area":"Granada","history":"When the Almohad Caliph al-Ma'mun, enthroned in Seville in AH 624 / AD 1227, returned to Morocco, a member of the vizier Banu al-Ahmar family, Muhammad bin Yusuf bin Nasr, proclaimed himself king (627 / 1230) founding the Nasrid dynasty, which ruled Granada until 897 / 1492.  \nHe stayed in power by paying an annual tribute to the king of Castile and assisted passively in the breathtaking progress of the Christian Reconquista, with the surrender of Córdoba (633 / 1236), Jaen and Arjona (643 / 1246), and Seville (645 / 1248).  \nThanks to their plotting and dealing and the occasional military support of the Marinids, the Nasrids experienced a veritable golden age, the most stunning examples of which being the Alhambra and the Generalife. This splendour lasted until 886 / 1482 when Boabdil (Abu 'Abdallah) overthrew his father but failed to contain the Reconquista. Malaga fell in 892 / 1487; Baeza and Almeria in 894 / 1489, among other places. He ended up capitulating, and the Catholic kings entered Granada on 2 January 1492, closing the book on the epic that was 'al-Andalus'.  \nThe existence of al-Andalus as a Muslim political entity lasted nearly 800 years, but the Reconquista, which began in 722 (Battle of Pelayo / Covadonga) lasted nearly 900, continuing to 1610 with successive waves of expulsions of 'moriscos'.  \nHowever, although al-Andalus ceased to exist as a political entity, its cultural and artistic influence lived on in Spain, where Mudejar art conditioned architectural thought until the 18th century, and in Morocco, where Hispano-Moorish architecture and craftsmanship successfully combined Hispano-Visigothic art with traits of the Muslim West and the Berbers, the latter having survived through the Sharif dynasties.","date_description_ah":"AH 637–897","date_description_ad":"AD 1240–1492"},"b372ff12-6d26-5b7b-84e0-c0679b12cfbb":{"name":"Umayyads","also_known_as":"Umayyads of the East","area":"Syria, Asia Minor, Egypt, North Africa, Iraq, Iran, Central Asia, Iberian Peninsula","history":"Founded in AH 41 / AD 661 by Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan of the Bani Umayya family, the Umayyad dynasty was the first Islamic dynasty after the death of the Prophet Muhammad and the caliphs who succeeded him in 11 / 632. The most important Umayyad caliphs were Mu'awiya (41–60 / 661–80), 'Abd al-Malik (65–86 / 685–705) and Hisham (105–25 / 724–43). Under al-Walid I (86–96 / 705–15), military conquests reached as far as Spain and central Europe, while in the east the Umayyad kingdom extended to Transoxania and northern India. In 132 / 750, the Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by the Abbasids.  \nDuring the Umayyad caliphate, many failed attacks were launched against Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire. In Spain, the Visigoths were defeated in 92 / 711, but the Muslim advance in central Europe was halted in 114 / 732 by Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers.  \nThe Umayyad dynasty introduced the idea of hereditary rulership in Islam and contributed many eminent figures to the caliphate from its family ranks.  \nWith the arrival of the Umayyads, the centre of political power in Islam shifted from Madina in the Arabian Peninsula to Syria, with Damascus becoming the new capital of the caliphate. This change had both political and cultural repercussions.  \nBorrowing administrative practices from both the Byzantines and the Sassanids, the Umayyad caliphs became talented rulers, capable of controlling the first Islamic empire, which spread over a wide area thanks to its military successes.  \nSocial tensions quickly became apparent among non-Arab converts who, contrary to the teaching of Islam, did not enjoy the same rights as Arab Muslims. Rebellions in southern Jordan, Iraq and eastern Iran led to the gradual collapse of the dynasty.  \nThe Umayyads were energetic builders; their architects, artists and craftsmen were responsible for the towns, palaces, mosques and works of art that today symbolise the rich history of the early years of Islam.","date_description_ah":"AH 41–132","date_description_ad":"AD 661–750"},"b6bff4c1-903d-5f70-8663-46b91de87633":{"name":"Qaramanids","also_known_as":"Qaraman Oghullari or Karamanids","area":"Central Anatolia (Turkey)","history":"Having taken Cicilia from the Armenians in AH 624 / AD 1228, Alaeddin Keykubad I ('Ala al-Din Kay Qubadh, r. 616–34/ 1220–37), the sultan of the Seljuqs of Anatolia, established the Qaraman tribe in the area around Ermenek. The Qaramanids, led by Nura Sufi, were initially nothing more than a minor tribal branch. After the defeat of the Seljuqs of Anatolia at the Battle of Kösedağ \\[Köse Dagh\\] in 640 / 1243, the Qaramanids took up the fight against the Mongols. Considering themselves to be the successors of the Seljuqs of Anatolia, they occupied the regions of Konya, Niğde and Içel when the Ilkhanids were driven out of Anatolia.  \nWith the help of other Turcoman (Türkmen) emirates in the region, the Qaramanids fought the Ottoman Empire (founded in 698 / 1299) for many years, hindering its expansion into Anatolia.  \nThe Emirate, which was conquered in 1398 by the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I (r. 791–804 / 1389–1402), was re-established after the Battle of Ankara in 804 / 1402. The Qaramanid Emirate, which was the second longest lasting Turcoman emirate in Anatolia after the Ottomans, was eventually brought to an end by Sultan Bayezid II in 892 / 1487.","date_description_ah":"AH 648–892","date_description_ad":"AD 1250–1487"},"b812e3d9-24d7-5ef1-bfc7-8031d0fa5144":{"name":"Ayyubids","also_known_as":"","area":"Egypt, Syria, southeastern Anatolia, Jazira, Yemen","history":"Events arising from the arrival in Baghdad of the leader of the Seljuq Turks in AH 446 / AD 1055 led to the Crusades and the invasion of Jerusalem in 492 / 1099. However, this did not prevent the Seljuqs from becoming the most powerful force in the Muslim world at that time.  \nDuring the 5th / 11th century, faced with conflict with the Seljuq Turks and the Fatimids, the Seljuqs recruited *atabegs*, military commanders, as regional governors. In 468 / 1076, the Atabeg Atsiz, took Damascus from the Fatimids. In the 6th / 12th century, the powerful Zangid Dynasty reunified Syria. Nur al-Din, son of the founder of the Zangid dynasty, conquered Damascus in 548 / 1154, and his lieutenant Salah al-Din (Saladin) destroyed the Fatimid caliphate in 566 / 1171 and ended the Latin occupation of Jerusalem in 579 / 1187.  \nThe Atabegs and the Ayyubids introduced far-reaching changes to their realm, building numerous *madrasas* (schools) for the orthodox re-education of their subjects. With unprecedented levels of construction, the Seljuq period brought about a renaissance for Aleppo and Damascus, with the reconstruction of the Great Mosque and the foundation of the citadel in Damascus and the construction of mosques, *hammams* (baths), *madrasas*, *turbes* (mausoleums), *khanqahs* (hostels) and *ribats* (fortresses).  \nThe Zangid and Ayyubid princes managed to drive the crusaders from Edessa (Urfa) in 540 / 1146 and consolidated their hold on the region with the conquest of Egypt in 566 / 1171.  \nIn the middle of the 6th / 12th century, under Nur al-Din and his Ayyubid successors, Damascus again became a major centre of the Muslim world and prospered in all areas of society. As capital of an independent state, it came to assume all of the characteristics of a great city.  \nFrom the 5th to the 7th centuries / 11th to the 13th centuries a number of factors favoured the development of art and urban activity. Artuqids, Zangids, Seljuqs of Rum and Ayyubids left their mark in various media, from pottery and metalwork to book arts and architecture. From the sober, classical forms of Ayyubid architecture to the brilliant decorative arts, this key period is characterised by high-quality artistic output, having the same importance for Syria as the Mamluk period for Egypt, or the Ottoman period for Turkey.","date_description_ah":"AH 564–end 9 th century","date_description_ad":"AD 1169–end 15 th century"},"b866c59b-f81b-5655-972c-c4ac569b959e":{"name":"Mughal","also_known_as":"","area":"Agra (1526–1540; 1555–1571; 1598–1648)  \nFatehpur Sikri (1571–1585)  \nLahore (1586–1598)  \nShahjahanabad, Delhi (1648–1857)","history":"In Perso-Arab language the term Mughal means “the Mongol” or the “Mongolians”. Babur, the founder of the Mughal Dynasty who ruled from 1526 to 1530, was of Timurid–Mongolian heritage. On his paternal side he was a descendant of the warlord Amir Timur or Tamerlane, a fierce warrior of the late 14th and early 15th centuries, and on the maternal side of the family he was a descendant of Genghis Khan. Babur conquered a large territory extending from central Asia to the shores of the Mediterranean.  \n  \nBy the late 15th century, the Mughals had begun patronizing the arts, commissioning the construction of imposing architecture and making grand illuminated manuscripts. They were considered refined and sophisticated. It was in 1526 at the battle of Panipat that Babur had a huge victory; he conquered northern India up to the Gangetic Plain after a struggle with Afghans, the Lodi Sultan of Delhi and the Rajputs under Rana Sanga of Mewar. In order to legitimise his rule, Babur went on to build three mosques.  \nBabur died in 1530 and was succeeded by this son, Humayun, who inherited a territory that was yet to be consolidated. After being defeated by the Afghan chief of Bihar, Shir Shah Suri, Humayun was driven to the Persian court of the Iranian-Safavid court ruler, Shah Tahmasp I. With the help of the Persian emperor, he reconquered northern India in 1555. He died in 1556, in Delhi.  \n  \nHumayun’s son, Akbar, acceded to the throne at the young age of 12 years, and he went on to rule for nearly 50 years (1556–1605). Akbar is considered a very important ruler of the Mughal dynasty. Most significant were his many achievements; he set up an enduring foundation for Mughal governance, created inclusive policies and adopted an attitude of tolerance towards non-Muslims. This method of governing made him an amicable ruler and created a state that was syncretic in character.  \n  \nBy the time Akbar passed away in 16o5, he had built a consolidated empire that would flourish under the rule of his son, Jahangir, and grandson, Shah Jahan. Jahangir followed the practices that Akbar had commenced during his reign. He had acceded to the throne in 1602 after clashing with his father and masterminding the death of Akbar’s close advisor, Abu al-Fazl, who he thought was against Jahangir becoming the heir. In 1611, he married a woman named Nur Jahan. She was a powerful, intelligent person who took the reins of the empire when Jahangir was ill.  \n  \nDuring its last phase, the Mughal empire was ruled by Nur Jahan and her family. One of these rulers was Prince Khurram, later known as Shah Jahan, a well-known military strategist. He was the one responsible for Jahangir’s victory during his reign. In 1614 he led a campaign against the Sisodiya Rajput fortress of Chittor and forced Rana Amar Singh to surrender. Jahangir was pleased with this victory and considered Khurram as heir apparent.  \n  \nUnder Shah Jahan’s rule, the Mughal empire was prosperous, wealthy and internationally renowned. In the first 12 years of his reign, Shah Jahan pursued several military campaigns in a bid to subdue recalcitrant rulers. At the same time, he conquered territory in eastern India, Sind and the northwest. In 1636, he made a breakthrough in his campaign in order to increase territorial expansion into the Deccan. The Mughals signed a treaty with two dynasties of the Deccan, namely, Adil Shah of Bijapur and the Qutb Shahs of Golkonda. This resulted in 20 years of the Mughals’ peaceful coexistence with the Deccan Sultanates.  \n  \nIn 1658, Shah Jahan’s son, Aurangzeb, ruled the Mughal empire from 1658 to 1707. He became the victorious leader after a battle of succession in which two of his brothers were killed, one brother was exiled to Burma and his father was imprisoned. His reign lasted for 49 years. He was known as Alamgir, the seizer of the world. His top achievement was to expand Mughal territory all the way to the Deccan. He subjugated the sultans of the Deccan and brought about a massive expansion of the empire.  \n  \nAurangzeb has been considered an orthodox Muslim who broke away from the liberal traditions of his predecessors. Contrary to the image that has been painted, Aurangzeb was an Indian ruler who strove throughout his life to preserve and expand the Mughal empire, gain political power, and rule with his own vision of justice.  \n  \nThe court of the Mughal successors was known for its aristocratic high culture. These rulers enjoyed entertainment in the form of music and poetry, commissioned miniature paintings and objects, and supported the construction of monumental architecture for the imperial Mughal court.  \n  \nFrom 1707 to 1857, however, the Mughal dynasty was in a period of decline. Aurangzeb’s death brought with it much turmoil due to courtiers vying with each other to gain power. Bahadur Shah I (1643–1712) attempted to alter the court’s religious policies and reform its administration. After his death in 1712, the empire was involved in feuds over who would be the next successor. He was ultimately succeeded by the 20th ruler of the Mughal dynasty, Bahadur Shah Zafar or Bahadur Shah II (1837–57). However, the last Mughal emperor had no power over the kingdom; rather, he was an emperor in title alone. Throughout the 18th century north India was at the mercy of indigenous and foreign power. The arrival of the East India Company marked the end of Mughal rule. By this time the Mughal empire existed in name only, while the East India Company governed the empire.  \n  \nBibliography  \n• Asher, Catherine B. and Talbot, Cynthia, India before Europe, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.  \n• Koch, Ebba, Mughal Architecture, UK: Oxford University Press, 1991.  \n• Richards, John F., Gordon Johnson, The Mughal Empire, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.  \n• Truschke, Audrey, Aurangzeb: the Man and the Myth, India: Penguin Random House India Pvt. Ltd, 2018.  \n  \nThis profile, compiled by Fiza Ishaq and copy-edited by Adrienne Staudohar, was added as part of the ‘Explore Islamic Art Collections’ project.","date_description_ah":"","date_description_ad":""},"b93781fb-c7f0-5e7a-be03-24236c8c8b9d":{"name":"Idrisids","also_known_as":"","area":"Morocco. Capital: Oualili, then Fez","history":"As in al-Andalus, the 'Alid leader Idris bin 'Abdallah, fleeing Abbasid repression, took refuge in Morocco and settled in Oualili (Roman Volubilis). He was proclaimed imam by the people before being assassinated by a spy sent by the Caliph Harun al-Rashid (AH 174 / AD 791). His son Idris II undertook to build a centralised state with its own capital (Fez), currency and army. His successors split and weakened the kingdom, although the spread of Islam throughout the country continued. The weakness of the Idrisids favoured foreign intervention, and Fez was taken first by the Fatimids of Ifriqiya, then by the Umayyads of al-Andalus.","date_description_ah":"AH 169–304","date_description_ad":"AD 786–917"},"b9f45d10-d71e-5257-ae76-2101795443e2":{"name":"Samanids","also_known_as":"","area":"Transoxania–Modern day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan and southwest Kazakhstan. Khurasan (Iran) and Afghanistan.","history":"The Samanid empire (819-999), also known as the Samanian empire or the Samanid Emirate, was centered in the historical region of Transoxiana and Khurasan. It encompassed modern-day Afghanistan, large parts of Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and parts of Kazakhstan and Pakistan. The Samanid dynasty, whose founders were of Soghdian origin, ruled over Transoxiana for two centuries. They claimed their descent from the Sassanian hero, Bahram Chobin, and were appointed by the Abbasids to govern parts of Transoxiana.  \n  \nThe four grandsons of the dynasty’s founder, Saman Khoda, had been granted provinces as a reward for their faithful service to the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mamun. Nuh obtained Samarkand; Ahmad, Fergana; Yahya, Shash; and Elyas, Herat. Ahmad’s son Nasr became governor of Transoxiana in 875, but it was his brother and successor, Ismail I (892-907), who overthrew the Saffarids in Khorasan (900) and the Zaydites of Tabaristan, thus establishing a semi-autonomous rule over Transoxiana and Khurasan, with Bukhara as his capital.  \n  \nIsmail conquered many places and his kingdom extended all over regions that now comprise central Asia, Afghanistan and eastern Iran. Ismail was not only a strong and capable politician but also an equitable ruler who brought positive change by reducing the heavy tax burden and confiscating illegally owned land. His strong political regime ensured the safety of his domains in Transoxiana and his capital, Bukhara. Ismail’s successor, Nasr ibn Ahmad (914-943), was unable to rule as his predecessor had, however. He had to leave under the influence of the Turkish guard, who became leaders in the court and, with the help of the Qarakhanids, ended the rule of the Samanids in 999.  \n  \nUnder the Samanid rule, the stability of the empire led to much progress in commerce, agriculture, architecture, city building, coinage, textiles and metalwork. In addition, Samanids were patrons of poetry and literature. New Persian poetry and literature was produced and appreciated, leading to the foundation of modern Persian literature. It was in the world of the Samanids that the first Shahnama was written, where Arabic scholarship was translated to Persian, and Rudaki and Daqiqi composed their odes. By then the Persian language had acquired a ‘high’ status. Consequently, it began to be used at court and there was an increase in commissioning of Persian prose and poetry.  \n  \nBibliography  \n• Herzig, Edward and Stewart, Sarah (eds), The Idea of Iran, vol. 5: Early Islamic Iran, London: I. B. Tauris, 2012.  \n  \nThis profile, compiled by Fiza Ishaq and copy-edited by Adrienne Staudohar, was added as part of the ‘Explore Islamic Art Collections’ project.","date_description_ah":"AH 204–395","date_description_ad":"AD 819–1005"},"ba68342d-ae0b-574f-9e6b-4d5e86ebd227":{"name":"Other Dynasties","also_known_as":"","area":"","history":"**Al Yarubis**  \nAH 1033 – 1154 / AD 1624 – 1742  \n*Oman*  \n  \n**Buyids**  \nAH 333 – 446 / AD 945 – 1055  \n*Western Iran and Iraq*  \n  \n**Husaynids**  \nAH 1116 – 1376 / AD 1705 – 1957  \n*Tunisia*  \n  \n**Injus**  \nAH 725 – 754 / AD 1325 – 1353  \n*Shiraz, Isfahan (Iran)*  \n  \n**Khwarazmian Dynasty**  \nAH 469 – 628 / AD 1077 – 1231  \n*Central Asia, Afghanistan and Iran*  \n  \n**Luluids**  \nAH 631 – 660 / AD 1234 – 1262  \n*Iraq (Mosul), Jazira*  \n  \n**Qarakhanids**  \nAH 389 – 607 / AD 999 – 1211  \n*Transoxania*  \n  \n**Rasulids**  \nAH 626 – 858 / AD 1229 – 1454  \n*Yemen, Hadramaut*  \n  \n**Ziyadids**  \nAH 203 – 408 / AD 819 – 1018  \n*Yemen*","date_description_ah":"","date_description_ad":""},"c5abff43-0a64-5d3e-a98d-f36a6d133d0e":{"name":"Zand","also_known_as":"","area":"Iran","history":"The Zand dynasty ruled over most of Persia from its capital Shiraz between the fall of Afsharids (1148-1210/1736-1796), and the founding of the Qajar dynasty by Aga Mohammad Khan Qajar (R. 1779-97).  \n  \nThe founder of the dynasty, Karim Khan Zand (1164-1193/1751-1779), known as Wakil-al-Dowla (Deputy of the state), was from the Zand tribe, a pastoral tribe of the Lak branch of Lors. This group had their winter ranges on the Hamadan plains and summer pastures on the slopes of the Zagros north of Kermanshah in western Persia. He, along with much of his tribe, had been deported to Khorasan in 1144/1732 by Nader Shah Afshar, the founder of Afsharids, where they served in the army. Soon after Nader’s assassination in 1160/1747, Karim Khan led his people home, capturing Isfahan in 1163/1750. Following these events, he installed a Safavid puppet ruler as Shah Esmail III (R. 1750-1765). After defeating three other contestants for power, he pacified most of western and central Persia from the Caspian littoral and Azerbaijan to Kerman and the northern Persian Gulf regions, ruling from Shiraz from 1179/1765 until his death in 1193/1779.  \n  \nThroughout his life, Karim Khan never assumed the title of king (Shah), but was instead known as the Wakil (Deputy). Later, he became famous as Wakil-al-Raaya (Deputy of the Subjects). When his puppet Safavid ruler, Esmail III, predeceased him in 1187/1773 the façade of a revival of Safavid authority was quietly dropped. One area that Karim Khan did not attempt to recover was the Afsharid Khorasan, which became a tributary of the Afghan monarch Ahmad-Shah Dorrani (R. 1747-1773).  \n  \nKarim Khan devoted his efforts to reviving trade and agriculture in Fars and western Persia. In order to achieve this, he rebuilt Shiraz, concluded commercial agreements with the British East India Company at Busehr, and in 1775-1779 he besieged and occupied Basra in Ottoman Iraq. He never fully subjugated the Qajars of Astarabad, and upon his death Aga Mohammad Khan Qajar, his hostage for sixteen years, escaped from Shiraz and began to consolidate Qajar power in the north of Persia.  \n  \nFrom Sadeq Khan to Jafar Khan (1193–1204/1779–1789), none of Karim Khan’s five successors formally adopted his title of ‘Deputy’ (Wakil), nor did they take that of ‘Shah’. The first three of them ruled nominally for one of Karim Khan’s sons, and the last two are referred to only as ‘Khan’, however European observers often referred to them as ‘the King’. Karim Khan had probably expected his capable younger brother and lieutenant, Mohammad-Sadeq Khan (known as Sadeq Khan), to succeed him, since his two adult sons, Abu’l-Fath Khan (the eldest) and Mohammad-Ali Khan, were considered unfit to rule. However, in the event of Karim’s death, Sadeq Khan was administering in Basra and therefore did not return in time to forestall his rivals among the leading Zand khans. In the confusion Karim Khan’s half-brother, Zaki Khan, ostensibly proclaimed Karim Khan’s son, and his own son-in-law, Mohammad-Ali Khan, as ruler. When Zaki Khan threatened reprisals on the families of Sadeq khan’s army, upon his arrival at Shiraz Sadeq was deserted by his army and fled to Bam, near Kerman.  \n  \nIn 1779 Zaki Khan ordered his nephew, Ali-Morad Khan Zand (one of the next Zand rulers), to pursue Aga Mohammad Khan Qajar who had fled from Shiraz to Mazandaran. Unfortunately for Zaki Ali-Morad Khan rebelled at Isfahan in the name of Abu’l-Fath Khan, Karim’s eldest son. Marching against him, Zaki Khan committed such atrocities at the village of Izadkhast that his own men mutinied and killed him. Sadeq Khan was thus able to implement his return and occupation Shiraz, whilst still being opposed by Ali-Morad Khan. The latter was joined by Zaki Khan’s youngest son Akbar Khan Zand, and after a gruelling siege which lasted eight months, Shiraz fell in February 1781. On Ali-Morad Khan’s order, Akbar Khan killed the two surviving sons of Karim Khan (Abu’l-Fath and Mohammad-Ali), as well as Sadeq Khan together with all his sons except Jafar Khan, who had come to terms privately with Ali-Morad Khan. However, Ali-Morad Khan soon became suspicious of Akbar Khan’s ambitions and therefore galvanised Jaʿfar Khan into avenging his father and brothers, by putting Akbar Khan to death in 1782.  \n  \nBy this time, Ali-Morad Khan (R. 1781-85), being faced with a resurgence of Qajar power, established his capital strategically at Isfahan. He campaigned energetically in Mazandaran, but Jafar Khan took advantage of his absence to march on Isfahan. Hastening to defend his capital in midwinter while ill, Ali-Morad Khan died in February 1785. His reign, which saw the Zand relinquish claims to Persia north of Isfahan, may be seen as the watershed between Zand and Qajar history.  \n  \nJafar Khan (R. 1785-89), through his energetic son Lotf-Ali Khan, subdued Lar (in Fars) and Kerman and re-occupied Isfahan, but he was driven out twice by Aga Mohammad Khan Qajar and fell back to Shiraz. His treachery in dealing with his own supporters provoked a mutiny, led by Seyd-Morad Khan, the cousin of Ali-Morad Khan, during which Jafar Khan was killed. Seyd-Morad Khan then sent a force under his brother Shah-Morad against Jafar Khan’s son Lotf-Ali Khan, who was then at Kerman. However, these troops mutinied and Lotf-Ali Khan was able to return to Shiraz, which the Jewish city’s mayor Haji Ebrahim khan Kalantar (1745-1800) had secured in his favour.  \n  \nLotf-ʿAli Khan (1204-1209/1789-94) was the only one of Karim Khan’s successors to win admiration for his courage and integrity. Having recovered Shiraz from the mutineers, he then held it against a determined Qajar assault. His downfall was precipitated by the mutual distrust between Haji Ebrahim Khan Kalantar and himself. On his way to attack Isfahan in 1206/1791, Lotf-Ali Khan was deserted by most of his army on the instigation of Haji Ebrahim’s brother (commanding the infantry), and on racing back to Shiraz he found the city in the hands of Haji Ebrahim. Denied help from Busehr, the Zand leader, with the few troops still loyal to him and some Arab levies, nevertheless fought on to fend off the Qajar advance on Shiraz. Such an attempt was made even more difficult because Haji Ebrahim had already offered to surrender Shiraz to Aga Mohammad Khan Qajar. As a result, the latter finally entered Shiraz in 1206/1792. Haji Ebrahim later became the first grand vizier (Sadr-e Aẓam) and a major political figure of the early Qajar period.  \n  \nLotf-Ali Khan surprised Kerman in 1794 and held it for four months before the Qajars finally gained entry through treachery. He then fled to Bam, whose governor seized him and handed him over to the Qajars. Aga Mohammad Khan Qajar had his last Zand enemy blinded and cruelly tortured before taking him back to Tehran for execution in 1209/1794. This marked the end of Zand rule, although Aga Mohammad Khan Qajar was not formally crowned until 1796. In the following year, after his assassination, Zaki Khan Zand’s son Mohammad Khan Zand with a tribal army unsuccessfully attempted to seize power from the Qajars.  \n  \nThe dynasty’s reputation rests on its founder Karim Khan, who was able not only to forge an army from the different Iranian pastoral tribes of the Zagros, but also to build a measure of trust and some lasting alliances with the bureaucrats and magnates of the major cities of western and southern Persia (Isfahan, Shiraz, Tabriz, and Kerman). His shrewd economic policies and notable humanity are recorded in many popular anecdotes. His successors destroyed his achievements through their internecine warfare; they could not inspire confidence in the urban establishment, as typified by Haji Ebrahim, and consequently forfeited the Zand mandate to the Qajars.  \n  \nThis profile, compiled by Ali M.Tarafdari and copy-edited by Jonathan Turnbull, was added as part of the ‘Explore Islamic Art Collections’ project.","date_description_ah":"1164-1209","date_description_ad":"1751-1794"},"c7c31af2-858e-50e7-bf30-0bfb5bbe434e":{"name":"Marwanids of Diyar Bakr","also_known_as":"","area":"Southeast Anatolia","history":"It is generally accepted that the Marwanid Emirate was founded by al-Badh from the Humaydid tribe about the end of the AH 4 th / AD 10th century. Becoming a force in the region, al-Badh conquered first Erciş in east Anatolia, then Diyarbakır \\[Diyar Bakr\\], Nusaybin \\[Nisibin\\], Silvan and Mosul in 373 / 984 taking advantage of the decline of the Buyid \\[Buwayhid\\] influence. His attempt to conquer Baghdad failed, forcing him to withdraw from Mosul. Al-Badh died during his campaign to Mosul in 380 / 990. His successor and nephew al-Hasan bin Marwan ruled only briefly but managed to defeat the Hamdanids, thus increasing the power of his emirate. Mumahhid al-Dawla Sa'id ascended the throne in 387 / 997 but was deposed by his brother Nasr al-Dawla Ahmad in 1011.  \nThe long rule of Nasr al-Dawla was the brightest period of the Marwanids. Good relations were established with the Byzantines and the Fatimids and numerous monuments were built, notably in Diyarbakır, Silvan, Nusaybin and Hasankeyf \\[Hısn Kayfa\\]. The death of Nasr al-Dawla in 463 / 1061 led to conflict in his state, which was soon divided between his sons Sa'id II and Nizam al-Dawla Nasr. The former ruled in and around Diyarbakır while the latter ruled in Silvan. Nizam al-Dawla Nasr captured Diyarbakır in 455 / 1063 but soon submitted to the sovereignty of the Great Seljuqs in 1071. His son Mansur became the last Marwanid amir in 471 / 1079. The Marwanid territory was annexed to the Great Seljuqs by Sultan Melikşah \\[Maliq Shah\\] in 1085.","date_description_ah":"AH 372–478","date_description_ad":"AD 983–1085"},"c86e40a5-f47d-5f06-8a89-26f52f632eb0":{"name":"Fatimids","also_known_as":"","area":"North Africa, Egypt, southern Syria","history":"The assassination of Caliph 'Ali in the Iraqi city of Kufa, and of Imam Husayn, grandson of the Prophet, at Karbala, gave rise to Shi'ism, which is based on a belief in the right of the descendants of Muhammad to assume the caliphate. Opposed by the Umayyads and then the Abbasids, the movement nonetheless spread quickly through the Muslim world to reach the Maghreb, from where the Shi'a Muslims decided to conquer the great caliphate of the Muslim world. Brought to power by the missionary Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i, Imam al-Mahdi ousted the Aghlabid Dynasty in AH 297 / AD 910 before taking Tunisia, Libya, eastern Algeria and Sicily.  \nIn 358 / 969, strengthened by the country's economic prosperity and stability, the Fatimid Caliph al-Mu'izz (r. 341–64 / 953–75) attempted to reconquer the East and was victorious in Egypt, leaving Ifriqiya \\[Tunisia\\] to the Zirids, who quickly abandoned Shi'ism for Sunnism, an act violently repressed by the Hilalian tribes that attacked the country.  \nThe new Fatimid capital, Cairo, became the cradle of a brilliant civilisation, bolstered by territorial conquests in Syria and Palestine. Until Salah al-Din (Saladin) finally seized power from them in 566 / 1171, the Fatimid caliphs promoted urban development, the sciences, art and literature.  \nThe Fatimids founded several towns including Mahdiyya and Sabra al-Mansuriyya in Ifriqiya, Achir in central Maghreb and Cairo in Egypt. In accordance with their philosophy and faith, towns were no longer organised around the mosque, but around the palace of the caliph as a symbol of power. Porticoes also began to appear in the courtyards of mosques with offset corridors in prayer rooms for the glorified procession of the caliph.  \nThe sciences, art, mathematics, medicine and exegesis developed spectacularly under the Fatimids, as did applied arts and crafts. Glass and ivory figures of humans and animals remain the most well known.","date_description_ah":"AH 297–566","date_description_ad":"AD 909–1171"},"cbabc258-58fd-5884-a46b-2deacf873f40":{"name":"Artuqids","also_known_as":"","area":"Southeast Turkey, Iraq, northern Syria","history":"The Artuqid Emirate was founded by Artuq Bey, one of the Turcoman commanders who contributed significantly to the Turkish conquest of Anatolia. The Artuqids reigned over Anatolia, Iraq and northern Syria. Artuq Bey, who was appointed governor of Jerusalem by the sultan of the Great Seljuqs Melikşah (Malik Shah), died in AH 484 / AD 1091 and was succeeded by his sons Necmeddin Ilgazi (Najm al-Din Il Ghazi) and Sökmen I.  \nThe Artuqids left their mark on history through three different lines. One was founded in Hasankeyf (Hısn Kayfa) by Sökmen I. The Artuqids of Hasankeyf, also known as the Sökmenids, lasted from 494 to 628 (1101–1231). This branch also conquered Diyarbakır (Diyar Bakr, ancient Amid), but was ousted by the Ayyubid Sultan Malik Kamil in 629 / 1231.  \nThe second line was founded by Necmeddin Ilgazi in Mardin. The Mardin Artuqids, also known as Ilghazids, governed between 501 and 812 (1108–1409). Silvan (Mayyafariqin), Kızıltepe (Dunaysır) and Halep (Aleppo) were also annexed. The Mardin Artuqids were overthrown by the Qara Qoyunlus, founders of another Turcoman state in 812 / 1409.  \nThe third Artuqid dynasty was founded in 581 / 1185 by Imameddin Ebubekir ('Imad al-Din Abu Bakr) in Harput (Khartpert). Harput and the surrounding region had until that time been controlled by the Hasankeyf Artuqids. The Seljuq sultan of Anatolia, Alaeddin Keykubad I ('Ala' al-Din Kay Qubadh, 616–34/ 1220–37), took Harput and the surrounding area in 630 / 1233, thus ending the dynasty.  \nNumerous Artuqid monuments have survived in Mardin, Hasankeyf, Diyarbakır, Silvan, Harput and Kızıltepe. The Ulu, Savurkapı and Latifiye mosques and the Sultan Isa Madrasa in Mardin, the palace and bridge in Hasankeyf, the Zinciriye and Mesudiye Madrasas in Diyarbakir, the Silvan Great Mosque, the Harput Great Mosque and the Kızıltepe Great Mosque are some of the important monuments of the period.","date_description_ah":"c. AH 494–812","date_description_ad":"c. AD 1101–1409"},"cc058ff2-1729-58a0-be91-e1ac612c1fe2":{"name":"Mamluks","also_known_as":"","area":"Egypt and Syria","history":"For more than two and a half centuries the Mamluk Sultanate was one of the major powers in the lands of Islam and indeed the wider world. The literal meaning of the word *mamluk* in Arabic is 'owned', but in common use it donates a military slave, and it was indeed military slaves, acquired from the Eurasian steppes through the Black Sea ports by the last Ayyubid sultan Najm al-Din, who were to launch the Mamluk regime and carry it to unforeseen glory.  \n*Mamluk* slaves came from different ethnic groups, but the majority were Turks and Circassians from the Caucasus. Acquired to become loyal fighters for the cause of the sultan, they were instructed in the principles of Islam and learnt extensive cavalry skills and fighting techniques. Their superior military abilities soon enabled the Mamluks to establish their own rule and build an empire that was to control Egypt, the Levant and the holy Muslim cities in Hijaz for well over two centuries.  \nThe Mamluk sultans came to be distinguished in two main lines: the Bahri Mamluks, so called because these guards of the Ayyubids originally had their barracks on the island of al-Rawda \\[Rhoda\\] in the Nile (al-Bahr), ruled from AH 648 to 792 / AD 1250–1390. The Burji Mamluks, named because Sultan Qalawun had quartered his guards in the towers (*burg*) of Cairo, ruled from 784 to 923 / 1382–1517.  \nNot only did the Mamluks repel the Mongol threat once and for all by a decisive defeat at 'Ayn Jalut in Palestine in 658 / 1260, but they also fiercely attacked the Crusaders' castles in Palestine and eventually expelled them totally from Akko in Palestine in 690 / 1291. On the diplomatic and economic fronts, the Mamluk Sultanate built strong ties with all the important Muslim powers as well as the Far East, Byzantium, France, Castile, Sicily, Genoa and Venice. Cairo became the trade hub of the world, and the exotic goods from East and West exchanged there provided ample inspiration for local artisans and were reflected in the work they produced.  \nThe Mamluks were outstanding defenders of Islam and committed protectors of its Holy Cities. They restored the Caliphate in Cairo in 659 / 1261 after the devastation of its original seat in Baghdad and devoted much of their interest to the building of splendid mosques, *madrasas* (religious schools) and *waqfs* (religious foundations) in cities such as Cairo, Jerusalem, Aleppo and Damascus. The best artists and craftsmen were called upon to provide these buildings with calligraphic and geometric decoration, with religious furniture, Qur'ans, carpets and utensils. Patronage was also given to objects designed to reflect the official and private splendour of the Mamluk sultan and his court.  \nThe decline of Mamluk supremacy came with the discovery of new trade routes around the Cape of Good Hope and the expansion of Ottoman power, which eventually was to extinguish the Mamluk Sultanate in 923 / 1517.","date_description_ah":"AH 648–923","date_description_ad":"AD 1250–1517"},"d82ac219-fe80-5b78-86c8-ed8a05796343":{"name":"Crusaders in the Islamic world","also_known_as":"","area":"Eastern Mediterranean","history":"The Latin crusader campaigns targeted many parts of the East Mediterranean coast between AD 1095 and 1144, including nine crusades to the Holy Land, two to Byzantium, two to Egypt, and one to Tunisia. Baldwin, the son of Count Edessa, established the first Latin Crusader state in 1098, in al-Raha. From then on, and for 200 years, many Latin states were won and lost in the Holy Land.  \nFranj (Franks) was the term used by the inhabitants of the Middle East to describe all the European crusader campaigns to the Holy Land. Although Frankish crusader history in Jerusalem began with a terrible massacre in AH 493 / AD 1099, some 200 years later, not only Palestine had changed, but so had the Franks who had settled there and had adapted to life in the Middle East and among the Muslims.  \nUnlike in Islamic Spain, before the Franks came Arab–European contact in the Middle East was minimal, and information about each other was scant and influenced by negative religious perceptions. There was no room for effective cultural exchange and real understanding. Despite the general violence of this period, the Middle East never saw a similar period of direct interaction with the 'other', that is until the 20th century! The beauty of the Dome of the Rock overwhelmed the invaders. With this type of contact, the Latin Crusaders received a new impression of the Islamic Orient, which was eventually reflected in their writings and travel literature.  \nMany Islamic religious buildings were converted to churches and Christian institutions. In Jerusalem the Dome of the Rock was converted into a church and al-Aqsa Mosque became a place to accommodate Crusader knights; in Hebron, the old ceiling of the Ibrahimi Mosque was replaced with a Romanesque-style ceiling. This exchange in influence stretched out to include habits of dress and cuisine and the customs of religious and popular celebrations.  \nAt the end of this period, and with the expulsion of the Crusaders by both the Ayyubids and the Mamluks, many Crusader buildings and churches were converted and reverted to Islamic use. This process enriched the taste of the local inhabitants of the area as they recycled and incorporated Latin/Frankish artistic aesthetics into the Islamic art of the region.","date_description_ah":"AH 488-690","date_description_ad":"AD 1095–1291"},"d9aed700-4f88-5eae-b943-d855a671e948":{"name":"Qajar","also_known_as":"","area":"Persia (Iran), Georgia and Armenia (subsequently lost to the Russian Protectorate and ultimately the British Empire)","history":"The Qajars were of Turkoman origin, based near Astarabad in northeastern Iran. The Qajar dynasty ruled Iran from 1785 to 1925. During this time, the Qajars unified Iran, promoting and encouraging new innovations in technology (such as the telegraph and railroads). The arts also flourished under their reign; photography and lithography, along with innovative forms of portraiture and oil painting brought from the West, were enthusiastically adopted by artists and patrons alike. In the 140 years that the Qajar dynasty ruled, Iran was transformed from feuding tribal confederations to a centralized monarchy and finally to a constitutional parliament. In the historical consciousness of the people, the Qajars invoked the glorious Safavid era with all its might and splendour.  \n  \nThe first Qajar shah was Agha Mohammad Shah (1795–98). His main concern at the time of his rule was to consolidate the country’s position against its opponents, the Zands of Shiraz (1750–94). He defeated the last Zand prince, Lotf Ali Khan. Finally, Agha Mohammad Khan was assassinated by one of his attendants in May 1796 and was succeeded by his nephew, Baba Khan, who was crowned and given the name Fath ‘Ali Shah.  \nFath ‘Ali Shah ruled from 1797 to 1834. He worked on redefining the Qajar imperial image and distinguishing it from that of his predecessors. In the 37 years that Fath ‘Ali Shah reigned, he united his fellow citizens and worked to better the growing administration of the country. This was the time of the first Russo-Persian war, when Iran’s territories of Georgia and Azerbaijan were taken by rivals. The political situation with Russia and Britain was not always agreeable. A second Russo-Persian war began in the summer of 1826 in the Caucasus where Muslims fought against the Russians. After this war Iran was able to recover all its lost territories.  \n  \nFath ‘Ali Shah died in 1834 and was succeeded by his grandson, Mohammad Shah (1834–48). However, Mohammad Shah’s accession led to a feud with two of his uncles, Zel al-Soltan, governor of Tehran, and Farman Farma in Fars. Each of them believed that they deserved to be successors of Fath ‘Ali Shah. Russia and Britain recognized Mohammad Shah as the successor, and he was helped and advised by Abol Qasem Qa’em Maqam, his father’s minister. He was ultimately was crowned sovereign in a ceremony held in Tehran. Mohammed Shah died in September 1848. His reign had been far from peaceful as most of it was spent struggling with Britain. He was succeeded by his son, Naser al-Din Mirza.  \n  \nAt the age of 17 years, Naser al-Din Shah (1848–96) acceded to the throne. He initiated change and modernized the capital city of Tehran. His guide was Mir Taqi Khan Amir Nezam (later known as Amir Kabir) who served as Sadr Azam. Amir Kabir implemented reforms to modernise, develop and reform the state. He also undertook to reform the financial and military systems. His most notable achievement, however, was the establishment of Dar al-Funun (Abode of Sciences), one of the first schools in Iran to be based on a Western model of teaching. He considered it a good training ground for future civil servants and military men.  \n  \nAfter the death of Naser al-Din Shah, Mozaffar al-Din Shah (1896–1906) became the new sovereign at 43 years of age. He was known as a weak ruler and was considered more lenient with his subjects compared to his father. One of his achievements was issuing the firman, a royal edict stating that he granted a Majles (consultative assembly) and that elections would be held. The elections in Tehran were speedily performed and the first Majles was opened by Mozaffar al-Din Shah on 7 October 1906. The first act of the Majles was to prepare a constitution - a first in Iranian history. This was accomplished and signed by the ruler Mozaffar al-Din Shah five days before his death in February 1907. He was succeeded by his son, Mohammad Ali Shah.  \n  \nMohammad Ali Shah (1907–09) was 35 years old at the time of his accession. He was raised by a Russian tutor, which made him unpopular with Iranian nationalists who later turned against him. The Shah attempted a coup d’état in December 1907, which failed. He was criticized by officials and the general public at the Majles. In July 1907, he abdicated the throne and left it to his 12-year-old son, Ahmad Mirza.  \n  \nWhen Ahmad Shah (1909–25) became the Qajar sovereign, the northern region of the country was under occupation; the Russo-British agreement of 1907 meant that the ministers of both countries interfered in the internal affairs of Iran, particularly in designating the membership of the cabinets. During the First World War (1914–18) Iran was besieged by Russian, British and Ottoman troops. Ahmed Shah could not recover from this setback. With a coup d'état in February 1921, Reza Khan (later known as Reza Shah Pahlavi) was elected to take the place of Ahmed Shah, who was deposed by the Majles.  \n  \nBibliography  \n• Algar, Hamid, Religion and State in Iran 1785-1906 - The Role of the Ulama in the Qajar Period, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1980.  \n• Daryaee T. (ed), The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012.  \n• Gleave, Robert, Religion and Society in Qajar Iran, UK: Routledge Curzon Press, BIPS Persian studies series, 2005.  \n  \nThis profile, compiled by Fiza Ishaq and copy-edited by Adrienne Staudohar, was added as part of the ‘Explore Islamic Art Collections’ project.","date_description_ah":"AH 1193–1343","date_description_ad":"AD 1779–1925"},"f108d67e-06c0-5769-ad8d-5e30d2542f68":{"name":"Almohads","also_known_as":"al-Muwahhidun","area":"North Africa and Spain. Capital: Marrakesh","history":"The decline and fall of the Almoravid empire was essentially caused by popular uprisings against the nepotism and corruption of rulers who had abandoned themselves to the luxury and indifference of palace life.  \nThe Almohads (al-Muwahidun: the unitarians), a reformist Berber clan descended from the High Atlas to denounce the unholy Almoravids, took Marrakesh in AH 541 / AD 1147 and their leader, 'Abd al-Mu'min, took the title Amir al-Muminin.  \nHis grandson, Ya'qub al-Mansur, who won a crucial victory over the Iberian armies at Alarcos in 597 / 1195, was a great builder and patron, and he led the empire to its political, economic, intellectual and artistic high point.  \nThe Almohads succeeded in unifying a huge empire covering the entire Muslim West (North Africa from the Atlantic to Gabes) and Muslim Spain, before beginning to decline in 608 / 1212 with a heavy defeat at the hands of the Christian armies at Las Navas de Tolosa (Jaen). They had intended to establish a new capital, but the death of Ya'qub al-Mansur (595 / 1199) and the decline of the dynasty prevented the completion of Ribat al-Fath (Rabat).  \nThe buildings erected by the Almohads, both in the Maghreb and al-Andalus, are evidence of a continuous concern for grandeur and sobriety with their huge ramparts, monumental gateways, majestic minarets and fine decorative motifs.","date_description_ah":"AH 524–667","date_description_ad":"AD 1130–1269"},"f1abebd4-ee55-56ed-a5f8-6d9290aff818":{"name":"Ilkhanids","also_known_as":"The Il Khanids","area":"Persia, Iraq, eastern and central Anatolia.","history":"The Ilkhanid state was founded by Hülagü \\[Hülegü or Hulaku\\], brother of the great Mongolian Khan Mengü \\[Möngke\\]. Mengü ascended the throne in AH 651 / AD 1253 and sent his brother Hülagü to Iran. Hülagü founded his state in Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan and Anatolia, which had come under Mongolian rule following the Battle of Kösedağ (640 / 1243).  \nHülagü, a Buddhist, launched many campaigns in order to strengthen the Mongolian rule in western Asia and conquered Iran and Azerbaijan in 654 / 1256, Baghdad in 656 / 1258 (resulting in the fall of the Abbasid Empire and Caliphate) and Aleppo in 657 / 1259. However, he failed to conquer Damascus. The Mamluks in Egypt and the Altınordu \\[Golden Horde\\] states joined forces against the Ilkhanids.  \nAbaqa, who was also a Buddhist, succeeded his father Hülagü (d. 663 / 1265). He continued the conflict against the Mamluks and plundered Syria and Anatolia. His son Ahmad Han, who succeeded him, was a Muslim and wanted to establish good relations with the Muslim states. But Ahmad could not hold power for long and died in 683 / 1284 following years of fighting for the throne with his brother Arghun. Arghun held power until 690 / 1291 and continued his fights against the Muslim states. He was succeeded shortly by Gaykhatu and then by Ghazan Mahmud Han in 694 / 1295. The Ilkhanids converted to Islam during Ghazan Mahmud's reign.  \nGhazan was succeeded by his son Khudabanda Uljaytu Han (r. 702­–15 / 1303–16), who favoured the Shi'a and extended the Ilkhanid territory, conquering Khurasan and Herat. He was succeeded by his very young son Abu Sa'id Bahadur Han, who favoured the Sunni. Bahadur appointed Choban Noyan as vizier but soon fell out with him. Choban Noyan was murdered in 728 / 1327, which led to uprisings in the Ilkhanid army. The uprisings ended when Bahadur died in 736 / 1335 and the state fell and new states emerged: Amir Choban Oghullari in Azerbaijan, Shaykh Hasan in Baghdad and the Eretna Emirate in eastern Turkey.","date_description_ah":"AH 654–736","date_description_ad":"AD 1256–1335"},"f1cbe826-876f-50ce-b965-80fab0039660":{"name":"Ottomans","also_known_as":"The Osmanlıs","area":"Anatolia, Balkans, Arab lands from Iraq to Algeria","history":"The Ottoman Dynasty, which ruled for more than 600 years over the eastern Mediterranean, represents an important period of world history in the region and beyond. The Ottoman Emirate, one of the emirates of western Anatolia, burst onto the stage of history in AH 698 / AD 1299 with Osman \\['Uthman\\] Bey, who quickly extended his territories by signing treaties with other emirates, or by declaring war on them, during a chaotic period for Anatolia in the AH 8th and 9th / AD 14th and 15th centuries.  \nThe Ottomans also survived the Mongols and established themselves as a considerable force in the region. With their army and the invincible armada of the navy, the Ottomans took Istanbul in AH 856 / AD 1453 and created an empire. Their supremacy reached its peak during the reign of Süleyman the Legislator (also known as the Magnificent), AH 926–73 / AD 1520–66, when their empire stretched to Europe, the Middle East and North Africa.  \nWith its abundance of different influences, the Ottomans built a cultural empire that strove to establish, defend and promote interaction between the elements that made up its ethnic and religious mosaic. Its eastern character dominated until the AH 12th / AD 18th century, when political changes made it susceptible to winds of change from the West, which really took hold in the AH 13th / AD 19th century.  \nDuring its ascendancy the empire managed to forge effective relationships with other states, but during its decline, pressures from outside seriously weakened the empire and led to its eventual destruction. Furthermore, the reforms of the AH 13th / AD 19th century never really took hold, and enlightened reformists were often beaten down by religious dogmatism. During this process the subjection of the people to the absolute power of the sultan, which retarded the emergence of critical voices, and the limited development of education, contributed to this 'global empire' taking its place in the pages of history.","date_description_ah":"AH 698–1340","date_description_ad":"AD 1299-1922"},"f8c970d7-62ca-5e05-86f1-9f9bd31c0606":{"name":"Early Islamic period","also_known_as":"The pre-Umayyad period","area":"What is today known as the Middle East","history":"The prosperity of the 6th century in Jordan was based on the intensive exploitation of the country's agricultural resources. When the Byzantine army withdrew from the fortified frontier, the Ghassanid phylarchs were assigned the duty of maintaining this frontier.  \nDuring the reign of the Byzantine emperor Maurice (582–602), the seeds of the two major conflicts (with the Sassanid Persians and with the Arabs), were sown, and the Ghassanid protective shield confronting the Sassanids and the Lakhmids weakened. The rise of the Mecca trade coincided with the breaking up of Ghassanid and Lakhmid hegemony. This same period also saw tribal movements and emigrations into their territories.  \nIn the reign of Phocas (602–10), the Persian war resulted in substantial losses of Byzantine territory in Armenia, Mesopotamia and a small part of Syria. In addition, the anti-monophysite policy of Phocas alienated large segments of the population including the monophysite Ghassanids.  \nThe reign of Heracles (610–41) coincided with Prophet Muhammad's mission in Mecca and Medina, and saw the bitter struggle between the two great imperial powers: Byzantium and Sassanid Persia. In 622, Muhammad and his followers left Mecca and migrated to Medina, which is known as the *Hijra* and set the beginning of the Muslim lunar calendar. In 629 the Sassanids evacuated Syria after almost two decades and in 630 the Byzantine emperor triumphantly entered Jerusalem. In the same year, the bishop of Ayla (modern Aqaba) arranged the surrender of the town to the Prophet Muhammad, and at about the same time Udhruh and al-Jarba surrendered and agreed to pay the poll tax. Muhammad died in 632 and was succeeded by the four great caliphs, Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman and 'Ali, who are known as the Rashidun, the 'rightly guided caliphs'. In 636, the Arab Muslims defeated the Byzantines at Yarmuk leading to the collapse of the Byzantine resistance. The assassination in AH 40 / AD 661 of 'Ali bin Abi Talib, a cousin and son-in-law of the prophet, ended the era of the Rashidun, and marked the beginning of the Umayyad Caliphate (41–132 / 661–750), when authority became hereditary.  \nAs is only natural, the Arabs in the first decades were too preoccupied with the consolidation of their power to care about monumental architecture and the arts. The earliest buildings, known only through historical sources, were limited to primitive mosques built in the *amsar* (military camps) of Kufa and Basra in Iraq, Fustat in Egypt and Kairouan in Tunisia.","date_description_ah":"AD second half of the 6 th century–AH 41","date_description_ad":"AD second half of the 6 th century–661"}}