@museumwnf/calligraphy-data 1.0.1

package/translations/glossary.de.json

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+{"ca7cf5ed-e85c-5aa3-8a00-3c4a246314af":{"definition":"Name der Iberischen Halbinsel (Spanien und Portugal) zur Zeit der muslimischen Herrschaft von 711 bis 1492","spellings":["Al-Andalus"]},"117026df-c5dc-512a-9991-1ed2c434ee26":{"definition":"(wörtlich „der/die/das Weiteste“ bzw. „Fernste\") Der Begriff bezieht sich auf die Aqsa-Moschee in Jerusalem, die Muslime als erste Referenz der *qibla* (Ausrichtung des Gebets) und als wichtigsten heiligen Ort verehren. Von der Aqsa-Moschee aus soll die Himmelfahrt des Propheten stattgefunden haben.","spellings":["Al-Aqsa"]},"fb4643f3-3421-5aaa-8b4f-85806f394bac":{"definition":"Dekoratives Muster aus islamischer Zeit, bestehend aus verschlungenen Blattmotiven und geometrischen Formen","spellings":["Arabeske"]},"f80f3b72-49a9-5057-bd6f-021ba24a6071":{"definition":"Instrument zur Messung der Entfernungen zwischen den Sternen und der Erde","spellings":["Astrolabium"]},"1967d28e-68f6-5e68-b680-9a66e81477fb":{"definition":"Oberbefehlshaber der Armeen. Das Wort stammt aus dem Türkischen und ist eine Zusammenziehung von *ata* („Vater“) und *beg* („Führer“). Ein Atabeg hatte die Aufgabe, seinem Fürsten die Kunst der Kriegsführung beizubringen.","spellings":["Atabeg"]},"e44ace71-d122-5c82-bf6b-34a79ff4b2d8":{"definition":"(Mehrzahl von Ibn)  „die Söhne von“ in der Bezeichnung von Mitgliedern eines bestimmten Familienclans","spellings":["Banu"]},"ac325296-5e0b-5e3e-b8c7-d6a3a6d559ca":{"definition":"häufig auch mit den Begriffen „Levante“ oder „Groß-Syrien“ bezeichnete Region, die das heutige Syrien, Jordanien, Libanon und Palästina umfasst","spellings":["Bilad al-Scham"]},"5f7e8640-1f2b-52a9-a589-f51ed84f4b50":{"definition":"Krankenhaus, das außerdem mit einer medizinischen Bibliothek ausgestattet war und als wissenschaftliche Bildungsstätte diente. Medizinische Behandlungen wurden unentgeltlich vorgenommen. Kräuter, Musik und Entspannungstechniken wurden als Heilmethoden eingesetzt.","spellings":["Bimaristan"]},"b6c3a09c-964b-5dd3-a091-e608967fe6ff":{"definition":"(nach dem arabischen „Khalifa“) das Oberhaupt der Muslime in der Nachfolge des Propheten","spellings":["Kalif"]},"801f574d-c2f6-52a3-ae7c-6a0074f1c59b":{"definition":"einfache Unterkunft entlang der wichtigen Handels- und Pilgerwege. Hier konnten Reisende (meist Pilger und Kaufleute) übernachten und ihre Güter sicher verwahren.","spellings":["Karawanserei"]},"90c8aeb0-fee7-5ad8-b2e8-525f87d18e3a":{"definition":"Zitadelle und Residenz des örtlichen Herrschers, die zumeist auch das Zentrum einer Stadt bildete. Der Begriff Kasbah wird am häufigsten in den westlichen Ländern des Islam verwendet, d. h. in Tunesien, Algerien und Marokko.","spellings":["Kasbah"]},"f583303a-89d1-5e38-9f75-1188be1c39d3":{"definition":"mehrheitlich ägyptische Christen und Anhänger einer der ältesten Glaubensrichtungen innerhalb des Christentums mit Ablegern in Äthiopien und dem übrigen Ostafrika. Die Kopten haben ihre eigene Sprache und eine eigene Zeitrechnung.","spellings":["Kopten"]},"8f750e3f-a3f4-5b39-8f9c-97cbf1eb56ec":{"definition":"Militärführer, Fürst oder hoher Beamter","spellings":["Emir"]},"0f3fb66d-a491-591b-a0c2-56e11ec481aa":{"definition":"(wörtlich „Auswanderung“) der Exodus des Propheten Muhammad von Mekka nach Medina im Jahr 622; bezeichnet auch den Beginn der islamischen Zeitrechnung","spellings":["Hedschra"]},"d741661c-846f-560d-a11c-19720819ac9a":{"definition":"wörtlich „Sohn des“, oft Teil eines Namens. Bei der Bezeichnung eines Familienclans ist der Plural Banu/Beni gebräuchlich.","spellings":["Ibn"]},"ee2f26d8-e2ea-53a3-b764-2204e426e058":{"definition":"alter islamischer Name für eine Region, die in etwa dem heutigen Tunesien entspricht","spellings":["Ifriqiya"]},"441e3156-be30-517c-a195-12e2d3486ed8":{"definition":"islamischer Vorbeter, Führer, Kleriker oder anderes geistliches Vorbild. Imame zeichnen sich durch Reinheit und Weisheit aus. Zum Teil sind sie auch politische Führer.","spellings":["Imam"]},"ed1392a3-c2e4-5dca-8b74-eaef4f0f9c94":{"definition":"in der islamischen Architektur häufig anzutreffende, dreiseitig geschlossene Gewölbehalle, an deren offene vierte Seite meist ein Innenhof mit Brunnen anschließt","spellings":["Iwan"]},"96a4f75a-c342-596d-869f-1064cf498d88":{"definition":"Zeit der Unkenntnis, d. h. des Heidentums auf der arabischen Halbinsel vor der Ankunft des Islam","spellings":["Dschahiliyya"]},"90bd1da2-abb0-5d9c-b340-7fc034249c2e":{"definition":"das Streben nach moralischer und religiöser Vollkommenheit durch Bildung oder durch das Spenden von Geld oder Reichtümern. Zum Dschihad gehört unter Umständen auch der Kampf „auf dem Pfad Gottes“ gegen Abweichler oder Heiden.","spellings":["Dschihad"]},"98afafd6-f8b6-5d37-923e-752f4697a5a7":{"definition":"wörtlich „der Würfel“) kleiner Tempel in Mekka, der nach seinem Umbau zum Mittelpunkt des Islam wurde. Er soll ursprünglich vom Propheten Abraham und seinem Sohn Ismail erbaut worden sein.","spellings":["Kaaba"]},"cf7d3667-7d96-58e6-af31-c5d6fe2c71b8":{"definition":"einfache Unterkunft entlang der wichtigen Handels- und Pilgerwege. Hier konnten Reisende (meist Pilger und Kaufleute) übernachten und ihre Güter sicher verwahren.","spellings":["Khan"]},"1863aa1c-4cad-53d2-a497-ecb16318e81f":{"definition":"Kloster oder Wohnhaus für Muslime, die einen mystischen bzw. sufischen Lebenswandel pflegen","spellings":["Khanqah"]},"aace2213-b96e-55dc-90b1-8852a726d654":{"definition":"Predigt beim Freitagsgebet","spellings":["Khutba"]},"95fc5a14-1b29-5364-810a-69fc76087256":{"definition":"nach der Stadt Kufa in Irak benannte, charakteristisch eckige Schrift, die zu den frühesten Formen der arabischen Kalligrafie gehört","spellings":["Kufisch"]},"220ac6c9-5bbb-5494-a7d7-a1992e0113c3":{"definition":"glasierte Töpferei, die in einem komplizierten Brennverfahren mit Metalloxiden bearbeitet wird, um ihr einen luxuriösen metallischen Glanz zu verleihen. Die Technik wurde in frühislamischer Zeit in Mesopotamien entwickelt und verbreitete sich im gesamten islamischen Kulturraum.","spellings":["Lüsterware"]},"455c1318-16a9-50f2-9c44-6643a9de238c":{"definition":"islamische Schule für die religiöse Lehre (z. B. Theologie, Recht, Koran) und Unterkunft für Gelehrte","spellings":["Medrese"]},"447568ab-11d8-5b46-9175-19f5e0ad280b":{"definition":"religiöser Anführer","spellings":["Mahdi"]},"bd6ee598-f323-5770-a786-0151295aea83":{"definition":"Titel mit der Bedeutung „Fürst“ oder „König“","spellings":["Malik"]},"e7f7d170-9ce3-5eb5-8c00-b201155164d8":{"definition":"meist konkave, manchmal auch flache Nische mit Spitzbogen in einer Moschee oder in einem Gebetsraum, die für das Gebet die Himmelsrichtung Mekkas anzeigt. Sie ist meistens der am aufwändigsten dekorierte Teil des Gebäudes.","spellings":["Mihrab"]},"a7da3b34-cced-5cac-bca5-7cde2160fdbf":{"definition":"erhöhte Kanzel für die Predigt während des Freitagsgebetes","spellings":["Minbar"]},"4c8c2130-e69d-5ae6-b03b-7dc72bf78f7a":{"definition":"„Königtum“ oder „Hoheit“ – ein Titel, der in kalligrafischen Verzierungen oft zur Schmückung luxuriöser, für den höfischen Gebrauch bestimmter Gegenstände benutzt wird","spellings":["Mulk"]},"bd2ffd1a-1d12-5fc1-ab6b-b186e0622cb6":{"definition":"stalaktitisches oder honigwabenartiges architektonisches Ornament. Es ist ein charakteristisches Element islamischer Architektur und kommt auf vielen Oberflächen zur Anwendung, etwa an Kuppeln und in die Wand eingelassenen Tordurchgängen.","spellings":["Muqarnas"]},"8ffa05a8-a165-5e2c-b72e-27e8d5f953ac":{"definition":"einer der weit verbreiteten Stile der arabischen Kalligrafie, zu dem auch eine leicht fließende Kursivschrift gehört. In seiner wörtlichen Bedeutung verweist der Begriff auf das „Kopieren“ und die Herstellung von Handschriften.","spellings":["Naskhi"]},"afa2f843-fdd4-5a67-9298-c7381518b3c8":{"definition":"Zitadelle oder Festung mit deutlich sichtbaren Verteidigungsanlagen wie unüberwindbar hohen Mauern, Türmen, Schießscharten und Glacis","spellings":["Qalat"]},"c47920b0-c22e-53d0-aa8c-93eb3956ca0e":{"definition":"(abgeleitet vom lateinischen *castrum*) Burg oder imposante Residenz","spellings":["Qasr"]},"0089ce74-d5cd-57d2-bbe4-c8de79b156c9":{"definition":"Lage der Kaaba, nach der die Gläubigen überall ihr Gebet ausrichten","spellings":["Qibla"]},"c39cd815-3b51-5b89-a4e4-5e9f2c0ca622":{"definition":"(wörtlich „Kuppel“) Grabmal über der Ruhestätte eines Heiligen, zu der üblicherweise eine Kuppel gehört","spellings":["Kubba"]},"30f08fe7-8bb1-504a-aa55-685d583ff5ba":{"definition":"Wiedereroberung der Iberischen Halbinsel durch die Christen, die acht Jahrhunderte arabischer Herrschaft beendete und eine Massenauswanderung von Muslimen zur Folge hatte","spellings":["Reconquista"]},"9a8096ea-a204-590a-8744-2ddf28c2b6b8":{"definition":"befestigte Anlage für Religionskrieger in Nordafrika; ein Hospiz für Pilger im mamlukischen Ägypten, Palästina und Syrien","spellings":["Ribat"]},"a8525513-1742-5e9f-85de-bb2067ad9fb6":{"definition":"öffentlicher Brunnen oder Gebäude, aus dem unentgeltlich Trinkwasser verteilt wurde","spellings":["Sabil"]},"b96fb0ed-83cb-5316-ab1d-f4e286f25845":{"definition":"Safaviden.","spellings":["Safaviden","Safavidisch"]},"c98013e1-9336-5b90-9d71-2658cca1e0ca":{"definition":"(wörtlich „der Ehrbare“) Nachkomme des Propheten Muhammad. Die Mitglieder von Familien, die ihren Stammbaum auf den Propheten zurückführen, bekleideten oft hohe religiöse oder politische Ämter.","spellings":["Scherif"]},"aea62142-bf4f-5655-8c52-b1e856151ce7":{"definition":"Titel, der „Herrscher“ bedeutet und normalerweise ein politisches Oberhaupt bezeichnet, dessen Autorität die nominelle Vorherrschaft des Kalifen nicht in Frage stellt","spellings":["Sultan"]},"811580e5-c0b8-5c27-8c10-3a3a36bee143":{"definition":"(wörtlich „Traditionen“) Der Begriff bezieht sich auf traditionelle Überlieferungen, die von Rechtsberatern und Theologen benutzt wurden, um unter Berufung auf den Propheten das im Koran niedergeschriebene islamische Recht mit der nötigen Autorität auszustatten.","spellings":["Sunna","Sunniten"]},"08fa434b-cde7-5b8b-be42-9e2217634cd8":{"definition":"der Markt als Mittelpunkt der islamischen Stadt und des urbanen Lebens","spellings":["Suq"]},"b9925565-dd1a-5d2a-b600-c734be2f3586":{"definition":"Abspaltung oder Gruppe. Der Begriff beschreibt üblicherweise den Zerfall des muslimischen Spanien in mehrere kleinere Königtümer während des 11. Jahrhunderts.","spellings":["Taifa"]},"577792e7-dcb2-5783-bc01-836c6f2cded6":{"definition":"Ehrentitel für hohe Verwaltungsbeamte oder Minister","spellings":["Wesir"]},"38031924-6b4f-5fb1-9337-c0222f9b16d2":{"definition":"von Steuern befreite Stiftung mit Land- oder Immobilienbesitz, deren Erträge für den Unterhalt religiöser Einrichtungen verwendet werden","spellings":["Waqf"]}}

package/translations/glossary.en.json

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+{"56afd259-0505-5d2d-b7f1-9be15cb0dea2":{"definition":"Arabic dynasty that initially ruled over most of the Islamic empire after assuming the caliphate in 750 CE.","spellings":["Abbasid","Abbasids"]},"137730df-6e0e-5520-b259-aa4bde8cd222":{"definition":"Abd al-Samad, an Iranian artist born approximately between AH 910 / AD 1505 and AH 920 / AD 1515 in Shiraz, received his artistic training at the royal workshop of Shah Tahmasp in Tabriz. He had a distinguished career, spanning from the AH 936 / AD 1530s until his passing in around AH 1008 / AD 1600. Abd al-Samad was a highly skilled artist with his roots in Safavid Iran. Initially, he served under Shah Tahmasp, who reigned from AH 930- 983 / AD 1524 to 1576 at Tabriz. Later, he was enlisted by the Mughal emperor-in-exile, Humayun.  Staring from AH 956 / AD 1549, 'Abd al-Samad, Alongside two other renowned Iranian court painters, Miravvir and his son Mir Sayyid 'Ali, served Humayun at his exiled court in Kabul.","spellings":["Abd al-Samad"]},"8e22eece-aa71-5c15-9776-799a90bed70e":{"definition":"A practice of ritual cleansing with water to be performed before prayer.","spellings":["Ablution"]},"c94f90f7-949a-50b0-93a1-337d3f7e80bf":{"definition":"Abu Zayd Kashani was an Iranian ceramicist, painter, calligrapher, and poet from the late 6th to early 7th century AH (late 12th to early 13th century AD). Abu Zayd is one of the most renowned ceramic artists from before the Mongol era, producing exquisite Minai and Zarrin-faam (gilded) ceramics over an extended period from 582 to 616 AH (1186-1219 AD). His works are considered among the earliest and most significant historical examples in the field of Iranian ceramics.","spellings":["Abu Zayd"]},"ee146c66-d28a-545e-ba9f-fbf2e523c6a5":{"definition":"An ancient city in Algeria, first capital of the Muslim dynasty of the Zirids.","spellings":["Achir"]},"199be476-a6fb-5584-8c39-6af25455b9be":{"definition":"A paper-treating process. Paper that was to be used for calligraphy had to be treated to prevent the ink from spreading. The paper was sized (*ahar*) with a special solution to obtain a very smooth surface.","spellings":["Ahar","Aharli"]},"84e97899-231d-5674-b71e-5b985f91973b":{"definition":"A decorative historical interior design technique and remains one of Syria’s best known handcrafts. The word itself describes different elements of the craft: from the act of applying relief paste to a plain surface, to the resulting ornamentation. Ajami also describes the type of room cladded with these artfully painted wooden panels. It is often complemented by the so called opus sectile works and complex carvings.","spellings":["Ajami"]},"85a0ff83-d0ac-53f5-8e2f-e782ef2dbb2b":{"definition":"An official chronicle of the reign of Akbar, the Akbarnama is a collection of texts and illustrated manuscripts written in Farsi by the court historian and biographer Abu’l Fazl ibn Mubarak and commissioned by Akbar himself. Composed between 1590 and 1597 CE, the manuscript consists of 274 folios of text interspersed with 116 illustrated folios and one illuminated front piece.","spellings":["Akbarnama"]},"34f3c711-7719-5478-a311-2b54051f81d0":{"definition":"One of the 99 names of God, meaning The Just, fair.","spellings":["Adil","Adili","Al Adl","Al-Adili"]},"7e65a713-3deb-5ac1-94da-c18827b66bd0":{"definition":"The 33rd Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Confederates\". It is consisted of 73 verses.","spellings":["Al-Ahzab"]},"b80f901c-a916-59e9-aef8-0417192fcbbe":{"definition":"One of the 99 names of God, meaning The Sublime, ever exalted, supreme, The Exalted.","spellings":["Al-Ali"]},"178f1fa5-283a-5cf8-8b24-7ea872bd9ccd":{"definition":"One of the 99 names of God meaning The Knowing, all knowing, The Knower.","spellings":["Al-Aleem","Al-Alim"]},"b167cfe8-dff2-5e19-ba87-f3396f0af125":{"definition":"The 6th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Cattle\". It is composed of 165 verses.","spellings":["Al-An'am"]},"c44302b7-5b2a-5247-b1b7-8c1a06993aa4":{"definition":"The 2nd Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Cow\". It is composed of 286 verses.","spellings":["Al-Baqara","Al-Baqarah"]},"ff459676-63f5-5f92-bb0c-69743e22e7fc":{"definition":"The 85th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Mansions of the Stars\". It is composed of 22 verses.","spellings":["Al-Burooj","Al-Buruj"]},"747e800c-2146-5632-889b-02f277a7ec61":{"definition":"From the Arabic word *Dawla*, meaning to turn, alternate, or come around in a cyclical fashion. The sense of alternating periods of fortune or misfortune led Arab writers to use the word when speaking of dynastic succession. In the 19th century, as Western distinctions between the state and the government began to filter into Muslim countries, Dawla became increasingly disentangled from its more personalistic connotations and began to be used almost exclusively in the sense of \"state\".","spellings":["Ad-Dawla","Al-Dawla"]},"201d853b-4474-51af-9e70-8502823535b6":{"definition":"The 48th Chapter/Surah of the Quran, meaning \"The Victory\". It is composed of 29 verses.","spellings":["Al-Fath"]},"b29a1eb8-4d03-527c-a470-6d9b2d53269c":{"definition":"The 1st Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Opening\". It is composed of 7 verses.","spellings":["Al-Fatiha","Al-Fātiḥah","Fatiha"]},"aaf61dd7-c338-5b59-9481-96b0fcd511b7":{"definition":"A court official, equivalent to a chamberlain, which evolved to fulfil various functions, often serving as chief ministers or enjoying dictatorial powers.","spellings":["Al-Hajeb","Al-Hajib"]},"a4191920-4704-5c00-a335-857aa8d5274e":{"definition":"The 49th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Private Chambers\". It is composed of 18 verses.","spellings":["Al-Hujurat"]},"9c2e2004-3d90-5af9-823b-a7e2d698d965":{"definition":"The 3rd Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Family of Irman\". It is composed of 200 verses.","spellings":["Al-Imran"]},"40da1488-6b0c-5407-91ab-fe344505219c":{"definition":"The 18th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Cave\". It is composed of 110 verses.","spellings":["Al-Kahf"]},"1a52b2c3-0eb5-5312-8a83-f0ba7f6908a0":{"definition":"Men’s traditional embroided cap.","spellings":["Al-Kummah","Kuma","Kummah"]},"5da091ab-2521-5fd0-9c6b-804078feb293":{"definition":"An honorific Islamic religious title given to Sunni Muslim religious scholars, generally means highly qualified Islamic scholar.","spellings":["Al-Mawlawi","Maulvi","Mawlawi","Mawlvi","Moulavi","Moulvi"]},"55aae703-bcda-5ede-aedc-b02a0583cc19":{"definition":"The 67th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Sovereignty\". It is composed of 30 verses.","spellings":["Al-Mulk"]},"9e9f2b8d-8a1b-5aca-ace2-23331cb7c2a6":{"definition":"The 16th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Bees\". It is composed of 128 verses.","spellings":["Al-Nahl","An-Nahl"]},"b5507ca5-7b73-5ef6-a10a-9bc22a2496b2":{"definition":"The 53rd Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Star\". It is composed of 62 verses.","spellings":["Al-Najm","An-Najm"]},"3d741e10-844b-53b3-bd76-b7ab36e8c586":{"definition":"The 4th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Women\". It is composed of 176 verses.","spellings":["Al-Nisa","An-Nisa"]},"1dd45db8-f741-5e90-9598-aa5bed784e70":{"definition":"The 54th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Moon\". It is composed of 55 verses.","spellings":["Al-Qamar"]},"3242530f-aeca-5f8b-9d24-7679d72a87b6":{"definition":"The 28th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Story\". It is composed of 88 verses.","spellings":["Al-Qasas"]},"b6bf9297-6c19-524c-aaab-018a4692c5ad":{"definition":"The 32nd Chapter/ Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Prostration\". It is composed of 3- verses.","spellings":["Al-Sajda","As-Sajdah"]},"1732d847-9072-5d1d-8fac-f261ec1dcf98":{"definition":"An Arab Muslim theologian, writer, and scholar, who was one of the first contributors of the principles of Islamic jurisprudence.","spellings":["Al-Shafi","Al-Shafi'i"]},"9e398194-c9e5-5b5c-ab78-4a4c9c5aea72":{"definition":"Means \"to send down\". In Quranic terminology, it refers to the process by which divine message (the holy Quran) comes to the heart of the messenger.","spellings":["Al-Tanzil","Tanzil"]},"df4c8625-0436-52ec-b25b-4c137d468556":{"definition":"The 86th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Night Comer\" or \"The Night Star\". It is composed of 17 verses.","spellings":["Al-Tariq","At-Tariq"]},"782abace-0002-5e80-8b1f-a5cb1d7a353a":{"definition":"The 9th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Repentance\". It is composed of 129 verses.","spellings":["Al-Tawba","At-Tawbah","Taubah"]},"16131753-740a-5b87-bfb9-06606e67de19":{"definition":"A flag, banner or standard. They were carried next to a commander in a military campaign or were used in religious processions. They could be very different in shape and had geometric designs, sometimes with inscriptions. A metal *alem* could be mounted to the head of a pole.","spellings":["Alem"]},"39b15d5c-120b-51e4-b058-0cc18bb7226a":{"definition":"From Ar. *farsh*. A flat ceiling of carved or artistically interlaced wood. It can also be a floor.","spellings":["Alfarje","Farsh"]},"22b53494-49b4-56ac-8f6f-9b4231d55ce1":{"definition":"(Pl. *alfices* (Es), *alfizes* (Pt)) From Ar. *hayyiz*. Rectangular surround to the Arabic arch, which frames the spandrels and starts from either the imposts or the base.","spellings":["Alfices","Alfiz","Alfizes","Alhayyiz","Alhiz"]},"bd05e9dd-5e09-5d30-8a24-431c8cbf57da":{"definition":"Ali Asghar, active around AD 977- 1008 / AD 1570-1600, was an artist in the Safavid court of Iran. He is particularly noteworthy for being the father of the renowned miniaturist Reza Abbasi, whose early artistic style likely bore the influence of Ali Asghar's work. Ali Asghar hailed from Kashan and, according to Qazi Ahmad, was one of Ahmad's teachers in the field of miniature painting. His career is believed to have commenced during the reign of Safavid Shah Tahmasp I (AH 930- 983 / AD 1524- 1576) before he relocated to Mashhad, where he emerged as one of the foremost painters in the service of the princely governor, Ibrahim Mirza, alongside other accomplished artists like Sheikh Mohammad and Abd-Allah.","spellings":["Ali Asghar"]},"b4b7cd95-2eef-5482-9f26-076ce3f742d8":{"definition":"First letter of the Arabic alphabet.","spellings":["Aleph","Alif"]},"d622d348-fe31-5163-9440-a84a07e7456c":{"definition":"(Pl. *‘ulama’*) Scholar, doctor of law and Islamic theological science. Fr: ouléma or uléma. Tr: alim, pl. ulema.","spellings":["‘Alim","Alim","Ulama","Ulema"]},"aac9c393-bcc9-5f99-b897-4114d6818298":{"definition":"Renegade.","spellings":["Alj"]},"fb4643f3-3421-5aaa-8b4f-85806f394bac":{"definition":"A designation for a two-dimensional ornamental pattern in Islamic art. Arabesques are constructed designs based on intertwined leaf stems and tendrils that create a continuous pattern sometimes in connection with scrolls or geometrical elements.","spellings":["Arabesque"]},"f80f3b72-49a9-5057-bd6f-021ba24a6071":{"definition":"A medieval scientific instrument used for astronomical calculations and navigation.","spellings":["Astrolabe"]},"1967d28e-68f6-5e68-b680-9a66e81477fb":{"definition":"Commander-in-chief of the armies. Atabegs were appointed as tutors for young Seljuq princes acting as governors of important towns but they gained power and in time their independence.","spellings":["Atabeg","Atabek"]},"7b9c0eb4-b88c-5f12-a29c-fb04001f136d":{"definition":"From Ar. *tayfur*. Bowl or deep plate characteristic of al-Andalus ceramic production.","spellings":["Ataifor","Tayfur"]},"78fafab8-3f5e-5796-824d-1b42baff7c16":{"definition":"From Ar. *tawriq*. Stylised plant motif ornamentation inspired by the classical acanthus, much used in Hispano-Muslim art.","spellings":["Ataurique","Tawriq"]},"6fd1696a-b5d7-52af-9ddf-69cb25fba143":{"definition":"(Pl. *‘attarin*) Merchant of perfume, incense and medicinal plants.","spellings":["‘Attar","Attarin","Ittar"]},"8383edc1-0cb4-52fa-9e3a-219b3a940129":{"definition":"(Pl. *ayat*) Verse in the Qur’an. Tr. ayet.","spellings":["Aya","Ayah","Ayat"]},"1a032c89-aa41-58cc-ab7b-69aae9ca6b91":{"definition":"Verse number 255 from sura al-baqara, and it is known as \"Master of the Noble Qur’an\" because of its tremendous and countless favours and blessings in reading the ayat.","spellings":["Ayat-al-Kursi"]},"1af94c96-d6eb-511f-8cdd-4fca18aafa8e":{"definition":"A spring.","spellings":["‘Ayn","Ayn"]},"b5ff90ab-5823-5d04-95e0-dc19f7472200":{"definition":"A Spanish and Portuguese term for glazed tiles which have been set into a larger pattern to cover walls in courtyards of mosques and palaces. It is a term common all over the Maghreb. See also *zellij*.","spellings":["Azulejo"]},"4c2bb21c-6364-5e2c-ad76-cc117a2e1056":{"definition":"Gate, door.","spellings":["Bab"]},"c7d29783-477c-5904-b170-0ec614236c60":{"definition":"Type of bowl.","spellings":["Badiye"]},"5414688b-b346-5448-a1fe-71b08489509c":{"definition":"The Bahram Mirza Album is a collection of Safavid artworks compiled for Prince Bahram Mirza, who was the brother of Shah Tahmasp. This album was put together by Dust Muhammad between AH 950-51 / AD 1544-45.","spellings":["Bahram Mirza Album"]},"e44ace71-d122-5c82-bf6b-34a79ff4b2d8":{"definition":"Literally “sons of”, used to refer to members of a clan. Plural of *ibn / bin*.","spellings":["Bani","Banu"]},"9d8dd39e-6208-5b40-8479-7eb99bd94348":{"definition":"Blessings or bounty. Tr. *Bereket*.","spellings":["Baraka","Barakah","Barakat","Barkati","Bereket"]},"ac67e975-1f75-526f-a8cd-402ccde93f6f":{"definition":"A formula, *bi-‘ism Allah al-Rahman al-Rahim*, which is commonly translated as “In the name of God, the Clement, the Merciful”. Fr. *besmala*; Tr. *besmele*.","spellings":["Basmala","Basmalah","Besmala","Besmele","Bi-smi llāh"]},"b8c40deb-d541-5941-870e-bbb5a22c7520":{"definition":"(Pl. *biyut*) Room; in certain cases a house. *baytal-Hikma*: tribunal. *bayt ad-diwan*: reception hall. *bayt al-nar*: furnace, literally “house of the fire”. See also *dar*, *qasr*.","spellings":["Bayt","Bayt-al-diwan","Bayt-al-nar","Beyt","Biyut"]},"9f0f473b-d1c4-579a-830e-8c67cf9124bc":{"definition":"Public market or designated place for commerce; covered market with doors (Persia). Fr. bazar. See also *arasta*, *bedesten*, *qaysariyya*, *suq*.","spellings":["Bazaar","Bazar"]},"d262760a-d7c7-5583-b3d6-98f5a67ea709":{"definition":"A commercial building with at least two aisles (in Istanbul three or four) and covered with domes of equal size. The most precious merchandise was kept in *bedesten*s, which functioned like banks do today. The word was derived from *bezzazistan* where bezzaz means a seller of fabrics. See also *arasta*, *bazaar*, *qaysariyya*, *suq*.","spellings":["Bedesten"]},"7aec7586-75a7-5362-b7c6-f62646540331":{"definition":"A decorative technique developed in the AH 3rd / AD 9th century in Samarra for stucco panels, marble and woodwork, which shows vegetal ornaments in an abstract way and has slanted or bevelled contours.","spellings":["Bevelled style"]},"816929a9-190c-57b7-8bc6-469a25050fac":{"definition":"The ruler of an independent emirate; a title of respect for a man of the upper classes; title held by the sovereign vassals of the sultan. *Beylerbeyi*: The bey of beys: the highest rank in the provincial government of the Ottoman Empire. *Beylicat*, *beylik*: soverignty of or territory ruled by a bey. See also *agha*, *dey*.","spellings":["Bey","Beylicat","Beylik"]},"5f7e8640-1f2b-52a9-a589-f51ed84f4b50":{"definition":"Hospital, infirmary or asylum.  \n  \nTr. *darüşşifa*, *şifahane*.","spellings":["Bimarestan","Bimaristan","Darüşşifa","Maristan","Şifahane"]},"5f340924-0a32-5b50-8c50-755492945fed":{"definition":"In the Islamic world blue-and-white ceramics appeared in Mesopotamia in the AH 3rd / AD 9th century. Blue-and-white porcelain in China produced from the 8th / 14th century onwards had great influence in the Islamic world where it was collected at court and was imitated in the workshops of Ottoman Iznik and Safawid Iran.","spellings":["Blue-and-white"]},"53b06a4c-1741-53c4-bd23-415aa3ce7613":{"definition":"Fort, bastion, tower, sometimes surrounded by an outer wall. The term passed into mediaeval Portuguese toponymy as *alvorge* or porches. In Tunisia it also means a secondary residence surrounded by gardens; a pleasure palace. Maghreb *borj*. Egypt *burg*. Tr. *burç*.","spellings":["Bordj","Borj","Burç","Burg","Burj"]},"5a9bc858-c027-5f9a-91c2-3756c4d27816":{"definition":"A universal oriental rug design element. Boteh is Persian for \"bush\" and buta is Hindi for \"flower\".","spellings":["Boteh","Buta"]},"66ada953-471d-537e-9767-a3228aab765c":{"definition":"A charge in the shape of a solid diamond, rhombus, could also mean a bundle of cloths.","spellings":["Buqja"]},"9a9a89fb-e90f-5cab-beec-84b022128bf3":{"definition":"A burqa is a full body veil, and sometimes also refers to a part of the *kiswa*, the textile cover of the Ka’ba.","spellings":["Burka","Burqa"]},"9c5b0b5e-062a-5b06-ace2-d6a40e4d5cb9":{"definition":"The term \"Bustaan\" or \"Bustan\" directly translates to \"Garden\" or \"Orchard.\" It is also the title of a poetry book penned by the Persian poet Saadi in AH 655/ AD 1257. The book is rich with valuable spiritual guidance and practical wisdom.","spellings":["Boostaan","Boostan","Bostan","Boustan","Bustaan","Bustan"]},"b3b18f28-32c7-5836-ae64-e0df239443e1":{"definition":"The Byzantine empire (306 to 1453) which was preceded by the Roman empire and succeeded by the Ottoman Empire.","spellings":["Byzantine"]},"b6c3a09c-964b-5dd3-a091-e608967fe6ff":{"definition":"Ar. *khalifa* literally “successor”. The supreme head of the Muslim community. Caliphate: the territory under the power of the caliph.","spellings":["Caliph","Khalifa","Khalifah"]},"c2953466-916b-57e9-9f3b-409c9af9afa1":{"definition":"The “art of beautiful writing” (Greek) is one of the highest artforms of Islamic culture. As the Arabic language is connected with the revelation of Islam, calligraphy has deep spiritual undertones and is valued as a symbol of beauty and mystery. There are many types of calligraphy with variations according to period, place and context. Many artists of the Arab and Muslim world continue to practise calligraphy today. See also *diwani*, *farsi*, *kufic*, Maghribi-Andalusi, *muhaqqaq*, *naskhi*, *nas*ta’liq**, *rayhani*, *ruq’a*, *ta’liq*, *thuluth*.","spellings":["Calligraphy"]},"801f574d-c2f6-52a3-ae7c-6a0074f1c59b":{"definition":"From Persian. Hostel along main travelling routes to accommodate travellers and safeguard their goods. See also *funduq*, *khan*, *wikala*.","spellings":["Caravanserai"]},"90c8aeb0-fee7-5ad8-b2e8-525f87d18e3a":{"definition":"Fortress, citadel, usually equated with the city centre. Ar. *qasba*. *Ksiba*: small kasbah, the name of a neighbourhood in Bizerte, Tunisia. See also *hisn*, *qal’a*.","spellings":["Casbah","Kasbah","Ksiba","Ksibah","Qasaba","Qasba","Qasbah"]},"ecd12214-7b80-5d96-a6e4-054647695519":{"definition":"Curved concave sweep.","spellings":["Cavetto"]},"a27048f2-e463-56af-bb14-17e5dd57b741":{"definition":"A title of respect, given to men of the upper classes; the epithet of Sultan Mehmed I. Tr. *Çelebi*.","spellings":["Çelebi","Chalabi"]},"8013dd99-b044-5c32-9cd2-44d308c0c03d":{"definition":"A term used in enamelled metalworking. Enamel glass powder is fired and fixed within depressions incised in the surface of the metal. In pottery this term is used for vessels with decoration standing out in relief obtained by taking away a slip and receiving an additional covering with a lead glaze.","spellings":["Champlevé"]},"988f73c6-aa80-5184-979f-cc026b118caf":{"definition":"A frieze of geometric motifs, also meaning reminiscent of crenelations.","spellings":["Charafa"]},"e6ca4d52-63e1-5c91-8d45-5c007bd19735":{"definition":"Artistic motifs originally from China that were used in Islamic art reflecting the strong Chinese influence since the Mongol periods. Typical designs are cloudbands, lotus-flowers and fabulous creatures such as the qilin. See also blue-and-white, *hatayi*, Ming-style, wave-and-rock motif.","spellings":["Chinoiserie","Ming-style"]},"589d63b5-b3ff-5340-a217-d02452caa1bb":{"definition":"Chogan is a traditional Iranian horse-riding game that incorporates music and storytelling, boasting a rich history of over 2,000 years in Iran. It was primarily enjoyed in royal courts and urban fields, with both men and women participated in the game.","spellings":["Chaugan","Chogan","Chovgan","Chugan"]},"cf4307ca-f437-5c58-80b8-f9b0100711fa":{"definition":"A term used in enamelled metalwork. The enamel colours are laid in separate compartments as required by the design. These compartments are formed from thin metal strips set on edge so that the different colours cannot fuse during the firing process.","spellings":["Cloisonné"]},"4a12c207-113d-5b87-992e-9db5d88374f3":{"definition":"The first Muslim societies continued to use Byzantine solidus gold coins and Sassanian silver dirhams. In time, Qur'anic phrases, place of minting, names of caliph and sultan and Hijri date were added. With the Umayyad coinage revolution in AH 696–7 / AD 1296–7, pure epigraphic coins came into use. Akche: silver coin, basic unit of Ottoman money system; dinar: gold coin, equal to 10 dirhams; fils: copper coin.","spellings":["Coinage"]},"44562f82-b0b6-5353-939a-47fccfb7fa3c":{"definition":"Sacred text of the Islamic Revelation transmitted by the Archangel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad. From the root *qr*’, “to recite, to read”.","spellings":["Coran","Koran","Kuran","Qur’an","Quran"]},"61dd2431-5d5a-563f-98ea-305257d3eed8":{"definition":"Literally “dry cord”, a way of separating different coloured glazes on a tile during firing with greased cords. The term is also used for the technique of delineating the contours of a design with a mixture of wax or vegetable fat and manganese oxide. It is also known as “coloured glaze technique” in Turkish art and is seen in Turkey in the AH 9th–10th / AD 15th–16th centuries.","spellings":["Cuerda seca"]},"f3052f85-4db5-5572-a790-f3dc9a248659":{"definition":"(Pl. *dur*) House. *Dar al-imara*: Governor’s house. Dar al-Islam: Domain of Islam: countries under Islamic rule; where Islam did not rule was considered war territory. *Dar al-Hadith*: A school for studying the Hadith; Tr. *Darülhadis*. *Dar al-Hijra*: Abode for migration. *Dar al-khuffaz*: A school for training of memorising the Qur’an; Tr. *Darülhuffaz*. Dar al-Qurra’: school for teaching Qur’an recitation as a science ; Tr. *Darülkurra*. *Dar al-shifa’*: hospital; Tr. **darüşşifa**. *Dar al-tibb*: A school where the medical sciences were taught; Tr. *Darüttıb*. See also *bayt*, *qasr*.","spellings":["Dar","Dar al-Hadith","Dar al-Hijra","Dar al-imara","Dar al-Islam","Dar al-khuffaz","Dar al-shifa’","Dar al-tibb","Darülhadis","Darülhuffaz","Darülkurra","Darüşşifa","Darüttıb"]},"a4f8f7c7-245b-5188-b8fe-8085676b0785":{"definition":"Mausoleum. See also *maqam*, *mashhad*, *qubba*, *türbe*.","spellings":["Darih"]},"b64a1f79-8f29-5ad4-8e98-379f8e05cb1b":{"definition":"Member of a Muslim religious order noted for its devotional practices. Fr. *derviche*.","spellings":["Darvesh","Darwish","Derviche","Dervish"]},"1a10a00e-64ff-5b66-8fec-3064ccfa26fe":{"definition":"In decorative arts it usually refers to a decorative form, but it can also carry the meaning of vortex.","spellings":["Dawama"]},"9e337d3c-af6d-5856-bb0c-0ed39eab0859":{"definition":"Term used in Libya, Tunisia and Algeria for a high-ranking officer in the Turkish militia elected by a local council of janissaries. Below the Ottoman *Beylerbeyi* in rank deys nevertheless represented absolute power in the region. When they came into conflict with the Ottoman court, they were punished heavily. Tr. *dayı*. See also *agha*, *bey*.","spellings":["Daya","Dayi","Dey"]},"eb4ec166-81db-5b55-9f7c-de12b453b102":{"definition":"The term dhikr comes from the triliteral root that means \"to remember\". In the context of the Islamic tradition, dhikr means the remembrance of God. This remembrance of God can take many forms. The word dhikr is also used to mean litanies and specific phrases in remembrance of God. This term could mean the Quran.","spellings":["Dhikr","Thikr","Zekr","Zikar","Zikr"]},"a63b6fb1-4ed2-5e10-a649-69af7e23c299":{"definition":"Diamonds (today) are known as the most prized gemstones, but they have not always had this reputation. They were primarily valued for their physical properties, particularly their hardness and fire resistance. Due to these traits, numerous myths have been created about diamonds, some of which date back to the 17th century or before. Several powers have been attributed to the stone, including purification, invincibility, and even the ability to spontaneously create others of its kind. In ancient Arabic medicine there was a belief that diamonds could cure all illnesses of the body and mind. One of the most popular legends involving diamonds is of the so-called Diamond Valley. Dating from the 4th century BC, the legend speaks of an inaccessible valley filled with snakes and other terrifying creatures, the floor of which is covered with an endless amount of diamonds. This legend has further contributed to the idea that diamonds are rare and immensely hard to find.","spellings":["Diamond","Diamonds"]},"7eec6a72-c8ce-585f-9877-4899a0de9956":{"definition":"A type of silk cloth.","spellings":["Dibag"]},"f68bb09f-0323-528e-a7bc-c97eec5531d8":{"definition":"Monetary unit used in several countries. It was first introduced as an Islamic coinage in the late 7th century CE by Abd al-Malik of the Umayyad dynasty. The dinar dates from the Roman times, when it was known as denarius. Made of gold.","spellings":["Dinar","Dinara"]},"dc07b2ea-551e-5012-a166-43402ac5534c":{"definition":"Silver coins, also used as a weight standard (2.97g).","spellings":["Dirham","Dirhem","Dirhm"]},"5117e6c8-5cec-5590-83a7-081569b2f889":{"definition":"(demon, monster, fiend), often confused with *ḡūl *(orge, ghoul) and jinn in both folk and literary traditions, expresses not only the idea of \"demon\", but also that of \"ogre\", \"giant\", and even \"Satan\". They are often black, with long teeth, black lips, blue eyes, claws on their hands, and large bodies covered with thick hair.**","spellings":["Dev","Div"]},"3230cdd8-ec0e-5aa1-9b44-adc5716d86b8":{"definition":"An office of government; audience hall, reception chamber; a collection of poems. Tr. divan; divan-ı Hümayun: the Imperial Council, chaired by the Grand Vizier, forming the central organ of the Ottoman government.","spellings":["Divan","Diwan","Diwani","Diwaniya"]},"c20c4a88-510d-575f-be26-b42955b12694":{"definition":"Dust-Moḥammad was a highly regarded figure in the Indo-Persian realm, as well as among the Ottomans, due to his multifaceted talents encompassing painting, paper cutting, calligraphy tracing, and possibly bookbinding and gilding. He served as a secretary to Bahram Mirza, a notable Safavid prince who was both an art enthusiast and collector. Bahram Mirza acclaimed Dust-Moḥammad as the finest student of Behzad, a prominent artist of the time. It's important to note that Dust-Moḥammad should not be confused with another contemporary calligrapher by the same name, Dust-Moḥammad b. Solayman.","spellings":["Dust Muhammad"]},"476a1ad7-f594-57bd-8ef5-ddfe4dba9e8b":{"definition":"A lacquer technique first seen in Iran in the AH 9th / AD 15th century during the Timurid period. It was named after Edirne in Turkey from where the best examples came. It was used on different media such as bindings, drawers and bows.","spellings":["Edirnekari"]},"16e5e640-a860-5917-bc5f-7e13a3825ded":{"definition":"\"Emeralds are gemstones from the beryl mineral group which develop in a hexagonal shape. The gemstone got its name because of its color (from the Greek *Smaragdos*, meaning green stone), and it is said to symbolize the force of cosmic life, strength and inner peace.  \nEmeralds are considered to be the gemstones of alchemists, who believe the emerald of wisdom gives life to nature. In Central America, they are related to fertility. In ancient Egypt, emeralds decorated funerary jewelry of noblemen and other high-ranking individuals. Because the gems were extremely rare, green colored glass or pottery were sometimes used instead.\"","spellings":["Emerald","Emeralds"]},"8f750e3f-a3f4-5b39-8f9c-97cbf1eb56ec":{"definition":"A military commander, prince or senior official; the ruler of an emirate or principality; Tr. *emir*. amir akhur: *amir* responsible for sultan’s stables, camels and postal service; Tr. *emir* *ahur* or imrahor. amir al-Mu’minin: Prince of Believers; Tr. *emirü’l-müminin*. amir al-Muslimin: Prince of Muslims; Tr. *emirü’l-müslimin*. amir al-silah: *amir* responsible for arms. amir kabir: Great Amir. Fr. *émir*.","spellings":["Ahur","Amir","Amir Akhur","Amir al-Muslimin","Amir al-silah","Emir","Emirü’l-müminin","Imahor"]},"5d77d3cf-d7dc-59de-8fe9-16b4846e152d":{"definition":"Another name for slip, now largely obsolete.","spellings":["Engobe"]},"cd62ef51-dfea-5e66-a924-b9ac8fd72a21":{"definition":"A French term for maiolica, tin-glazed earthenware of post-Medieval Europe. Also a ceramic composed of a body of crushed quartz and an overlying glaze, common in the ancient Near East and Mediterranean. Capable of being moulded into small objects which were initially confused with earthenware with a white tin glaze and the term faience, incorrectly applied, has remained in use.","spellings":["Faience"]},"74e6afec-ff94-5208-be36-9ce20440d5ee":{"definition":"A book of omens used by fortune tellers in Iran, India and Turkey during the 16th and 17th centuries. Individuals seeking insight into the future would engage in a series of purification rituals, turn to a random page in the Falnama, and interpret the text and drawings thereon for good or ill. Also known as divination books, they were also composed for rulers in need of guidance during military campaigns or who were caught in difficult political circumstances.","spellings":["Falnama"]},"6f9e5b1d-8c35-59ba-9052-011f4c240ecf":{"definition":"The evaluation of the goodness or badness of deeds according to the Islamic point of view was called *fiqh* (understanding), and the person holding the qualities of knowledge and competence to produce opinions in this respect was called faqih (the knowledgeable who understands well). The consideration of human actions within an Islamic religious context was encouraged by sayings of the Prophet, such as \"He whom God favours with good, God makes him the one who understands in religion (*faqih*)\".","spellings":["Faqih"]},"3fd5d8e5-d6d9-5084-a7bc-f270946f8c24":{"definition":"\"Farsi\" refers to the Persian language. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and is written in the Persian script.  \n  \n1\\. An inhabitant of Persia. 2. Cursive, particularly elegant calligraphic style which emphasises the curves of the Arabic letters by reducing the angular figures. See also calligraphy.","spellings":["Farsi"]},"38f9b696-41fe-5bb6-aea9-f97476afeed6":{"definition":"This term has different meanings:  \n  \nFez  \nCity in northern Morocco  \n  \nFez  \nA brimless cylindrical or somewhat cone-shaped hat with a flat top that usually has a tassel, is typically made of red felt, and is worn especially by men in eastern Mediterranean countries","spellings":["Fes","Fez"]},"83ff6b98-4005-5eb0-8acb-322d72def706":{"definition":"Bronze coin.","spellings":["Fals","Fils"]},"664a6020-4914-5595-8215-d0a0af9a4b9e":{"definition":"(Pl. *fuqaha’*) Muslim canonical jurisprudence. *Fqih*: jurisconsult versed in the code of Islam, the person specialising in *fiqh’*. There are four schools of Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. See also Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, Shafi’i.","spellings":["Fiqh","Fuqaha'"]},"9710d010-10f2-5ad9-b13d-b664a92335eb":{"definition":"A Persian poet who authored the Shahnameh. This monumental work stands as one of the most extensive epic poems ever composed by a single poet, and holds the esteemed position of being the preeminent epic within Persian-speaking nations.","spellings":["Ferdausi","Ferdowsi","Firdausi","Firdawsi"]},"111b1877-22ac-5026-90bf-a0267a993a00":{"definition":"An edict of a sultan with official court directives. Firmans of the Ottoman sultans are paper scrolls of different length with an artistic signature (*tughra*) of the sultan as a heading, a written text in an official script followed by a number of testifying signatures at the end.","spellings":["Farman","Ferman","Firman"]},"30b4ea5c-4774-5bfc-bea3-025184b06e0f":{"definition":"A designation for a ceramic body consisting mainly of quartz and some glaze mixture. In the firing process the quartz and the glaze fuse to a white body, sometimes also called stonepaste.","spellings":["Fritware"]},"720487c1-6546-5ad8-96ce-6caedac4ddab":{"definition":"A leaf with illustration preceding the title-page of a book.","spellings":["Frontispiece"]},"b54d5ba9-119e-5200-8993-1d307bd7f285":{"definition":"A compendium of military arts written by Muhammad ibn ʿIsa ibn Ismaʿil al-Hanafi al-Aqsari, who dedicated it to the Mamluk viceroy of Egypt, Ala al-Din Asanbay al-Abu Bakri. It became the most popular Mamluk book on *furusiyya *(horsemanship) and many illustrated copied were made for Mamluk patrons in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.**","spellings":["Furūsīyah","Furusiyya"]},"ac65deea-d395-59f6-bb9f-0cdc678424a3":{"definition":"\"The term garnet includes a large group of silicate minerals which have the same basic structure and a consistent chemical formation which occasionally vaires when other elements are present. The name of this gemstone derives from the Latin term *granum*, meaning grain. Garnets come in all colors, among which the most common is red and the rarest is blue. Garnets can be divided into a series of subtypes: pyrope, almandine, spessartine, grossular, uvarovite and andradite.  \nThe most popular and widely used of these is the pyrope subtype. For a long time, pyropes and almandines were grouped under the same name, which was carbuncle. In ancient Judeo-Christian legend, it is believed that Noah used a carbuncle to light up his arc. The name pyrope comes from the Greek word *pyropos*, meaning fire-like, since pyropes are of a recognizable red palette. The stone was particularly popular around the globe in the 18th and 19th centuries. The main sources of this subtype of garnet can be found in the Czech Republic, which is why it was commonly called the “Czech Ruby”. Because of their abundance, garnets are omnipresent in European decorative arts. Garnet mines can also be found across Europe, Southeast Asia, and Africa.\"","spellings":["Garnet","Garnets"]},"8fcc7f3b-7497-583a-8d85-b885dbba2fcd":{"definition":"Emblem of the Emirate.","spellings":["Ghalaba"]},"27868be9-9431-528b-afde-ded951a1e72a":{"definition":"Pencase","spellings":["Ghalamdan","Qalamdaan","Qalamdan"]},"d0a5c7c0-4aea-55a1-99af-300a6e2be808":{"definition":"A type of knife. Could also refer to the ubiquitous short lyric whose cultivated formal rhetoric readily allows its expressions of private feeling to achieve widespread public outreach through recitation and musical performance as well as written dissemination. Also, could refer to a gazelle.","spellings":["Ghazal"]},"1123d155-1d0c-59e5-8ecc-ca1e2b7a31e9":{"definition":"From ghazwa (military raid), referring to a noble title for those who participated in battles for Islam. It became a military rank during the Mamluk period and was notably applied to Mahmud of Ghazni, as inscribed on Mahmud’s Tower in Ghazni in AH 421 / AD 1030. Tr. *gazi*.","spellings":["Gazi","Ghazi"]},"dd2f9d46-df26-59b2-b682-78d2a3080826":{"definition":"Arabic word for happiness.","spellings":["Ghibta","Ghibtah"]},"e0e8a76f-5937-523a-b87b-6d2a0c6528d7":{"definition":"Applying gold to the surface of an artwork. Gilding can be applied to most materials, including marble, stone, stucco, wood, metalwork, ceramics, glass and paper. Different techniques are used to apply gold, as it can be applied in a light wash or as gold-leaf foil. Tr. *tombak*, gilded copper technique.","spellings":["Gilding (gold)","Tombak"]},"f2b2bdf4-e6b8-5c67-94e3-3fdbc00d8e88":{"definition":"A thin layer of glass is applied to the surface of a ceramic before firing. In the kiln firing the glaze fuses, protecting the ceramic and making it waterproof and suitable for different purposes. Lead glaze is transparent and soft but vulnerable to cracking and chemical deformation. Tin glaze: an opaque white glaze containing tin, developed in Baghdad in the AH 3rd / AD 9th century to rival Chinese porcelain and transmitted from there to Moorish Spain and then the rest of Europe. Faience, maiolica and Delft wares have tin glazing.","spellings":["Glaze"]},"04723e93-e903-5ff8-abd0-54ec24fd67cf":{"definition":"Italian, literally, “scratched”. The pottery vessels made in this technique have received a slip and a decoration that is incised through the slip showing the contrasting colour of the body. The decoration is then covered with an additional lead glaze.","spellings":["Graffiato","Sgraffito"]},"bf45b8ed-e1ac-5ab7-a72d-85c57ebcf786":{"definition":"A decorative ceramic glazing technique where the only colours used are the green of copper oxide and almost black manganese. At the end of the process, the whole composition is covered with a transparent layer of lead glaze.","spellings":["Green and manganese"]},"3c9bbe16-2c54-5e14-a88a-57b9fca326d5":{"definition":"Literally means flower or rose in Turkish but could also refer to a large octagonal design derived from the shape of a rose, a motif on Oriental rugs.","spellings":["Gol","Gul"]},"ed99231a-c0b2-5d20-a744-24e1dda99d0d":{"definition":"Literally meaning rose garden. It also refers to a literary work, a book of Persian prose written in 1258 by Sheikh Sadi Shirazi, a writer widely recognized as one of the greatest masters of the classical Persian literary tradition.","spellings":["Golastan","Golestan","Gulistan"]},"2fb79a2a-639b-5703-9b25-ab627b16aef8":{"definition":"A gift of real estate bequeathed in perpetuity under certain conditions in favour of a mosque or other religious institution, such as a *madrasa* or *khanqah*, or a civil institution such as a *sabil*, or even a house. See also *waqf*.","spellings":["Habus"]},"c18561f3-9ed2-5c21-92a7-c3476d781d57":{"definition":"Literally, “sayings”. Body of traditions related to the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad and his companions. *Dar al-Hadith*: see *dar*.","spellings":["Hadis","Hadith"]},"34de20aa-0e07-573b-bdd7-f5b965cda195":{"definition":"\"Seven Thrones,\" known in Persian as \"Haft Awrang,\" is a renowned work of Persian literature by the poet Jami, believed to have been written between AH 872- 890 / AD 1468 and 1485.","spellings":["Haft Awrang"]},"4a7c27f5-2059-522b-a21e-ee99a0c6ac00":{"definition":"A high government official. The term originally designated a chamberlain, but under the Spanish Umayyads the *hajib* functioned as a chief minister, paralleling the position of vizier in the eastern caliphates.","spellings":["Hadjib","Hajib"]},"cccf5396-0f64-5785-9f34-bb8b7a5ffd5b":{"definition":"One of the five pillars of Islam: pilgrimage to Mecca and holy places, which all believers must accomplish at least once during their lifetime if they have the means to do so. By extension it also refers to someone who undertakes the pilgrimage. Hajj takes place two months after Ramadan and finishes with the Feast of Sacrifice (Eid al-Adha). ‘Umra has almost the same rituals as the Hajj but takes place outside the Hajj season. ‘Umra’s significance is growing because there is no means to house the increasingly large numbers (over three million) who want to go on Hajj.","spellings":["Hadj","Hadji","Haj","Hajj"]},"de7e96f7-ca25-58f9-a626-c8701ca41269":{"definition":"\"Halnameh,\" or \"Guy u Chugan,\" is a mystical masnavi by Mahmud ibn Muhammad Aarifi Heravi, a poet and mystic of the Timurid era.","spellings":["Halnameh"]},"fc74d5ab-7517-53a5-9a58-0cb34c65fec8":{"definition":"Public or private bathhouse. Apodyterium: changing room; Tr. *soyunmalık*. Caldarium: hot room. Hypocaust: floor and wall heating system by steam in Roman baths and villas. Tepidarium: warm room where bathers would rest after bathing; Tr. *ılıklık*. Also in Turkish bathhouse: *aralık*: passageway between the *soyunmalık* and *ılıklık*; *halvet*: private chambers in a public bath; *traşlık*: small room used for the removal of body hair. Also in Syrian bathhouse: *barrani* (lit. “exterior”): the cold room of a bathhouse because it is usually located furthest from the furnace; *juwwani*: most interior part, closest to furnace – steam room; *wustani*: middle chambers designated as the “warm water chambers”. See also *maqsura*.","spellings":["Hamam","Hammam","Hammams"]},"cc92b83e-cb72-55df-b6de-8ddaf5a44e3f":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. Tr. Hanbeli. See also *fiqh’*.","spellings":["Hanbali"]},"982c3a21-b99b-5c3b-b3d3-65276466c18d":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. Founded by Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man, it became the chosen school of the Ottomans. Tr. Hanefi. See also *fiqh’*.","spellings":["Hanafi"]},"d71360cd-eac1-5408-b6b3-59ad3d8464b9":{"definition":"Ar. literally “sacred”, “forbidden”. Sanctuary. An illicit act from the religious point of view. Haram al-Sharif: the Noble Sanctuary in Jerusalem including al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock.","spellings":["Haram","Haramsarā","Harem","Harīm"]},"0ad8de69-3a63-53bc-8e1b-4c6cae853bca":{"definition":"Common living space in a Turkish house. Tr. also *sofa*.","spellings":["Hayat","Sofa"]},"e66e69a5-bb8f-5155-9d62-63d9729f3cfa":{"definition":"Type of Persian rug. Instead of originating from a specific area, these rugs are categorized by their designs and patterns. The designs used in the Herati rugs are labelled as Herati as well, hence where the name originates.","spellings":["Herati"]},"16851f92-8fb5-54ee-8fd1-58ab8dc1b8f5":{"definition":"The collective name for a number of early Arabic scripts that developed in the Hejaz region of the Arabian Peninsula, which includes the cities of Mecca and Medina.","spellings":["Hejazi","Hijazi"]},"0f3fb66d-a491-591b-a0c2-56e11ec481aa":{"definition":"Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Madina in AD 622. The beginning of the Muslim Hijri (Hegira) calendar, which follows a lunar year.","spellings":["Hegira","Hijra","Hijrah"]},"c0013a33-832b-5aec-b97e-3901d8475a95":{"definition":"The crescent Moon, also known as the most common symbol of Islam.","spellings":["Al-hilal","Hilal"]},"dcd58376-8ba5-5488-bec0-53d4cf2fa497":{"definition":"A prose description of the Prophet Muhammad. Hilya-i Sharif: noble description of the prophet, a work of art bearing the noble description.","spellings":["Hilya","Hilye"]},"30791f6d-6352-5d7a-8002-6f4f250bd3c4":{"definition":"Necklace, could also refer to an amulet.","spellings":["Hirz"]},"3d299572-ee10-5a78-93a1-b50bfe645ec5":{"definition":"Castle. See also *qal’a*, *kasbah*.","spellings":["Hisn"]},"d847fbc2-ce74-54e5-8546-78b1da2e747e":{"definition":"Belt.","spellings":["Hizam"]},"07f9ade5-1099-54b3-9064-0e9a6525cda8":{"definition":"A seat or covered pavilion on the back of an elephant or camel.","spellings":["Houdar","Hourah","Howdah","Howder"]},"c8f1dda2-4eb6-56a9-ab2a-90bd17c5301c":{"definition":"The 11th sura of the Quran, it has 123 verses (ayat). It relates in part to the prophet Hud.","spellings":["Hud"]},"c58452c8-0bf7-5a14-8773-673ad0923590":{"definition":"Unfortunately, no information has been found about his life in contemporary sources, and further investigation is required. However, below is information about some artworks attributed to him:  \nThe Mausoleum of Imamzadeh Qasim, known as the Astana Mausoleum, is situated in the centre of the city of Babol. Its entrance, the creation of Husayn ibn Master Ahmad Saravi, features a beautiful and intricately carved door, dating back to the year AH 890 / AD 1485. Within the mausoleum, an elegant, exquisitely carved box sits atop Imamzadeh's grave. Constructed during the month of Sha'ban al-Mo3azam in the year AH 888 / AD 1483, as with the entrance way, this box is also the craftsmanship of Husayn ibn Master Ahmad Saravi.","spellings":["Husayn ibn Master Ahmad"]},"d741661c-846f-560d-a11c-19720819ac9a":{"definition":"Son of, used in names. To indicate a clan the plural form *Bani / Banu*. is used. Tr. –*oğlu*.","spellings":["Ben","bin","ibn"]},"1cde97a5-238a-57b7-ae98-c6e06d4dd4a2":{"definition":"A small metal pot, usually of copper, with a long metal handle, used for preparing Turkish, Arabic, or Greek style coffee. Could also refer to a spouted jug made of metal or clay, usually used for ablution.","spellings":["Ibrik"]},"73a0a800-b933-53ac-9f7a-3030985394ef":{"definition":"Meaning fortune.","spellings":["Eqbal","Igbal","Ikbal","Iqbal"]},"87122e5b-a77c-5347-b610-ee9b8c2fd3ca":{"definition":"A form of educational certificate. The ijaza could take different forms: it could be a formal attestation of a scholar that some individual had, in some fashion, studied a particular text with him, or it could be his statement that the student had mastered an entire field of learning. In any case, it was a personal document, which confirmed the relationship of the student to his teacher, and through him to his teacher’s own instructors. Through it, the student took his place in a genealogy of authorities that constituted the only recognized hierarchy of the educational system at the time.","spellings":["Ijaza","Ijazah"]},"de12acd8-39dd-5dba-ac9c-b6e91df924c7":{"definition":"Ikat fabric is a dyeing technique used to create a distinct style of textile patterns. Ikat is done by resist dyeing sections of the yarns prior to weaving the fabric.","spellings":["Ikat"]},"78382734-788f-5068-b99e-3cc129b1f007":{"definition":"Political entity officially known as Iranzamin. It was established and ruled by the Mongol House of Hulagu.","spellings":["Ilkhanate","Ilkhanid"]},"441e3156-be30-517c-a195-12e2d3486ed8":{"definition":"One who presides over Islamic prayers, a guide, chief, spiritual model or cleric; sometimes also a political leader in Muslim society.","spellings":["Imam"]},"8f367dab-0120-518e-b2ab-f888fb65bc16":{"definition":"Office or region and country ruled by an Imam (spiritual leader).","spellings":["Imamah","Imamate"]},"0b81a7a9-57fd-5a5c-b6f0-f67773236be6":{"definition":"Imam refers to a holy person in Shia Islam. Imamzadeh refers to their offspring.","spellings":["Imamzada"]},"d92f6fd0-31e4-5a3e-a04f-1708743e899b":{"definition":"From Ar. *imara*. A complex of buildings and institutions supported by a *waqf*. After the AH 10th / AD 16th century a public soup-kitchen for the poor.","spellings":["imaret"]},"471e3135-0bfb-5648-b37a-608939ef3fed":{"definition":"Arabic name for the Gospel of Jesus (*Isa*), or any gospel in general. It is usually spelled *injil*.","spellings":["Indjil","Injil"]},"a23158c9-7afc-5a3c-ad75-9ecc73727c13":{"definition":"A technique in which cut ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell or the like are arranged in a geometrical pattern, often within a wooden framework.","spellings":["Inlaying"]},"ffd69886-00a2-5968-b0e0-16249a1412eb":{"definition":"A cultural and historical treasure in central Iran, often referred to as \"Nesf-e Jahan\" (Half of the World) due to its grandeur and beauty. Isfahan is famous for its stunning architecture, including the Imam Mosque, Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque, and the historic Naqsh-e Jahan Square. It has a rich history as a capital of the Persian Empire during the Safavid dynasty and is renown for its Persian handicrafts and exquisite tilework.","spellings":["Esfahan","Isfahan"]},"ed1392a3-c2e4-5dca-8b74-eaef4f0f9c94":{"definition":"A vaulted hall or domed hall, walled on three sides with a large opening arch. Tr. eyvan.","spellings":["Eyvan","Ivan","Iwan"]},"eb5afced-0046-5fd2-aa51-8192d7a0f140":{"definition":"Fragment of lintel, a textile outfit.","spellings":["Izar"]},"0c7c1002-ee4f-5507-9e43-3d8636035b0a":{"definition":"A type of architectural decoration, usually in the form of a window grill, constructed of ornaments, geometric motifs and other shapes.","spellings":["Jaali","Jali"]},"273dff1e-b908-5770-9385-d987f829c77f":{"definition":"\"The term jade refers to two types of minerals: jadeite, which is a silicate of sodium and aluminium; and nephrite, a silicate of magnesium, potassium and iron. The two types are quite difficult to distinguish from one another, and therefore are both commonly called jade. These minerals both measure at six point five to seven on the Mohs scale. When cut, jade has a matte appearance, but possesses extraordinary shininess when polished. It comes in a variety of colors, among which the most prized are green, pink and yellow.  \nThe presence of jade in human history dates back over seven thousand years, and in myths it is one of the most mystical and mysterious gemstones. Cultures from many regions, such as South America, Asia and the Pacific Islands, all have their own versions of the story of how jade got its name. Jade is a very important gem in Chinese culture, appearing in many shapes and forms, and is affiliated with numerous beliefs of both protective and romantic natures. It is also believed that when struck, jade can produce the sound of a loved one’s voice. Talismans made from this precious stone are also popular in the Islamic world, especially among ethnic Turks, who pass them through generations as heirlooms.\"","spellings":["Jade","Jades"]},"96a4f75a-c342-596d-869f-1064cf498d88":{"definition":"A period of ignorance, referring to the paganism of pre-Islamic Arabia. Tr. Cahiliye.","spellings":["Jahiliyya"]},"070e713b-f503-5f87-be41-16cb73c070b4":{"definition":"Main mosque where daily prayers and Friday prayers are celebrated. Tr. *cami*. See also *meşrebiye*.","spellings":["Cami","Djama'a","Djamaa","Djemaa","Jama","Jama'a","Jama’","Jamaa","Jami","Jami‘"]},"b1ec8e21-3e6a-5dda-9949-a516128c3408":{"definition":"An officer in the army of India, or any of several police or other officials of the government of India.","spellings":["Jamadar","Jamdar","Jemadar"]},"7910cc31-4aef-536d-b917-919e64b075ff":{"definition":"The Ottoman sultan’s standing infantry corps, recruited from non-Muslims under the devşirme system and paid from the Treasury. Tr. *Yeniçeri Ocağı*.","spellings":["Janissary","Yeniçeri Ocağı"]},"32060b9a-7161-59c6-9be7-e3a6e3d49442":{"definition":"Literally \"beautiful garden\". Heaven/Paradise. Tr. *cennet*.","spellings":["Cennet","Djena","Djenaïn","Djenan","Janna"]},"90bd1da2-abb0-5d9c-b340-7fc034249c2e":{"definition":"Striving towards moral and religious perfection, the motivation for which may lead to fighting “on the path to God” against dissidents or pagans.","spellings":["Jehad","Jihad"]},"9b746350-d82d-5ab5-9676-62bdb3be99b1":{"definition":"View of the World', a geographical work written by Kâtip Çelebi (Turkish historian, geographer, and bibliographer) that makes the first use, in Turkey, of European atlases and other sources.","spellings":["Cihannüma","Jihannuma"]},"b3d75c6a-1878-50e5-88da-5dc169dc75c0":{"definition":"A spirit inhabiting the earth but unseen by humans, capable of assuming various forms and exercising extraordinary powers. Belief in jinn was common in pre-Islamic Arabia, where they were thought to inspire poets and soothsayers. Their existence was affirmed in the Qurʾān, and they are conceptualized in Islam as creatures parallel to human beings who are capable of choosing between good and evil and must thus face eventual salvation or damnation. They are beings of smokeless flame by nature, in the same manner in which humans are said to be made of earth, and they cannot be seen by human beings.","spellings":["Djinn","Genie","Jinn"]},"41bd67aa-d50c-5f48-99eb-3debc6dce503":{"definition":"Captain of the polo team/polo player.","spellings":["Jukandar"]},"e6edb4f1-d8d8-54aa-8bf3-e3a0e739c95b":{"definition":"(Pl. *ajnad*) Military and administrative province.","spellings":["Ajnad","Jund"]},"2003ec95-a720-51cb-9dcd-774d9dc9f389":{"definition":"The text of the Qur’an can be divided into 30 equal sections. One-thirtieth is therefore called a *juz’* (pl. ajza). When Qur’ans were written in 30 volumes, as in Mamluk Egypt, one volume was a *juz’*.","spellings":["Ajza","Juz’"]},"98afafd6-f8b6-5d37-923e-752f4697a5a7":{"definition":"Literally “cube”. Temple in Mecca, the centre of the Islamic religion.","spellings":["Ka'bah","Ka‘ba","Kaaba","Kabah"]},"dde3bab2-6c93-59de-b512-d4ebe4ea584d":{"definition":"A usually cotton or silk ankle-length garment with long sleeves that is common throughout the Islamic world.","spellings":["Caftan","Kaftan","Khaftan"]},"a440e09c-19a4-5c75-a54b-ddacd997f4c6":{"definition":"Colourful decoration done with a k*alem* (brush) on a plastered surface.","spellings":["K'alem","Kalemişi"]},"a5dc60b2-f250-5e30-b242-9a7e914f186d":{"definition":"Meaning knife and could also refer to a craftsman who makes knifes or qalams.","spellings":["Kalemtraş"]},"7640516c-0c76-5b6f-a9de-f1ab4b92ab78":{"definition":"A straight, single-edged dagger that is worn on the left side of the belt.","spellings":["Kard"]},"a69e0be4-5747-5dbc-a7a3-cd85630b3c1d":{"definition":"Type of tile. The word kashi (tile) has derived from the name of Kashan City which has been well-known as the center of tile making and pottery industry since the early Islamic period.","spellings":["Kashi"]},"0e06d30a-be13-5433-806d-bc31ca55617d":{"definition":"A type of push dagger from the Indian subcontinent. The weapon is characterized by its H-shaped horizontal hand grip which results in the blade sitting above the user's knuckles.","spellings":["Kataar","Katar"]},"ba012528-e332-58db-968d-165b78bc6d94":{"definition":"A kilim is a traditionally crafted flat tapestry-woven carpet or rug originating from countries that were part of the former Persian Empire, such as Iran, the Balkans, and Turkic nations.  \nKilim is woven from silk, goat hair, sheep's wool, or other domestic quadrupeds.","spellings":["Gilim","Kelim","Kilim","Klim"]},"5805ea4d-515f-570c-944e-b39504e35c2a":{"definition":"This term has two meanings:  \n  \nHAND OF FATIMA  \nThe “Hand of Fatima” or “Khamsa”, which can be found in souks all around Morocco, be it metallic, ceramic, coloured or made from camel bone, is a very widespread talisman. Khamsa means “five” and refers to the five fingers of the hand. Khamsa is an amulet which is typical of both the Islamic and Jewish religion.  \n  \nQUINTET OF POEMS  \n\"Khamsa\" typically refers to the quintet of poems composed by the Persian poet Nezami Ganjavi in the 12th century. This collection, recognized as the \"Khamsa,\" which means five in Persian and Arabic, or \"Quintet,\" the term used in Europe, comprises five epic poems),\" “Makhzan al-Asrar” ( The Treasury of Mysteries), \"Khosrow and Shirin,\" \"The Seven Beauties,\" \"Eskandar-Nameh\" (The Book of Alexander), and \"Layla and Majnun.\" \"Khamsa\" is a compilation of Mathnawi poems, employing rhyming couplets, a specific form of Persian poetry well-suited for longer narrative works. Nezami's \"Khamsa\" is esteemed for its poetic beauty, moral depth, and the adept interweaving of historical and mythical elements. This masterpiece has left an enduring impact on Persian literature, being actively studied and appreciated for its literary and cultural significance.","spellings":["Hamsa","Hamza","Khamsa","Khamse","Khamseh"]},"cf7d3667-7d96-58e6-af31-c5d6fe2c71b8":{"definition":"Ar. Inn, lodgings on the main caravan routes for travellers (pilgrims and merchants) and where merchandise could be stored. See also *caravanserai*, *funduq*, *wikala*. Tr. *han*.","spellings":["Han","Khan"]},"1863aa1c-4cad-53d2-a497-ecb16318e81f":{"definition":"Monastery or hostel for itinerant Sufis or dervishes. Tr. *hanikah*, *hankah*. See also *zawiya*.","spellings":["Hanikah","Hankah","Khankah","Khanqa","Khanqah"]},"364dd964-3408-5e4e-8db6-c9b7e5e3d30a":{"definition":"Egyptian art of tent-making is created using a hand-applique technique in which fabric pieces are cut, folded and skilfully hand-sewn to canvas, producing impressive tents and wall hangings. These vibrant textiles are widely used in ceremonial contexts such as weddings, funerals, street parties and religious events.","spellings":["Khayamiyya","Khayamiyyah"]},"6dc0bc86-bae7-595d-afd4-5801f58f6005":{"definition":"Treasurer, responsible for State coffers (khaza’in) where the money and gold of the sultan or *amir* was kept.","spellings":["Khaznadar"]},"b8b82127-2aac-57e8-ba1a-3104f9b6f7a3":{"definition":"Word used to describe a library, but could also mean closet, depending on the dialect and context.","spellings":["Khizana"]},"2a3c0ddd-2061-5547-b807-78d7dfc8a700":{"definition":"A vast historical region in north-eastern Iran, known for its diverse culture and history. It encompasses several major urban centres, including Mashhad, the holiest city in Iran due to it being home to the Imam Reza Shrine. Khurasan has been a centre of trade, scholarship, and civilization for centuries, with influences from various dynasties and empires.","spellings":["Khorasan","Khurasan"]},"aace2213-b96e-55dc-90b1-8852a726d654":{"definition":"The weekly sermon of the Friday prayer. Tr. *hutbe*.","spellings":["Hutbe","Khutba"]},"5e01e09b-4d1f-5455-951d-7bc5119dd368":{"definition":"Table.","spellings":["Khwan"]},"a8f9be4b-5b14-52b7-a8e8-0a528cefe2ec":{"definition":"Jar stand.","spellings":["Kilga"]},"c7a6e5ba-2a85-5491-b7e4-4bdb152f4a22":{"definition":"A historically significant city and province located in south-eastern Iran. Kerman is renowned for its rich cultural heritage, including traditional crafts like carpet weaving, as well as its architectural marvels such as the Ganjali Khan Complex and the Jameh Mosque. The region is known for its desert landscapes, particularly the Lut Desert, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Kerman is also celebrated for its unique cuisine, blending Persian and Baluchi flavours, and its pivotal role as a hub on the historic Silk Road, fostering trade and cultural exchange between the East and the West.","spellings":["Kerman","Kirman"]},"53d47884-ba36-5979-a58f-ff35b0bd8587":{"definition":"A cloth composed of different parts to cover the Ka’ba in Mecca. It is embroidered in silk and gold with Qur’anic verses. A new one is made each year. The change takes places during the Hajj, when the old *kiswa* is cut up and distributed among the people. Cloths with zigzag patterns of calligraphy that cover mausolea cenotaphs are also called *kiswa* (e.g. in Palestine).","spellings":["Kiswa","Kiswah","Kiswat"]},"64d6c154-9408-5c99-93c4-4d53ffce9b15":{"definition":"Book. Kitabat: inscriptions.","spellings":["Kitaab","Kitab","Kitabat","Kuttab"]},"95fc5a14-1b29-5364-810a-69fc76087256":{"definition":"An Arabic script of angular and stylised characters used in Qur’ans in the early period of Islam. It is attributed to the city of Kufa in Iraq. From the AH 4th / AD 10th century it was less used because it could be difficult to read. Foliated *kufic*: a script that combines the angular style of the letters with decorative floral and vegetal motifs as finials, popular during the Fatimid and Atabeg period. See also calligraphy.  \n  \nKufic script emerged as an Arabic script style, initially rising to prominence as the favoured choice for transcribing the Qurʾan and adorning architectural structures. Over time, it evolved into a point of reference and an exemplary model for various other Arabic scripts. Kufic script is characterised by its markedly angular form within the Arabic alphabet, originating in the initial copies of the Qurʾan.","spellings":["Kufic"]},"81dc2164-deae-5d1f-8a05-4e038d6354b1":{"definition":"An Ottoman Turkish term that refers to religious and charitable complexes comprising several buildings with the mosque is at the centre. The other buildings were the hospital, bathhouse, soup-kitchen *darüşşifa* (hospital), *hammam* (bathhouse), *han* (lodgings), *imaret* (soup-kitchen), *madrasa* (school).","spellings":["Külliye"]},"6d80067a-11d1-5a05-8e27-1c1e30ff12b0":{"definition":"Word used for chair or throne, depending on the context.","spellings":["Kursi"]},"747c42e9-649d-5559-a7b6-1d32a0a36949":{"definition":"A ceramic technique (from Persian *lajvard*, – lapis lazuli) in which a monochrome coloured glaze was applied to a tile or vessel, which was then fired. The ceramic was then painted with an enamel colour and fired a second time. Like lustreware, *lajvard*ina wares were costly to produce and are only found in Ilkhanid Iran.","spellings":["Lajvard","Lajvardina"]},"767908ab-0b28-53cf-9774-1e73c7a6b4d0":{"definition":"A type of Turkish robe.","spellings":["Lampas"]},"961fe836-4b40-5496-978f-d23cca1475bd":{"definition":"A ceramic technique in which raised or incised lines separate the different colours of a painted vessel in order to keep them from fusing. This type of pottery was made in Syria and Iran in the AH 6th / AD 12th century.","spellings":["Laqabi","Laqabi ware"]},"642f2ce2-807c-5e5a-b4f5-d6f4bbb30fbb":{"definition":"Literally means board in Turkish, but also refers to calligraphic panels.","spellings":["Lawha","Levha"]},"f3dba2c3-a9fd-5b74-903f-49b2ea0ba680":{"definition":"Connected to blessings, meaning to whom it belongs, to the owner.","spellings":["Lisahibihi"]},"220ac6c9-5bbb-5494-a7d7-a1992e0113c3":{"definition":"A ceramic technique in which a thin coating of metal oxide resulted in an iridescent and golden shining surface on glazed ceramics. The lustre technique was introduced to many different regions by travelling potters.","spellings":["lustre","lustre-painted ware","Lustreware"]},"ff94889d-f66f-5e04-bc88-5fba2822cea4":{"definition":"Location in southern Jordan, located 218 km from the capital Amman.","spellings":["Ma'an","Maan"]},"f2c933f6-93e1-5c11-a123-36ceacc8076f":{"definition":"Comes from ضيف (*dayf*guest). A *madafa* is a building or specific room within a home designated for receiving guests.","spellings":["Madafa"]},"455c1318-16a9-50f2-9c44-6643a9de238c":{"definition":"Theological institution that provided instruction on Islamic law (*shari’a*), jurisprudence (*fiqh*), Quran, Hadith, and Arabic, as well as accomodations for students.  \n  \nToday, a school. Fr. *medersa*, Tr. *medrese*.","spellings":["Madrasa","Madrasah","Madrasas","Madrasat","Madrassa","Madraza","Medrese","Medresse"]},"be71e06b-ee9d-56dd-9643-241707440030":{"definition":"Maghribi calligraphy takes its name from the Arabic word \"Maghribi,\" meaning \"western,\" and is associated with the western Islamic regions of North Africa and Spain, where this script and its variations originated in the 10th century. Its distinguishing characteristics include descending strokes with large, sweeping curves or loops, uniform stroke thickness, the frequent use of brown ink, a horizontal baseline, flat vowel markings, and its lineage traces back to the earliest rounded script of the Arabian Peninsula.","spellings":["Maghribi"]},"447568ab-11d8-5b46-9175-19f5e0ad280b":{"definition":"Religious leader","spellings":["Mahdi"]},"b1520fd2-381d-5d56-a9d2-7d019d4f34c2":{"definition":"A richly decorated tent-like structure used on the back of a camel to transport noble ladies. Also used as a means to transport the *kiswa* in the yearly Hajj caravan sent by sovereigns to Mecca with pilgrimage delegations.","spellings":["Mahmal"]},"060fddee-5dfb-5fcb-a8e2-9adf565f8bfd":{"definition":"A keeper and driver of an elephant.","spellings":["Mahout","Mahut"]},"2c82480a-44bd-565c-9d5c-7b38307ae24e":{"definition":"Tin-glazed earthenware with painting on unfired glaze, typical of Spain and Italy, and believed to have been influenced by Islamic pottery techniques.","spellings":["Maiolica","Majolica"]},"b8d16d41-1432-570b-9412-811f1725b1bb":{"definition":"Makhzan al-Asrar is the renowned title of a Mathnawi written by the Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi. This collection represents the initial part of Nizami Ganjavi's most famous work, \"Khamsa of Nizami,\" and stands as a notable instance of didactic literature.","spellings":["Makhzan al-Asrar","Makhzan ol-Asrar"]},"a37a6b9d-ede1-5960-8830-f900244aa585":{"definition":"Pen-cutting slab, (also spelled as *maqta*) a small sab sometimes made of bone used to cut the tip of the bamboo or reed Qalam.","spellings":["Makta","Maqta"]},"bd6ee598-f323-5770-a786-0151295aea83":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. Founded by Imam Malik and spread throughout the western Muslim world including al-Andalus.","spellings":["Malik","Maliki"]},"82f05a30-a07c-5d4f-83a3-2156afc3ed35":{"definition":"Light, lamp, beacon. See also *fanar*.","spellings":["Manar","Manara","Me'zana","Minar","Minaret"]},"991d6b1e-4feb-5ca1-b2e2-466e617e394e":{"definition":"A ceremonial handkerchief, could also refer to a napkin.","spellings":["Mandil","Mandilion"]},"05371b2a-b09c-5164-a04a-d35718e21692":{"definition":"Arabic word for “inflated”, “puffed up” or “Blown”.","spellings":["Manfukh"]},"af45d65f-d61d-59ed-bd55-76ee503119e9":{"definition":"Building of one or more architectural units, usually with a dome, that contains the tomb of an important religious figure. A place of worship, and pilgrimage. See also darih, *mashhad*, *qubba*, *türbe*.","spellings":["Maqam"]},"5f70c6f4-762e-5438-bf74-53c9daaa431c":{"definition":"Area of sanctuary in congregational mosques reserved for the caliph or the *imam* during public prayer times. Also, a place in a public building that is set aside for private use (as found in a *hammam*). Fr. *maqsoura*.","spellings":["Macsura","Maksura","Maqsoura","Maqsura","Maxura"]},"f2ec79dc-0998-56d5-8cc2-bce2d4228e77":{"definition":"Building of one or more architectural units, usually with a dome, that contains the tomb of an important religious figure. A place of worship, and pilgrimage. See also darih, mashhad, qubba, türbe.  \nAdditionally, Mashhad, alternatively spelled as Mashad or Meshed, serves as the city and capital of the Khorasan-e Razavi province in north-eastern Iran.  \n  \nSee also darih, *maqam*, *qubba*, *türbe*.","spellings":["Mashad","Mashhad"]},"3bcfdeb5-5c8a-58e9-8dfd-9ad2a9f98fdb":{"definition":"Wooden lattice screens made of turned pieces of wood assembled to form a window grille. Fr: *machrabiyya*. Tr. *meşrebiye*.","spellings":["Mashrabiya","Mashrabiyya","Meşrebiye"]},"f176a992-6546-55ba-a3e5-6877adc61b76":{"definition":"Literally, “place of prostration”. A mosque where daily prayers are held, usually with the exception of the Friday prayers, which cannot take place in a *meşrebiye* owing to the absence of a *minbar*. Tr. *mescit*. See also *jami’*.","spellings":["Masjid","Mescit"]},"e99f9b90-c624-5aa1-815f-a47f478f7da3":{"definition":"Town, the old quarter, self-sufficient city centre. Also the name of a city in Saudi Arabia where the Muslims migrated in AD 622 and where the Prophet Muhammad is buried.","spellings":["Madina","Madinat","Medina","Medinat"]},"e7f7d170-9ce3-5eb5-8c00-b201155164d8":{"definition":"Arched niche, usually concave but sometimes flat, in religious Islamic buildings indicating the direction of Mecca, which worshippers face when praying.","spellings":["Maharib","Mihrab"]},"a7da3b34-cced-5cac-bca5-7cde2160fdbf":{"definition":"A stepped pulpit for delivering the sermon during the Friday prayers and the first morning prayers during the two big Muslim feasts. It is placed to the right of the *mihrab* in a mosque. *minbar*s first appeared in the Umayyad period.","spellings":["Mimber","Minbar"]},"0c051692-aaa6-5bc3-9767-1917d3208074":{"definition":"Weight standard for gold dinars (4,25 g), established during the reign of Abd’ al-Malik of the Umayyad dynasty.","spellings":["Miskal","Misqal","mithkal","Mithqal","mitqal"]},"b2f40fe6-7d9e-55fe-91fd-b02fa7f5b5a2":{"definition":"In the Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula the name given to Muslims who formally converted to Christianity after the Reconquista.","spellings":["Morisco"]},"a95bf8cd-02b1-5d88-b68d-c21999469de6":{"definition":"See *jami’* and *meşrebiye*.","spellings":["Mosque"]},"d9555abf-9d44-5fae-95f4-b894702cfcd9":{"definition":"From Ar. *must‘arab*. A member of the Christian minorities, tolerated by Muslim rulers as tributaries, who lived in al-Andalus holding on to their religion and ecclesiastic and judicial organisation.","spellings":["Mozarab"]},"a26fcbf5-43f5-53e6-8d77-b2efc78c5302":{"definition":"Funerary stele which is usually made out of marble. Mqabriya is an equivalent of a tomb stone.","spellings":["Mashrabiyya","Mqabriya"]},"432a631d-9c77-5598-9224-35e8479385c8":{"definition":"(Pl. *murabitun*) A religious Muslim, sanctified by asceticism, whose tomb is a place of pilgrimage; a warrior-monk living in a *ribat*. The name of a dynasty known in English as Almoravid that ruled al-Andalus AH 454–541 / AD 1062–1147. Fr. *mourabit*, *mourabitoun*.","spellings":["Mourabit","Mourabitoun","Murabit"]},"b01a26b1-9ff1-5e29-aedd-bb4316a59907":{"definition":"A volume measuring instrument that has been widely used as a reference measure in the Islamic region for the payment of *zakat*, *fidya* and *kaffara*. Many well-known literatures have their own definition of the mudd, but never being discussed technically in term of volume calibration. It equals to 628 ml (KSA).","spellings":["Mudd"]},"9c8d51a2-cb58-59b3-92e4-fecb1ca87eb4":{"definition":"From Ar. *mudajjan*. Muslims who were allowed to remain among their Christian conquerors, without changing their religion, in exchange for tribute. The adjective Mudéjar is also used to describe traditional craftsmanship begun under Islamic domination and continued for Christian clients after the Christian conquest.","spellings":["Mudajjan","Mudéjar"]},"b9deabe4-38f9-5144-9eed-f59423fe7ddc":{"definition":"Muslim religious official charged with announcing from the mosque minaret the five prayers of the day. *Müezzin mahfili*: Tr., special platform for the *muezzin*s. See also *adhan*.","spellings":["Mu'azzin","Mu’addin","Mu’adhdhin","Muezzin"]},"95cd8cc7-61c1-518d-a3d1-397850242e35":{"definition":"A Muslim legal expert who is empowered to give rulings on religious matters.","spellings":["Mufti"]},"323fc8b6-ea1a-5717-982f-38123c87161c":{"definition":"Muhaqqaq is an Islamic calligraphic style that emerged in the 10th century and was employed widely in the Islamic world for creating elaborate, large Qur'ans and architectural inscriptions. Its defining characteristics include a precise, angular script with upright letters, meticulously balanced ascenders and horizontal elements, a distinct horizontal emphasis (wider than it is tall), descending strokes terminating in straight, sharp points rather than curving upwards, and the frequent use of descending round strokes that encircle the following letter. Muhaqqaq is typically employed in combination with \"Rayhani,\" a smaller rendition of the same script.  \n  \nA large cursive script related to the *naskhi* script used in the Middle Ages. It is one of the six basic styles of writing. Tr. *muhaqqaq*. See also calligraphy.","spellings":["Muhaqqaq"]},"89bfc871-8edd-5e4f-81e0-fe5ff704e5e9":{"definition":"Muin Musavvir was a prominent Persian miniaturist during the 17th century in Safavid Iran. It is believed that he was born around AH 1018- 1024 / AD 1610-1615. Mu‘in Musavvir received his artistic education under Reza Abbasi, who was the preeminent painter of that era. It is thought that he probably passed away in AH 1104 / AD 1693.","spellings":["Aqa Muin","Mo'en Mosavver","Mu‘in Musavvir","Muin Musavvir"]},"23ba4d6b-6ce4-504a-b495-efdcb419b6ed":{"definition":"Literally the \"chosen one\". This term designate the person responsible for the clan or tribe; typically an elder.","spellings":["Mukhtar"]},"4c8c2130-e69d-5ae6-b03b-7dc72bf78f7a":{"definition":"Kingdom or sovereignty. The word is often applied in calligraphic ornamentation to decorate courtly items.","spellings":["Mulk"]},"bd2ffd1a-1d12-5fc1-ab6b-b186e0622cb6":{"definition":"Stalactite- or honeycomb-like architectural ornamentation which adorns many surfaces including domes and corbels. In the Maghreb *muqarbas*. Fr. *mouqarnas*.","spellings":["Mouqarnas","Muqarbas","Muqarnas"]},"032d07d0-de44-5fc4-b2ac-8712cfaa0838":{"definition":"Muraqqa is the Persian term for an album of paintings and calligraphy.","spellings":["Murakka","Muraqqa","Muraqqa'at"]},"b43d4539-8c8e-5de3-ba56-a72f1632c7c8":{"definition":"Meaning \"bitter\", often used to describe coffee.","spellings":["Murra"]},"9f4d1152-e032-5509-a8f6-ac7d6117d2d3":{"definition":"An Arabic word for a codex or collection of sheets, but also refers to a written copy of the Quran.","spellings":["Mus'haf","Mushaf"]},"8ffa05a8-a165-5e2c-b72e-27e8d5f953ac":{"definition":"Literally “copied”. One of the most widespread styles of Islamic calligraphy used in Qur’ans and other books. It combines the flexibility of the *farsi* style with the harmony of the *kufic* script. Tr. *nesih*.","spellings":["Naskhi","Nesih"]},"ea137b2c-4b18-5db2-bba2-703e333c897d":{"definition":"Whilst prevailing belief is that Naskh calligraphy emerged in 310 AH (922-23 AD), recent research suggests it evolved from the Kufic script that dates back to the early days of Islam. Over time, Naskh supplanted Kufic as the preferred script for the Qur'an. Today, Naskh is the dominant script used in Qur'an transcription, surpassing all other scripts combined due to its enhanced legibility.","spellings":["Naskh"]},"ddabdcad-fe35-518d-a9c0-32923e6bd220":{"definition":"One the most widespread styles of Arabic calligraphy (with *thuluth* and *naskhi*), developed by Persian calligraphers. A stronger and more stylish form of *ta’liq*, it is characterised by its rounded forms, clarity and geometrical purity. Although written without vowel marks it was much favoured as it was easy to read. Tr. *nestalik*.  \n  \nEmerged as the prominent form of Persian calligraphy during the 15th and 16th centuries. This cursive style was a fusion of the naskhi and taʿliq scripts, characterised by elongated horizontal strokes and exaggerated rounded shapes. In nastaʿliq, diacritical marks were informally positioned, and lines flowed with a curvaceous grace rather than adhering to a strict straightness. This script often found its way into the artwork of the early Safavid era (16th century) and is traditionally regarded as the most refined among Persian calligraphic styles.","spellings":["Nasta‘liq","Nastaleeq","Nastaliq","Nestalik"]},"d99278fb-cfa3-513e-9af1-4e39e27f241b":{"definition":"A technique used in metalwork, where engraved areas are filled with a mixture of different materials such as lead, copper and silver. Fr. *niel*.","spellings":["Niel","Niello"]},"901f2d10-a163-54d9-9db6-576def5054df":{"definition":"An adjective indicating the person's place of origin, tribal affiliation, or ancestry, used at the end of the name.","spellings":["Nesba","Nesbat","Nisba","Nisbah"]},"ea9e06ca-7872-5541-9ac2-11302f8890c2":{"definition":"A Turkish honorific title, arabicised as *Basha*.","spellings":["Pacha","Pasha"]},"60068ca4-be84-58d0-a590-341306ae5e41":{"definition":"Pearls, the only organic material considered to be precious gemstones, can be widely divided into two categories: natural and cultivated. The formation of the pearl occurs when a foreign body such as a grain of sand or a parasite enters the shell of an oyster or mussel. Due to their very specific origin, pearls have come to be focal points of many legends and myths. Because of their circular shape, they are frequently associated with the moon. They can also symbolize life in general, as well as birth. Some old beliefs state that morning dew, when hardened, turns into pearls. Civilizations from areas with pearl fishing cultures, such as the Middle East and Asia, have for centuries viewed pearls as symbols of supremacy, innocence and female charm.","spellings":["Pearl","Pearls"]},"ba7ec4e5-ec62-5bf2-bd27-6b932bb32ca1":{"definition":"A small box or lidded container used for holding a variety of objects such as medicine, writing instruments, etc.","spellings":["Pyxis"]},"dc0561a2-2592-560f-8a87-20cd58a96753":{"definition":"\"Chest Panel  \nFrom the head of the right shoulder to the end of the left shoulder.\"","spellings":["Qabbe"]},"4563e43f-260b-5043-9a49-06e5af5a99e0":{"definition":"Muslim judge. Tr. *kadı*.","spellings":["Cadi","Kadi","Kazi","Qadi","Qazi"]},"edfade68-77b4-50e0-9ff7-afb7a8c25e32":{"definition":"Coffee.","spellings":["Qahwa"]},"afa2f843-fdd4-5a67-9298-c7381518b3c8":{"definition":"(Pl. qilâ’) Citadel. See also *kasbah*, *hisn*.","spellings":["Qal'at","Qal‘a","Qala","Qalaa","Qalaat","Qalat"]},"644520d0-0549-5413-aad0-2115f7fb372a":{"definition":"Writing instrument in the form of a brush, usually made out of bamboo or reed, predominantly used for calligraphy.","spellings":["Qalam"]},"f50821ce-06bd-5219-a51f-0f341431411e":{"definition":"Skylight.","spellings":["Qamariyya","Qamariyyah"]},"59b4beee-e4d9-52ef-99f1-2a66945a3694":{"definition":"A term for glazed tile panels derived from the Iranian city of Kashan, where tiles to decorate buildings had been produced since the Seljuq period. The term was used by the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battutah in Iran for the tile panels that reminded him of the *zellij* tiles of the Maghreb.","spellings":["Qashani"]},"44366451-8359-541a-9be5-8dc8351d0c81":{"definition":"The qasida is the most prestigious poetical creation throughout Arab history. Even nowadays it is deemed the ultimate work of artistic achievement of Arab culture. It is a tripartite composition that follows a thematic sequence. The traditional qasida, its form, and its content, have remained influential not only for Arabic literature, but also for later developments in Turkish and Persian literature.","spellings":["Kasida","Qasida"]},"c47920b0-c22e-53d0-aa8c-93eb3956ca0e":{"definition":"From Latin *castrum*. Palace, castle. *Qusayr*: diminutive form of *qasr*. Tr. kasr. See also *bayt*, dar.","spellings":["Ksar","Qasr","Qusair","Qusayr","Quseir"]},"f37cbff8-b219-59af-940c-6d009539e2a7":{"definition":"Covered market for precious merchandise (gold, silk, etc.). See also *arasta*, *bazaar*, *bedesten*, *suq*.","spellings":["Qaysariyya","Qaysria"]},"0089ce74-d5cd-57d2-bbe4-c8de79b156c9":{"definition":"Direction of the Ka‘ba in Mecca, which Muslims face during prayer. The qibla wall of the mosque is where the *mihrab* is situated.","spellings":["Kibla","Qibla","Qiblah","Quibla"]},"c39cd815-3b51-5b89-a4e4-5e9f2c0ca622":{"definition":"Dome; by extension a monument or chamber built over the grave of a saint or important person, which is usually marked with a dome. Fr. *koubba*. Tr. *kubbe* (dome only).","spellings":["Koubba","Kubbat","Kubbe","Qubba","Qubbat"]},"9c6aeb81-7bc2-5ea4-9209-1c4a1345ac29":{"definition":"The division of the Qur’an into 30 parts. Each part (*juz’*) was bound as a separate volume and usually the 30 volumes were housed in an illuminated box.","spellings":["Rab'a","Rab’a","Raba"]},"389ffbb1-3a7e-5ec3-a9fc-efdd3e0f54ca":{"definition":"The fourth month of the Islamic calendar. Its name means  the 'second spring'.","spellings":["Rabi al-Awwal","Rabi ath-Thani","Rabi‘","Rabi’a"]},"79ad5742-3251-5a48-afdc-3eadbe4bc902":{"definition":"The ninth month of the Hijri / lunar calendar when Muslims fast. It is the last of the three consecutive holy months. Tr. Ramazan.","spellings":["Ramadan","Ramadhan","Ramathan","Ramazan"]},"2f088e48-669e-5b0f-b7ef-a94fb24641eb":{"definition":"Rayhani is a calligraphic style that was used for copying Qur’ans. It is characterised by its smaller rendition of muhaqqaq, featuring letter forms with sharper, more pointed shapes compared to naskh, and often distinguished by a prominent spike on the initial alif-lam letter shape.  \n  \nAlthough this script shows close resemblance to *muhaqqaq*, it is written on a smaller scale. It was used in large Qur’ans produced in AH 7th–8th / AD 13th–14th centuries. See also calligraphy.","spellings":["Rayhan","Rayhani","Reyhan","Rihani"]},"30f08fe7-8bb1-504a-aa55-685d583ff5ba":{"definition":"Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) by the Christians from the Muslims, which ended in AH 897 / AD 1492 with the fall of Granada.","spellings":["Reconquista"]},"44b5dcf7-b45d-5206-b3e1-f77d5f220d80":{"definition":"A metalworking technique. To make a design appear in relief on the front of a metal work of art, it has to be worked in repoussé (hammered) from the back.","spellings":["Repoussé"]},"732e2f9b-afda-508f-9938-c167d92f40f2":{"definition":"Reza Abbasi was a renowned Persian artist associated with the Esfahan school. He held a special place as the preferred painter of Shah Abbas I, often referred to as Shah Abbas the Great. Reza Abbasi was born around AH 977 / AD 1570 in Mashhad, which was part of Safavid Iran. His father, Ali Asghar of Kashan, was an artist who worked in the court of Prince Ibrahim Mirza, the Safavid viceroy in Mashhad. During that period (AH 963- 984 / AD 1556-1577), Mashhad was a prominent hub for the development of the arts in Iran.","spellings":["Aqa Reza","Reza Abbasi","Riza yi 'Abbasi"]},"9a8096ea-a204-590a-8744-2ddf28c2b6b8":{"definition":"Fortified enclosure for religious warriors (North Africa); a hospice for pilgrims (Mamluk Egypt, Palestine and Syria). The name of the town Rabat comes from Ribat al-Fath (Ribat of the Conquest).","spellings":["Ribat"]},"41cfc342-d602-582b-a279-22302f06909d":{"definition":"The term \"Riqa\" originates from the Arabic word \"ruq’a,\" which translates to \"a fragment or a small piece of fabric.\" This name was assigned to the script because it was frequently used for writing on small paper fragments, often in petitions addressed to royalty.","spellings":["Riqa"]},"40f27447-6ac4-5d17-9557-f1bd3868060b":{"definition":"Arcade or portico. Tr. *revak*.","spellings":["Revak","Riwaq"]},"8f56e049-19ca-5856-9caa-3acff60817b3":{"definition":"Pl. of *rawda* “garden”. Always used in plural form, in Morocco *riyad* means a garden within residential housing.","spellings":["Rawda","Riad","Riyad","Riyadh"]},"9b3eb14d-ccb9-5bdf-b3a6-ae4fd27367cf":{"definition":"Rosewater is a fragrant liquid crafted by immersing rose petals in water. Prior to the advancement of the distillation method for producing rosewater, Persian cuisine already employed rose petals to enhance the aroma and taste of dishes. Rose water likely had its beginnings in Persia, where it was identified as \"gulab\". The technique of steam distillation to create rosewater was perfected by Persian chemist, Ibn Sina/ Avicenna, within the medieval Islamic world.","spellings":["Gulab","Rose Water","Rosewater"]},"e86b778e-eb99-506f-b636-43526557b90f":{"definition":"\"Rubies are red colored gemstones made of aluminium oxide, and they come from the mineral group of corundum. Like other gemstones, they are formed deep under the Earth’s surface, but at a shallower depth than most. Rubies owe their notable red color to the presence of chromium oxide during crystal formation. Rubies rank relatively low on the Mohs scale (used to measure mineral hardness), and therefore require extra attention when being polished and set into jewelry.  \nDue to its vivid color, the stone is the ultimate symbol of fire, and it symbolizes humility, kindness and godly love. It is considered the most precious gemstone in India and the Hindu religion, where it is referred to as the *Ratna Raj*, or “Queen of All Gemstones”. Islamic tradition has similar symbolism in the story of Abraham’s ruby, which was brought to Kabba by Archangel Michael but has been transformed into a black stone due to the sins of the human race. It is believed that this ruby has eyes, ears and a tongue, and therefore can witness for the righteous in the Last Judgement. As a gemstone that equally represents religious and secular power, it was frequently present on crowns of Christian monarchs, as a symbol of Christ’s blood.\"","spellings":["Rubies","Ruby"]},"99e11148-863b-5916-afb5-d3b71fb5abe5":{"definition":"Split-palmette motif. One of the most popular and basic motifs in Islamic decorative arts, applied to every medium from woodcarving to tiles. It is mostly seen in arabesques. It was named after an earlier name for Anatolia.","spellings":["Rumi"]},"310bd3c5-0e81-53d5-8263-8bca44c8007a":{"definition":"A calligraphic style suitable for writing fast used by the Ottoman administration in *waqf* documents, letters, the last prayer pages of the Qur’ans and the diplomas of calligraphy students (hence also called ijaza (diploma) script). Today it is generally used in Arab daily newspapers for the headlines. See also calligraphy.","spellings":["Rika","Ruq‘a"]},"1708f744-b3be-5ca3-8384-d8109f48190c":{"definition":"Ruzbihan Mohammad al-Shirazi, a renowned calligrapher and illuminator from Shiraz, was active in the first half of the 10th AH century. His full name is Ruzbihan Muhammad al-Tab‘i al-Shirazi. Although the exact dates of his birth and death are not known, based on his dated and historical works, his period of activity is presumed to be between AH 915-968 / AD 1509-1561. One of the distinctive features of Ruzbihan Mohammad's illumination is his meticulous craftsmanship and use of gentle colours. According to records, in a preserved Quran located in the National Museum of Iran, his father, Hajji Na'im al-Din, was a scribe and illuminator who produced multiple copies in the second half of the 9th century.","spellings":["Ruzbihan Muhammad al-Tab‘i al-Shirazi"]},"0d914aeb-4f85-55c7-874c-71b1090e5fec":{"definition":"Crafted within the confines of Shiraz, this magnificent Qur'an stands as an exceptional representation of the book arts during the 16th century in Iran. The revered master-calligrapher, Ruzbihan, undertook the task of inscribing the sacred text, employing three distinct scripts for the core content and employing additional calligraphic forms for the titles of chapters.","spellings":["Ruzbihan Qur’an"]},"85c2ecc8-51b1-5e22-90ca-051cf297fa08":{"definition":"\"Sleeve  \nFrom the beginning of the palm to the middle of the elbow.\"","spellings":["Sa’ed"]},"a8525513-1742-5e9f-85de-bb2067ad9fb6":{"definition":"(Pl. *subul* or *asbila*) Small structures that were designed to dispense and provide free and clean drinking water to the public. *Sabil*s can be freestanding buildings or parts of small or large charitable complexes.  \n  \nTr. sebil – a chamber where an attendant serves free drink to the public.","spellings":["Asbila","Sabil","Sebil","Subul"]},"e379842a-f861-5764-9e7e-5721988f80fb":{"definition":"Heavy military sword with a long cutting edge and, often, a curved blade.","spellings":["Sabre"]},"b96fb0ed-83cb-5316-ab1d-f4e286f25845":{"definition":"Safavid Dynasy.","spellings":["Safavid","Safawid"]},"469f9c24-c7f1-53c1-89e9-cee0ebd1e160":{"definition":"Manuscripts of a particular format are known by the term safina, a Persian word meaning \"boat\" and an apparent reference to their long and narrow, boat-like shape. Safinas were presumably designed to be carried in the pocket, and most are anthologies of verse.","spellings":["Safina"]},"ab5197e2-ba37-5f84-9a8c-1bc168852cbc":{"definition":"Meaning blessings, pl. of the word Salam. Could also refer to safety.","spellings":["Salama","Salamah"]},"f1179b47-7c52-5959-8dd5-1c6e4daa568d":{"definition":"This term has different meanings:  \n  \nSanjak  \nDesignated province in the Ottoman Empire  \n  \nSanjak  \nShield-shaped banner","spellings":["Sancak","Sandjak","Sanjak","Sinjaq"]},"408f6907-26a4-5d58-888d-84a60755db29":{"definition":"Sapphires come from the corundum group of minerals, and rank highly on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Today the term Sapphire refers to all corundum stones that are not red. The most common sapphires are blue, yet they can also be green, yellow or colorless. Sapphires, much like their cousins rubies, have a series of legends and myths about them. They are primarily associated with immortality and innocence, and are called the gemstone of the heavens. The Persians believed that the world stood on a giant sapphire, whose magnificent color radiated through the universe. The Egyptians and Romans considered the sapphire to be the gemstone of truth and justice, while in the Catholic church it is considered the ultimate symbol of godly light.","spellings":["Sapphire","Sapphires"]},"33cef020-667f-52b7-8e7c-a6746c1827af":{"definition":"High court official responsible for overseeing food and drink service or servant providing drinks or entertainment. The sultan had several cupbearers led by the *Saqi al-sultan* (chief cupbearer). The *saqi *was represented by the symbol of a cup.**","spellings":["Al-saqi","Saqi"]},"2b6ccae8-75c6-5d20-8c47-82474d8ded78":{"definition":"A turban ornament that was worn by significant Hindu, Sikh and Muslim princes.","spellings":["Sarpech"]},"0f26046e-3b67-5601-baf6-72d291d77ad0":{"definition":"Straight, double-edged sword. The sayf varied in appearance throughout Islamic history.","spellings":["Saif","Sayf","Seif"]},"98f32a82-0f8d-523b-b82b-b4c5d2090590":{"definition":"(Pl. *sada*) Descendants of Prophet Muhammad. See also *sharif*.","spellings":["Sada","Sayyed"]},"9ba68a24-0e40-52cc-9957-968da7055d9a":{"definition":"Arabic title of respect, meaning Heir to the grandson of the prophet Muhammad.","spellings":["Sayyid"]},"e6ca4b0f-8824-5172-9b8e-6f572fcd1de7":{"definition":"A term applied to different works of Ottoman art from AH 960–1010 / AD 1555–1600 that show a repertoire of leaves, flowers and palmettes with imaginary creatures such as dragons. The style uses curving lines and owes much to calligraphy. It is found in album drawings, ceramics, metalwork, textiles and carpets.","spellings":["Saz style"]},"405f1bc4-d301-552c-8f10-fc6e68168f45":{"definition":"A Prayer rug. It varies in size and decoration.","spellings":["Seccade"]},"11864cd8-7574-5b81-8dbd-f0180dc203cf":{"definition":"The writer of *Şehname*, equivalent to a court historian.","spellings":["Şehnameci"]},"03eaf2d5-1988-549b-919f-2aaad8416221":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. Tr. *Şafi*.","spellings":["Shafi’i"]},"970967ba-4fb4-5316-b273-742dafe6d401":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni schools of religious law.","spellings":["Al-shafi","Al-shafi'i","Shafiʽi"]},"5dfb0beb-240c-5fb8-a4ba-14bd15936137":{"definition":"Title of the kings of Iran, or Persia. The title shah was also used in Afghanistan until the overturn of the monarchy in 1973 and has been used by rulers and princelings in other countries of central and southern Asia.","spellings":["Šâh","Shah"]},"10021f2a-1ddf-5af4-bb0f-d78adb4a1f5d":{"definition":"Profession of Muslim faith. Tr. *Şahadet*.","spellings":["Sahadet","Shahada","Shahadah"]},"b574ce4b-f297-5c3f-b370-895a19b2933a":{"definition":"Written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi, the Shahnama or Shahnameh is a long epic poem which dwells on the mythical and historical past of the Persian Empire.","spellings":["Šāhnāme","Shahnama","Shahnameh"]},"6d92f187-6403-5612-9082-88dde5497f13":{"definition":"An intricately decorated rosette or medallion which is used in many contexts, including manuscripts, carpets, ornamental metalwork and architectural decoration such as the underside of domes. It can take several overall shapes, from circles to stars. It can also mean the Sun.","spellings":["Shamsa","Shamseh","Shums"]},"72c54743-5b69-565e-b54d-8fe9dfa0e746":{"definition":"Window, also could refer to an umbrella.","spellings":["Shamsiya","Shamsiyya"]},"bd727956-74e1-5614-9f39-07003f768b6a":{"definition":"Literally, “road”. Islamic precepts that the believer must follow in order to be on the right road that leads to God. The *Shari‘a* rules the behaviour of the faithful in the spiritual, legal, social and political spheres, and also in the concrete aspects of daily life.","spellings":["Shari‘a","Sharia"]},"a0a0b21a-5425-5de1-8d04-b7fd7daeca8b":{"definition":"An elder, respected for his knowledge and age, learned man instructed in the religious sciences, member of a religious brotherhood, sufi master. Tr. *Şeyh*. Shaykh al-Islam: The head of the hierarchy of the doctors of Muslim canon law, tradition and theology. Tr. Şeyhülislam.","spellings":["Şeyh","Shaykh","Sheikh"]},"c98013e1-9336-5b90-9d71-2658cca1e0ca":{"definition":"(Pl. *shurafa*) Descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. See also *sayyed*.","spellings":["Sharif","Shurafa"]},"3f35b372-188c-5440-a3a1-24902734c0d8":{"definition":"Member of the smaller of the two major branches of Islam, the Shiʿa, distinguished from the majority Sunnis.","spellings":["Shi'i","Shi'ite","Shii","Shīʿī"]},"3d198a73-3a55-5a34-b209-561c8dc2c58e":{"definition":"Correctly, Shi‘at ‘Ali, meaning “the party of ‘Ali”. Shi‘ites rejected the legitimacy of all caliphs who succeed after the assassination of Ali (AH 40 / AD 661), the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law. See also Sunna.","spellings":["Shi‘a","Shia"]},"1a911f25-2169-5473-b48f-e5e9bf7e6aff":{"definition":"A culturally significant city in southern Iran, often referred to as the \"City of Poets\" and \"City of Gardens.\" This is because of its numerous lush gardens, including the famous Eram Garden, and for being the hometown of renowned Persian poets, such as Hafez and Saadi. Shiraz is also known for its historical sites, including the Nasir al-Mulk Mosque and the Tomb of Cyrus the Great.","spellings":["Shiraz"]},"947c308d-bc24-5bbc-91e5-bb461cbe7cfa":{"definition":"Bearer of arms, an official of the court who was in charge of the preservation and maintenance of arms.","spellings":["Silahdar","Silahtar","Silihtar"]},"6d2d57b7-54c2-5423-bd0e-5cb6f4137078":{"definition":"Genealogy, with Silsila signifying a genealogy in the form of a chain, as opposed to the one formed as a tree ( *sharaja*).","spellings":["Silsila-nama"]},"717dbbdd-a73f-5072-9370-1b0902785426":{"definition":"A huge ancient bird of Persian legend credited with possessing great wisdom.","spellings":["Senmurv","Simorg","Simorgh","Simorq","Simourv","Simurg","Simurgh"]},"ea7ba680-cfdb-5f45-9030-dd43782bebb2":{"definition":"A style of Islamic calligraphy originating from China for using the Arabic script. It gained importance and fame through its hybrid style, and its historic value is related to the hybrid nature of the Chinese Muslim ethnic group, known as the Hui. It can also refer to Chinese ceramics.","spellings":["Sini"]},"288b2150-8838-5cdf-8779-d98b7d476915":{"definition":"The Sira are the prophetic biographies.  In addition to what is written in the Quran and Hadith, the sira also provide information on Muhammed's life and the early period of Islam.","spellings":["Seera","Sira","Sirah","Sirat"]},"60d18096-8ef8-5848-9e25-fc081e078906":{"definition":"A wash of diluted clay applied to a ceramic vessel to cover the clay body before applying decoration.","spellings":["Slip"]},"8d51b0ae-13b3-5a75-acf3-79e63e2bd891":{"definition":"An arch placed diagonally at each corner of a square and filled decoratively with a variety of methods, providing the transition from the cubical walls to the sphere of the dome.","spellings":["Squinch"]},"b68f8c65-978e-5a31-bb68-5994ae43ec75":{"definition":"A Muslim acetic and mystic who represents the mystical aspect of Islam.","spellings":["Sufi"]},"ddce3372-545d-5166-8dfc-c8bb72ab9fe8":{"definition":"An Islamic mystical or ascetic order. Derived from *suf*, wool, which is the fabric in which devotees (*sufi*) clothe themselves. Fr. *soufisme*.","spellings":["Soufisme","Sufism"]},"aea62142-bf4f-5655-8c52-b1e856151ce7":{"definition":"Honorary title used by independent sovereigns (in particular Ottomans and Seljuks) whose authority, however, does not question the nominal superiority recognised to the ruling caliph.","spellings":["Sultan"]},"ab99a408-a9e3-547f-9a94-45b205e6a57b":{"definition":"Sultan Muḥammad, who lived during the 16th century in Safavid Iran, is regarded as one of the most exceptional Persian painters and stands out as the most prominent artist of the Safavid school based in Tabriz, Iran. Between AH 900- 928 / AD 1495 and 1522, Sultan Muḥammad likely held a preeminent position within the Turkmen school of painting, which was prevalent in western Iran during the reign of the Ak Koyunlu (\"White Sheep\") and Kara Koyunlu (\"Black Sheep\") Turkmens.","spellings":["Sultan Muhammad"]},"f21a9ff0-ae8f-5ff9-be18-36b4a4db6794":{"definition":"State or territories that are ruled by a sultan. Sultan is a title given to the ruler of such a place.","spellings":["Sultanate"]},"aa9eeba9-8ad8-555a-8988-13c068bdac81":{"definition":"Turkish word for box or chest.","spellings":["Sanadiq","Sanduq","Senduq","Sunduq"]},"811580e5-c0b8-5c27-8c10-3a3a36bee143":{"definition":"Literally “tradition”. For Orthodox Islam, the group of traditions of the Prophet in which legal advisers and theologians find support and foundations to establish the content of Islamic law arising from the Qur’an. Sunni: Follower of Sunna. Sunnis are divided into four schools: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, Shafi’i. Sunnism: a political and religious system opposed to Shi‘ism. See also Fiqh, Shi’a.","spellings":["Sunna"]},"08fa434b-cde7-5b8b-be42-9e2217634cd8":{"definition":"Marketplace. See also *arasta*, *bazaar*, *bedesten*.","spellings":["Esouk","Sooq","Souk","Souq","Suk","Suq"]},"5c212d06-15e4-5918-a02d-bb0ef2c59fe1":{"definition":"Chapter of the Qur’an. There are 114 surahs in the Qur’an. Tr. Sure.","spellings":["Sura","Surah"]},"78fd8be3-f58d-5f6b-b249-3f3c97b9ef97":{"definition":"Tabby Weave has all the character of a hand-woven silk but with a high-performance level.","spellings":["Tabby"]},"e492236b-2179-5d42-b894-3fc913a09686":{"definition":"From Ar. *tabiya*. A wall made from mud, which is compressed between caissons. The technique was perfected further in military constructions by introducing lime mortar into the framework. Tr. *tabya*.","spellings":["Tabiyya","Tabya"]},"1a96ac8d-419a-5515-b21c-9a95109e369b":{"definition":"Arabic term for dish or plate, probably deriving from the Turkish word *tepsi*.","spellings":["Tabsil"]},"b9925565-dd1a-5d2a-b600-c734be2f3586":{"definition":"Factions or groups. The term usually refers to the disintegration of Muslim Spain into several smaller kingdoms during the 5th/11th century.","spellings":["Ta'ifa","Taïfa"]},"1ad49aeb-c4a6-56fa-a5db-9635fe80d767":{"definition":"From Tr. *tekke*, literally “place where food is served free of charge”. Centre where dervishes meet, worship and live. Architectural type introduced by the Ottomans. See also *imaret*, *khan*qah, *zawiya*.","spellings":["Takiyya","Tekke"]},"cc2bbcf5-54f0-5959-a72b-231b955a7d9c":{"definition":"One of the six main styles of calligraphy developed in Persia in the AH 9th / AD 15th century. Used especially for official correspondence, it is characterised by fine lines with no vowel. Tr. *talik*. See also *nas*ta’liq**, calligraphy.  \n  \nTaliq is characterised by an unauthodox use of ligatures, which connect letters on the left that typically wouldn't be joined. It features descending strokes that form loops, rounded letter shapes with pronounced variations in letter spacing, wide spacing between lines, as well as lines that ascend from right to left.","spellings":["ta‘liq","Talik","Taliq"]},"d60eab2d-b4d7-5c37-a166-09672f39727f":{"definition":"''Path of way''. A term used in Sufi practices to refer to a specific path or a specific discipline of Sufi thought following a particular master.","spellings":["Tariqa","Tariqah"]},"b2155481-cc7f-58d7-9a13-f7b8d291e362":{"definition":"The invocation of God's blessing upon the Prophet Muhammad. Could also mean entertainment.","spellings":["Taslim","Tasliya"]},"0cb5ca4c-b4bd-55d8-8d21-7fe594c06fcf":{"definition":"Tawqi is a calligraphic script, and the term is etymologically derived from the Arabic verb \"waqa’a,\" which means \"to sign.\" It gained this name because it was commonly employed to inscribe the signature on decrees issued by rulers. Primarily used for scrolls, diplomas, royal documents, and impressive calligraphic works, Tawqi is frequently written alongside riqa, a smaller version of the same script. Developed in the 10th century, Tawqi is characterised by its more compressed and rounded letters, the practice of unauthorised ligatures to connect non-connecting letters on the left for faster writing, and notably shorter ascending and deeply curved horizontal strokes.","spellings":["Tawqi"]},"c8f3bbcb-a8cd-550d-87a2-e50f399b9921":{"definition":"The Arabic-language name for the Torah within its context as an Islamic holy book believed by Muslims to have been given by God to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel.","spellings":["Taurat","Tawrah","Tawrat"]},"950b9741-65c7-56dc-84fa-f599f1697a4f":{"definition":"Sacred formula of entreaty to God, could also refer to a talisman.","spellings":["Ta'wida","Tawida","Taʿwidha"]},"5ee94e12-9407-5e41-bdce-43a98dc9b5bf":{"definition":"Turkish word for centre where dervishes meet, worship and live. See also *imaret*, *khanqah*, *takiyya*, *zawiya*.","spellings":["Takye","Tekke","Tekye","Tekyeh"]},"0b7b13a1-8533-5472-85a2-1c589c3a076e":{"definition":"Crafted by Zakariya' al-Qazwini in various Persian and Arabic editions in the years following the Mongol conquest and sack of Baghdad in AH 656  (1258 AD), 'Aja'ib al-makhluqat wa-ghara'ib al-mawjudat (The Wonders of Creation and the Oddities of Existence) emerged as the preeminent medieval compendium of natural history. The author's primary objective was to guide readers in recognising the omnipotence and benevolence of God by inspiring them to marvel at the astounding diversity within creation, and the remarkable perfection evident in all its celestial and terrestrial components.","spellings":["Aja'ib al-Makhluqat wa Ghara'ib al-Mawjudat","Ajayeb al-Makhluqat va Gharayeb al-Mowjudat","The Wonders of Creation and the Oddities of Existence"]},"9b57e731-19ab-55da-8b80-25d31d0f41c3":{"definition":"Arabic: “one-third”. A style of calligraphy named after the size of the pen used. The prolongation of its letters allow for very complex decorative compositions. It was used in calligraphy, books and civil and religious architecture. From the AH 12th / AD 18th century it was widely used in panels particular to Ottoman art. Fr. *toulouth*. Tr. *sülüs*.  \n  \nThe thuluth script, a medieval Islamic calligraphic style, features an alphabet written in a distinctive manner. The name \"thuluth\" (Arabic for \"one-third\") refers to the principle that each letter's form encompasses a slope of about one-third of its size. This script is both spacious and refined, characterized by its cursive nature. During the medieval period, thuluth script found its place on mosque embellishments.  \nFunctionally, thuluth script assumed some of the roles initially held by the early Kufic script. It was employed for crafting headings for suras (chapters) of the Qurʾan, religious inscriptions, princely titles, and inscriptions of importance. Additionally, from the 13th century AD (597-700 AH) onwards, it was favoured for producing large copies of the Qurʾan.","spellings":["Sülüs","Thoulouth","Thuluth"]},"59087726-c8e5-5434-aecc-5dd7d3e42d51":{"definition":"A hard, quick-drying plaster processed from river silt used in Saharan building for making building blocks, as mortar, and for rendering.","spellings":["Timchent","Timchet"]},"a054eff3-ab33-572b-8c6c-47a7d300c111":{"definition":"First used for embroidered inscriptions on textiles, this term became synonymous with textile robes with inscriptions giving the ruler’s name and the workshop where the textiles were made. Such robes were presented by the caliph to people who were to be honoured. Dar al-tiraz: royal textile factories supervised by the court.","spellings":["Taraz","Teraz","Tiraz"]},"1ad5b477-1036-5c86-ba62-687284025702":{"definition":"Modern day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan and southwest Kazakhstan.","spellings":["Transoxiana"]},"5e33fb53-916f-516d-b614-5039d1c3c7ec":{"definition":"A calligraphic signature of an Ottoman sultan that was affixed to official documents. Each sultan had his own *tughra*. Tr. *tuğra*.","spellings":["Tughra","Tuğra"]},"84d9ad68-024a-5ca8-9f67-268e29d1e040":{"definition":"A particular style of calligraphy, originating from India.","spellings":["Turabi"]},"21c32408-3e62-5ec5-a0a4-ea90126bed70":{"definition":"Turabi Bek Khurasani appears to be an artist, or possibly a collector, known for creating paintings that imitated and adapted various Persian painting styles. This artist's identity remains somewhat mysterious and may have been used for commercial purposes, potentially to cater to the tastes of collectors outside Iran. The paintings attributed to Turabi Bek Khurasani were designed to be perceived as genuine Safavid-period works, although they incorporated elements of both reproduction and selective adaptation. It is believed that there may have been an intention to deceive and profit from such deception, indicating a fraudulent aspect to these works. Turabi/Turabasi Bek Khurasani's creations were an attempt to blend traditional Persian painting practices with a contemporary approach for the sake of appealing to collectors in a different cultural context.","spellings":["Turabi Bek Khurasani"]},"ce2219af-ca75-5d6e-a3b1-280a9ea04fbc":{"definition":"Mausoleum, tomb, private burial place, sometimes with a crypt below, an architectural practice introduced by the Turks. Tr. *kümbet*, a monumental tomb, usually covered with a dome hidden under a spire. See also *darih*, *maqam*, *mashhad*, *qubba*.","spellings":["Kümbet","Turba","Turbat","Türbe","Turbet"]},"5cc4d556-5ce6-575d-a50b-a403e6c59d4f":{"definition":"A headdress consisting of a long scarf wound round the head or a smaller, underlying hat. Turbans vary in shape, colour, and size.","spellings":["Turban","Turbant"]},"9d699883-6a5a-53ad-8a08-f3b27574c431":{"definition":"Turkish people located in the region east of the Caspian Sea and South of the Aral Sea. This area now comprises of Turkmenistan and parts of Iran and Afghanistan.","spellings":["Turkmen","Türkmenler","Turkoman"]},"fd4ff19f-5ca3-5bdd-b26e-79e1ad771914":{"definition":"\"Turquoise is a blue-green gemstone made from hydrated copper aluminium phosphate. It between five and six on the Mohs scale, and is mainly cut in the cabochon style since it is not transparent. This gemstone comes in a variety of shades of blue and green. Turquoise was known in Egypt from a very early time and was later described by Pliny the Elder under the name *callias*. For him and those who studied his works, the blueish-green stone was attributed only virtues shared by other green or blue gems. However, in the 13th century, the term turquoise was introduced in Western Europe, and the gemstone started to be affiliated with new powers. These included the ability to prevent injuries from falling, especially from horseback, and the power to protect horses from sickness. For this reason Turks were said to attach turquoise stones to the bridles and stirrups of their horses.  \nTurquoise has traditionally been sold in Turkey, since it mostly originates in Iran. It still passes through Turkey on the way to Europe. Ancient Persians fully appreciated the beauty and power of this gemstone, and it was the national stone of the vast empire. There is a saying that good fortune can be obtained by seeing the reflection of the new moon either on a friend’s face, on a copy of the Quran, or on a turquoise. Turquoise is also popular for religious use in Hindu mystic circles, as well as among Indigenous people of North and Central America.\"","spellings":["Turquoise"]},"eb1995df-c617-5ca0-95bc-cd6422ffca9a":{"definition":"A variety of Islamic metalwork. Formerly believed to have been made by Muslim craftsmen in Venice, these objects are now thought to have been made mainly for Venetian merchants by Syrian craftsmen, with only a small number made in Italy. Their distinctive style includes heraldic emblems of European nobility.","spellings":["Veneto-Saracenic"]},"577792e7-dcb2-5783-bc01-836c6f2cded6":{"definition":"Minister. Tr. *vezir*. The highest vizier (Prime Minister) was the Grand Vizier, Prime Minister. Tr. *Sadrazam*.","spellings":["Sadrazam","Vasir","Vazir","Vesir","Vezir","Visir","Vizier","Vizir","Wazir"]},"38031924-6b4f-5fb1-9337-c0222f9b16d2":{"definition":"Endowment in perpetuity, usually of land or property, from which the revenue was reserved for the upkeep of religious foundations. *waqfiyya*: the deed of endowment of a *waqf*. Tr. *vakıf*, *vakfiye*. See also *habus*.","spellings":["Vakif","Vakifiye","Wakf","Waqf"]},"9d0320cb-1068-5d1a-bb89-97a0628cb0f4":{"definition":"Trading establishment with lodgings for merchants. See also *caravanserai*, *funduq*, *khan*.","spellings":["Wakala","Wakalat","wikala","Wikalat"]},"cc1e247a-53d7-5c70-9399-89357963e5cf":{"definition":"A style in Ottoman art which uses Chinoiserie decorations. The designs incorporate stylised lotus blossoms, buds and leaves in decorative scrolls. Hatayi is derived from Chatay in China. See also Chinoiserie.","spellings":["Hatayi"]},"c7ce411f-9d53-5566-8a9c-a1744854bc80":{"definition":"An officer’s rank in the Turkish army. Tr. Ağa. See also *bey*, *dey*.","spellings":["Ağa","agha"]},"bcebf34c-f01e-5220-896e-b24e7d5c3220":{"definition":"Hostel for merchants and their pack animals, a store for merchandise, a commercial centre. See also *caravanserai*, *khan*, *wikala*.","spellings":["Funduq"]},"676dd2c8-ade4-5066-9242-2d2dc6e9b274":{"definition":"Daily ablutions before prayers","spellings":["Al-wudu","Udu","Wudu","Wudu'"]},"e9d33609-b4fe-5b09-a0be-886bd0fc6c67":{"definition":"A type of Ottoman knife or short sabre used from the mid-16th to late 19th centuries. The yataghan was extensively used in Ottoman Turkey and in areas under immediate Ottoman influence, such as the Balkans and the Caucasus.","spellings":["Ataghan","Yatagan","Yataghan"]},"19ba2374-d3c1-58b9-9a5e-7c9421eb5612":{"definition":"A historic city in central Iran, renowned for its well-preserved mud-brick architecture and the ancient Zoroastrian fire temple, Atash Bahram. Yazd is situated in the desert and is also reputed for its distinct windcatcher towers (badgir) that provide natural ventilation in the city's buildings. It's a centre for Zoroastrian culture and has a rich history dating back thousands of years.","spellings":["Yazd"]},"babd8299-36a4-5030-94fb-4d24368825d6":{"definition":"Abu Yahya Zakariya ibn Muhammad ibn Mahmud al-Qazwini (AH 599- 680 / AD 1203-1282) was a Persian polymath with expertise in medicine, astronomy, and geography. He was born in Qazwin and undertook extensive travels in regions such as Mesopotamia and the Levant. He dedicated his work on cosmography, titled 'Aja'ib al-Makhluqat wa Ghara'ib al-Maujudat, to 'Ata-Malik Juwayni (d. AH 681 / AD 1283), a Persian historian who, following the sack of Baghdad in AH 656 / AD 1258, was appointed as governor of the city by the Mongol ruler Hulaqu.","spellings":["Zakaria al-Qazwini","Zakaria bin Muhammad al-Qazwini","Zakaria Qazvini","Zakaria Qazwini"]},"00cb9155-a05e-57be-b845-f2828bcd7de6":{"definition":"Another of the five pillars of Islam, Zakat is a tithe that is to be paid each year by all Muslim adults in the amount of 2.5 percent of their income and wealth.","spellings":["Zakah","Zakat","Zakat al-mal"]},"c820b0fc-daf0-5f36-aed6-5dcb2aab4aa8":{"definition":"Sharp plane, also is considered a technique used to separate the lines of text within the panel.","spellings":["Zamla"]},"76676210-58c4-5de1-89e6-594e4175ceac":{"definition":"Establishment for religious teaching dedicated to preparing men to become *shaykhs*, which includes the shrine of a saint and built where he was born or lived. In Turkey also a small *tekke*, a hospice for dervishes and travellers. See also *khanqah*, *tekke*, *takiyya*.","spellings":["Zaouia","Zawija","Zawiya","Zawiyah","Zwaya"]},"9aa57c3b-8983-5efb-9663-8813a2e47d5c":{"definition":"Small glazed ceramic tiles or cut-out parts of tiles set like mosaics to form a complex geometric design in interiors and exteriors of buildings. Fr. *zellige*.","spellings":["Zellige","Zellij","Zillij"]},"112111b5-7829-509e-a270-9ff69b2a9c0d":{"definition":"A type of knee- length tunic.","spellings":["Zomt"]}}

package/translations/glossary.es.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"8e22eece-aa71-5c15-9776-799a90bed70e":{"definition":"Purificación ritual con agua que se realiza antes de la oración.","spellings":["Ablución"]},"199be476-a6fb-5584-8c39-6af25455b9be":{"definition":"Proceso de tratamiento del papel. El papel destinado a la caligrafía debía ser tratado para impedir que se corriera la tinta. Sobre el papel se aplicaba (*ahar*) una solución especial, para obtener una superficie muy lisa.","spellings":["Ahar","Aharli"]},"ca7cf5ed-e85c-5aa3-8a00-3c4a246314af":{"definition":"Nombre de los territorios de la Península Ibérica bajo dominio musulmán entre 711 y 1492.","spellings":["Al-Andalus"]},"117026df-c5dc-512a-9991-1ed2c434ee26":{"definition":"Adjetivo cuyo significado es «la más lejana», denomina la mezquita al-Aqsa de Jerusalén, reverenciada por los musulmanes como la primera *qibla* (ver) y el primer lugar sagrado, donde tuvo lugar el ascenso del Profeta al cielo (ver *al-Israa wa al-Miray*).**","spellings":["Al-Aqsa"]},"13e5a720-86da-5489-8550-6975b61c89fd":{"definition":"(del ár. *qasabah*) Fortaleza, ciudadela. Ciudadela y residencia del cabeza local, por lo general el centro de la ciudad.","spellings":["Alcazaba"]},"16131753-740a-5b87-bfb9-06606e67de19":{"definition":"Bandera, pendón o estandarte.","spellings":["Alem"]},"39b15d5c-120b-51e4-b058-0cc18bb7226a":{"definition":"Del ár. *farsh*. Techo plano con maderas labradas y entrelazadas artísticamente, dispuesto o no para pisar encima.","spellings":["Alfarje","Farsh"]},"22b53494-49b4-56ac-8f6f-9b4231d55ce1":{"definition":"Del ár. *hayyiz*. Recuadro del arco árabe, que envuelve las albanegas y arranca, bien desde las impostas, bien desde el suelo.","spellings":["Alfiz","Hayyiz"]},"d622d348-fe31-5163-9440-a84a07e7456c":{"definition":"(Pl. *ulama*) Erudito, doctor en derecho y ciencias teológicas islámicas. Esp.: ulema.","spellings":["Alim","Ulama","Ulema"]},"fb4643f3-3421-5aaa-8b4f-85806f394bac":{"definition":"Dibujo de adorno en dos dimensiones muy frecuente en el arte islámico, compuesto de tracerías, follajes, cintas y roleos que crean un motivo continuo, a veces combinado con volutas o elementos geométricos.","spellings":["Arabesco"]},"f80f3b72-49a9-5057-bd6f-021ba24a6071":{"definition":"Instrumento científico medieval utilizado para los cálculos astronómicos y en la navegación.","spellings":["Astrolabio"]},"1967d28e-68f6-5e68-b680-9a66e81477fb":{"definition":"(del. turco *ata*, «padre», y *beg*, «líder».) Comandante en jefe del ejército. Los atabegs eran empleados para enseñar a los príncipes las artes de la guerra.","spellings":["Atabeg"]},"7b9c0eb4-b88c-5f12-a29c-fb04001f136d":{"definition":"Del ár. *tayfur*. Cuenco o plato hondo característico de la producción cerámica de al-Andalus.","spellings":["Ataifor"]},"78fafab8-3f5e-5796-824d-1b42baff7c16":{"definition":"Del ár. *tawriq*. Este adorno, inspirado en la hoja de acanto clásica, con motivos vegetales estilizados, fue utilizado abundantemente en el arte hispano-musulmán.","spellings":["Ataurique","Tawriq"]},"6fd1696a-b5d7-52af-9ddf-69cb25fba143":{"definition":"(Pl. *attarin*) Vendedor de perfumes, incienso y plantas medicinales.","spellings":["Attar"]},"8383edc1-0cb4-52fa-9e3a-219b3a940129":{"definition":"Versículo del Corán.","spellings":["Aleya"]},"1af94c96-d6eb-511f-8cdd-4fca18aafa8e":{"definition":"Fuente.","spellings":["Ayn"]},"4c2bb21c-6364-5e2c-ad76-cc117a2e1056":{"definition":"Puerta.","spellings":["Bab"]},"e44ace71-d122-5c82-bf6b-34a79ff4b2d8":{"definition":"Ver *ibn*.","spellings":["Bani","Banu","Beni"]},"9d8dd39e-6208-5b40-8479-7eb99bd94348":{"definition":"Bendición, bondad.","spellings":["Baraka"]},"dd3cf38a-f162-5d5c-ab24-2d36d3b5de1c":{"definition":"Movimiento artístico europeo del siglo xvii. En el periodo otomano, la influencia occidental se deja sentir en el arte islámico con la incorporación de formas barrocas.","spellings":["Barroco"]},"ac67e975-1f75-526f-a8cd-402ccde93f6f":{"definition":"Fórmula, *bi-’ism Allah al-Rahman al-Rahim*, frecuentemente traducida como “En nombre de Dios, el Clemente, el Misericordioso”.","spellings":["Basmala"]},"b8c40deb-d541-5941-870e-bbb5a22c7520":{"definition":"Sala; en algunos casos, casa. *Bayt al-Hikma*: tribunal; *bayt al-diwan*: vestíbulo de recepción; *bayt al-nar*: caldera, literalmente, la “casa del fuego”. Palabras relacionadas: *dar*, *qasr*.","spellings":["Bayt"]},"9f0f473b-d1c4-579a-830e-8c67cf9124bc":{"definition":"Mercado público o lugar destinado al comercio; mercado cubierto, con puertas. Palabras relacionadas: *arasta*, *bedesten*, *qaysariyya*, *suq*.","spellings":["Bazar"]},"d262760a-d7c7-5583-b3d6-98f5a67ea709":{"definition":"Establecimiento comercial provisto al menos de dos alas (tres o cuatro en Estambul) y cubierto de cúpulas, todas del mismo tamaño. Las mercancías más valiosas eran conservadas en los *bedesten*, que funcionaban como los bancos actuales. El término procede de *bezzazistani*; *bezzaz* significa “vendedor de tejidos”. Palabras relacionadas: *arasta*, *bazar*, *qaysariyya*, *suk*.","spellings":["Bedesten"]},"816929a9-190c-57b7-8bc6-469a25050fac":{"definition":"Dirigente de un emirato independiente; título de respeto atribuido a una persona de las clases superiores; título detentado por los soberanos que rendían vasallaje al sultán. *Beylerbey*: bey de beyes, el más alto rango del gobierno provincial del imperio otomano. *Beylicato*, *beylik*: soberanía o territorio bajo el poder de un bey. Palabras relacionadas: *aga/ağa*, *dey*.","spellings":["Bey"]},"ac325296-5e0b-5e3e-b8c7-d6a3a6d559ca":{"definition":"Región a menudo denominada «Levante» o «Gran Siria», comprende las actuales Siria, Jordania, Líbano y Palestina.","spellings":["Bilad al-Sham"]},"5f7e8640-1f2b-52a9-a589-f51ed84f4b50":{"definition":"Hospital o sanatorio que disponía también de una biblioteca médica y funcionaba como centro de formación científica. Era de carácter benéfico, y los enfermos recibían gratuitamente tratamientos que incluían remedios a base de hierbas, música y reposo.","spellings":["Bimaristan","Maristan"]},"5f340924-0a32-5b50-8c50-755492945fed":{"definition":"En el mundo islámico, la cerámica azul y blanca apareció en Mesopotamia en el siglo III/IX. La porcelana azul y blanca de China producida a partir del siglo VIII/XIV tuvo gran influencia en el mundo islámico, donde fue recibida en la corte e imitada en los talleres del Iznik otomano y el Irán safawí.","spellings":["Azul y blanco","Blanquiazul"]},"53b06a4c-1741-53c4-bd23-415aa3ce7613":{"definition":"Fuerte, bastión, torre, a veces rodeada por un muro exterior. El término ingresó en la toponimia portuguesa medieval bajo las formas *alvorge* o *porches*. En Túnez, el término designa así mismo una segunda residencia rodeada de jardines; una residencia de verano. *Borj* o *bordj* en el Magreb; *burg* en Egipto.","spellings":["Bury"]},"b3b18f28-32c7-5836-ae64-e0df239443e1":{"definition":"El imperio bizantino (306 a 1453), precedido por el Imperio romano y sucedido por el Imperio otomano.","spellings":["Bizantino"]},"b6c3a09c-964b-5dd3-a091-e608967fe6ff":{"definition":"Del ár. *jalifa*, literalmente “sucesor”. Dirigente supremo de la comunidad musulmana. Califato: territorio bajo el poder del califa.","spellings":["Califa","Jalifa"]},"c2953466-916b-57e9-9f3b-409c9af9afa1":{"definition":"El “arte de la bella escritura” (griego) es una de las más eminentes expresiones de la cultura islámica. Dado que la lengua árabe está ligada à la revelación del Islam y ésta fue plasmada en textos, la caligrafía tiene profundas connotaciones espirituales y es considerada como un símbolo de belleza y misterio. Existen numerosos tipos de caligrafía dependiendo del periodo, el lugar y el contexto. Numerosos artistas del mundo arabo-musulmán continúan practicando el arte de la caligrafía actualmente. Palabras relacionadas: *cúfico*, *diwani*, *farsi*, *magrebí-andalusí*, *muhaqqaq*, *nasji*, *nastaliq*, *rayhani*, *ruqa*, *taliq*, *zuluz*.","spellings":["Caligrafía"]},"801f574d-c2f6-52a3-ae7c-6a0074f1c59b":{"definition":"Del persa *karvansara*. Hospedería situada al borde de las principales rutas, que permite el alojamiento de los viajeros y el almacenamiento de sus mercancías. Ár.: *caravansaray* Palabras relacionadas: *funduq*, *jan*, *wikala*.","spellings":["Caravasar"]},"90c8aeb0-fee7-5ad8-b2e8-525f87d18e3a":{"definition":"Fortaleza, ciudadela, habitualmente situada en el centro de una ciudad. *Ksiba*: pequeña kasba, nombre de un barrio de Bizerta, en Túnez. Palabras relacionadas: *hisn*, *qalaa*.","spellings":["Qasbah"]},"a27048f2-e463-56af-bb14-17e5dd57b741":{"definition":"Título otomano de respeto dado a los hombres de las clases superiores; epíteto del sultán Mehmed I.","spellings":["Çelebi"]},"8013dd99-b044-5c32-9cd2-44d308c0c03d":{"definition":"Término francés que designa una técnica de esmaltado de metales. Se talla en hueco la superficie del metal y en las cavidades practicadas se vierte un polvo de esmalte vítreo que luego se cuece. En alfarería, este término se utiliza para designar los recipientes que presentan una decoración en relieve, que se obtiene retirando barbotina [pasta de arcilla o caolín licuado] y aplicando una capa suplementaria de vidriado de plomo.","spellings":["Champlevé"]},"cf4307ca-f437-5c58-80b8-f9b0100711fa":{"definition":"Término francés utilizado en el arte del esmaltado. Los esmaltes de colores se disponen en compartimentos separados por finas tiras de metal, para que no se mezclen durante el proceso de cocción.","spellings":["Cloisonné"]},"f583303a-89d1-5e38-9f75-1188be1c39d3":{"definition":"Cristianos egipcios principalmente; seguidores de una de las formas más antiguas de cristianismo, que comprendía comunidades desde África oriental hasta Etiopía. Tenían su propia lengua, el copto, y su propio calendario.","spellings":["Coptos"]},"44562f82-b0b6-5353-939a-47fccfb7fa3c":{"definition":"Texto sagrado de la revelación islámica transmitido por el arcángel Gabriel al profeta Muhammad. Ár. *Qur‘an*, de la raíz *qr‘*, ‘leer, recitar’.","spellings":["Corán","Kuran"]},"61dd2431-5d5a-563f-98ea-305257d3eed8":{"definition":"Método de separación de los vidriados de diferentes colores sobre azulejos durante la cocción, mediante cuerdas engrasadas. El término designa también la técnica de delimitación del contorno de un motivo con una mezcla de cera o grasa vegetal y óxido de manganeso. En el arte turco es conocida también como “técnica de vidriado coloreado”, en los siglos IX-X/XV-XVI.","spellings":["Cuerda seca"]},"f3052f85-4db5-5572-a790-f3dc9a248659":{"definition":"(Pl. *dur*) Casa. *Dar al-Imara*: casa del gobernador. *Dar al-Islam*: dominio del Islam: país bajo dominación islámica; los países que no estaban bajo el dominio del Islam eran considerados como territorios de guerra. *Dar al-hadiz*: escuela donde se estudian los hadices. *Dar al-hiyra*: residencia para emigrantes. *Dar al-juffaz*: escuela especializada en la memorización del Corán. *Dar al-qurra*: escuela dedicada a enseñar la recitación del Corán. *Dar al-shifa*: hospital. *Dar al-tibb*: escuela de medicina. Palabras relacionadas: *bayt*, *qasr*.","spellings":["Dar"]},"b64a1f79-8f29-5ad4-8e98-379f8e05cb1b":{"definition":"Miembro de una orden religiosa musulmana conocida por sus prácticas devotas.","spellings":["Derviche"]},"9e337d3c-af6d-5856-bb0c-0ed39eab0859":{"definition":"Término utilizado en Libia, Túnez y Argelia para designar a un oficial de alto rango de la milicia turca, elegido por un consejo local de jenízaros. Situados jerárquicamente bajo los *beylerbey* otomanos, los deyes representaban sin embargo el poder absoluto en la región. Cuando entraron en conflicto con la corte otomana, fueron severamente castigados. Palabras relacionadas: *aga/ağa*, *bey*.","spellings":["Dey"]},"3230cdd8-ec0e-5aa1-9b44-adc5716d86b8":{"definition":"Estilo de caligrafía otomana utilizada en los documentos oficiales del *Divan-ı Hümayun*, de donde procede su nombre. Aunque presenta similitudes con el *taliq*, también fue desarrollado por los turcos otomanos y representaba un poder grandioso. Se llama *jali diwani* cuando se escribe con letras grandes y *divani kirmasi* cuando adopta una forma más simple. Palabras relacionadas: *caligrafía*.","spellings":["Diván","Diwan","Diwani"]},"476a1ad7-f594-57bd-8ef5-ddfe4dba9e8b":{"definition":"Técnica de lacado cuyas primeras muestras se remontan al Irán del siglo IX/XV, durante el periodo timurí. Toma su nombre de la ciudad de Edirne, en Turquía, de donde proceden los mejores ejemplos. Se utilizaba sobre distintos soportes, tales como encuadernaciones, cajones y arcos (arma).","spellings":["Edirnekari"]},"8f750e3f-a3f4-5b39-8f9c-97cbf1eb56ec":{"definition":"Comandante, príncipe o alto funcionario.","spellings":["Amir","Emir"]},"5d77d3cf-d7dc-59de-8fe9-16b4846e152d":{"definition":"Solución de arcilla diluida que se aplica a un recipiente de cerámica para recubrirlo antes de decorarlo.","spellings":["Engobe"]},"3fd5d8e5-d6d9-5084-a7bc-f270946f8c24":{"definition":"1\\. Persa. 2. Estilo de caligrafía cursiva particularmente elegante, que valoriza las curvas de los caracteres árabes y reduce las formas angulares. Palabras relacionadas: *caligrafía*.","spellings":["Farsi"]},"664a6020-4914-5595-8215-d0a0af9a4b9e":{"definition":"(Pl. *fuqaha*) Jurisprudencia canónica musulmana. *Faqih* (alfaquí): jurisconsulto versado en el código del Islam, especialista en *fiqh*. Hay cuatro escuelas jurídicas sunníes (Islam ortodoxo): hanafíes, hanbalíes, malikíes y shafiíes.","spellings":["Fiqh"]},"111b1877-22ac-5026-90bf-a0267a993a00":{"definition":"Decreto de un sultán que enuncia las directivas oficiales de la corte. Los firmanes de los sultanes otomanos eran rollos de papel de diferente extensión con un elegante monograma (*tugra*) del sultán como encabezamiento y un texto redactado en una escritura oficial, seguido por autentificaciones.","spellings":["Firmán"]},"30b4ea5c-4774-5bfc-bea3-025184b06e0f":{"definition":"Término que designa un material cerámico compuesto principalmente de cuarzo y de un vidriado mixto. Durante la cocción, el cuarzo y el vidriado se funden y generan un cuerpo blanco, muchas veces llamado también “pasta de piedra”.","spellings":["Frita"]},"720487c1-6546-5ad8-96ce-6caedac4ddab":{"definition":"Página de un libro anterior a la portada, que suele contener el título y alguna ilustración.","spellings":["Frontispicio"]},"1123d155-1d0c-59e5-8ecc-ca1e2b7a31e9":{"definition":"Guerreros que combaten por la causa del Islam, organizados en grados militares en el seno del Imperio Otomano.","spellings":["Gazi"]},"e0e8a76f-5937-523a-b87b-6d2a0c6528d7":{"definition":"Aplicación de oro sobre la superficie de una obra de arte. El dorado puede aplicarse a la mayoría de los materiales, como el mármol, la piedra, el estuco, la madera, los metales, la cerámica, el vidrio y el papel. Existen diferentes técnicas de aplicación, como al agua o en hoja. Tr.: *tombak*, técnica del cobre dorado.","spellings":["Dorado","Tombak"]},"f2b2bdf4-e6b8-5c67-94e3-3fdbc00d8e88":{"definition":"Técnica consistente en aplicar a la superficie cerámica una fina capa de vedrío antes de la cocción. En el horno, el vedrío se funde, protege la cerámica, la vuelve impermeable y la prepara para diferentes usos. El vidriado plumbífero es transparente y suave, pero vulnerable a las roturas y la deformación química. El vidriado estannífero es un vidriado blanco opaco que contiene estaño; se perfeccionó en Bagdad en el siglo III/IX para competir con las porcelanas chinas, y se extendió hasta la España musulmana y luego al resto de Europa.","spellings":["Vidriado"]},"15f99ce5-e2bb-5a62-b80f-3c61ce352a95":{"definition":"Estilo arquitectónico vigente entre los siglos xii a xvi en Europa. Los cruzados trasplantaron formas de la arquitectura gótica al mundo musulmán.","spellings":["Gótico"]},"04723e93-e903-5ff8-abd0-54ec24fd67cf":{"definition":"Del italiano *sgraffiato*, literalmente ‘rayado’. Las piezas de cerámica hechas con esta técnica recibían una capa de barbotina en la que se trazaba mediante incisión un motivo decorativo que dejaba ver el color del cuerpo. La decoración se cubría enseguida con una capa adicional de esmalte o vidriado plumbífero.","spellings":["Esgrafiado"]},"bf45b8ed-e1ac-5ab7-a72d-85c57ebcf786":{"definition":"Técnica decorativa de vidriado en cerámica, en que los únicos colores son el óxido de cobre verde y el casi negro del manganeso. Toda la composición se recubre al final con una capa transparente de plomo.","spellings":["Verde y manganeso"]},"2fb79a2a-639b-5703-9b25-ab627b16aef8":{"definition":"Legado de bienes inmuebles a perpetuidad y bajo determinadas condiciones a favor de una mezquita u otra institución religiosa, como una *madrasa* o una *janqa*, o una institución civil como un *sabil*, o incluso una casa. Palabras relacionadas: *waqf*.","spellings":["Habiz"]},"c18561f3-9ed2-5c21-92a7-c3476d781d57":{"definition":"Literalmente “dicho”. Conjunto de tradiciones relacionadas con palabras y acciones del profeta Muhammad y sus compañeros. *Dar al-Hadiz*: ver *dar*.","spellings":["Hadiz"]},"4a7c27f5-2059-522b-a21e-ee99a0c6ac00":{"definition":"Alto funcionario del gobierno. El término designaba inicialmente a un chambelán, pero bajo los omeyas de al-Andalus, el *hayib* ejercía de primer ministro, con igual rango que el visir en los califatos orientales.","spellings":["Hayib"]},"cccf5396-0f64-5785-9f34-bb8b7a5ffd5b":{"definition":"Uno de los cinco pilares del Islam; peregrinación a La Meca y a los Santos Lugares que todos los creyentes deben llevar a cabo al menos una vez en su vida, si tienen los medios. Por extensión, el término también se refiere a una persona que hace esta peregrinación. El *hayy* se realiza dos meses después de ramadán y termina con la Fiesta del Sacrificio (Aid al-Ada). La *Umra* presenta casi los mismos rituales que el *hayy*, pero no tiene lugar durante la misma temporada; su importancia es cada vez mayor debido a las dificultades para acoger al creciente número de peregrinos que cada año quieren cumplir con el *hayy* (más de tres millones).","spellings":["Hayy"]},"fc74d5ab-7517-53a5-9a58-0cb34c65fec8":{"definition":"Baños públicos o privados. Se dividen en: *apodyterium* (tr.: *soyunmalık*), vestuario; *caldarium*, sala caliente; *hipocausto*, sistema de calefacción por suelo y paredes, mediante vapor, en las villas y termas romanas; *tepidarium* (tr.: *ılıklık*), sala caliente donde se descansaba después del baño. Existían también en los baños turcos: *aralik*: pasaje entre el *soyunmalık* y el *ılıklık*; *halvet*: habitaciones privadas en los baños públicos; *traşlık*: pequeña habitación utilizada para la eliminación del vello. Así mismo, en los baños sirios: *barrani* (lit. “exterior”): sala fría de los baños que normalmente se encuentra más alejada de la caldera; *yuwwani*: la parte interior, cerca de la sala de calderas: la sala de vapor; *wustani*: cámaras intermedias designadas como “salas de agua caliente”. Palabras relacionadas: *maqsura*.","spellings":["Hammam"]},"cc92b83e-cb72-55df-b6de-8ddaf5a44e3f":{"definition":"Una de las cuatro escuelas jurídicas sunníes del Islam ortodoxo. Palabras relacionadas: *fiqh*.","spellings":["Hanbalíes"]},"982c3a21-b99b-5c3b-b3d3-65276466c18d":{"definition":"Una de las cuatro escuelas jurídicas sunníes del Islam ortodoxo. Fue fundada por Abu Hanifa al-Numan y es la que siguieron los otomanos. Palabras relacionadas: *fiqh*.","spellings":["Hanafíes"]},"d71360cd-eac1-5408-b6b3-59ad3d8464b9":{"definition":"Literalmente, “sagrado”, “prohibido”. Santuario. Acto ilícito, en términos religiosos. Haram al-Sharif: el Noble Santuario, en Jerusalén, que comprende la mezquita al-Aqsa y la Cúpula de la Roca.","spellings":["Haram","Harén"]},"0ad8de69-3a63-53bc-8e1b-4c6cae853bca":{"definition":"Espacio de vida en común en una casa turca. También *sofa*.","spellings":["Hayat","Sofa"]},"b653a1f8-bca3-5070-8ee8-9e24eef5e3ed":{"definition":"Peregrinación a La Meca y quinto pilar del islam. Es obligación de todos los musulmanes realizar el *hayy* al menos una vez en la vida, si disponen de medios económicos y su salud se lo permite.","spellings":["Hayy"]},"0f3fb66d-a491-591b-a0c2-56e11ec481aa":{"definition":"(del ár. *hiyra*, «migración») Éxodo del Profeta de La Meca a Medina en 622, año de referencia para el comienzo de la era islámica. El calendario musulmán se rige por años lunares de 354 días.","spellings":["Hégira"]},"dcd58376-8ba5-5488-bec0-53d4cf2fa497":{"definition":"Descripción en prosa sobre el profeta Muhammad. *Hilya i-sharif*: “noble descripción” sobre el Profeta; obra de arte que ostenta esta “noble descripción”.","spellings":["Hilya"]},"3d299572-ee10-5a78-93a1-b50bfe645ec5":{"definition":"Castillo. Palabras relacionadas: *qalaa*, *qasbah*.","spellings":["Hisn"]},"d741661c-846f-560d-a11c-19720819ac9a":{"definition":"«Hijo de», a menudo forma parte de los nombres. El plural, *banu*, se utiliza para denominar un clan.","spellings":["Ben","Bin","Ibn"]},"ee2f26d8-e2ea-53a3-b764-2204e426e058":{"definition":"Nombre arabizado de «África»; región que en nuestros días comprendería aproximadamente Túnez.","spellings":["Ifriqiya"]},"78382734-788f-5068-b99e-3cc129b1f007":{"definition":"Entidad política conocida oficialmente como Iranzamin. Fue establecido y gobernado por la casa mongola de Hulagu.","spellings":["Ikanato","Ilkhanid"]},"441e3156-be30-517c-a195-12e2d3486ed8":{"definition":"Persona que preside la plegaria islámica, guía, líder, modelo espiritual o eclesiástico; a veces, también dirigente político en la sociedad musulmana.","spellings":["Imam"]},"8f367dab-0120-518e-b2ab-f888fb65bc16":{"definition":"Es o el cargo o una región o un país gobernado por un imam (líder espiritual).","spellings":["Imamato"]},"d92f6fd0-31e4-5a3e-a04f-1708743e899b":{"definition":"Del ár. *imara*. Conjunto de edificios e instituciones financiado por un *waqf*. Desde el siglo X/XVI, el término alude a un comedor de beneficencia.","spellings":["Imaret"]},"a23158c9-7afc-5a3c-ad75-9ecc73727c13":{"definition":"Técnica de embutido de piezas de marfil tallado, nácar, carey o materiales similares formando motivos decorativos, normalmente sobre una base de madera.","spellings":["Taracea"]},"ed1392a3-c2e4-5dca-8b74-eaef4f0f9c94":{"definition":"Gran nicho abovedado o con cúpula, cerrado por tres lados y con un gran arco de abertura.","spellings":["Iwan"]},"96a4f75a-c342-596d-869f-1064cf498d88":{"definition":"Periodo de ignorancia, en alusión al paganismo de la Arabia preislámica. Tr.: *Cahiliye*.","spellings":["Yahiliyya"]},"070e713b-f503-5f87-be41-16cb73c070b4":{"definition":"Mezquita mayor o aljama donde tienen lugar las oraciones cotidianas y las del viernes. Palabras relacionadas: *masyid*.","spellings":["Yamaa"]},"2b77385d-f9a6-5d6a-bb79-403b38118bce":{"definition":"Posada en las rutas principales de comercio o peregrinaje, donde los viajeros se alojaban y la mercancía podía guardarse de forma segura. (Ver *caravasar*.)","spellings":["Jan"]},"7910cc31-4aef-536d-b917-919e64b075ff":{"definition":"Miembro de la guardia imperial del sultán otomano, reclutado entre los no musulmanes bajo el sistema del *devşirme* y pagado por el Tesoro. Tr.: *Yeniçeri Ocağı*.","spellings":["Jenízaro"]},"32060b9a-7161-59c6-9be7-e3a6e3d49442":{"definition":"Literalmente, “bello jardín”. Paraíso.","spellings":["Yanna"]},"90bd1da2-abb0-5d9c-b340-7fc034249c2e":{"definition":"Esfuerzo destinado a alcanzar la perfección moral y religiosa; la motivación puede llevar al combate “en la senda de Dios” contra disidentes o paganos.","spellings":["Yihad"]},"e6edb4f1-d8d8-54aa-8bf3-e3a0e739c95b":{"definition":"(Pl. *aynad*) Provincia militar y administrativa.","spellings":["Yund"]},"2003ec95-a720-51cb-9dcd-774d9dc9f389":{"definition":"El texto del Corán se puede dividir en 30 secciones iguales, a las que se denomina *yuz* (pl. *ayza*). Cuando los coranes estaban escritos en 30 volúmenes, como en el Egipto mameluco, cada volumen era un *yuz*.","spellings":["Ayza","Yuz"]},"98afafd6-f8b6-5d37-923e-752f4697a5a7":{"definition":"(«cubo») Pequeño templo de La Meca que pasó a convertirse en el centro del islam. Se cree que fue construido por el profeta Abraham y su hijo Ismael.","spellings":["Kaaba"]},"a440e09c-19a4-5c75-a54b-ddacd997f4c6":{"definition":"Decoración coloreada realizada con ayuda de un *kalem* (brocha) sobre una superficie enyesada.","spellings":["Kalemişi"]},"cf7d3667-7d96-58e6-af31-c5d6fe2c71b8":{"definition":"Término árabe que designa una posada o alojamiento en las principales rutas de caravanas para los viajeros (peregrinos y mercaderes) y donde las mercancías podían ser almacenadas. Palabras relacionadas: *caravasar*, *funduq*, *wikala*. Tr.: *han*.","spellings":["Jan"]},"1863aa1c-4cad-53d2-a497-ecb16318e81f":{"definition":"Monasterio o albergue para sufíes o derviches itinerantes. Palabras relacionadas: *zawiya*.","spellings":["Janqa"]},"6dc0bc86-bae7-595d-afd4-5801f58f6005":{"definition":"Tesorero, responsable de las arcas del Estado (*jazain*) donde se guardaban el dinero y el oro del sultán o emir.","spellings":["Jaznadar"]},"aace2213-b96e-55dc-90b1-8852a726d654":{"definition":"Sermón semanal de la plegaria del viernes.","spellings":["Jutba"]},"53d47884-ba36-5979-a58f-ff35b0bd8587":{"definition":"Manto compuesto de varias piezas para cubrir la Kaaba de La Meca. Está bordado en seda y oro, con aleyas del Corán. La *kiswa* se sustituye cada año durante el *hayy*, cuando la antigua tela se corta y distribuye entre los peregrinos. También se llama *kiswa* (por ejemplo, en Palestina) a las telas con motivos caligráficos en zigzag con las que se cubren los cenotafios de los mausoleos.","spellings":["Kiswa"]},"64d6c154-9408-5c99-93c4-4d53ffce9b15":{"definition":"Libro. *Kitabat*: inscripciones.","spellings":["Kitab","Kuttab"]},"95fc5a14-1b29-5364-810a-69fc76087256":{"definition":"Escritura árabe de caracteres angulares estilizados, utilizada en los coranes de los primeros tiempos del Islam. Se atribuye a la ciudad de Kufa, en Irak. A partir del siglo IV/X, el cúfico fue menos utilizado, por la dificultad de su lectura. Cúfico florido: escritura que combina el estilo angular de las letras con motivos florales y vegetales, como los florones, de uso frecuente en los periodos fatimí y atabeg. Palabras relacionadas: *caligrafía*.","spellings":["Cúfica"]},"81dc2164-deae-5d1f-8a05-4e038d6354b1":{"definition":"Conjunto de edificios distribuidos alrededor de la mezquita: *darüşşifa* (hospital), *hammam* (baños), *jan* (alojamientos), *imaret* (comedor de beneficencia), *madrasa* (escuela).","spellings":["Külliye"]},"747c42e9-649d-5559-a7b6-1d32a0a36949":{"definition":"(Del persa *lajvard*, ‘lapislázuli’.) Técnica cerámica en la que se aplicaba un vedrío monocromo a un azulejo o a un recipiente que luego se cocía. La cerámica se pintaba con un esmalte de color y se volvía a cocer. Al igual que la cerámica de reflejo metálico, la *layvardina* era de producción costosa y sólo se fabricó durante el periodo iljaní de Irán.","spellings":["Layvardina"]},"961fe836-4b40-5496-978f-d23cca1475bd":{"definition":"Técnica de cerámica consistente en separar los colores de un objeto pintado por medio de líneas incisas o realzadas para evitar que se mezclaran. Este tipo de cerámica se produjo en Siria e Irán en el siglo VI/XII.","spellings":["Laqabi"]},"220ac6c9-5bbb-5494-a7d7-a1992e0113c3":{"definition":"Técnica de decoración de la cerámica que consiste en aplicar una fina capa de óxido metálico para dar un brillo dorado e iridiscente a la cerámica vidriada. Esta técnica se extendió a muchas regiones de la mano de alfareros itinerantes.","spellings":["Reflejo metálico"]},"455c1318-16a9-50f2-9c44-6643a9de238c":{"definition":"Escuela islámica de ciencias religiosas (teología, derecho, Corán, etc.) y residencia de los estudiantes. Actualmente, el término designa un colegio.","spellings":["Madrasa"]},"447568ab-11d8-5b46-9175-19f5e0ad280b":{"definition":"(«el guiado») Líder religioso.","spellings":["Mahdi"]},"b1520fd2-381d-5d56-a9d2-7d019d4f34c2":{"definition":"Palanquín, estructura en forma de tienda, ricamente decorada, que se colocaba sobre el lomo de los camellos para transportar a las damas de la aristocracia. También se usaba para el transporte de la *kiswa* en la caravana anual del *hayy* enviada por los soberanos a La Meca con las delegaciones de peregrinos.","spellings":["Mahmal"]},"2c82480a-44bd-565c-9d5c-7b38307ae24e":{"definition":"Loza común con esmalte metálico, fabricada antiguamente por los árabes y españoles, que la introdujeron en Italia.","spellings":["Mayólica"]},"bd6ee598-f323-5770-a786-0151295aea83":{"definition":"Una de las cuatro escuelas jurídicas sunníes del Islam ortodoxo. Fue fundada por el imam Malik y se extendió por el mundo musulmán occidental, incluido al-Andalus.","spellings":["Malik","Malikíes"]},"82f05a30-a07c-5d4f-83a3-2156afc3ed35":{"definition":"Luz, linterna, lámpara, baliza.","spellings":["Manar"]},"af45d65f-d61d-59ed-bd55-76ee503119e9":{"definition":"Construcción de una o más unidades arquitectónicas, que por lo general incluye un espacio con cúpula que alberga el sepulcro de una importante figura religiosa. Lugar de culto y peregrinación. Palabras relacionadas: *darih*, *kubba*, *türbe*, *turbé*, *turbet*.","spellings":["Maqam"]},"5f70c6f4-762e-5438-bf74-53c9daaa431c":{"definition":"En las mezquitas aljamas, zona reservada para el califa o imam durante las horas de oración pública. También, lugar reservado para uso privado en edificios públicos (por ejemplo, en un *hammam*).","spellings":["Maqsura"]},"f2ec79dc-0998-56d5-8cc2-bce2d4228e77":{"definition":"Mausoleo o santuario.","spellings":["Mashhad"]},"3bcfdeb5-5c8a-58e9-8dfd-9ad2a9f98fdb":{"definition":"Mampara de madera constituida por piezas torneadas y ensambladas. Celosía.","spellings":["Mashrabiyya"]},"f176a992-6546-55ba-a3e5-6877adc61b76":{"definition":"Literalmente, “lugar de prosternación”. Mezquita donde se rezan las plegarias diarias, excepto, en general, las del viernes, que no pueden pronunciarse debido a la ausencia de *minbar*. Palabras relacionadas: *yamaa*.","spellings":["Masyid"]},"e99f9b90-c624-5aa1-815f-a47f478f7da3":{"definition":"Ciudad; casco antiguo de una ciudad, centro independiente. También es el nombre de una ciudad de Arabia Saudí adonde emigraron los musulmanes en el año 622 y en la que está enterrado el profeta Muhammad.","spellings":["Medina"]},"e7f7d170-9ce3-5eb5-8c00-b201155164d8":{"definition":"Nicho con arco y generalmente cóncavo, aunque a veces sólo está marcado, que en los edificios religiosos islámicos indica la dirección de La Meca, hacia la cual se vuelven los fieles cuando rezan.","spellings":["Mihrab"]},"a7da3b34-cced-5cac-bca5-7cde2160fdbf":{"definition":"Púlpito de las mezquitas desde donde el imam dirige el sermón a los fieles durante las oraciones del viernes y las primeras plegarias de la mañana en las dos grandes fiestas musulmanas. Está situado a la derecha del *mihrab*. Los *minbar* aparecieron en el periodo omeya.","spellings":["Minbar"]},"b2f40fe6-7d9e-55fe-91fd-b02fa7f5b5a2":{"definition":"En los reinos cristianos de la Península Ibérica, nombre dado a los musulmanes que se convirtieron oficialmente al cristianismo después de la Reconquista.","spellings":["Morisco"]},"d9555abf-9d44-5fae-95f4-b894702cfcd9":{"definition":"Del ár. *mustarab*. Miembro de la minoría cristiana, tolerado por los dirigentes musulmanes como tributario, que vivía en al-Andalus y conservaba su religión y su organización eclesiástica y judicial.","spellings":["almocárabe","Mocárabe","Mozárabe"]},"432a631d-9c77-5598-9224-35e8479385c8":{"definition":"(Del ár. *murabit*) Musulmán muy piadoso, santificado por el ascetismo, cuya tumba es un lugar de peregrinaje; monje guerrero que vive en un *ribat*. El término dio nombre a la dinastía almorávide, que dominó el Magreb y al-Andalus en los años 454-541/1062–1147.","spellings":["Morabito"]},"9c8d51a2-cb58-59b3-92e4-fecb1ca87eb4":{"definition":"Del ár. *mudayyan*. Musulmán autorizado a permanecer entre sus conquistadores cristianos sin cambiar de religión a cambio de un tributo. El adjetivo “mudéjar” designa también un arte tradicional iniciado bajo dominio islámico y continuado para clientes cristianos después de la conquista cristiana de una zona.","spellings":["Mudéjar"]},"b9deabe4-38f9-5144-9eed-f59423fe7ddc":{"definition":"Funcionario religioso musulmán encargado de anunciar desde el alminar de la mezquita las cinco oraciones de la jornada. Tr. *müezzin mahfili*: plataforma creada especialmente para los muecines. Palabras relacionadas: *adhan*.","spellings":["Muecín, almuecín o almuédano"]},"95cd8cc7-61c1-518d-a3d1-397850242e35":{"definition":"Jurisconsulto musulmán habilitado pare decidir sobre asuntos religiosos.","spellings":["Muftí"]},"323fc8b6-ea1a-5717-982f-38123c87161c":{"definition":"Gran escritura cursiva asociada al *nasji* utilizado en la Edad Media. Es uno de los seis estilos básicos de escritura. Tr.: *muhaqqaq*. Palabras relacionadas: *caligrafía*.","spellings":["Muhaqqaq"]},"4c8c2130-e69d-5ae6-b03b-7dc72bf78f7a":{"definition":"Reinado, soberanía, poder. La palabra se emplea frecuentemente en la decoración caligráfica para ornar objetos refinados.","spellings":["Mulk"]},"bd2ffd1a-1d12-5fc1-ab6b-b186e0622cb6":{"definition":"Adorno arquitectónico en forma de estalactitas o panal que adorna las superficies de cúpulas, ménsulas, cornisas, etc. En el Magreb, *muqarbas*.","spellings":["Mocárabe o almocárabe"]},"8ffa05a8-a165-5e2c-b72e-27e8d5f953ac":{"definition":"Literalmente, “copiado”. Uno de los estilos más difundidos de caligrafía islámica, utilizado en coranes y otras obras. Une la flexibilidad del estilo *farsi* con la armonía de la escritura *cúfica*.","spellings":["Nasji"]},"d99278fb-cfa3-513e-9af1-4e39e27f241b":{"definition":"Técnica utilizada en la metalistería y que consiste en rellenar las zonas grabadas con una mezcla de diferentes materiales, como el plomo, el cuero y la plata.","spellings":["Niel","Nielado"]},"ea9e06ca-7872-5541-9ac2-11302f8890c2":{"definition":"Título honorífico turco. Pachá. Ár. *bacha*.","spellings":["Paşa"]},"4563e43f-260b-5043-9a49-06e5af5a99e0":{"definition":"Juez musulmán.","spellings":["Cadí"]},"afa2f843-fdd4-5a67-9298-c7381518b3c8":{"definition":"Ciudadela con características propias de la arquitectura militar, como muros inexpugnables, torres, saeteras y terreno en pendiente antes de la muralla.","spellings":["Qalaa"]},"59b4beee-e4d9-52ef-99f1-2a66945a3694":{"definition":"Término que designa los paneles de azulejos al estilo de los producidos en la ciudad iraní de Kashan desde el periodo selyuqí para la decoración de edificios. El término fue empleado por el viajero marroquí Ibn Battuta en Irán para designar los paneles de azulejos que le recordaban los alizares del Maghreb.","spellings":["Qashani"]},"c47920b0-c22e-53d0-aa8c-93eb3956ca0e":{"definition":"(del lat. castrum) Palacio, castillo.","spellings":["Qasr"]},"f37cbff8-b219-59af-940c-6d009539e2a7":{"definition":"Mercado cubierto para artículos preciosos (oro, seda, etc.). Palabras relacionadas: *arasta*, *bazar*, *bedestan*, *suq*.","spellings":["Qaysariyya"]},"0089ce74-d5cd-57d2-bbe4-c8de79b156c9":{"definition":"Dirección de la Kaaba de La Meca, hacia donde se vuelven los musulmanes durante la oración. En el muro de la *qibla* de la mezquita se encuentra el *mihrab*.","spellings":["Qibla"]},"c39cd815-3b51-5b89-a4e4-5e9f2c0ca622":{"definition":"Cúpula; por extensión, monumento o cámara construida sobre la tumba de un santo o de un personaje importante, generalmente señalada por una cúpula.","spellings":["Qubba"]},"9c6aeb81-7bc2-5ea4-9209-1c4a1345ac29":{"definition":"División del Corán en 30 partes. Cada parte (*yuz*) se encontraba en un volumen diferente, y los 30 volúmenes se conservaban generalmente en una caja con iluminaciones.","spellings":["Raba"]},"389ffbb1-3a7e-5ec3-a9fc-efdd3e0f54ca":{"definition":"El cuarto mes del calendario islámico. Su nombre significa la 'segunda primavera'.","spellings":["Rabi al-Awwal","Rabi ath-Thani"]},"79ad5742-3251-5a48-afdc-3eadbe4bc902":{"definition":"Noveno mes del calendario lunar, durante el cual los musulmanes ayunan entre la salida y la puesta del sol. Es el último de los tres meses santos consecutivos.","spellings":["Ramadán"]},"2f088e48-669e-5b0f-b7ef-a94fb24641eb":{"definition":"Aunque esta escritura presenta gran parecido con la *muhaqqaq*, sus caracteres son más pequeños. Se utilizó en los grandes coranes realizados en los siglos VII-VIII/XIII-XIV. Palabras relacionadas: *caligrafía*.","spellings":["Rayhani","Rihani"]},"30f08fe7-8bb1-504a-aa55-685d583ff5ba":{"definition":"Reconquista cristiana de la Península Ibérica a los musulmanes, que finalizó en 897/1492 con la caída de Granada.","spellings":["Reconquista"]},"eeddc1f9-aa34-58f7-8a63-ff3e19765ad6":{"definition":"Decoración cerámica con pigmentos de cobre, hierro y plata que se aplican sobre el esmalte y se cuecen en atmósfera reductora. Este tipo de decoración nació en Mesopotamia, en los primeros años del islam, y se propagó por todos los territorios musulmanes.","spellings":["Reflejo metálico"]},"44b5dcf7-b45d-5206-b3e1-f77d5f220d80":{"definition":"Técnica de la metalistería que consiste en crear motivos en relieve en la parte visible de una obra martilleando en el dorso.","spellings":["Repujado"]},"9a8096ea-a204-590a-8744-2ddf28c2b6b8":{"definition":"Recinto fortificado para monjes guerreros (norte de África); hospicio para peregrinos (Egipto mameluco, Palestina y Siria). El nombre de la ciudad de Rabat procede de Ribat al-Fath (‘ribat de la conquista’).","spellings":["Ribat"]},"40f27447-6ac4-5d17-9557-f1bd3868060b":{"definition":"Arcada o pórtico.","spellings":["Riwaq"]},"8f56e049-19ca-5856-9caa-3acff60817b3":{"definition":"Pl. de *rawda*, “jardín”. En Marruecos, siempre en plural, designa un jardín dentro de una construcción residencial.","spellings":["Riyad"]},"3b2db79a-c0e9-5ba0-87de-869284e97970":{"definition":"Estilo artístico europeo del siglo xviii, continuación del Barroco. El Rococó está presente en cierta arquitectura otomana.","spellings":["Rococó"]},"99e11148-863b-5916-afb5-d3b71fb5abe5":{"definition":"Motivo en media palmeta. Uno de los motivos más populares y elementales de las artes decorativas islámicas. Se encuentra en todos los soportes, desde la madera tallada hasta los azulejos. Aparece principalmente en arabescos. Toma su nombre del antiguo nombre de Anatolia.","spellings":["Rumi"]},"310bd3c5-0e81-53d5-8263-8bca44c8007a":{"definition":"Estilo caligráfico para escribir con rapidez, utilizado por la Administración otomana en los documentos de *waqf*, cartas, últimas páginas de oración de coranes y títulos de los estudiantes de caligrafía (también llamados escritura de *ijaza*, ‘diploma’, por este hecho). Hoy en día suele usarse en algunos diarios árabes. Palabras relacionadas: *caligrafía*.","spellings":["Rika","Ruqaa"]},"a8525513-1742-5e9f-85de-bb2067ad9fb6":{"definition":"(Pl. *subul* o *asbila*) Pequeña edificación desde la que se distribuye agua potable; fuente pública. Tr.: *sebil*, sala donde un criado ofrece bebidas al público.","spellings":["Sabil"]},"98f32a82-0f8d-523b-b82b-b4c5d2090590":{"definition":"(Pl. *sada*) Descendiente del profeta Muhammad. Palabras relacionadas: *jerife*.","spellings":["Sayyid"]},"e6ca4b0f-8824-5172-9b8e-6f572fcd1de7":{"definition":"Término que designa diferentes obras de arte otomano de los años 960-1010/1555-1600 que presentan una variedad de hojas, flores y palmetas con criaturas imaginarias como dragones. Sus líneas son curvas y debe mucho a la caligrafía. Se encuentra en ilustraciones de álbumes, cerámica, metalistería, telas y alfombras.","spellings":["Saz (estilo de)"]},"03eaf2d5-1988-549b-919f-2aaad8416221":{"definition":"Una de las cuatro escuelas jurídicas sunníes del Islam ortodoxo.","spellings":["Shafi’i","Shafiíes"]},"10021f2a-1ddf-5af4-bb0f-d78adb4a1f5d":{"definition":"Profesión de fe musulmana.","spellings":["Shahada"]},"b574ce4b-f297-5c3f-b370-895a19b2933a":{"definition":"Escrito por el poeta persa Ferdowsi, el Shahnama o Shahnameh es un largo poema épico que trata sobre el pasado mítico e histórico del Imperio Persa.","spellings":["Shahnama"]},"bd727956-74e1-5614-9f39-07003f768b6a":{"definition":"Literalmente, “ruta”. Preceptos islámicos que el creyente debe obedecer con el fin de seguir el camino que conduce a Dios. La","spellings":["Sharia"]},"a0a0b21a-5425-5de1-8d04-b7fd7daeca8b":{"definition":"Anciano respetado por su experiencia y edad, cultivado, erudito en el campo de las ciencias religiosas; miembro de una hermandad religiosa; maestro sufí. *Shayj al-Islam*: Cabeza de la jerarquía de doctores en derecho canónico, tradición y teología musulmanes.","spellings":["Shayj"]},"c98013e1-9336-5b90-9d71-2658cca1e0ca":{"definition":"Descendiente del profeta Muhammad. Palabras relacionadas: *sayyid*.","spellings":["Jerife"]},"3d198a73-3a55-5a34-b209-561c8dc2c58e":{"definition":"(*Shiat Ali*, «partido de Ali») Designa a los musulmanes que eligieron a Ali como líder después de la muerte del Profeta; tras el asesinato de Ali en 661, rechazaron la legitimidad de los califas.","spellings":["Shia","Shiíes"]},"8d51b0ae-13b3-5a75-acf3-79e63e2bd891":{"definition":"Triángulo curvilíneo en cada ángulo de una habitación cuadrada que sirve para hacer la transición a la línea de imposta circular de una cúpula.","spellings":["Pechina"]},"b68f8c65-978e-5a31-bb68-5994ae43ec75":{"definition":"Un acético y místico musulmán que representa el aspecto místico del Islam.","spellings":["Sufi"]},"ddce3372-545d-5166-8dfc-c8bb72ab9fe8":{"definition":"Orden islámica ascética o mística. Su nombre deriva de *suf*, lana, con la que los seguidores (sufíes) tejían su ropa.","spellings":["Sufismo"]},"aea62142-bf4f-5655-8c52-b1e856151ce7":{"definition":"(«soberano») Título que se aplica al jefe político supremo, cuya autoridad no amenaza la superioridad nominal del califa regente.","spellings":["Sultán"]},"f21a9ff0-ae8f-5ff9-be18-36b4a4db6794":{"definition":"Estado o territorios gobernados por un sultán. Sultán es el título dado al gobernante de dicho lugar.","spellings":["Sultanato"]},"811580e5-c0b8-5c27-8c10-3a3a36bee143":{"definition":"Literalmente, “tradición”. Para el Islam ortodoxo, conjunto de tradiciones del Profeta en las que se basan los jurisconsultos y teólogos para establecer la ley islámica que dimana del Corán. Sunní: seguidor de la Sunna. Los sunníes se dividen en cuatro escuelas: hanafíes, hanbalíes, malikíes, shafiíes. Sunnismo: sistema político y religioso opuesto al shiísmo. Palabras relacionadas: *fiqh*, *shiía*.","spellings":["Sunna","Sunní"]},"08fa434b-cde7-5b8b-be42-9e2217634cd8":{"definition":"Mercado, zoco. Palabras relacionadas: *arasta*, *bazar*, *bedesten*.","spellings":["Suq"]},"5c212d06-15e4-5918-a02d-bb0ef2c59fe1":{"definition":"Capítulo del Corán. El Corán tiene 114 suras.","spellings":["Sura"]},"e492236b-2179-5d42-b894-3fc913a09686":{"definition":"Albañilería a base de barro apisonado entre dos tableros paralelos. La técnica se perfeccionó en las construcciones militares con el añadido de mortero de cal.","spellings":["Tapial"]},"b9925565-dd1a-5d2a-b600-c734be2f3586":{"definition":"Facción o grupo. El término designa usualmente a los pequeños reinos en que se dividió al-Andalus en el siglo xi.","spellings":["Taifa"]},"1ad49aeb-c4a6-56fa-a5db-9635fe80d767":{"definition":"Del turco *tekke*, literalmente “lugar donde se ofrece alimento”. Lugar donde se encuentran, rezan y viven los derviches. Este tipo de edificio fue introducido por los otomanos. Palabras relacionadas: *imaret*, *janqah*, *zawiya*.","spellings":["Takiyya"]},"5ee94e12-9407-5e41-bdce-43a98dc9b5bf":{"definition":"Término turco que designa el lugar donde los derviches se encuentran, oran y viven. Palabras relacionadas: *imaret*, *janqah*, *zawiya*.","spellings":["Tekke"]},"9b57e731-19ab-55da-8b80-25d31d0f41c3":{"definition":"En ár., “un tercio”. Estilo de caligrafía cuyo nombre se debe al tamaño de la pluma utilizada. La extensión de sus letras permite realizar composiciones decorativas muy complejas. Se utilizaba en todo tipo de obras de artesanía, en libros y en la arquitectura civil y religiosa. Desde el siglo XII/XVIII, se empleaba frecuentemente en determinados paneles del arte otomano. Tr.: *sülüs*.","spellings":["Zuluz"]},"a054eff3-ab33-572b-8c6c-47a7d300c111":{"definition":"Originalmente usado para designar las inscripciones bordadas en telas, este término pronto pasó a denominar las prendas que llevaban inscripciones con el nombre del soberano y el taller donde estos textiles se fabricaban. Estos vestidos eran regalados por el califa a personas que quería honrar. *Dar al-Tiraz*: talleres textiles reales supervisados por la corte.","spellings":["Tiraz"]},"1ad5b477-1036-5c86-ba62-687284025702":{"definition":"Actualmente Uzbekistán, Tayikistán, el sur de Kirguistán y el suroeste de Kazajstán.","spellings":["Transoxiana"]},"5e33fb53-916f-516d-b614-5039d1c3c7ec":{"definition":"Firma caligráfica de un sultán otomano en documentos oficiales. Cada sultán tenía su propia *tugra*.","spellings":["Tugra"]},"ce2219af-ca75-5d6e-a3b1-280a9ea04fbc":{"definition":"Mausoleo, tumba, sepultura privada, a veces cripta subterránea. Esta estructura arquitectónica fue introducida por los turcos. *Kümbet*, tumba monumental, por lo general cubierta con una cúpula oculta bajo un chapitel. Palabras relacionadas: *darih*, *maqam*, *qubba*.","spellings":["Türbe"]},"9d699883-6a5a-53ad-8a08-f3b27574c431":{"definition":"Pueblo turco ubicado en la región al este del Mar Caspio y al Sur del Mar de Aral. Actualmente, esta área comprende Turkmenistán y partes de Irán y Afganistán.","spellings":["Turcomanos"]},"eb1995df-c617-5ca0-95bc-cd6422ffca9a":{"definition":"Variedad islámica de artesanía en hierro. Se pensaba que estos objetos habían sido realizados por artesanos musulmanes en Venecia, pero actualmente se cree que fueron fabricados principalmente para mercaderes venecianos por artesanos sirios y que sólo un pequeño número se produjo en Italia. Su estilo distintivo incluye emblemas heráldicos de la nobleza europea.","spellings":["Véneto-sarraceno"]},"577792e7-dcb2-5783-bc01-836c6f2cded6":{"definition":"Ministro. El ministro más prominente en la jerarquía era el Gran Visir, el Primer Ministro. Tr.: *sadrazam*.","spellings":["Visir","Vizir"]},"38031924-6b4f-5fb1-9337-c0222f9b16d2":{"definition":"Dotación a perpetuidad, por lo general de tierras o de una propiedad, cuyas rentas se destinaban al mantenimiento de fundaciones religiosas. *Waqfiyya*: acto de dotación de un *waqf*. Palabras relacionadas: *habiz*.","spellings":["Waqf"]},"9d0320cb-1068-5d1a-bb89-97a0628cb0f4":{"definition":"Establecimiento comercial con alojamiento para los mercaderes. Palabras relacionadas: *caravasar*, *funduq*, *jan*.","spellings":["Wikala"]},"cc1e247a-53d7-5c70-9399-89357963e5cf":{"definition":"Estilo decorativo otomano que emplea decoración chinesca. Los motivos incluyen botones, hojas y flores de loto estilizadas en volutas decorativas. El Hatai deriva de Catay, en China.","spellings":["Hatayi"]},"c7ce411f-9d53-5566-8a9c-a1744854bc80":{"definition":"Grado de oficial en el ejército turco. Tr.: *Ağa*. Otros grados eran *bey*, *dey*.","spellings":["Aga"]},"bcebf34c-f01e-5220-896e-b24e7d5c3220":{"definition":"Hospedería para los comerciantes y sus animales de carga, almacén para las mercancías, centro de comercio. Palabras relacionadas: *caravasar*, *jan*, *wikala*.","spellings":["Funduq"]},"76676210-58c4-5de1-89e6-594e4175ceac":{"definition":"Establecimiento de enseñanza religiosa destinado a la formación de los *shayjs*; lugar de peregrinación construido donde nació o vivió un santo. En Turquía, el término designa igualmente un pequeño *tekke*, un albergue para derviches y viajeros. Palabras relacionadas: *janqa*, *tekke*, *takiyya*.","spellings":["Zawiya"]},"9aa57c3b-8983-5efb-9663-8813a2e47d5c":{"definition":"Cada uno de los pequeños azulejos cortados de diferentes formas en función de un motivo decorativo. El paño de azulejos así formado se denomina “alizar”. Ár. *zelish*.","spellings":["Alicer o alizar","Alizar"]},"8ca93b84-c4ed-547e-8e58-c374951cce31":{"definition":"(del ár. *suq*) Mercado, centro de la ciudad musulmana y de la vida urbana.","spellings":["Zoco"]}}