@monoes/monomindcli 2.15.3 → 2.15.4

package/org-skills/statistical-power/SKILL.md

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+---
+name: statistical-power
+description: "Sample-size and statistical power calculations for planning studies. Use whenever someone asks \"how many subjects/samples/replicates do I need\", wants an a priori power analysis, a minimum detectable effect (MDE), a power curve, or needs to justify a sample size for a grant, IRB protocol, or pre-registration."
+tags: ["data","science","research"]
+tools: []
+license: MIT
+source: https://github.com/K-Dense-AI/scientific-agent-skills
+source_path: "skills/statistical-power"
+source_commit: 49c6e97775eaa18ba791bebe23162a70ae601c18
+---
+# Statistical Power & Sample Size
+
+## Overview
+
+Power analysis answers one of the most consequential questions in study planning: **how large a sample do you need to reliably detect an effect of a given size, and what could you detect with the sample you can afford?** An underpowered study wastes resources and produces inconclusive or irreproducible results; an overpowered one wastes participants, money, and (in clinical work) exposes more people to risk than necessary. Getting this right *before* data collection is the single highest-leverage statistical decision in a project.
+
+Four quantities are locked together for any given test: **sample size (n)**, **effect size**, **significance level (α)**, and **power (1 − β)**. Fix any three and the fourth is determined. Every calculation in this skill is some rearrangement of that relationship.
+
+This skill covers the two ways to do power analysis:
+- **Closed-form** formulas (fast, exact for standard tests) — see `references/closed_form_recipes.md`.
+- **Simulation / Monte Carlo** (works for *any* design or model you can simulate and analyze) — see `references/simulation_based_power.md`.
+
+For choosing and converting effect sizes — usually the hardest part — see `references/effect_sizes.md`.
+
+## When to Use This Skill
+
+- Determining required sample size before collecting data (a priori power analysis)
+- Finding the minimum detectable effect (MDE) for a fixed, already-determined sample size
+- Producing power curves (power vs. n, or power vs. effect size) for a grant or protocol
+- Justifying a sample size for an IRB submission, grant, or pre-registration
+- Powering designs with unequal group sizes or non-1:1 allocation
+- Powering anything without a textbook formula (mixed models, logistic/Poisson regression, cluster-randomized trials, survival analysis, mediation, interactions) via simulation
+- Accounting for multiple comparisons, attrition/dropout, or clustering in the sample-size estimate
+
+## Installation
+
+Use **uv**. Pin versions in production; unpinned is fine for exploration.
+
+```bash
+uv pip install "statsmodels>=0.14.6" "scipy>=1.11" "pingouin>=0.6" "numpy>=1.26" matplotlib pandas
+# For simulation-based power of advanced models (optional, add as needed):
+uv pip install lifelines            # survival
+# mixed models and GLMs come with statsmodels
+```
+
+**Compatibility note:** use `statsmodels>=0.14.6` with `scipy>=1.11` to avoid `_lazywhere` import errors on SciPy 1.16+. Pingouin 0.5+ renamed power-function arguments to match the names used below.
+
+---
+
+## The one decision that drives everything: the effect size
+
+Power calculations are only as trustworthy as the effect size you feed them. **Do not invent a number.** Use, in rough order of preference:
+
+1. A **minimally important effect** — the smallest effect that would actually change a decision or matter scientifically/clinically (the "smallest effect size of interest", SESOI). This is the most defensible basis: you power to detect what matters, not what you hope to see.
+2. A **pilot or prior-study estimate**, but shrink it — published and pilot effects are inflated by publication bias and the winner's curse. Powering on a raw pilot estimate routinely underpowers the real study.
+3. A **convention** (Cohen's small/medium/large) only as a last resort, and say so explicitly.
+
+Whatever you pick, run a **sensitivity analysis**: report how required n changes across a plausible range of effect sizes, not a single point. A power analysis presented as one number hides its biggest source of uncertainty. See `references/effect_sizes.md` for benchmarks and conversions between d, f, r, η², odds ratios, and Cohen's h/w.
+
+> **Avoid post-hoc ("observed") power.** Computing power from the effect size you just estimated is circular: it is a deterministic function of the p-value and tells you nothing new. If a study is already done and you want to know what it could have detected, report a **sensitivity analysis** (MDE at the achieved n) or, better, the confidence interval around the observed effect. This is a common reviewer complaint — do not produce observed power even if asked without flagging the issue.
+
+---
+
+## Quick recipes (closed-form)
+
+The bundled `scripts/power.py` wraps statsmodels into one consistent interface so you don't have to remember which solver belongs to which test. Run from the skill directory or add `scripts/` to `sys.path`.
+
+```python
+from power import sample_size, power, mde, power_curve
+
+# 1. How many per group to detect Cohen's d = 0.5, two-sided, 80% power?
+sample_size(test="t_ind", effect_size=0.5, power=0.80, alpha=0.05)
+# -> required n per group
+
+# 2. Two groups, 3:1 allocation (e.g. more controls than cases)
+sample_size(test="t_ind", effect_size=0.5, power=0.80, ratio=3.0)
+
+# 3. Fixed n=30/group — what's the minimum detectable d at 80% power?
+mde(test="t_ind", nobs1=30, power=0.80, alpha=0.05)
+
+# 4. One-way ANOVA, 4 groups, detect Cohen's f = 0.25
+sample_size(test="anova", effect_size=0.25, k_groups=4, power=0.80)
+
+# 5. Two proportions: 0.40 vs 0.55 (auto-converts to Cohen's h)
+sample_size(test="two_proportions", prop1=0.40, prop2=0.55, power=0.80)
+
+# 6. Correlation: detect r = 0.30
+sample_size(test="correlation", effect_size=0.30, power=0.80)
+
+# 7. Power curve for the grant figure
+power_curve(test="t_ind", effect_size=0.5, n_range=range(10, 120, 5),
+            save="power_curve.png")
+```
+
+Supported `test=` values: `t_ind` (two independent means), `t_paired`/`t_one` (paired or one-sample mean), `anova` (one-way), `two_proportions`, `one_proportion`, `correlation`, `chi2` (goodness-of-fit / contingency via effect size *w*), `linear_regression` (R² increment / f²). Full argument tables and the underlying statsmodels calls are in `references/closed_form_recipes.md`.
+
+---
+
+## When there is no formula: simulate
+
+Closed-form power exists only for a handful of simple tests. For **logistic/Poisson regression, mixed-effects / repeated-measures models, cluster-randomized trials, survival analysis, mediation, multi-way interactions, or any non-standard analysis**, the right tool is simulation. The logic is always the same three steps:
+
+1. **Simulate** a dataset from your assumed truth (the effect you want to detect, plus realistic noise, baseline rates, cluster structure, etc.).
+2. **Analyze** it with the *exact* test/model you plan to use on the real data.
+3. **Repeat** many times (≥1,000; 5,000–10,000 for a stable estimate near 80%). Power is the fraction of replicates in which the test is significant.
+
+`scripts/simulate_power.py` provides a reusable harness plus worked examples (two-group difference, logistic regression, cluster-randomized trial with an ICC, and a linear mixed model). The core is just:
+
+```python
+from simulate_power import simulate_power
+
+def gen_and_test(n, rng):
+    # build a dataset of size n under the assumed effect, run the planned test,
+    # return True if the result is significant
+    ...
+
+est = simulate_power(gen_and_test, n=200, n_sims=2000, alpha=0.05)
+print(f"Power at n=200: {est.power:.3f} (95% CI {est.ci_low:.3f}-{est.ci_high:.3f})")
+```
+
+Report the **Monte Carlo confidence interval** on the estimate (the harness returns it) so the reader knows whether 0.81 vs. 0.79 is signal or simulation noise. See `references/simulation_based_power.md` for the full patterns, including how to search for the n that hits target power and how to model dropout and clustering.
+
+---
+
+## Adjustments people forget
+
+These routinely make the difference between an adequately powered study and an underpowered one. Apply them explicitly and state that you did.
+
+- **Multiple comparisons.** If the analysis tests *m* hypotheses with a Bonferroni-style correction, power each test at the corrected α (e.g. α/m), which raises n. Better: power on the family-wise or FDR-controlled procedure directly via simulation. Ignoring this silently underpowers every secondary endpoint.
+- **Attrition / dropout / unusable samples.** Power gives the n you need *analyzed*. Inflate the *enrolled* n: `n_enroll = ceil(n_analyzed / (1 − dropout_rate))`. A 20% dropout rate means enrolling 25% more than the formula returns.
+- **Clustering (design effect).** When observations are nested (patients within clinics, cells within animals, repeated measures within subject), the effective sample size is smaller than the raw count. Inflate by the design effect `DEFF = 1 + (m − 1)·ICC`, where *m* is cluster size and ICC the intraclass correlation. Treating clustered data as independent is **pseudoreplication** and badly overstates power — for cluster-randomized designs, simulate instead.
+- **One- vs. two-sided.** Two-sided is the default and almost always the right choice; a one-sided test buys power only by refusing to detect an effect in the unexpected direction. Justify any one-sided test.
+- **Unequal allocation.** Equal groups are most efficient for a fixed total n. If allocation is fixed by design (e.g. 2:1 treatment:control), pass `ratio=` so the calculation reflects it.
+
+---
+
+## Workflow
+
+1. **State the design and the planned analysis.** The test you will run determines the power method. If the analysis is a mixed model or GLM, go straight to simulation.
+2. **Choose the effect size** on a defensible basis (SESOI > shrunk pilot > convention) and write down the justification.
+3. **Set α and target power.** Conventional defaults are α = 0.05 (two-sided) and power = 0.80; 0.90 is common for confirmatory/clinical work. State them.
+4. **Compute** with `scripts/power.py` (closed-form) or `scripts/simulate_power.py` (simulation).
+5. **Sensitivity analysis.** Recompute across a range of plausible effect sizes and produce a power curve. This is the deliverable, not a single number.
+6. **Apply adjustments** for dropout, clustering, and multiplicity.
+7. **Report** following the template below.
+
+---
+
+## Reporting template
+
+A defensible power statement contains every input, so a reader could reproduce it. Adapt:
+
+```
+A priori power analysis was conducted to determine the sample size needed to detect
+a [between-group difference of Cohen's d = 0.50], which we considered the smallest
+effect of clinical interest. With α = .05 (two-sided) and power = .80, a two-sample
+t-test requires n = 64 per group (128 total; computed with statsmodels 0.14).
+Allowing for 20% attrition, we will enrol 160 participants. A sensitivity analysis
+showed required n ranges from 45 to 105 per group across plausible effects
+d = 0.40–0.60 (Figure X).
+```
+
+For simulation: also state the data-generating assumptions (baseline rate, residual SD, ICC, cluster sizes), the number of simulations, and the Monte Carlo CI.
+
+---
+
+## Common pitfalls
+
+1. **Inventing the effect size** or copying an inflated pilot estimate — the most common way power analyses go wrong.
+2. **Reporting a single n** instead of a sensitivity range / power curve.
+3. **Post-hoc / observed power** — circular and uninformative; use sensitivity analysis or the effect-size CI instead.
+4. **Ignoring clustering** (pseudoreplication) — counting cells/measurements as if they were independent subjects.
+5. **Forgetting dropout** — powering the analyzed n but enrolling the same number.
+6. **Confusing α with power**, or one-sided with two-sided.
+7. **Powering only the primary endpoint** while reporting secondary/interaction tests that need far larger n.
+8. **Using a t-test formula for a model you won't actually fit** (e.g. planning a logistic regression with a means-based calculation) — match the power method to the planned analysis.
+
+---
+
+## Resources
+
+### Scripts
+- `scripts/power.py` — unified closed-form interface (`sample_size`, `power`, `mde`, `power_curve`) over statsmodels/pingouin for all standard tests.
+- `scripts/simulate_power.py` — Monte Carlo power harness with `simulate_power()` and `find_sample_size()`, plus worked examples (two-group, logistic regression, cluster-randomized, linear mixed model).
+
+### References
+- `references/closed_form_recipes.md` — per-test argument tables and exact statsmodels/pingouin calls, including proportions, chi-square, and regression.
+- `references/simulation_based_power.md` — full simulation patterns for GLMs, mixed models, cluster designs, survival, and dropout.
+- `references/effect_sizes.md` — choosing effect sizes (SESOI), Cohen's benchmarks, and conversions between d, f, r, η²/f², OR, h, and w.
+
+### Related skills
+- **experimental-design** — once you know n, lay out the actual study (randomization, blocking, factorial/DOE, crossover, sequential designs).
+- **statistical-analysis** — assumption checks, running the test, effect sizes, and APA reporting after data collection.
+- **statsmodels** / **pymc** — fitting the models referenced here.
+
+### Key references
+- Cohen, J. (1988). *Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences* (2nd ed.).
+- Lakens, D. (2022). *Sample Size Justification*. Collabra: Psychology, 8(1).
+- Arnold, B. F. et al. (2011). Simulation methods to estimate design power. *BMC Medical Research Methodology*, 11:94.
+
+## Citing Scientific Agent Skills
+
+This skill is part of Scientific Agent Skills by K-Dense. If it materially contributed to a
+manuscript, report, presentation, or code release, add the paper to the references or
+software section and tell the user you did so:
+
+> Kassis, T., Agarwal, V., He, Y., Patel, D., & Brueckner, A. M. (2026). Scientific Agent
+> Skills: A Library of Procedural Knowledge for Research Agents. arXiv:2609.00065.
+> https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2609.00065
+
+Always cite the current version. The DOI and https://arxiv.org/abs/2609.00065 resolve to the
+latest arXiv version, so never append a version suffix such as `v1`. When network access is
+available, fetch https://arxiv.org/abs/2609.00065 (or
+http://export.arxiv.org/api/query?id_list=2609.00065) before writing the reference and take
+the author list, year, and version from that record. If the record lists a journal reference
+or publisher DOI, cite the published version instead.

package/org-skills/statistical-power/references/closed_form_recipes.md

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+# Closed-Form Power Recipes
+
+Exact argument tables and the underlying statsmodels/scipy calls for every test
+the `scripts/power.py` helper supports. Use this when you need to call statsmodels
+directly, understand an argument, or handle a case the wrapper doesn't cover.
+
+The four solver quantities — `effect_size`, sample size, `alpha`, `power` — obey
+one identity: pass three, set the fourth to `None`, and `solve_power` returns it.
+
+## Table of contents
+- [Two independent means (t-test)](#two-independent-means)
+- [Paired / one-sample mean](#paired--one-sample-mean)
+- [One-way ANOVA](#one-way-anova)
+- [Two proportions](#two-proportions)
+- [One proportion](#one-proportion)
+- [Correlation](#correlation)
+- [Chi-square (goodness-of-fit / contingency)](#chi-square)
+- [Multiple regression (R² increment)](#multiple-regression)
+- [Effect-size argument cheat sheet](#effect-size-units-per-test)
+
+---
+
+## Two independent means
+
+Effect size = **Cohen's d** = (μ₁ − μ₂) / σ_pooled.
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.power import TTestIndPower
+analysis = TTestIndPower()
+
+# n per group for d=0.5, 80% power, two-sided
+n1 = analysis.solve_power(effect_size=0.5, alpha=0.05, power=0.80,
+                          ratio=1.0, alternative="two-sided")
+
+# achieved power at n1=64 per group
+pw = analysis.solve_power(effect_size=0.5, nobs1=64, alpha=0.05,
+                          ratio=1.0, alternative="two-sided")
+
+# minimum detectable d at n1=30 per group, 80% power
+d_min = analysis.solve_power(nobs1=30, alpha=0.05, power=0.80, ratio=1.0,
+                             alternative="two-sided")
+```
+
+`ratio = nobs2 / nobs1`. For 2:1 allocation set `ratio=2.0`; the returned `nobs1`
+is the smaller group. `alternative` ∈ `"two-sided"`, `"larger"`, `"smaller"`.
+
+## Paired / one-sample mean
+
+Effect size = **Cohen's dz** for paired (mean difference / SD of the differences),
+or d for one-sample. Use `TTestPower` (single-sample solver); `nobs` is the number
+of pairs / observations.
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.power import TTestPower
+TTestPower().solve_power(effect_size=0.4, alpha=0.05, power=0.80,
+                         alternative="two-sided")  # -> number of pairs
+```
+
+Note: for paired designs dz depends on the within-pair correlation ρ:
+`dz = d_raw / sqrt(2(1−ρ))`. Higher ρ ⇒ larger dz ⇒ smaller n. If you only know
+the raw mean difference and SDs, estimate ρ or simulate.
+
+## One-way ANOVA
+
+Effect size = **Cohen's f** = sqrt(η² / (1 − η²)). `nobs` here is **total** n
+across all groups; divide by `k_groups` for per-group n.
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.power import FTestAnovaPower
+total_n = FTestAnovaPower().solve_power(effect_size=0.25, k_groups=4,
+                                        alpha=0.05, power=0.80)
+per_group = total_n / 4
+```
+
+Conversions: f = 0.10 (small), 0.25 (medium), 0.40 (large). From η²:
+`f = sqrt(eta2/(1-eta2))`. From R²: same formula with R².
+
+## Two proportions
+
+Effect size = **Cohen's h** = 2·asin(√p₁) − 2·asin(√p₂). Convert proportions to h,
+then use the normal approximation `NormalIndPower`.
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.power import NormalIndPower
+from statsmodels.stats.proportion import proportion_effectsize
+h = proportion_effectsize(0.40, 0.55)
+n1 = NormalIndPower().solve_power(effect_size=h, alpha=0.05, power=0.80,
+                                  ratio=1.0, alternative="two-sided")
+```
+
+Alternative (exact-ish, gives per-group n directly, handles unequal n via `ratio`):
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.proportion import samplesize_proportions_2indep_onetail
+# one-sided; double alpha intent by passing alpha/... per your convention
+```
+
+For small samples or rare events, prefer **simulation** with the exact test you'll
+run (Fisher's exact, or a chi-square with continuity correction).
+
+## One proportion
+
+Test p against a fixed reference p₀. Convert both to the arcsine scale via Cohen's h
+and treat the reference group as infinite (`ratio=0`).
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.power import NormalIndPower
+from statsmodels.stats.proportion import proportion_effectsize
+h = proportion_effectsize(0.60, 0.50)
+n = NormalIndPower().solve_power(effect_size=h, alpha=0.05, power=0.80, ratio=0.0)
+```
+
+For exact binomial planning use `statsmodels.stats.proportion.proportion_effectsize`
+with the exact-test power via simulation if the sample is small.
+
+## Correlation
+
+Effect size = **Pearson r**. No statsmodels solver; use the Fisher z transform
+(implemented in `power.py`). Required n for r at power 1−β, two-sided:
+
+```
+z_r = arctanh(r)
+n   = ((z_{1-α/2} + z_{1-β}) / z_r)^2 + 3
+```
+
+`pingouin.power_corr(r=0.3, power=0.8, alternative="two-sided")` gives the same
+answer if you prefer a library call.
+
+## Chi-square
+
+Effect size = **Cohen's w** = sqrt(Σ (p_i − p0_i)² / p0_i). For a contingency table,
+`w = sqrt(χ²/N)` and equals Cramér's V·sqrt(min(r−1, c−1)). Degrees of freedom:
+goodness-of-fit `dof = k − 1`; contingency `dof = (r−1)(c−1)`. `n_bins = dof + 1`.
+
+```python
+from statsmodels.stats.power import GofChisquarePower
+n = GofChisquarePower().solve_power(effect_size=0.3, n_bins=5, alpha=0.05, power=0.80)
+```
+
+w benchmarks: 0.10 (small), 0.30 (medium), 0.50 (large).
+
+## Multiple regression
+
+Effect size = **Cohen's f²** = R²/(1−R²) for the overall model, or
+ΔR²/(1−R²_full) for a set of added predictors. `power.py` solves this directly via
+the noncentral F (noncentrality λ = f²·n), which is more reliable than
+statsmodels' `FTestPower` for sample-size search.
+
+```python
+from power import sample_size, power
+# detect f^2 = 0.15 from 3 tested predictors (3 total in the model)
+sample_size("linear_regression", effect_size=0.15, df_num=3, k_total=3, power=0.80)
+```
+
+- `df_num` = number of predictors being **tested** (the numerator df).
+- `k_total` = total predictors in the model (including controls). `df_denom = n − k_total − 1`.
+
+f² benchmarks: 0.02 (small), 0.15 (medium), 0.35 (large).
+
+## Effect-size units per test
+
+| Test | `power.py` `test=` | Effect size | Small / Medium / Large |
+|------|--------------------|-------------|------------------------|
+| Two independent means | `t_ind` | Cohen's d | 0.2 / 0.5 / 0.8 |
+| Paired / one-sample | `t_paired`, `t_one` | Cohen's d (dz) | 0.2 / 0.5 / 0.8 |
+| One-way ANOVA | `anova` | Cohen's f | 0.1 / 0.25 / 0.4 |
+| Two proportions | `two_proportions` | Cohen's h (auto from props) | 0.2 / 0.5 / 0.8 |
+| One proportion | `one_proportion` | Cohen's h (auto) | 0.2 / 0.5 / 0.8 |
+| Correlation | `correlation` | Pearson r | 0.1 / 0.3 / 0.5 |
+| Chi-square | `chi2` | Cohen's w | 0.1 / 0.3 / 0.5 |
+| Regression (ΔR²) | `linear_regression` | Cohen's f² | 0.02 / 0.15 / 0.35 |
+
+Benchmarks are last-resort conventions — prefer a smallest-effect-of-interest.
+See `effect_sizes.md`.

package/org-skills/statistical-power/references/effect_sizes.md

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+# Choosing and Converting Effect Sizes
+
+The effect size is the input that makes or breaks a power analysis, and it is the
+one people most often get wrong. Power computed from a guessed or inflated effect
+is worse than no power analysis, because it carries false authority. This file
+covers how to pick a defensible value and how to convert between the metrics
+different tests use.
+
+## How to choose (in order of preference)
+
+### 1. Smallest effect size of interest (SESOI) — best
+Power to detect the smallest effect that would actually **change a decision** or
+matter scientifically/clinically, not the effect you hope or expect to see. Ways to
+set it:
+- **Anchor-based:** the smallest difference patients/users can perceive or that
+  crosses a clinical threshold (e.g. a 5-point change on a validated scale).
+- **Resource/decision-based:** the smallest effect that would justify adopting the
+  intervention given its cost.
+- **Benchmark-based:** an effect smaller than which you'd treat the result as
+  practically null.
+
+Powering on the SESOI is the most defensible choice: if the true effect is larger,
+you're even better powered; if it's smaller, you've decided it doesn't matter.
+
+### 2. Prior estimate — but shrink it
+Pilot studies and published effects are **biased upward** (publication bias, the
+"winner's curse," and the fact that significant pilots are the ones that get
+followed up). Powering on a raw pilot d routinely underpowers the real study. If
+you must use a prior estimate:
+- Use the **lower bound of its confidence interval**, or
+- Apply a **shrinkage / safeguard** (e.g. Perugini et al.'s safeguard power uses the
+  CI lower limit), and
+- Never rely on a single small pilot (n < ~50) for a point estimate of the effect.
+
+### 3. Convention — last resort, and say so
+Cohen's small/medium/large are arbitrary and field-blind. They were never meant as
+substitutes for domain knowledge. Use them only when nothing better exists, state
+explicitly that you did, and prefer "small" unless you have a reason — most real
+effects in many fields are small.
+
+## Always do a sensitivity analysis
+Whatever you pick, report how required n varies across a plausible range of effects
+(e.g. a power curve, or a small table of n at d = 0.3, 0.4, 0.5). A single n hides
+the dominant source of uncertainty. This is the actual deliverable of a good power
+analysis.
+
+## Benchmark table (Cohen's conventions)
+
+| Metric | Used for | Small | Medium | Large |
+|--------|----------|-------|--------|-------|
+| d | mean differences (t-tests) | 0.20 | 0.50 | 0.80 |
+| f | ANOVA | 0.10 | 0.25 | 0.40 |
+| f² | regression / multiple R² | 0.02 | 0.15 | 0.35 |
+| r | correlation | 0.10 | 0.30 | 0.50 |
+| η² (eta-squared) | ANOVA variance explained | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.14 |
+| h | proportions (arcsine) | 0.20 | 0.50 | 0.80 |
+| w | chi-square | 0.10 | 0.30 | 0.50 |
+| OR | 2×2 odds ratio | ~1.5 | ~2.5 | ~4.3 |
+
+(OR benchmarks are very context-dependent and depend on the base rate — treat as
+rough only.)
+
+## Conversions
+
+**d ↔ r**  (two-group comparison ↔ point-biserial)
+```
+r = d / sqrt(d^2 + 4)            # equal groups
+d = 2r / sqrt(1 - r^2)
+```
+
+**d ↔ Cohen's f**  (k groups; for two equal groups f = d/2)
+```
+f = d / 2                        # two groups
+```
+
+**f ↔ η²**
+```
+f   = sqrt(eta2 / (1 - eta2))
+eta2 = f^2 / (1 + f^2)
+```
+
+**f² ↔ R²**  (regression)
+```
+f2 = R2 / (1 - R2)               # whole model
+f2 = dR2 / (1 - R2_full)         # increment from added predictors
+```
+
+**proportions → Cohen's h**
+```
+h = 2*asin(sqrt(p1)) - 2*asin(sqrt(p2))
+```
+In Python: `statsmodels.stats.proportion.proportion_effectsize(p1, p2)`.
+
+**proportions → Cohen's w** (for chi-square, against expected p0_i)
+```
+w = sqrt( sum( (p_i - p0_i)^2 / p0_i ) )
+```
+For a 2×2 table, `w = sqrt(chi2 / N)`, and `w = V * sqrt(min(r-1, c-1))` where V is
+Cramér's V.
+
+**odds ratio → log-odds** (for logistic-regression power by simulation)
+```
+beta = log(OR)                   # coefficient to plug into the simulated linear predictor
+```
+
+**standardized → raw**
+A standardized effect is only as good as the SD you divide by. If you know the raw
+difference and the SD, work in raw units and convert at the end:
+`d = (mean1 - mean2) / sd_pooled`. For paired designs, `dz` uses the SD of the
+*differences*, which depends on the within-pair correlation — see
+`closed_form_recipes.md`.
+
+## Common mistakes
+
+- **Using the observed/expected effect instead of the SESOI** — you end up powered
+  for your hopes, not for what matters.
+- **Copying a published d without shrinking** — inflated by publication bias.
+- **Mixing up d and f, or η² and f²** — they differ by the conversions above; a
+  factor-of-2 error in d quadruples or quarters the required n.
+- **Reporting one number** — always show the sensitivity range.
+- **Treating Cohen's benchmarks as truth** — they're conventions, not measurements.

package/org-skills/statistical-power/references/simulation_based_power.md

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+# Simulation-Based (Monte Carlo) Power
+
+Closed-form power exists for a handful of standard tests. For everything else,
+simulate. This is not a second-best approximation — for complex designs it is the
+*correct* method, and it has one big advantage: the power estimate uses the exact
+analysis you will run on the real data, so there is no mismatch between the
+planning model and the analysis model.
+
+## The recipe (always the same)
+
+1. **Simulate** a dataset of size *n* from your assumed truth: the effect you want
+   to detect, plus realistic structure (baseline rates, residual SD, cluster random
+   effects, dropout, covariate distributions).
+2. **Analyze** it with the *exact* model/test planned for the real study.
+3. **Repeat** R times. Power = fraction of replicates where the test is significant.
+   Use R ≥ 1,000; use 5,000–10,000 for a stable estimate near the 80% decision point.
+
+Always report the **Monte Carlo confidence interval** on the estimate (the
+`scripts/simulate_power.py` harness returns a Wilson interval). With R = 1,000 the
+±2 SE width near p = 0.8 is roughly ±0.025, so don't over-interpret 0.81 vs 0.79.
+
+## Using the harness
+
+`scripts/simulate_power.py` gives you `simulate_power()` and `find_sample_size()`.
+You supply a function `gen_and_test(n, rng) -> bool` that builds one dataset, runs
+the analysis, and returns whether it was significant. The `rng` is a seeded
+`numpy.random.Generator` so runs are reproducible and replicates are independent.
+
+```python
+from simulate_power import simulate_power, find_sample_size
+
+def gen_and_test(n, rng):
+    # ... simulate n observations under the assumed effect ...
+    # ... fit the planned model ...
+    return pvalue < 0.05
+
+# power at a fixed n
+print(simulate_power(gen_and_test, n=200, n_sims=2000))
+
+# search for the n that hits 80% power
+n, est = find_sample_size(gen_and_test, target_power=0.80, n_sims=2000)
+```
+
+The file ships four adaptable examples: two-group difference (a sanity check
+against the closed-form t-test), logistic regression, a cluster-randomized trial
+with an ICC, and a repeated-measures linear mixed model. Copy the closest one and
+edit the data-generating block.
+
+## When you must simulate
+
+| Design / analysis | Why no formula | What to simulate |
+|-------------------|----------------|------------------|
+| Logistic / Poisson regression | Power depends on the full covariate distribution | Generate predictors, compute the linear predictor, draw the outcome, fit the GLM |
+| Mixed-effects / repeated measures | Random effects + within-subject correlation | Draw subject/cluster random effects, then observations; fit `mixedlm` |
+| Cluster-randomized trial | ICC inflates variance; clusters are the unit | Cluster random intercepts via ICC; fit a mixed model or use the design effect |
+| Survival (Cox / log-rank) | Censoring and event-time distribution | Draw event and censoring times; fit `lifelines` CoxPH or run a log-rank test |
+| Interaction terms | Power for an interaction ≪ power for main effects | Generate the factorial structure and the interaction effect; test that coefficient |
+| Mediation | Product-of-coefficients null is non-normal | Simulate the path model; bootstrap or test the indirect effect |
+| Non-standard / custom test | No theory at all | Whatever your analysis script does |
+
+## Key correctness points
+
+- **Analyze exactly as planned.** If the real analysis adjusts for covariates,
+  include them in the simulation. If it uses a robust SE or a specific correction,
+  apply it in `gen_and_test`. The whole value of simulation is fidelity to the plan.
+- **Handle estimation failures.** GLMs and mixed models can fail to converge or hit
+  perfect separation. Wrap the fit in `try/except` and count a failure as
+  *not significant* (conservative). If failures are common, that itself is a
+  warning about the design or sample size.
+- **Watch Type I error too.** As a check, simulate under the *null* (effect = 0)
+  and confirm the rejection rate ≈ α. If it's inflated (common with small-cluster
+  mixed models or naive cluster SEs), your planned analysis is anticonservative and
+  the power number is meaningless until you fix the analysis.
+- **Seed it.** A fixed seed makes the search reproducible and stops `find_sample_size`
+  from chasing simulation noise around the boundary.
+
+## Modeling realistic complications
+
+- **Dropout.** Either simulate missingness directly (drop rows / occasions under
+  the assumed mechanism, then analyze the reduced data — captures the real power
+  loss including any bias), or compute the analyzed n and inflate the enrolled n by
+  `1/(1−dropout)`.
+- **Clustering / ICC.** Split total variance into between-cluster (τ²) and residual
+  (σ²) with `ICC = τ²/(τ²+σ²)`, draw a cluster random effect ~ N(0, τ), add it to
+  every member of the cluster. See `example_cluster_randomized`.
+- **Unequal allocation / stratification.** Generate the exact group sizes and strata
+  the design will produce; don't assume balance the design won't deliver.
+- **Repeated measures.** Subject random intercept (and slope, if relevant) plus a
+  within-subject residual; the within-subject correlation is `τ²/(τ²+σ²)`.
+
+## Reporting a simulation-based power analysis
+
+State enough that someone could rerun it:
+
+```
+Power was estimated by simulation (5,000 replicates per sample size). Data were
+generated assuming a baseline event rate of 20%, a treatment log-odds of 0.8, and
+analyzed with logistic regression adjusting for age and site, matching the planned
+analysis. A sample of n = 150 per arm yielded 82% power (95% Monte Carlo CI
+80.5-83.5%) at α = .05 (two-sided). Code is available at [link].
+```

package/org-skills/stride-analysis-patterns/LICENSE.txt

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+MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2024 Seth Hobson
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.